UNIVERSITY OF KHARTOUM, FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE

SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL ECO-TOWN PLANNING AND DESIGN FOR THE COASTAL ZONE OF THE STATE IN SUDAN

Suakin as a Prototype Case Study

A thesis submitted to the University of Khartoum in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of M.Sc. in Architecture

By Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi B.Sc. Architecture, 1984 University of Khartoum

Supervisor Dr. Gamal Mahmoud Hamid Faculty of Architecture University of Khartoum

July, 2011

DECLARATION

This is to affirm to Khartoum University, Faculty of Architecture, that I Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi; based on literature and research survey conducted, and to the best of my knowledge has not encountered this same research and title to thesis in any of my readings. Literature survey to related work is conducted by this research and an analysis to the related work is presented in Chapter one of this thesis.

Signature:______Date: 07/26/2011 (Mrs. Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi Mohammed El-Hassan)

i

DEDICATION

To my late mother Mrs. Hyatt Mohammed Suleiman for her wisdom, perseverance and endless support, To my late father Mr. Ibrahim El- Dosougi Mohammed El-Hassan for his high values and dedication to country and family and for my sons Mr. Badr Aladdin Bolad and Mr. Rashad Aladdin Bolad for their encouragement, patience and support throughout this study.

ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Deep appreciation and gratitude to Dr. Gamal Mahmoud for his valuable professional advice, challenging discussions and genuine supervision throughout this research.

Sincere thanks to the staff of the Faculty of Architecture at the University of Khartoum, to officials at the Ministries of Archaeology, Tourism and Environmental Affairs in Khartoum, particularly to Dr. Abdu-Alhai Al- Sawi for expediting tourism and photography permits without which the field work findings of this research would have been difficult to reach. Thanks to officials and staff at the Ministries of Planning and Survey in Sudan and Suakin especially to Dr. Osama El-Zain, Director of Suakin Planning and Building Department for his mentorship and dedicated work in resettlement programs in Suakin. Sincere thanks to Dr. Taha Bedawi Director of Sudan ICZM in Port Sudan for valuable information on the Red Sea State coastal environment and challenges.

Gratefulness to scientists and researchers in civil societies, environmental and humanitarian agencies who paved the way for extended studies by providing valuable information and resources.

Most appreciation to the local citizens of Eastern Sudan, in Kasala and the Red Sea State, individuals and families of different Bejah tribes, for their generosity and warm welcome into their homes and institutions in- spite of their harsh living circumstances, and for dedicating their valuable time to reflect on their dearest past and present.

Most thanks and indebtedness to the Creator for guiding my steps throughout this research, for putting the right people on my way to help enrich this research, and for giving me patience, strength and encouragement to carry on this research through most interesting exposure to most humbling realities of a most rich region and most gracious nation – The Bejah of Eastern Sudan.

iii Table of Content Article Page Number

DECLARATION i DEDICATION ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT iii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv DEFENITIONS vii ENGLISH ABSTRACT x ARABIC ABSTRACT xii LIST OF FIGURES xiv LIST OF TABLES xxiii

Chapters Page Number

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION.

1.1 Research Problem 01 1.2 Objectives of the Study 06 1.3 Significance of the Study 07 1.4 Boundaries of the Study 09 1.5 Research Methodology 11 1.6 Difficulties Faced 15 1.7 Research Structure 16

Chapter II. REVIEW AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF LITERATURE AND RELATED STUDIES

2.1- SURVEY OF RELATED ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING RESEARCH:

2.1-1. The Coral Buildings of Suakin – Jean-Pierre Greenlaw 18 2.1-2. Field Report: Suakin on Reviving an Ancient Red Sea Port 25 2.1-3. Vision Towards Environmental Peace in Sudan- Dr. Taj Alsir Basher 27 2.1-4. Proposed Suakin Town Development - Michael Mallinson Associates 28 2.1-5. Concerns Related to The Sustainability of A Comprehensive Eco-Town Re-Development Plan for The Red Sea State 38

2.2- REVIEW OF RELATED POPULAR CITY AND TOWN PLANNING CONCEPTS:

2.2-1. The Evolution of Planning and Design 43 2.2-2. Sustainable Eco-Planning and Design Concepts 45 2.2-3. Environmental factors Which Influence the Design of a Master Plan for a Sustainable Eco-Settlement 46 2.2-4. Concepts Which Influenced the Ecocity/ Ecotown Apparition 55 2.2-5. Contemporary Urban Planning Concepts Which Contributed to the Ecotown/ Ecocity Vision 69 2.2-6. Eco-Planning and Design Elements and Objectives 73

iv 2.2-7. Heritage, Ethics, Religion and Sustainability 81 2.2-8. Assessing Sustainability 86

Chapter III. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA AND CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THE RED SEA STATE

3.0. Introduction 93 3.1. The Physical Environment of the Eastern Region 93 3.2. The Microclimate of the Eastern Region 99 3.3. The Red Sea Physical Environment 101 3.4. Eco-diversity of the Red Sea 103 3.5. The Red Sea Endangered Species 105 3.6. Economy of the Red Sea State 108 3.7. Summary 113

Chapter IV. SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND HUMAN GROWTH ON THE RED SEA STATE – SUAKIN A MODEL SETTLEMENT

5.0 Introduction 114 5.1 Puntite Settlement on the West Coast of the Arid Red Sea Region 115 5.2 Types of Semitic Settlements and Their Influences on the East Coast of The Arid Red Sea Region in Sudan 118 5.3 Features of Semitic Settlements and Vernacular on the Arid Red Sea Coastal Area. 124 5.4 Major Post Islamic Settlement Patterns, Zoning and Building Types on the Red Sea Coast 134 5.5 Suakin Islamic Settlement Pattern and Building Design 147 5.6 The Decline of Suakin 158 5.7 Conclusion 160

Chapter V. EXISTING CHALLENGES TO HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARID RED SEA STATE – Research field work and analysis

6.0 Introduction 161 6.1 Factors that Impacted Regional Growth of the Arid Red Sea Coastal Zone and the Development of Suakin Gaif 162 6.2 Natural Impact on the Environment and Socio-Economics of the Red Sea Region and Coastal Zone 162 6.3 Man-Made Phenomenon Impacts on the Environment and Socio- Economics of the Arid Red Sea Region. 168 6.4 Administrative Mismanagement 172 6.5 Socio Economic Factors that impacted the development of the Red Sea Region 184 6.6 Summary of Fieldwork Findings 190

v Chapter VI. OF THE ARID RED SEA STATE – Suakin a Prototype Cultural Ecotown. Suggested solutions and recommendations

6.0 Introduction 191 6.1 Suakin Existing Zoning, Planning and Building Regulations 192 6.2 Standard Town Planning Procedure incorporated in this study 194 6.3 The Application of Integrated, Sustainable Eco-town planning on the Red Sea Coastal Zone in Sudan 197 6.4 Feasibility of Sustainable Town Planning on Suakin 199 6.5 Feasibility of Implementing Sustainable Cultural Integration and Diversity in Suakin 205 6.6 Feasibility of Implementing Sustainable Heritage Character in the Redevelopment of Suakin and on New Coastal Towns 210 6.7 Feasibility of Developing Sustainable Energy Services in Suakin 211 6.8 Feasibility of developing sustainable Water Supply System in Suakin 212 6.9 Conclusion 215 6.10 Suggested Guidelines for a Sustainable Master Plan Development for The Red Sea Coastal Zone 216 6.11 Recommendations for Future Studies 217

REFERANCES 219

APPENDIX I. GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE OF THE SUDAN – Summery 224

APPENDIX II. HISTORY OF THE SUDAN – Summery 241

vi DEFINITIONS

The terminologies defined here may have been used in other context or circumstances to relate different meanings. The definitions provided in this section are related to the specific meanings communicated in this thesis, and are based on the understandings agreed on by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Leadership in energy and (LEED) as regulated by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC), the United Kingdom Green Building Council (UKGBC), Commission of the European Communities (CEC), The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSAGA), Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM), the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO).

A

Agora: An open air meeting place for public congregation or the transaction of business.

Amphitheater: A Roman invention of space that likened to two theaters set stage to stage, forming an oval auditorium around an oval arena. It accommodated large crowds who gathered to view spectacles of gladiatorial combat and Christian martyrdom.

B

Basilicas: A rectangle plan building with vaulted spaces divided by supporting columns, with galleries above and aisles, a tribunal opposite the entrance raised and projected externally in a semicircular form. It functioned as a meeting place for business transactions, and a court of law.

Brownfield sites: Any land that has been used for some purpose but is no longer in use.

C

Cradle to Grave Neighborhood: Where individuals are born, raised, go through college and return to live in the neighborhood of their birth, implying sustainability, longevity and history.

Coliseum: Roman amphitheater in Rome known as the Flavian Amphitheater. With an elliptical plan designed to seat 50,000 spectators.

E

Eco-City: Where urban pollution and congestion is reduced, and where safe accessible and Affordable mobility and alternatives to private cars are provided.

Estate Lots: Defines the edge of a town.

G

Grayfield sites: A site that contains asphalt or structures no longer in use.

Greenfield sites: Area of land that has not been used for any non-agriculture development.

vii Green Belt Plan: Identifies where urbanization should not occur to protect agriculture land or reserves and to act as a buffer zone.

H

Human Development Index (HDI): A comparative measure of life expectancy, literacy, education and standard of living for countries worldwide. It is a standard means of measuring the well-being of communities, in particular child welfare to determine the status of a country as developed, developing or underdeveloped, and to measure the impact of economics policies on quality of life.

I

Insulae: Multistory apartment blocks build by Roman to accommodate for different types of housing situations. These public dormitories were characterized by unhealthy and unsafe environments as they lacked ventilation, drainage and privacy.

M

Model settlement: Example settlement to demonstrate the feasibility and desirability for future regeneration of similar living spaces.

P

Polycentric : Having more than one center (Satellites).

Pod: An amount of land acquired by a developer.

S

Sagiya: Pot chained irrigation wheel used in Upper . It developed further to be animal powered wheel.

Sustainable settlement: settlement patterns that minimize land take and .

Sustainable transport: Environmentally compatible transport

Sustainability transport modes: Structures that are convenient to pedestrians, cyclist, public transportation and efficient distribution logistics.

Sustainable city, eco-city or eco-polis: An entire city that is created with the intent to minimize, as much as possible, its required inputs (of energy, water and food) and its waste outputs (of heat, air pollution as co2 and methane, water pollution,)

Sprawl: a series of isolated pods that are not well connected to one another.

Strategic Regional Policy Plan: an instruction manual to be used for guidance in building a more healthy and sustainable Region.

viii ABBREVIATIONS

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.

FDI Foreign direct investment

GNP Gross national product

Habitat United Nations Centre for Human Settlements

HDI Human Development Index

ICT Information and communication technology

UNDP United Nations Development Programme

UNEP United Nations Environment Programme

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

UNIDO United Nations Industrial Development Organization

WRI World Resources Institute

WTO World Trade Organization

WWI World Watch Institute

LEED Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design – rating system

UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

PERSGA The Regional Organization for the Conservation of the Environment of

the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden

ICZM Integrated Coastal Zone Management

WCED World Commission on Environment and Development

ix ABSTRACT

Planning the redevelopment of a complex region as the Red Sea State in Sudan, encompasses detailed understanding of the environmental, social, cultural, economic and political elements that influence the livelihoods of its inhabitants. The Red Sea State is a home to a large population of diverse local and migratory cultures that are expanding by 10% annually as stated in the records of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), the majority are nomadic hard to estimate in numbers, and the few urban cultures are almost invasive to the region. The primary goal of this study is to explore practical avenues leading to the integration of cultural sustainable eco-town planning, within the context of the rich but degraded environment of the Red Sea region, and with consideration to advanced green technologies and opportunities. The parameters for the present study are provided in Chapter I.

Critical review of the most popular and recent work methodologies related to this study are supported by interviews with accessible authors, and defined areas of concerns considered by this study. Additionally, this research gave considerable attention to most current and applicable global and design theories, and to the scientific environmental planning and building applications that are likely to influence the redevelopment of this historic settlement and future ones in the region.

The review of the geographic environment and eco-system of the Red Sea State, helped identify the physical and ecological limitations that the redevelopment efforts may have to abide by, and it introduced a much appreciated value to the land in the fields of sustainable planning and design for the Red Sea settlements, and for the preservation of the indigenous habitat.

Suakin Island is the oldest settlement from 300 AD that remained hardly intact as the settlement survived major historic events and human migrations. The historic growth and decline of Suakin Island as a case study, was analyzed and has provided an overview of the heritage, socio-economic and political status of this historic port, and its relation to the international community. This review provided comparative analysis to major historic on the Red Sea coast and identified the historic and economic relationships that influenced their planning, growth and decline.

The present study also reviewed how settlements in the Eastern Region, through centuries have survived the complexities of its ecosystem by developing resourceful methods of cohabitation with its environment and dwellers. It also reflected on the impact brought by integrated and migratory cultures on the settlement patterns in the area. This study defined the factors which contributed to the dissipation of Suakin Island, a once strategic port.

Technical analysis of historic and existing town planning and building design features of Suakin Island was conducted by this study, along with the critical analysis of existing coastal settlements on Suakin Gaif, the model for recommended sustainable coastal town planning for the Red Sea State. The investigation reflected on the

x cultural influences on the planning and design of the historic town, and on the traditional building materials and methods used in Suakin district that are likely to impact future developments in the region.

The research findings echoed the factors responsible for the deterioration in social and economic livelihoods of the inhabitants, and revealed the causes of environmental degradation in the Red Sea region. In addition, critical analysis of the existing or absent infrastructure, institutions, technologies and services in the region was presented in support of the evaluation process, that helped identify deficiencies where major services are lacking, and areas in need for improvement. Existing challenges to the preferred holistic development of the Red Sea State are analyzed and presented in this study.

Recommendations are offered for a sustainable eco-development within the cultural context of the existing coastal town of Al-Gaif, and guidelines are specified relevant to eco-town planning and building design, applicable to the district of Suakin, and possibly to future expansions and developments in the Red Sea State.

xi بسم هللا الرحمن الرحيم

المقدمه

التخطيط إلعادة تطوير منطقة معقدة مثل والية البحر األحمر في السودان، يجب ان يشمل فهم مفصل للعناصر البيئية واالجتماعية والثقافية واالقتصادية والسياسية التي تؤثر على المستوي المعيشي للسكان. فوالية البحر األحمر هي موطن لعدد كبير من الثقافات المحلية والمهاجرة والتي تتوسع بنسبة 10٪ سنويا كما ورد في سجالت برنامج األمم المتحدة اإلنمائي )UNDP(، ونسبه الن غالبيتهم العظمي من البدو فمن الصعب بمكان حصر أعدادهم كما ان القليل منهم عباره عن ثقافات حضريه غزت المنطقه. الهدف األساسي من هذه الدراسة هو إستكشاف السبل العملية التي تؤدي إلى تكامل مابين الطابع الثقافي للمنطقه والتخطيط المستدام للبيئه وذلك ضمن سياق البيئة الغنية والمتدهورة في منطقة البحر األحمر ومع مراعاة التقنيات الخضراء والحلول المتقدمة. تم إدراج المؤشرات لهذه الدراسه في الفصل األول.

فيما يتعلق بمنهجيات العمل التي تخص هذه الدراسه تم اختيار االحدث واالكثر شعبيه كما تم تدعيمها بمقابالت مع المختصين، اهتمت هذه الدراسه بتحديد مناطق الحوجه . كما اعطت اهتماما كبيرا لمعظم نظريات التخطيط والتصميم البيئي العالمي الحالية والمعمول بها، وإلى التخطيط البيئي بصوره علميه وتطبيقات المباني التي قد تؤثرعلي اعادة تطويرهذه المستوطنه التاريخيه حاليا وفي المستقبل. استعراض البيئة الجغرافية والنظام البيئي لوالية البحر األحمر ساعد علي معرفة القدرات الفيزيائيه والبيئيه للمنطقه والتي وجب علي هذه الدراسه التقيد بها، كما ساعد كثيرا في تقدير قيمة االرض في مجاالت التخطيط المستدام و التصميم لمستوطنات البحر األحمر، والحفاظ على مواطن السكان األصليين.

تعود جزيرة سواكن الي العام 300م وتعتبر اقدم مستوطنه بقيت سليمة ونجت من األحداث التاريخية الكبرى والهجرات البشرية. اخذت جزيرة سواكن كدراسه واقعيه, تم تحليل النمو التاريخي وانحداره بالمنطقه مع إعطاء لمحه عامه عن التراث والحاله االجتماعيه واالقتصاديه والوضع السياسي لهذا الميناء التاريخي وعالقته مع المجتمع الدولي كما قدم هذا االستعراض تحليل مقارن بين الموانئ التاريخية الكبرى على ساحل البحر األحمر وحدد العالقات التاريخية واالقتصادية التي أثرت على التخطيط والنمو والتراجع.

استعرضت الدراسة أيضا كيف نجت المستوطنات في المنطقة الشرقية، عبر قرون تعقيدات النظام البيئي من خالل تطوير أساليب من التعايش بين البيئه والسكان. كما عكست التاثير الذي جلبته المجموعات المهاجره واثره على أنماط االستيطان في المنطقة. حددت هذه الدراسة العوامل التي ساهمت في تبديد جزيرة سواكن، وهي التي كانت ذات مره ميناءا إستراتيجيا .

التحليل التقني للمخطط الحالي للمدينه والسمات المعماريه لجزيرة سواكن والذي تم من خالل هذه الدراسه إصطحب معه تحليل نقدي للمستوطنات الساحلية الموجودة على قيف سواكن ، ونموذج لتخطيط المدن أوصى الساحلي المستدام للوالية البحر األحمر. التحقيق عكس المؤثرات الثقافية على تخطيط وتصميم المدينة التاريخية، وعلى مواد وأساليب البناء التقليدية المستخدمة في منطقة سواكن والتي من المحتمل أن تؤثرعلي التطورات المستقبلية في المنطقة.

xii

اعطت نتائج البحوث علي العوامل المؤثره عن تدهور المستوي المعيشي واالجتماعي واالقتصادي للسكان ، وكشفت عن أسباب التدهور البيئي في منطقة البحر األحمر. باإلضافة إلى ذلك، تم تقديم تحليل نقدي للبنية التحتية والمؤسسات والتكنولوجيات والخدمات القائمة أو غائبة في المنطقة لدعم عملية التقييم، التي ساعدت على تحديد أوجه القصور التي تنعدم فيها الخدمات الرئيسية، والمجاالت التي تحتاج للتحسين. يتم تحليل التحديات القائمة أمام التنمية الشاملة يفضل من والية البحر األحمر وقدمت في هذه الدراسة.

وتقدم توصيات لوضع التنمية البيئية المستدامة ضمن السياق الثقافي للبلدة الساحلية الموجودة علي القيف، ويتم تحديد المبادئ التوجيهية ذات الصلة لتخطيط المدينة والبيئية تصميم المبنى، الذي ينطبق على منطقة سواكن، وربما إلى التوسعات المستقبلية و التطورات في والية البحر األحمر. اوجدت نتائج االبحاث العوامل المؤثره علي تدهور المستوي المعيشي واإلجتماعي واإلقتصادي للسكان. كما كشفت عن اسباب التدهور البيئي في منطقة البحر االحمر. باإلضافه إلي ذلك تم تقديم تحليل نقدي للبنيات التحتيه والمؤسسات والتكنولوجيا والخدمات المتوفره والغير متوفره في المنطقه وذلك دعما لعملية التقييم التي ساعدت علي تحديد اوجه القصور التي تعاني من نقص الخدمات الرئيسيه والمجاالت التي تحتاج إلي تحسين. كما قدمت هذه الدراسه التحديات القائمه من اجل تنميه شامله افضل لمنطقة البحر االحمر.

قدمت توصيات من أجل التنمية البيئية المستدامة ضمن السياق الثقافي للمدينة الساحلية الموجودة علي القيف, كما تم تحديد المبادئ التوجيهية ذات الصلة لتخطيط بيئة البلدة وتصميم المباني ، ينطبق ذلك علي منطقة سواكن واالمتداد المستقبلي المتوقع في منطقة البحر االحمر

xiii

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig No. Description Page No. CHAPTER I 1.1 Suakin model town impacted by environmental degradation, 1 underdevelopment and cultural disintegration 1.2 The Red Sea State climatic zones 2 1.3 Socio Economic Equity 3 1.4 The Red Sea State multicultural social environment 4 1.5 Suakin model catchment area 5 1.6 Suakin Gaif as a model – The problem components 5 1.7 Suakin Coral Island – The problem components II 6 1.8 Regions of Sudan 1974 -2010 prior to the new South Sudan referendum 10 borders 1.9 The Red Sea State 2005 Boundaries prior to the application of South 10 Sudan referenda in 2011 CHAPTER II 2.1 Greenlaw rendering of a single story residence in Suakin, reflecting 19 central courtyard, high level windows on ground floor 2.2 Greenlaw rendering of single family Turkiyya style residence 19 2.3 Greenlaw rendering of Sayed El-Safi’s Block, an example of attached 20 homes in Suakin 2.4 Greenlaw rendering of mixed use attached homes along retail zones, an 20 example of early Turkiyya Style 2.5 Greenlaw rendering of the Sharifa Mariyam home on land, an example 20 of Turkiyya Style 2.6 Greenlaw rendering of section through single family home in Suakin 21 2.7 Great Roshans in House of Shenawi Bay 21 2.8 Greenlaw renderings of wood window treatments (Roshans) 21 2.9 Greenlaw illustration of plaster decorations used for finishes in Suakin 22 2.10 Greenlaw drawing of Wakkala ground floor plan 23 2.11 Greenlaw rendering of Wakkala south east elevation, an example of 23 Egyptian (Fatimid) Style commercial building (Hospitality) 2.12 Greenlaw rendering of the Muhafasa south elevation, an example of 24 Egyptian Style governmental building 2.13 Greenlaw rendering of Bait El-Gedid, an example of Egyptian Style 24 residential building 2.14 Greenlaw rendering of the three main gates 24 2.15 Ottoman town boundary plan 29 2.16 Ottoman defenses overlay plan 29 2.17a Michael Malinson’s Architects Overlay 2006 29 2.17b Le Jean Overlay 1864 30 2.17c 1922 Aerial Photograph by others 30 2.18 CAD model and floor plan of Al Wakkala by Mallinson Architects 31 2.19 Decay on historic building in Suakin 31 2.20 Michael Mallinson and Associates Architects. The year 2000 Survey 32 mapping of existing Suakin island and Gaif within the historic defense wall and gates 2.21 Proposed Preliminary Suakin Development Plan expanding on existing 33 zoning. By Mallinson Architects 2.22 Proposed Suakin Development Plan, Phase II. By Mallinson Architects 34

xiv 2.23 Proposed Suakin Development Plan, Phase III. By Mallinson Architects 35 2.24 Suakin Island Reconstruction Model. By Mallinson Architects 36 2.25 Suakin Island Proposed Phase IV Master Plan. By Mallinson Architects 37 2.26 Natural water cycle is a comprehensive ecological system 46 2.27 Biological Nitrogen Fixation is the natural process, either biological or 47 biotic, by which nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia 2.28 Anemone coral cross section 50 2.29 Anemone coral bed – alive 50 2.30 Hydrological circulation disperses contaminants from discharge areas 51 through watersheds into the water table and aquifer through precipitation, and by streams to seas and oceans 2.31 Three spheres of sustainability representing spatial interdependence and 53 connectivity 2.32 Eixample Barcelona. (Barcelona Expansión Plan) 1859 56 2.33 The linear urban development plan 57 2.34 Cross section through the linear development plan. 57 2.35 The Garden City concept 58 2.36 The Garden City Model 58 2.37 Clarence five minutes walking distance measured from the elementary 61 school at the core. 2.38 Clarence Neighborhood Unit of 1929, applied in post war British towns, 62 in Abercrombie and Forshaw’s Greater London Plan of 1944. 2.39 Clarence Neighborhood Unit Cluster 62 2.40 Radburn aerial. 63 2.41 Radburn 3D, cul-de-sacs and pedestrian walkways. 63 2.42 Calthorpe Pedestrian Pockets 72 2.43 The urban Network 72 2.44 Streets of downtown Dar es Salam. 78 2.45 Yangtze River Water Town site. 79 2.46-2.49 Renovated historic buildings of Yangtze River Water Town. 79 2.50 Hotel Desert Rose Aerial. Red Sea Shores – Egypt 80 CHAPTER III 3.1 The main coastal city (Port Sudan) and towns of the Red Sea State 94 3.2 Sinnar and the Butanah plains 95 3.3 Al Gash River in Kasala 95 3.4-3.5 Jebel Iwainat and the Red Sea Mountains 95 3.6-3.7 Jebel Iwainat is a major water source for the Bijah camel herders 95 3.8-3.9 Jebel Marrah is a seasonal grazing wade – Kasala, Red Sea Mountains 96 3.10-3.11 Jebel Alba – Red Sea Mountains coastal plains 96 3.12-3.13 Coral reef shores and Fringing reefs, coastal zone of the Red Sea, Sudan 96 3.14 The Geological Map of the Red Sea State 97 3.15 The main water bodies of the Eastern Region 98 3.16 Countries bordering the Red Sea 101 3.17 Taila Coral Island north of Port Sudan 103 3.18 Green Coral Island south of Suakin 103 3.19 Clam 104 3.20 Brain Coral 104 3.21 Fungi Coral 104 3.22 Gorge Coral 104 3.23 Sponge Purple 104 3.24 Icon Starfish 104 3.25 Fiji Lion 104

xv 3.26 Coral Phish Fish 104 3.27-3.28 Dugong (breeding mammal) and migratory Turtle of the Red Sea 105 3.29-3.30 Mangroves are more lush south of the Red Sea where salinity is less 106 3.31 Sargasso-Red Sea grass 106 3.32 Red Sea – Dahlak Cactus 106 3.33 Desert Flora 106 3.34 Kef Mariyam 106 3.35 Ibis 107 3.36 Boobies (Migratory) 107 3.37 Sooty Gull (Migratory) 107 3.38 Senegal Thick-knee (Migratory) 107 3.39 Desert Fox 107 3.40 Gazal 107 3.41 Typical cultured pearl 109 3.42 Skin diving for Molluscs is a traditional occupation for coastal tribes 109 3.43 Town of Sinkat Aerial 110 3.44 Town of Gebeit Aerial 110 3.45-3.46 Mining in Red Sea Mountains north of Musmar, Red Sea State 110 3.47-3.50 Augit (Volcanic Mineral), Citrine, Cuarzo-rojoe, Gypsum 110 3.51 Oil Concessions on the coastline 111 3.52 Petroleum Traffic 2007 – Sudan Port Authority 112 CHAPTER IV 4.1-4.2 Wife of the ruler of Punt on Temple of Hatshepsut 1490-1470 BC. The plate 115 carving of Queen of Punt fitted into the reliefe on Temple of Hatshebsut. Wilkinson 2000. 4.3 The Punt fleet of Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahari; on the left upper register the 115 ships are loaded (from: Saeve-Söderbergh, T., "The Navy of the Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty", Uppsala Universitets Årsskrift, 1946). Below the ships several different marine animals are depicted which could have lived in the sea near Punt. 4.4 Location of Ancient Punt and the trade routes from Lower Egypt 115 4.5 The Hall of Punt in the 2. Porticus showing 7 houses of the same type building. 116 4.6 Relief showing dwelings on stilts behind palm trees and ladder leading to the 116 flat groungd. It also shows Myrrh trees and animals that shared the land. The rendering to the right is a depiction of the Puntice shelter. 4.7 Map showing the most important Trans Saharan trade routes till 1400 117 4.8 Typical Arab Bedewin tent space planning. 118 4.9 Modern Arab Bedewin tent. Stripes, color and interior decoration varies by 119 region 4.10 Hadendowa camel riders 119 4.11 A Bijah tribesmen 119 4.12 Rashaida and Zubaidiya straw and mud shelter 120 4.13 Hadendawa Bedewin family tent. Note the pitched roof as the Arab tent formed 120 by the central support structural wood member 4.14-4.15 180ECE Mojin-tian historic settlement – Yemen 121 4.16 Jebel Bura Coffee terraces 121 4.17 Ancient Kohlan mountain settlement and terraced agriculture fields – Yemen 121 Red Sea Mountains 4.18 Delta Toker at el-Baraka River, and Wadi Kassala at el-Gash River 122 4.19 Bird’s eye view of Sinkat and Gebeit, two highland settlements on the Red Sea 122 Mountains in Sudan – August 2010 4.20 The Kabaa is the focal point for the settlement in Mecca. This aerial photograph 124 indicate construction progress for the redevelopment plan 4.21a El-Finaa open air market & Mosque in Marrakesh 125 4.21b Tatuine open air market in Tunisia 125

xvi 4.21c Medieval cistern 125 4.21d Aerial view of historic Hababa settlement1. In Hababa, Yemen 125 4.22 a& b Adobe and mud-brick multi-story, monolithic dwellings in Libya. Photographs 126 by other 4.22c Reconstruction of a first century farm house in Palestine where the roof houses 127 4 dwellings 4.22 d & e Adobe and mud-brick monolithic town of ancient Amran in Yemen 127 4.22 f & g Historic Mud-brick tower houses of Shebam and Waded in Yemen 127 4.22 h & I Dar el-Hagar highland settlement, Decorative elevations of lime mortar on 128 brick, stone or coral block are unique to Yemen 4.22 j, k, Traditional multi-story, mixed use buildings and narrow paved pedestrian streets 128 L in historic districts of Tunisia, Jeddah and Hababa in Yemen 4.23 Tatuine Tunisia – underground dwellings 129 4.24 Matmata Tunisia – underground dwelling atrium air circulation atrium 129 4.25 a, b, The atrium functions as a light well and ventilation shaft. Atriums and 130 c courtyards are adorned with pools, fountains and landscape to help moderate the temperatures 4.26 a, b The contemporary atrium is a center for social and cultural functions in North 131 Africa 4.27 Atrium functional diagram 131 4.28 Traditional wind tower in UAE 132 4.29 Mud brick wind tower in Bahrain 132 4.30 Wind tower in air flow diagram 132 4.31 Jeddah Harbor in 1938. Multi story coral brick and white washed buildings 134 oriented towards the shores in a nonlinear grid 4.32 Comparison of grid pattern and density, between old settlement communities 135 and new developments in Jeddah 4.33 a-b Pedestrian streets in old Jeddah are narrow and laid in an irregular grid between 136 clusters of traditional townhouses. Note the high parapet and functional roof space, and the shaded streets 4.34 a-b Historic houses of the coastal town of Al-Balad, and the historic town houses in 136 Yanbu Al-Bahr 4.35 a-d Examples of Rowshans aesthetics variations between coastal regions of the 137 Ottoman territories 4.36-4.37 Decorative and ventilated wooden facades of houses in Jeddah as depicted by 137 Keizer Talib 4.38-4.39 Balcony and overhang Rowshans and ventilated wooden facades of rich Jeddah 137 merchants as depicted by Keizer Talib 4.40-4.41 The coral block buildings and wood Rowshans of Jeddah 138 4.42 Island Aerial 139 4.43-4.46 Islamic, Ottoman settlement of historic Masawa in . (second city of 140 Ottoman Sanjak Habesh on the Eastern Desert). Photography by Google photo gallery 4.47 Massawa settlement pattern – aerial. Note the similarity in planning pattern to 140 that of Suakin Island 4.48 Greco-Roman world map 150 AD redrawn 1474 – British Archives 141 4.49 Suakin 1541 (Pub 1866) as recorded by Admiral Joam de Castro of the 143 Portuguese armada – Survey map from Michael Mallinson survey for the rehabilitation of Historic Suakin 2006 4.50 Ottoman and Funge Territories 1508 – 1820 (16th – 19th centuries) shows the 144 Eastern desert divided between the Ottoman in the North and the Funj to the South 4.51 Suakin in 1857 was split between the Ottoman and Fung. Its location 145 completely inserted inland and surrounded by reef isolating it from direct currents and passing ships

1 Photography by Google 3D maps and photo gallery.

xvii 4.52 Suakin Island and Gaif – Historic photograph from the British Archives 146 4.53 El-Muhafasa (Wikala). Durham Archives 147 4.54 El-Wikala (Caravanserai) (1881) plan as depicted by Greenlaw 147 4.55 Post Office at front right 1903. Durham Archives 148 4.56 Post Office South Elevation 148 4.57 Post Office North Elevation 148 4.58 Use of natural light and ventilation in the interior space of the Post 149 Office. 4.59 Suakin aerial restoration in 1900 by J. P. Greenlaw. Note the garrison walk 149 through that surrounds the island 4.60 Al-Shenawi Diyafa Residence 150 4.61 Khorshid Residence 150 4.62 Sheikh Ahmed Mohamed Shams residence on the left, and partial elevation of 150 Ali Shawish Al-Jeddawi residence both located just inside of Gordon Gate 4.63 Historic Map of Fort Suakin 1882 151 4.64 a, b Open air public spaces with Al-Shafai Mosque (spiritual building) as the focal 152 point at one open area and an open air market in another. 4.65 a Historic photographs1 of Suakin Island. Note the irregular layout of the coral- 152 brick multistory, townhouse dwellings 4.65 b Historic photographs of Suakin Island. Note the central open space 153 which included El-Shafai Mosque and El-Wikala representing the administration zone of the island 4.66 a, b Historic photographs showing multistory mixed-use building types. 153 4.67 The home of Osman Digna to the right in a mixed-use zone 154 4.68 Atrium in el-Wikala 154 4.69 Courtyard in the Old Mosque 154 4.70 Bait Shams - Suakin late 18002 showing a central atrium and privacy in space 155 planning 4.71 Section through a house showing roof top terraces, family quarters and 155 commercial ground floor spaces 4.72– 4.73 Bay Windows with Rowshans of decorative wood 156 4.74 Decorative window Rowshans of Suakin. Durham Archives 156 4.75 a, b Carving on limestone and use of white plaster. Shenawi Bah residence interior 156 decoration to the left and “Egid Muwashah” on door frame at Al-Muhafisa to the right. Suakin ruins 4.76 Suakin Island multistory building facades reflecting the Ottoman features 157 influenced by Fatimid architecture 4.77 The New Port Sudan 158 4.78 Eastern Telegraph Company building in Port Sudan – British archives 159 CHAPTER V 5.1-5.2 Nomad shelter in the plains of Kasala and the Red Sea State 161 5.3-5.4 Herding cows and camel on dry pasture along the road to Suakin from 162 Kasala. 5.5 Camel pastor on the Red Sea Shores. Note that there is no presence of 162 green canopy and the sand piling at base of shrubs. Red Sea State survey trip December 3, 2010. 5.6 Traditional Water Well 162 5.7 Sand storms over the Red Sea Coasts 163 5.8 Haboob over Port Sudan – May 2009 163 5.9 Twister over northern boarder 163 5.10 Sand shifts buries desert shrubs 163 5.11 Sand dunes encroachment on shelter 163

1 All historic photographs of Old Suakin Island are from the British Archives. 2 THE CORAL BUILDINGS OF SUAKIN – Jean-Pierre Greenlaw. The Small Turkish Houses P. 50

xviii 5.12-5.13 The roadside landscape to Suakin and Port Sudan through Sinkat and 1164 Gebeit reflects the harsh sand shifts and dumps build up on shrubs, with few encounters to small scale roadside Dura farming 5.14-5.15 Scaled ground cover over Wadi Sinkat from both high dry winds and 164 summer temperatures, and from erosion by seasonal flash flooding the main cause to property damage. 5.16-5.17 Flashflood covering plains at the coast line and leaves low eroded land in 164 dry season 5.18 Seasonal Flashflood into Wadi Sinkat in the Red Sea Mountains 165 5.19 Al-Gaif main flashflood lines erodes soil dumping into the reefs and 165 inflicts structural damage on residential neighborhoods at the lagoon. 5.20 Locust breading areas south of the Red Sea State Coastal zone - FAO 166 5.21-5.22 Mesquite invasion (the horned weed that grows into a bush) is 166 encountered in different parts of the Red Sea State mostly in the southern boarders and along the road to Port Sudan and Halaib. ( See chapter IV for information on endogenous coastal green cover) 5.23 Arose Beach contaminated with garbage due to lack of waste 167 management and lack of regulatory monitoring 5.24-5.25 Port Sudan landfill at seasonal watershed, and liter at tidal lagoon just 168 North of Port Sudan 5.26 Suakin local market apparent lack of waste management and lack of 168 proper sanitary enforcement. 5.27 Pond like formation from rain water in-front club after three days 169 flooding in Suakin Town experienced by author. 5.28 Uncontrolled cutting of green canopy 169 5.29 Wood fuel vendor 169 5.30-5.31 Camels grazing south of Delta Toker, and typical silt, sandy beaches 170 with sparse vegetation to the north of Agig and bare to the north of Port Sudan 5.32 Gillnet Fishermen in Port Sudan 170 5.33 Baby fish caught by gillnets increases the risk of depleting the species 170 5.34 Shark fins removed for sale and meat disposed off 171 5.35 Population growth of Sudan 1956-2008 172 5.36 Percentage of decrease in Sudan’s Nomad population by Region 1956- 172 2008 5.37-5.38 Entry to Suakin Gaif – Most squatters are Bijah families resettling on 173 tribal owned land but not planned by the administration of Suakin 5.39 Sprawl in the town of Toker taken place between town and cotton fields 173 which borders the seasonal watersheds and Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Mountains to the South. 5.40a Squatting generates permanent communities around Toker measured for 174 up to 5 kilometers radius 5.40b Rows of housing and lack of open spaces in Toker 174 5.40c Gebait uninhabited prototype housing settlement, built of concrete block 175 5.41-5.42 Camel Market in Halaib now encumbered by administrative fees, 176 boarder regulations and political tension between the Bijah tribes of the northern Eastern Desert both sides of the boarder and the administrative forces in Sudan and Egypt 5.43-5.44 Squatter settlement at the entry to Suakin 176 5.45 Bus waiting in Suakin 176 5.46 Coral vendor in Suakin 176 5.47-5.48 Sinkat vendors at Bus stop 177 5.49 Arriving at Kasala refugees’ camp 177

xix 5.50 Refugee giving birth in camp 177 5.51-5.52 Refugee mothers and children in Kasala camps 2005-2006. IDPs and 178 Returnees continue to poor into the Eastern Region and 10000 registered annually are recorded to enter the Red Sea State. Data on unregistered refugees is unavailable 5.53 Map of surveyed communities – UNMAO 2007 179 5.54 Map of Hazard areas in the Eastern Region – UNMAO 2007-2010 180 7555 Results of the Landmine Impact Survey June 30, 2007 – UNMAO 181 5.56 Found remnants of landmines in Kasala 182 5.57 Area 3, marked as suspected hazard area 182 5.58 Sifting through suspected land mines in Kasala 182 5.59 Demining training near Yei 182 7560-5.61 Om El-Hassan Adaro (Hadendawa) and Warda’s family (Rashaida). 183 Survey to the Eastern Region on December 2, 2010. Om El-Hassan lives between Kasala, Hayya and Suakin as she moves around in search for work. Warda and her family live in government housing neighborhood in Kasala suburb and are confined to their home and neighborhood 5.62 Suakin Market bare necessities 187 5.63 Grain market in Suakin 187 5.64-5.65 Traditional boat making and boat yard in Suakin 187 5.66 Traditional Sambook used for fishing and transportation 187 5.67 Traditional Camel herding along the Eastern Desert is seasonal from 187 north to south Sudan boarders, and to the plains of Kasala and south to the Simian Mountains 5.68-5.69 Ruins of Suakin as of December 3, 2010 continues to crumble 188 5.70-5.71 Ongoing renovation did not consider requirements for the installment of 188 infrastructure before rebuilding, nor did it follow a strategic renovation process for building structures such as the renovation of roofs prior to internal walls, that which left renovated internal coral block walls exposed to weathering and damage from humidity is already apparent on the renovated buildings CHAPTER VI 6.1 Aerial of Suakin Town catchment area 192 6.2 Standard relationships road map of geographic and environmental 193 elements in sustainable design and construction 6.3 Relationship diagram of socio-economic and cultural influences on 194 sustainable design and town planning 6.4 Relationship diagram of governmental regulations and restrictions on the 194 sustainable design of buildings and site planning 6.5 Direct relationship of primary infrastructure on sustainable town 195 planning design capacity *and impact on the environment 6.6 Strategic Master Planning Process Diagram for Sustainable, Cultural 196 Ecotown. Please refer to figures 8.2-8.5 for each section of this diagram 6.7 Suakin location is in the Red Sea Coastal zone 198 6.8 Existing major seasonal flash flood (water source) slope and route from 199 Red Sea Mountains possible to control technologically within a regional Master Plan. 6.9 Existing Suakin Gaif aerial photograph. 199 6.10 Al-Gaif Old Town settlement pattern and land utilization. 200 6.11 Proposed narrow pedestrian streets encourage social integration and 200 community engagement. 6.12 Proposed re-planning for accessible roads. 201 6.13 Proposed Green belt buffer zone between major highway and urbanized 201

xx zones. 6.14 Planning for pedestrian friendly public spaces. 202 6.15 Use of green buffer to identify boundaries between zones and help 202 reduce pollution. 6.16 Environmental setback for sustainable shorelines and reef. 203 6.17 Building heights that allow for only noon light to penetrate streets are 203 undesirable. 6.18 Height restrictions that allow natural light to penetrate streets and 203 buildings are desirable for green sustainable planning and building design. 6.19 Water front view corridors. 204 6.20 Overlay of ¼ mile radius parameter for standard 15 minutes walking 205 distance. 6.21 ¼ mile radius pedestrian neighborhoods and ecologically friendly water 205 front. 6.22 Proposed service core neighborhoods network and irrigation canals. 206 6.23 Sustainable mixed-use quarters provide work-live opportunities and 206 services at walking distance, thus help reduce air pollution and automobile accident risk. 6.24 Maximum use of land value. 207 6.25 Existing low density residential cells 207 6.26 Rezoned high density, mixed use residential with core focal space 207 6.27 Core service area in green open space provides opportunities for social 208 interaction (meeting place), reduces daily travel distance for shopping and enhances opportunities for local jobs. 6.28 Carved Coral Block. 209 6.29 Carved Wood Fascia. 209 6.30 Wood Roshans 209 6.31 Proposed application of Suakin Island aesthetic features on 209 contemporary architecture at same height limits as historically documented – 4 story height for mixed use buildings. 6.32 Proposed application of Suakin Island aesthetic features on modern 210 architecture at over 10 stories high, for mixed use buildings in urban setting. 6.33 Ashkelom-Israel Sea Water Reverse Osmoses (ASWRO) simplified 212 process diagram. 6.34 Simplified standard diagram of desalination process indicating proposed 212 use of heat insulation and reuse of brine in industry. 6.35 Typical cost for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant. 213 APPENDIX I 1 Sudan Regional Boundaries based on geographic, topographic and biodiversity. 224 State boundaries are provided in upcoming chapters. This map is prior to July 2011. 2 Sudan Location Map1 Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum 225 3 The Sudan Topography. Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum 226 4 Kordofan Region – West Sudan 227 5 Jebal Alnuba - Sudan 227 6-7 Niyala south Darfur Region is a seasonal grazing field for Nomads 227 8 The Nile junction in Khartoum 228 9 The Nilotic Plains of south Sudan 228 10 The tropical forests of south Sudan 228

1 Library of Congress – September 22, 19997

xxi 11 Geological map of the Sudan1. Sudan map prior to 2011 referendum 229 12 Hydrology of Sudan2 . Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum 230 13 The Nile River and its Tributaries in Sudan 231 14 Nubian Desert North Sudan 232 15 Alberkal Pyramids of Nebta-North Sudan 232 16 Date Palms in Karima on the Nile Bank 232 17 the Nile North of Khartoum. Karima is part of the Nubian Desert on the River 232 Bank 18 the Nile North of Khartoum. Karima is part of the Nubian Desert on the River 233 Bank 19 Drought season north of Khartoum just off the Nile bank 233 20 Sobat River – South Sudan 233 21 Adok near Jongolai – South Sudan 233 22 Trends in Inland Capture Fisheries by Country. Sudan is at a positive indicator 234 23 African Proven Oil Reserve Holders, 20093. Sudan Oil reserve is estimated to 235 occupy 2/3 the overall land expansions 24 Sudan Oil and Gas Concessions – World Map Bank. Sudan map prior to 2011 236 referendum 25 Sudan Oil Production and Consumption 1998-2008 237 26 Sudan Oil Export 2008 237 27 Sudan National Grid up to 2005. Curent data not available. Sudan map prior to 238 2011 referendum 28 Total Energy Consumption in Sudan, by Type for 2008 238 29 Contribution in CO2 from Petroleum 239 30 Contribution in CO2 from Natural Gas, Coal & Electricity 239 31 Average daily water supply for households in urban and rural areas (in Cubic 240 Meters) for 2003-2005 APPENDIX II 32 The Land of the Soudan extended from the Atlantic Ocean in West 242 Africa to the Red Sea on 33 Map of current Egypt, Abydos is indicated in Red 243 34 The Hebrew map of Ancient Races 244 35a Hyksos Empire boundaries 245 35b Hyksos Dynasty of Lower Egypt 11-18th Dynasty 245 35c Hyksos, A group of Asiatic peoples (perhaps the future Hyksos) depicted 245 entering Egypt c1900BC from the tomb of a 12th. Dynasty official Khnumhotep under pharaoh Senusret II at Beni Hasan. 36 Twelfth Dynasty expansion 246 37a Dongola, Nubian Tombs 247 37b Masawart Alnagaa Temple and Ram head Sphinx 247 37c 18th. Dynasty, Tomb of Hury – Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III 1400 to 248 1352 BC 38 The roads to Punt. 249 39 Top to bottom: Myos Hormos, Bernice, Ptolemaist of the Hunt and 249 Adulis on the Red Sea east coast of the spice trade road 40 Archaeological site of Historic Ptolemas of the Hunt (elephantine) and 250 Suakin Port 41 Nubian tribute to bait Alwali, 14th. Century 251 42 The caravans Darb Alarbaein (Spice Road), through central Africa 253

1 World Bank Maps. 2 World Research Institute – Development Data Group – World Bank. 3 Energy Information Administration, County Analysis Briefs. September 2009. www.eia.doe.gov file:///Z:/NewCABs/V6/Sudan/Full.html. Also see: CIA World Factbook – Sudan. USAID – Sudan. US Treasury Department Office of Foreign Asset Control.

xxii 43 Pilgrim Caravan from West Coast of Africa Pre 1900 253 44 - 45 European Ivory and exotic animals traders targeted and pushed into the 254 Shilluk and Denka land 46 Ash-Sharquiyah Region. (Eastern Desert Mamluks State) 255 47 The Ottoman Empire by 1683 prior to conquest of al-Funge Sultanate 256 48 Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Sudan – British Archives, Map 132 257 49 Sultan Mohammed Ali Pasha, Ibrim Pasha of Sanjak Ibrim, Said Pasha 258 of Sanjak Mahas. 50 Khedive Ismail of Sudan and Egypt, Tewfik Pasha, and King Farouque 258 51 Egypt and the Sudan Operations 1883-1885 259 52 General Charles Gordon Pasha, Imam Mohammed Ibn Ahmed el-Sayyid 260 Abdullah, and Ameer Osman Abubakr Digna 53 Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener and Sir Frances Regional Wingate 260 Governor General 54 a Sugar cane fields in Al-Gazira 261 54 b Cotton field labor was conducted by families including children 261 55 President Ismail al-Azhari leads the NUP government in 1954, and under 262 his leadership the declaration of independence was adopted and it encompassed all of Sudan political boundaries including the Eastern Region. Additional information on following administrations is included in the appendix.

LIST OF TABLES

Table Description Page No. No. 3.1 Monthly average maximum temperature by metrological stations (in 99 centigrade degrees) 3.2 Monthly average minimum temperature by metrological stations (in 99 centigrade degrees) 3.3 Monthly average rainfall by metrological stations (in mms) 100 3.4 Monthly average relative humidity by metrological stations (in %) 100 3.5 Monthly average wind direction by metrological stations 100 3.6 Monthly average wind speed by metrological stations 100 3.7 Beaufort Sind Scale Related to the Red Sea State 102 3.8 Petroleum Traffic through Port Sudan 2007 112 5.1 Planning Figures for East Sudan – UNCR report 2007 177 5.2 Inaccessible Communities 2007-2009 – UNMAO 2009 179 5.3 Past Mine Action Activities in Impacted Communities – UNMAO 180 2010 5.4 Average annual percentage injuries by gender 180 5.5 Type of wound suffered from mine incident by gender 181 5.6 Number of IDPs expected to return in impacted communities by 181 locality

xxiii CHAPTER I

INTRODUCITON

1.1- RESEARCH PROBLEM:

A. Problem Definition: The Red Sea region in Sudan is a portrait of the juxtaposition of desert and sea mirrored in the urbanism and Bedawiet livelihoods that have been crossing paths for centuries. The latter holds steady a symbiotic relation with the desert, only to detour when Mother Nature is less gracious, they anchor awaiting a shift to resume sail. The city, aware of the circumstances, proceeds to present temporary hosting, but no accommodation for an extended stay.

The complexity of the region is as diverse as its culture and natural resources, and so are the existing or recurring tribulations that affect the lives of the inhabitants in the Red Sea State. In general, the problem addressed in this study is: How to formulate a sustainable regional development master plan for the Red Sea State based on the biodiversities of local ecosystem of the arid zone, aiming at socioeconomic equity for its citizens, to be implemented within an integrated cultural context in the region.

Suakin, after Port Sudan, is the second largest city in the region and the second sea port in the country, and has been a steady historical, political and economical center for the influx of multicultural population of local and foreign migratory tribes along the Red Sea eastern coast. In essence, Suakin holds the most specimens integral to this study. The city of Suakin is the most feasible case study that reflects the major problem components targeted by this study.

This study identified three major components that will form the structure of the sustainable regional master plan for the Red Sea State (Fig 1.1):

1) The ecosystem biodiversity components 2) The socio-economic components 3) The cultural components

Fig 1.1 Regional components of the Red Sea State

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 1 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 A.1- The Ecosystem Biodiversity: The ecosystem of the Red Sea State in Sudan encompasses three sub-regional zones:

a) The coastal zone which extends north and south creating the Red Sea eastern shores that bridge the Eritrean boarders in south eastern Sudan with Egypt north of Sudan. b) The Red Sea mountains, which parallel the coastal zone extending from the Eritrean and Ethiopian heights along Sudan’s south eastern borders, to the Egyptian border north of Sudan. c) The dry desert zone that filters the coastal and mountain areas extends eastwards to central Sudan where it meets the Nile Valley.

The ecosystem of the Red Sea State, with its unpredictable nature; has experienced numerous vulnerabilities, some are natural cycles of drought, floods, and insects epidemics which resulted in the erosions of natural resources in different areas in the region, leading to severe scarcity of water. The devastation was experienced by rural and urban dwellers as well. This phenomenon has devastated the livelihood of the pastoralist, and forced upon them and their livestock adaptive lifestyles. The shift from a pastoral lifestyle to an urban lifestyle and city dwelling came with a high price for the nomads manifested in unemployment, reduction of livestock and herds. As they continue grazing their herds around their new residences, and consuming the available vegetation for their newly developed trades to make a living, their activities have induced degradation of the land and their presence affected the social and economic order in the city. (Fig 1.2)

DESERT ZONE (arid)

MOUNTAINS ZONE (Semi-arid)

COASTAL ZONE (Semi-arid)

Fig 1.2- The Red Sea State climatic zones

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 2 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011

A.2- The Socio-economic Component:

This study recognizes the multitude of lifestyles inherited and adopted by the diverse social groups who inhabit the Red Sea State. Though the groups cohabitate in general sense, the social and economic order is not organic and is dominated by tribal spirits and traditional trades apparent in the structure of every city and town investigated by this study.

Where the and towns are divided into quarters, each quarter is adamant about the social and economic traditions and tribal structure within its boundaries. Trade is found to have brought most interaction in swapping of services and goods, some adopted urban skills because of need such as transportation of human and goods, but also adopted trades that are degrading to the environment such as coal trade.

The highest paid trades and professions are mastered in the main cities with the capital Port Sudan leading with a modern conservative and educated population, and though highly multicultural the economic representation of the tribes is minimal and is in need for economic equity. (Fig 1.3)

Fig 1.3- SOCIO ECONOMIC EQUITY

A.3- The Cultural Component: Apparently, the different styles of living between urban dwellers and pastoralist, induced by multitude of cultural variables ingrained in the population taking residence in the Red Sea State; has its influence in forming a wide gap

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 3 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 in the perception of life priorities between the social groups in the region. Identifying the priorities of each group is vital to the success of the community and town planning in the region. This study identifies four major cultural groups hosted within the Red Sea State (Fig 1.4), and they are of economic and cultural influence to existing and future developments in the state:

1- The Bijah tribes who are pastoralist and agro-pastoralist, with each tribe unique in its own right, their families are educated and trained on traditions; they speak tribal languages and live by their common laws and in their adaptive living.

2- The refugees from Uganda, and Eritrea who continue to arrive annually, each group comes with unique traditional teachings, some have had formal education and training, some are internally displaced population (IDP), or asylum seekers, and are under the management of the United Nations offices to some degree.

3- The urbanites who are also a mixture of tribes from other regions of Sudan, many of whom are city dwellers who have attained some level of formal education, training and exposure to world cultures, but they live according to the traditional common culture of Sudan, and follow the laws instated by the government.

4- The visitors who comprise a multitude of nationalities of diverse cultures and languages. They are foreign to the land, with a mix of ideologies that are not in sync with the indigenous tribesmen, or even to the urbanites; but they are an element to account for as they bring diversified economics and technologies that is likely to contribute to the advancement of the existing settlers. (Fig 1.4)

Fig 1.4- The Red Sea State multicultural social environment

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 4 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 B. Areas of Concern to Suakin, a case study on Sustainable Cultural Ecotown Planning for the Red Sea State:

The city of Suakin encompasses the major elements of this study that are considered for integration in the state economically, politically, socially and environmentally as they compete on survival and exhausting the state resources and limited abilities.

The following is a graphic summary of Suakin as a model impacted by the major elements of the problem studied in this research, and are typical to Suakin catchment area. (Figures 1.5-1.7)

Fig 1.5- Suakin model catchment area

Fig 1.6- Suakin Gaif as a model – The problem components

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 5 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011

Fig 1.7- Suakin Coral Island – The problem components II

1.2- OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY:

1- Identify the physical environmental, socio-economic and cultural elements which will affect the sustainable re-development of existing towns, and the development of future coastal towns in the arid Red Sea State in Sudan.

2- Explore feasible coastal town planning approaches that will furnish a comprehensive, sustainable, cultural integrated and eco-friendly living environment that helps form social and economic security, elevate poverty and promote peace in the coastal zone of the arid Red Sea State in Sudan.

3- Identify the vernacular elements that will influence town planning and design of sustainable of the open spaces in the area.

4- Justify the need for redeveloping the existing settlements in the arid Red Sea State in Sudan.

5- Identify insufficiencies in existing planning that lead to the deterioration in the existing towns in the arid Red Sea State.

6- Propose feasible and applicable environmental town planning guidelines for adoption in future coastal zone developments in the Red Sea State in Sudan.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 6 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 1.3- SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY:

Sudan is currently a country devastated, not only by natural disasters, but also by various cultural, economic and political events, that are perceived by the West to be the result of racial inequalities and unjust targeting of people of non-Arab descent who inhabit the peripheries of the central region where the central command is located. A country, derived from a diverse ancestry of segregated unique ethnicities, cultures and languages, and having not experienced unity till the late nineteenth century and drove the British occupation out. The awakening of its people came under the influence of the Mahdi’s’ Khalifas and newly born political fractions; had its tragic impact not only on the educated elite who presumed self governance, but on the county as a whole.

The tragedies that impacted Sudan since independence in January 1st, 1956 encircled all its regions, including the Red Sea State urban and rural areas that continue to face recurring disasters related to natural forces, disintegrated cultural diversities, political instability and economic insecurities.

This study is strongly related to the aspects of regional and community long term sustainability, necessary to provide socio-economic equity for the inhabitants of the Red Sea State, while preserving the environment and natural resources essential to maintain a balanced ecosystem within the state.

What makes this area most significant and in need for this study is its location as the main access to international waters and at a cross road to international trade crossing the Sinai channel between Europe, the Middle East, the Far East and the East coast of Africa. Its location is vital to the security of navigation along the Red Sea, and its wealth in minerals, metals, oil and aquatic treasures is of great importance to the economy of Sudan. The significance of this study is summarized as follows:

A. Cultural Significance:

To reflect the intertwined ethnicities of the Sudan, a review is provided on the ancient civilizations and cultures of the first settlers on the Nile Valley and the Eastern Desert. These settlers were the indigenous tribes of Central Africa, the Barber tribes of North Africa, the Coptic Greco, the Hamitic and Semitic tribes of Mesopotamia and Arabia, the people of Bilad al-Habash and the ethnicities who colonized the land and intermingled with the natives. The brief will also reflect on the impact of by the Ottoman Turkiyya, Egypt and Britain on the Sudan generally, and on the Eastern Region in particular. This review will also clarify the diversified and interwoven culture of the Eastern Region and the uniqueness of the coastal Red Sea zone. Diversities of the Eastern Region will be a modifying factor in presenting a base for culturally integrated sustainable community planning solution for the Red Sea State.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 7 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 B. Socio-economic Significance:

Several United Nations programs have conducted numerous studies and presented reports on economic and social analysis of the eastern region. Key among these are the World Food Program, (WFP), the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), and the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). The data obtained from the different United Nations offices is based on physical studies and professional judgments. Along with the surveys and reports provided by the 2008 housing and population census conducted by the current government of the Sudan, all provided evidence that supports the claims by the indigenous tribes of the Eastern Desert claims of marginalization in rural town, urban areas and underdevelopment in the Eastern Region as a whole.

The survey and analysis carried out by this study investigated existing sites in the Red Sea State, and interviewed residents who are either related to the tribes, or work with families in Kasala, Port Sudan and Suakin. The survey performed by this study presents a summary of the findings that justifies the need for sustainable redevelopment in the Eastern region and the Red Sea State in particular.

C. Political Significance:

The Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement (ESPA)1 signed in 2006 between the Eastern Front (EF) which is a union of the Bijah Congress and the Rashaida Free Lions Movement on one hand, and the National Government on the other; highlights that marginalization of the Eastern Region, politically, economically and socially was the main reason for the Eastern conflict. The ESPA consists of the following five chapters:

- Governance and power - Economic, social and cultural equities - Comprehensive ceasefire and final Security arrangements - Consultative conference on ESPA - General provisions

The establishment of the Eastern Sudan Reconstruction and Development Fund (ESRDF) is a high priority to the Eastern Sudan People’s Army (ESPA) and the Bijah Congress, and will command the planning, monitoring and follow up of the reconstruction efforts. Furthermore, constitutional amendments by the Eastern States providing for the implementation of the ESPA were approved by the National Government. The situation analysis provided by the United Nations Sudan Treaty (UNST)2, suggests that the Government capacity in planning and service delivery is one of the main constraints in the recovery efforts. Hence the results of this study are likely to be of value to further

1 Eastern front of the Sudan People’s Liberation Army. Priorities – Friday, 25 May 2007. 2 UNST (Kassala, Red Sea) and UN Resident Coordinator Office – Sudan. East Sudan Analysis and Priorities – Friday, 25 May 2007.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 8 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 studies and planning efforts for the Eastern Region generally, and for the Red Sea State in particular.

D. Environmental Significance:

Furthermore, ESPA specifically outlined the provision on the Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) for Sudan:

“The people of Sudan, including the people of Eastern Sudan, shall have the right to clean and diverse environment. The state shall not pursue any policy or take any action, which may adversely affect the existence of any species or animal or vegetative life, their natural or adopted habitat. Best known practices in efficient utilization of natural resources and environmental management shall be adopted.”1

The Cousteau ICZM project in Sudan, promotes alleviation of poverty and conflict resolution related to the disputes on scarce natural resources and marine environment in Sudan. Cousteau Society in partnership with the Regional Organization for the Protection of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA), the United Nations Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Coastal Oceans Research and Development in Indian Ocean (CORDIO) for East Africa, Red Sea University and African Parks Foundation, worked with the Red Sea State administration in establishing the Sudan Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) based in Port Sudan. The goals of the Sudan ICZM are to implement sustainable development and conservation in coastal zones in Sudan, and to maintain their diversity2. The goal of the present research aligns with the environmental planning aims of the Sudan ICZM, and the ESPA 20063.

1.4- BOUNDARIES OF THE STUDY:

The Sudan landscape is vast, environmentally and culturally diverse. The Eastern region is a land whose people consistently sustained their cultural diversities through the history of civilization. The Bijah are the endogenous people of the Eastern Region and are the majority of the population in the Red Sea and Kasala States. As adherent to their belief in the land, their way of life is unique to the Eastern Region which is the base of their heritage, languages, livestock and communal trades.

The arid Eastern Region of Sudan is the land located to the East of the Nile Valley reaching the Red Sea coast. It extends from the northeastern Sudan borders with Egypt, to the south-eastern borders with Eritrea and Ethiopia. This region is made of the Red Sea State and Kasala State; its native inhabitants share lineage, culture, language and common laws and are indivisible. The Eastern Region is the boundary for the

1 ESPA, 2006: Article 19, point 50. 2 ICZM IN SUDAN: 3 ESPA, 2006: Article 19, point 50.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 9 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 environmental, cultural and socioeconomic analysis provided by this research. The application of this study is focused on the arid Red Sea coastal zone and ecosystem. (Fig 1.8)

Fig. 1.8: Regions of Sudan 19741 up to 2004 prior to the new South Sudan referendum borders

The Red Sea landscape covers an area of 218,887 km² and an estimated population of approximately 700,000 (2000). Kasala State boarders its south west boundaries. Port Sudan is the capital city of the state and the major sea port for the Sudan on the Red Sea. Suakin is the second sea port and is located 30 miles south of Port Sudan. (Fig 1.9)

Fig. 1.9- The Red Sea State 20051. Boundaries post new states restructuring and prior to the application of South Sudan referenda in 2011

1 By 1991, these regions have been subdivided into 26 States, with the Eastern Region encompassing the Red Sea State. Sudan is currently undergoing new border demarcation to fulfill the results of the referendum passed and applied on 2011.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 10 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 The focus of this study is on the analysis of the relevant geographic, cultural, environmental and economic aspects which contribute to the sustainable development of the arid Red Sea region generally, and the coastal strip in particular.

1.5- RESEARCH METHODOLOGY:

A. Analytical Approach:

This research involved a thorough critical analysis of the following elements:

1- Analysis of available data on the historic, re-occurring and current factors, that is culturally, economically and politically impacting the advancement of the Red Sea State. This included critical analysis of the regional cultures and economic history that may have influenced not only the socio-economics of the town, but also the planning and architectural features of the historic island of Suakin. This will help determine the historic features to be preserved for future applications, in particular features related to the socio-economic order of the town dwellers.

2- Analysis of the indigenous cultures and people who populate the Red Sea State, for the considerable influence their population may have had on the cultural, economic and political status of the region. This will help determine the cultural aspects to be considered in the development of an integrated town planning concept for the region. This will also align this research and the proposed future eco-town guidelines with the directive of the East Sudan Peace Agreement (ESPA) 2006.

3- Critical analysis of Suakin’s town settlement history, economy and politics related to the rise and fall of this historic town. This is to identify areas of negative influence on the town, and help plan for cautionary strategies in future town planning process.

4- Analysis of the ecosystem of the Red Sea State, with focus on the coastal strip and Suakin in particular. This is to help identify possible impacts of climatic change and human contact on the biodiversity of the region, and help develop a conservation plan for the region in general, and for the coastal zone in particular.

5- Analysis of relevant popular regional and community planning concepts to determine the feasibility of integrating modern planning methodologies, in particular environmentally sensitive concepts, with the vernacular structure of the indigenous towns in the Red Sea State. This is to correlate the proposed eco-town planning with the initiatives of the ICZM Sudan.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 11 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011

B. Scientific Procedures and Tools:

The research methodology adopted in this study included the following procedures and tools: 1- Desk research and data collection of historic and current documentations from national and regional government and humanitarian agencies, from international institutions and researchers.

The data collected includes each of the following resources: a- Research models local and international as permissible and applicable by Socio-economic and cultural resemblance to the Red Sea State. b- GIS maps, aerials and statistics. c- Government agencies administrative and economic plans and reports. d- International human rights advocates and humanitarian relief. e- Agencies research, surveys and reports. f- Local news papers. g- International media documentaries. h- Online accredited research documents, reports and journals.

2- The literature reviewed for this study included the following relevant areas: A- Political and socio-economic studies 1. Socioeconomic and political history of Sudan. 2. History of the eastern desert. 3. History of the Bijah. 4. History of Axum and the Simian Mountains. 5. History of Massawa and history of the ancient tribes of Eritrea. 6. History of Architectural styles and influence on shelter on the Red Sea. 7. History of planning and architecture. B- Environmental studies 1. Coastal systems and ecologies. 2. Marine life and aquiculture. 3. Water sheds systems. 4. Climate change. 5. Preservation of natural resources and systems. C- Regional and studies 1. Concepts on town planning and design theories and produced projects. 2. Redevelopment of eco-towns theories and produced projects. 3. Green neighborhood planning and design theories and produced projects. 4. Eco-planning and architecture theories and produced projects. 5. Sustainable community’s theories and produced projects. 6. Human Development influence on the development of town planning concepts and new technologies. 7. The influence of culture on human development and town planning.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 12 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 8. Economics and policy making for town planning and design. 9. Expansion of settlements and technological developments. 10. Development of public services and infrastructure systems. 11. Historic preservations. 12. Building materials and methods. 13. Green building materials and technologies. 14. Green town planning concepts.

3- Comparative analysis of: a- Theories on town planning and design in relation to environmental modeling. b- Development of sustainable green communities from selected culturally and economically compatible indigenous societies. c- Indigenous settlements in Sudan from different regions of related cultural map. d-Indigenous settlements in neighboring countries who share historic and tribal lineage to the Red Sea State.

4- Field survey and interviews: a- Survey of major existing cities and towns of the eastern region including Suakin historic Island and Gaif, Port Sudan, Kasala, Hayya, Sinkat, Gebeit and un-named villages in between along travel rout. The survey included observation of existing conditions in public spaces, the market and visiting with local families. b- Interview of a teacher from Suakin, two teachers from Port Sudan, three families from Port Sudan related to Hadandawa and Beni Amir tribes, three families from Kasala (Hadandawa, Beni Amir, Rashaidah) three refugees from Kasala, Police officer from Kasala, Tourist Agency from Kasala, Dr. Taha Bedawi – ICZM Port Sudan, Dr. Osama Zain – Planning and Building Department in Suakin, Dr. Basher from UNESCO, Mr. Mallinson (Lead Architect for the renovation efforts in Suakin).

It is important to note, that the interview with the locals was not structured and was based on building a level of comfort and trust with the tribes and allowing the speaker to tell their stories. Story telling is the informative method of teaching and learning used by the local tribes.

The interview with teachers was based on the following questions:

1. How long have you been serving as a teacher in the Red Sea State? 2. What is the highest level of education you attained? 3. Where did you receive formal training? 4. What is the education syllabus for the Red Sea State? 5. What subjects do you teach? 6. What age groups do you teach? 7. What is the average capacity of the classes you teach? 8. What type of support do you receive from the Ministry of Education? 9. What material and supplies are available to the students?

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 13 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 10. What materials and supplies are available to the teachers? 11. What salary do you receive? 12. What is the culture in your classroom? 13. What input do you receive from the parents? 14. What is the state of the buildings at the school you teach in? 15. How do the various cultures of the tribes influence formal education? 16. What subjects related to tribal culture and languages are included in the formal syllabus? 17. What difficulties do you face as a teacher in your efforts to accomplish your professional goals? 18. Is tribal culture and language a barrier in fulfilling your teaching responsibilities? 19. What type of support do you need to improve the students and families participation in the class room and school activities? 20. What suggestions would you offer to improve the existing status of the schools in the Red Sea State?

Interviewing the high ranking police officer was an advantage I took as he was seated next to me throughout my bus tour from Khartoum to Kassala, and the security check officers gave his identity away as they mounted the bus asking for my ID! I was the only one questioned twice during the trip! This interview was conservative and inspired by his curiosity as he lead the questioning to understand the nature of my trip and documentations the first half of the bus trip, and allowed me to converse with him in the matters related to refugees, government and tribal relations and security in the Red Sea State and Kassala. This officer was a Hadendawa.

Interviewing the educated professionals who were selected primarily because their work was related to Suakin and the Red Sea State was based on the following questions:

1. What contributions have you provided to the re-development of the Red Sea State? 2. What investigations have you performed to fulfill the requirements for your positive contributions? 3. What obstacles have you encountered if any? 4. How far in the process is your ongoing effort? 5. What documentations are you willing and able to contribute to the study I am conducting?

c- Field trips to green town developments in USA, Turkey and Morocco. d- Participation in the redevelopment projects of historic Ras Al-Had-Oman. e- Participation in the design and production of green public buildings in the USA and the Middle East.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 14 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011

1.6- DIFFICULTIES FACED:

a. Difficulties in obtaining reliable data from government institutions where most information was secured by directors of department only and they were hard to reach. Little information obtained contradicted in many cases with the field survey and were outdated. In some case lack of cooperation and diversion lead the research to reach out for foreign help and incurred the burden of unnecessary travel costs for information that turned to be available at the local government offices.

b. Noncompliance and lack of cooperation and lack of knowledge of employees in government agencies led to delays in identifying the appropriate officers for interviews and delays in producing accurate documents and added to the research cost. However, less than a handful exhibited professionalism in their responses and were very helpful.

c. Lack of coordinated reports and data from government agencies necessitated the application of systematic checks analysis and reviews to data in order to insure accuracy, that which caused more delays in final production of this study. Most officers lacked knowledge in procedures and appropriate type of permit for such a task causing un-necessary repeated visits to different permit departments and stations.

d. Difficulty in obtaining permits for photographic documentation due to tight security requirements and lack of coordination between regional government agencies. At times even with a permit from Khartoum, it was rejected in Suakin and a new application was required from local authorities.

e. Harassment by uniformed security and undercover officers throughout travel, in public spaces and while visiting markets and historic sites in Suakin and Kassala in spite of carrying permits and proper identifications, that which caused delays in conducting field survey and documentation. This is in addition to the interference by field security officers in determining what is appropriate for public documentation. At times, it was necessary to revisit one location at different intervals where officers change work rotations.

f. Scarcity of scientific and credible references regarding the target area and population mostly due to security restrictions particularly on areas deemed hostile to current administration. However, this was compensated by meeting with few knowledgeable professionals from the Bijah Front in secured locations un- identifiable during the night. That one hour discussion confirmed the studies and data collected prior to and throughout my travel in the Red Sea State.

g. Distrust of the local population to questioning by researchers in anticipation of counter agency by the researcher in favor to current administration or opposition

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 15 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 tribe, and this caused delays in data collection as well. The result was more time spent in befriending the locals so as to open doors for indirect interviews and long term observation which in many ways was risky and unsafe.

However, it is helpful to approach the tribe through one closely related to its members, and was extremely necessary to show respect to the tribe and showed interest even when the conversation lead astray. Exhibiting support, some knowledge of tribal lineage, history and culture was encouraging to the speaker, so was restraining from mentioning other tribes while attending another. Speak less of urban and city life, dressing conservatively was a sign of humbleness to the Bijah.

h. Lack of appropriate visitors’ accommodations in rural towns required long term waiting periods in order to locate a trusted and safe refuge and means of travel, hence delayed data collection. It was necessary to plan carefully day trips to rural locations with Port Sudan and Kassala as a home base.

1.7 - RESEARCH STRUCTURE:

Six chapters are included in this study, each chapter addresses a critical area of concerns as follows:

Chapter I. INTRODUCTION This chapter presents the problem in question, its boundaries and significance, and explains the process taken to collect the necessary information relevant to this study.

Chapter II. SURVEY AND CRITICAL REVIEW OF RELATED WORK AND LITERATURE. This chapter provides a review of the surveyed work that is closely related to this research, and will give a summary of this study intended outcome. This chapter will also identify the concepts of green, sustainable eco-town planning and design.

This study conducted a review of related theories in urban and town planning including relevant green and sustainable environmental planning practices, supported by current sustainable town and community examples. It also include a review of historic cultural planning practices supported by diverse cultural examples, with special focus on Near East cultural influences on town planning as it relates to Suakin Island and Gaif.

Chapter III. ENVIRONMENTAL DATA COLLECTION, OBSERVATION AND ANALYSIS OF THE RED SEA STATE This chapter presents a review of the physical environment, the microclimate, the ecosystem and natural resources of the Red Sea State. In addition, a review of the regional economic variables is presented.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 16 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 Chapter IV. CRITICAL REVIEW AND ANALYSIS OF SOCIO-CULTURAL AND SOCIO-ECONOMIC COMPONENTS OF THE RED SEA STATE, TAKING SUAKIN AS A MODEL. This chapter investigates the history of settlement patterns that influenced the growth, settlement and shelter patterns in the arid Red Sea State in Sudan, and will focus on the characteristics of historic town planning and building design on the coasts of the Red Sea.

This chapter summarizes the historic development of Suakin town including economic, social and political aspects that contributed to the rise and fall of Suakin, hence impacting the Red Sea Region.

Chapter V. EXISTING CHALLENGES TO HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARID RED SEA STATE This chapter provides a documentation of the research field work findings on different towns in the Red Sea States, and provides results of field observation and interviews that will reflect on different variables that contributed to underdevelopment and poverty in the region.

Chapter VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PROPOSED GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE, CULTURAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL DEVELOPMENT OF THE ARID RED SEA STATE COASTAL ZONE. Identification of the climatic planning patterns and characteristics, climatic and cultural building types and characteristics are presented by this research.

This chapter presents a summary of the historic planning and building design of Suakin Coral Island. The summary considered highly related work by others, and is based on the critical analysis of historic and contemporary planning concepts reviewed in Chapter II, and on the socio-cultural and socio-economic analysis conducted in Chapter IV.

Findings on the environmental and socio cultural factors that contributed to the fall of Historic Suakin, and those that will influence the redevelopment of Al-Gaif are presented by this follow a line of investigation.

This chapter presents an analysis of the existing Suakin Gaif town structure, in relation to the existing local zoning and planning codes, to the cultural eco-town planning concept defined in Chapter II, and will identify areas of concern that are in need for redevelopment, and finally proposes guidelines for future sustainable development that will accommodate for cultural integration and socio-economic equity in an environmentally friendly landscape. Recommendations for future studies are also presented.

APPENDIXES:

The information provided in each appendix (I to III) correlate with the information provided on the Red Sea State, but in a broader context that includes the national landscape historically, culturally, economically and politically.

Sustainable Cultural Eco-Town Planning and Design for the Red Sea State in Sudan, taking Suakin as a prototype case study. 17 Research by: Fedaa Ibrahim El-Dosougi 2011 CHAPTER II

Review and critical analysis of literature and related studies

2.1- SURVEY OF RELATED ARCHITECTURE AND PLANNING RESEARCH:

Four documented researches are found to be the closest to this study and they are:

2.1-1 The work of J. P. Greenlaw. The Coral Buildings of Suakin. Islamic Architecture, Planning, Design and Domestic Arrangements in a Red Sea Port. 2.1-2 The work of Dr. Abd El Rahim Salim. Suakin on Reviving an Ancient Red Sea Port City. 2.1-3 The work of Dr. Taj Alsir Bashir, Arab representative of the Science and Environmental Hydrology Association to the UNEP, and UNESCO. Vision towards Environmental Peace in Sudan. Pastoral and Agro- pastoralist bedwins of the Sudan. 2.1-4 The work of Michael Mallinson Architect and Associates. Proposed Suakin Town Preliminary Development Master Plan to the Sudan Ministry of Tourism and Archaeology, supported by the UNESCO, and is the closest to this research.

1- The Coral Buildings of Suakin – Jean-Pierre Greenlaw:

In his book, Jean-Pierre Greenlaw detailed the Islamic architecture, planning and design of the historic port Suakin in a way that reflected the cultural domestic arrangements of the residence, and the environmental consideration and efforts implemented on the building design and construction.

The history reflected by the buildings is of the 16-20th century Ottoman Islamic influence portrayed in the buildings layouts and aesthetics of the exteriors. Greenlaw identified two types of town buildings in Arabia and Islamic Africa:

A- Inland Desert Type characterized by the thickened and battered walls of hand molded clods, high level windows and at times included sub-basement structures. B- Coastal Adapted Desert Type, which recognizes the coastal environment in excluding sea glare and midday sun. The multi story structures that made efficient use of the internal spaces as well as provided for maximum utilization of the site, and the best use of coral brick, lime mortar and wood for building construction and finishes.

Greenlaw described Suakin’s residential domicile to have provided for family and visitors, preserving each the privacy needed, and securing families comfort and safety by grouping activities in courters and separate floors, identifying access and separating circulation. The privatized terraces provided additional outdoor space for family use. Natural ventilation and lighting was provided through sensitive building

18 and fenestration layouts, in relation to North and South access to radiation and natural breeze. (Fig 2.1)

Fig 2.1- Greenlaw rendering of a single story residence in Suakin, reflecting central courtyard, high level windows on ground floor.

The functional use of casement windows and detailed wood Mashrabiyas enhanced the aesthetics of the exterior white washed coral structures, provided for natural ventilation and lighting, additional interior seating, and additional shading to the narrow walkable streets. These are described as the dominant architectural features on Suakin, and are of Earlier Turkiyya influence. (Fig 2.2)

Fig 2.2- Greenlaw rendering of single family Turkiyya style residence.

Greenlaw identified the following residential types:

A- Single family homes, in single story or multi story up to four levels. B- Single Multi-family homes that accommodated for extended relatives at times and these were multi story large homes. C- Attached homes which occupied a block in many cases, and they were diverse in levels and forms; but have all observed privacy and the aesthetics of the town. (Fig 2.3)

19

Fig 2.3- Greenlaw rendering of Sayed El-Safi’s Block, an example of attached homes in Suakin.

Functionality was not only observed for residential structures; but for the town layout as a whole. The grouping of functions was also considered in the site planning for the town, and is reflected in two identified retail streets, one with the curvature North to East, while the other curved from South to West. Numerous homes on these streets were of mixed use type designed to host retail spaces on the ground floors, some included warehouses such as that of the Sharifa Mariyam on the main land. (Fig 2.4 - 2.6)

Fig 2.4- Greenlaw rendering of mixed use attached homes along retail zones, an example of early Turkiyya Style.

Fig 2.5- Greenlaw rendering of the Sharifa Mariyam home on land, an example of Turkiyya Style.

20

Fig 2.6- Greenlaw rendering of section through single family home in Suakin.

Greenlaw survey and rendering of the architectural features in Suakin indicated elaborate details in the craftsmanship of wood window and door elements, and detailed plaster finishes. (Fig 2.7-2.8)

Fig 2.7- Great Roshans in House of Shennawi Bay.

Fig 2.8- Greenlaw renderings of wood window treatments (Roshan).

21

Fig 2.9- Greenlaw illustration of plaster decorations used for finishes in Suakin.

22 The commercial district stood out at the Island front facing approaching ships, with the Wakkala leading services for merchants and travelers, and the Muhafasa representing the economic administration of the Sirdar’s offices. Both buildings are of Egyptian style. (Fig 2.10-2.13)

Fig 2.10- Greenlaw drawing of Wakkala ground floor plan.

Fig 2.11- Greenlaw rendering of Wakkala south east elevation, an example of Egyptian (Fatimid) Style commercial building (Hospitality).

23

Fig 2.12- Greenlaw rendering of the Muhafasa south elevation, an example of Egyptian Style governmental building.

Fig 2.13- Greenlaw rendering of Beit El-Gedid, an example of Egyptian Style residential building.

Other relevant architecture features of Anglo-Egyptian influence are the two main gates ordered by General Gordon at the entrance to the Island along with a causeway, and an additional gate on land along with a fort was ordered by General Kitchener during the recapture of Sudan. (Fig 2.14)

Fig 2.14- Greenlaw rendering of the three main gates.

The confirmed by Greenlaw is categorized into:

A- Administrative buildings which included the Muhafasa, the Police Barracks and the Prison. A fort was later located on land. B- Public buildings included a tow story school, a Bank, the Eastern Telegraph and a Pharmacy. C- Religion buildings included a Church, two main Mosques, and a number of Zawias. D- Commercial buildings included the Wakkala, Ginning Factory, Drinking Houses and Shops.

24 Greenlaw’s survey to the historic town of Jeddah confirmed the architectural relationship between Suakin and Arabia. The inhabitants of the Island, he confirmed; were mostly merchants from Jeddah, Aden, Hadaramoute, Eritrea, Ethiopia, India, Egypt and Syria.

The study provided by Greenlaw identified the building types and the construction material and methods used in the Historic Island of Suakin by most recent occupants in the late 1800 to mid 1900. It further described the space layout and relationships for the different types of the island vernacular buildings, finishes, window and door treatment, and the aesthetics of the buildings.

This study groups Greenlaw Survey into the following analytical and review categories in sustainable cultural ecotown planning:

A review of civilizations and settlements on the Red Sea state is conducted to confirm the historic chain of events that contributed to the development of Suakin Island as a major historic port on the Red Sea, and to confirm the ethnic vernacular influences discussed in Greenlaw survey of Suakin.

Furthermore, and most relevant is the study on the vernacular dwellings of the native inhabitants, the Beja; whose influence on Suakin was not communicated in Greenlaw survey, and are a major element of this study. This study aims at establishing guidelines for the sustainable redevelopment of Suakin Island and Gaif, in essence contribute to the alleviation of poverty of the native communities, and provide for integrated urbanized rural communities along the coastal zone of the Red Sea State.

Greenlaw survey echoed historic Suakin Coral Island that was designed for the administration of Seljuk Habesh (see history of civilization on the Nile Valley in Appendix II), and for the merchants elite who controlled the economy of the region (see settlements types on the Red Sea and Suakin in Chapter IV). This study will explore the use of historic vernacular features of Suakin Island, in a modified pattern feasible to the existing multi-culture, ecosystem biodiversities, changing physical environment and economics of the inhabitant. It will also introduce achievable concepts of renewable resources and technologies that will on application, contribute to green shelter and communities.

2- Suakin on Reviving an Ancient Red Sea Port City – Dr. Abd El Rahim Salim:

Dr. Abd El Rahim Salim was Professor and Chair of the Department of Architecture, Jordan University of Science and Technology, Irbid Jordan. The interview conducted with Dr. Salim at the African City for Science and Technology in Khartoum, June 9, 2011 sheds a light on Dr. Salim’s efforts in researching and identifying the different buildings of historic Suakin, and conducting fine tuned renderings that depicts the original status of the old Coral Island and the relationship of its buildings.

The report paper Dr. Salim wrote in 1997 was a status report to the UNESCO on his investigative visit to the Island accompanied by Mr. F. W. Hinkle of GDR architects,

25 both commissioned to evaluate the degree of damage to the historic buildings in the island. The evaluation report confirmed three categories of buildings:

A- Large Scale Architecture from the 15 to 16 centuries such as Bait El Basha and Khorshid House in addition to the two main mosques portrayed Islamic design and layouts where privacy for family and extended family was emphasized. B- Three story houses characterized by Mashrabiyahs – Roshans, from 13-16 centuries typical of Mamlukes Architecture. 16 to 19 century Ottomans Houses were also confirmed standing at their standard arrangement of privacy quarters for families on upper floors leaving the ground floor for shops and Magaads (Meglis) for conducting business meetings and events. C- 19 century buildings were confirmed to be of less refined details, but larger homes with projecting balconies typical of Egyptian European Architecture such as the Wakkala, Mohammed Bey Ahmed and Omer Affendi Obeid residence.

In this report, Dr. Salim listed a series of trials to organize the renovation and maintenance of the Island unique architecture by different governments in a timeline that reflected the interest of Egyptian rule, Ottomans and British rule in Sudan to maintain the Island historic setting and building styles; the 1926, 1927, 1933, 1950- 1955, 1993 missions dead ended with shortage in funds and conflicts in regulatory measures, and they all share disinterest in the upkeep of Al-Gaif.

Dr. Salim report introduced a list of suggestions for a holistic master plan to include:

A- Systematic standardization and repetition of building elements typical of building elements of historic Suakin in dimensions, proportions and details. B- Introduction of new buildings or open spaces in place of completely destroyed buildings. C- Removal of colonial style buildings of corrugated metal roofs and inferior building material to that of Suakin Island to insure use of local material and expose all historic buildings. D- Preparation of a comprehensive master plan to resolve legislative issues and set out roles and relationships of the state and inhabitants. E- Preserve original zoning, building restrictions, building materials and traditional building methods. F- Introduce zoning and infrastructure while preserve culture and traditional crafts.

Dr. Salim’s proposal to remove old colonial buildings from the Coral Island suggests demolition of a historic period in the life of Suakin even though it was the beginning for Suakin fall. The removal of colonial buildings from the Island is damaging to the chain of historic changes that contributed to the socio-economic value of the island, and to the pre-contemporary eclectic building styles that developed during the condominium.

Further more, the suggested holistic master plan by Dr. Salem did not include the Gaif where a number of valuable historic buildings existed, including the fortifications, the main trade warehouses that surrounded the lagoon on mainland forming the first

26 industrial chain on Sudan port, and ignored elephantine the quarantine island that represented an important factor for commercial organization since the Ptolemaist.

Most important, the suggested holistic plan did not include the redevelopment of Al- Gaif area where the old port workers and merchants supports resided and their offspring’s continue to live today. Al-Gaif survived the harsh realities of loosing Suakin port at some point, and is likely to be the main human resource to support local commerce and the maintenance of the historic island. Hence Al-Gaif redevelopment goes parallel with that of the Island.

The proposed sustainable master plan developed by this research takes into consideration the suggestions forwarded by Dr. Salim with regards to Suakin island and incorporate re-development values holistically to include Al-Gaif within the context of environmental and socio-economic sustainability. This further aligns with the recommendations by the peace agreement of 2006 towards a holistic master plan for the Arid Red Sea State.

3- Vision Towards Environmental Peace in Sudan- Dr. Taj Alsir Bashir:

Dr. Taj Alsir Basher, calls for a comprehensive environmental economic, social, cultural and political development for Sudan through environmentally friendly methodologies, and implementing a diversified holistic environmental security within the context of the Environmental Sustainability Index (ESI) based on the directives from the January 2000 DAVOS convention, Stockholm’s Convention 1972, Rio de Janeiro 1992, and Johannesburg Convention 2002.

A brief on the fragile environment of Sudan was presented, and causes for the rising insecurities of natural resources are identified to be the result of the need for a balanced sustainable environmental planning, that addresses and plans for a cohesive economical and social regional development, to be charged by cultural and political recognition and support. A plan that supports natural and human resource management is encouraged.

Dr. Basher’s writing advised for a comprehensive mapping of existing pollution and degradation of the regional environment and habitat in Sudan, and recommended the quantitative and qualitative survey of existing environmental resources, infrastructure, and economic diversities in agriculture and industries in continuous basis to help in the assessment and monitoring of the country development initiatives. Regular environmental monitoring is highly recommended to assist on a continuous evaluation for environmental compensation and investments.

Eco-Habitat facilitation for rural development was discussed and encouraged. The study advised the use of regional green building materials for the construction of shelter and facilities, in town and rural settlements in Sudan. It recommended that the building design and construction observes the use of local labor, tools and trades, and facilitate sustainable community development initiatives. Furthermore, the study calls

27 for the integration of environmental studies in the educational media and community awareness programs.

Categories referenced by Dr. Basher and considered by this study for analysis and application in the Red Sea State:

A- Dr. Basher made general reference to the need for a balanced sustainable environmental planning for Sudan but there was no attempt to specify areas in need for sustainability. This study will provide analysis to feasible town planning concepts on sustainable environmental planning for the arid Red Sea State in Sudan.

B- Reference to the need for cohesive social and economical regional development plan for Sudan was made by Dr. Basher’s vision. This study will provide detailed analysis of the socio economic factors that influence the sustainability of rural developments in the Red Sea State.

C- Dr. Basher made recommendations for cultural consideration in planning, but the cultural aspects to be considered in planning for the Eastern region were not identified.

D- The Blue Print advised for a comprehensive mapping of existing pollution and degradation of the regional environment and habitat in Sudan. Since the delivery of this paper in 2006, a number of international environmental agencies conducted mapping of the watersheds and habitat of the coastal zone on the Red Sea State, and this study will provide a review to the available reports in this regard, and will detail additional observations from field survey.

E- Recommendations were made by Dr. Basher to conduct quantitative and qualitative surveys of the regional resources in Sudan. This study will provide preliminary survey to the qualitative resources in the Red Sea State.

F- The vision advised the use of regional green building materials for the construction of shelter and facilities, in town and rural settlements in Sudan. This study is focused on environmental planning and design for the development of eco-towns in the costal zone of the Red Sea State.

4. Proposed Suakin Town Development - Michael Mallinson Associates:

Michael Mallinson Associates are the lead architect group engaged in the archaeology and renovation of the historic Suakin Island and Gaif, and have proposed a Preliminary Master Plan Development for Suakin town to the Ministry of Tourism and Ministry of Archaeology in 2008. A review to the proposed documents is carried out and summarizes as follows:

A- A site research and mapping was conducted on historic archaeological and architectural features of the Island, including the island overall plan and the

28 conditions related to the decay of the historic buildings. The overall plan and renderings presented in the book “The Coral Island” by J.P. Greenlaw, were studied and an overlay of current maps on the renderings were matched for the analysis of the building types and the Island historic land-use. The study identified the Ottoman and Funge sites on Suakin, the boundaries of the old fort around the historic town, the Ottoman town development 1876 (right) and the condominium development of the port and railway in 1888. (Fig 2.15-2.16)

Fig 2.15- Ottoman town boundary plan Fig 2.16- Ottoman defenses overlay plan.

B- Evidence of Island development was emphasized by an overlay of J.P. Greenlaw building survey on the 1864 plan in a comparison with a 1903 plan and a 1922 aerial photograph. (Fig 2.17).

Fig 2.17a- Michael Mallinson’s Architects overlay 2006.

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2.17b- Le Jean overlay 1864

Fig 2.17c-1922 Aerial photograph.

C- An archaeological research survey of remaining buildings possible for restoration is also presented, and renovation proposal for 2002-2006 is forwarded.

30 D- The Architecture styles of Ottoman periods I and II were identified based on Greenlaw renderings, and a number of CAD models are presented. (Fig 2.18)

Fig 2.18- CAD model and floor plan of Alwikala by Mallinson Architects.

E- The causes for building decay were identified as follows: a. Abandonment and lack of maintenance to walls and roof caused the collapse of the roofs, further exposing the walls tops to moisture and deterioration. b. Rise of sea water level caused precipitated salts into walls, and the heat and winds evaporated the moisture causing the erosions of the building material. (Fig 2.19)

Moisture evaporation caused erosion of building material.

Moisture evaporation caused erosion of building material.

Fig 2.19- Decay on historic building in Suakin.

31 F- The original Land Use at Suakin Island and Gaif was identified as following: 1. Government: includes administration, customs and police 2. Commercial: includes banks, shops, workshops and hotels 3. Religious: includes Mosques, Zawias and Roman Catholic Church 4. Residential: includes live work units and decorative houses 5. Services: includes post office, hospital and schools

G- The existing Suakin Gaif Land Use is identified as: 1. Government: including administration, customs and police 2. Commercial: including banks, shops, workshops and hotels 3. Religious: including Mosques and Zawias 4. Residential: including urban units and rural urban units 5. Services: including post office, hospital and schools. (see Fig 2.20)

Fig 2.20- Michael Mallinson and Associates Architects. The year 2000 Survey mapping of existing Suakin island and Gaif within the historic defense wall and gates.

32 This did not include the existing residential expansions nor the Bejah land for the two (2) miles up to Port Sudan transit road.

A Preliminary Master Plan Proposal was presented and a suggested four phase implementation plan was included. A summery of the proposed plan is as follows:

The plan suggested general future development potential to be applied in four phases:

1- Integration of the Coral Island with the rapidly growing Medinet Suakin existing residential , agricultural, and the Osman Digne Port Zones with two newly suggested zones; one to encompass the port entrance as a city zone and another to encompass Port Sudan transit activities as a service road zone. The plan generally advised for the introduction of infrastructure to each zone. (Fig 2.21)

Fig 2.21- Proposed Preliminary Suakin Development Plan expanding on existing zoning. By Mallinson Architects.

33 2- Incorporating a town center to integrate four development areas of Osman Digne Port facilities, Suakin Harbor Corniche and fisheries tourist area, El-Gaif as the urban center, and Suakin Island as a new cultural development with restored buildings and new learning centers. Again this phase made no consideration to the Bejah local population of pastoralist and agro-pastoralist, nor to the traditional tribal quarters, and further suggested the Urban Development of a down town center located on tribal land. (Fig 2.22)

Fig 2.22- Proposed Suakin Development Plan, Phase II. By Mallinson Architects.

3- Suggested future development potential for phase three made the following suggestions: a) Development of Suakin Port i) Corniche with Diving Centers, Restaurants and Hotels ii) Site for Campus buildings for Red Sea University expansion iii) Harbor facilities to be expanded to provide Marina for smaller boats. iv) Fishing harbor to have new fisheries building provided for ice packing and facilities for fishermen. v) Boatbuilding to be encouraged at existing site. vi) New Car Parking outside of town to be provided to accommodate visitors and seasonal activities.

Though the above suggestions are desired touristic attractions and some maintain existing trades, the cultural analysis conducted by this study suggests that a number of the above mentioned activities are inferior to the local conservative culture, and are likely to be rejected by traditional families and tribes who formulate the majority of Suakin citizens. b) Development of Gaif area: i) Green Zone to be developed for the old housing areas of the Gaif to encourage the repair and rebuilding in traditional construction, planting of landscaping and use of

34 buildings for residential purposes, improved localized services, telephone, drains, etc to be provided. ii) Live Work Units around the existing souk area, replace poor quality buildings with modern construction with traditional detailing and sanitation and welfare facilities. iii) Infrastructure of drains and roads to provide improved access and Eco friendly services, connections to new central service centers in new town expansion to be made. iv) Central Flood management zone to be established to carry storm water safely through town and new water management regime be established for harbor to reduce silting. v) Historic Walls restored and displayed as part of Suakin Beautiful City Zone, with flood ditches, and landscaping. (Fig 2.23)

Fig 2.23- Proposed Suakin Development Plan, Phase III. By Mallinson Architects.

Phase three suggestions implies the redevelopment of Suakin town into an urban center and emphasizes the separation of traditional settlement from the newly imposed city center with a green belt. That approach continues to disregard the interest of the overwhelming majority of citizens in town and contradicts the

35 initiatives for cultural integration and peace for Suakin and the Red Sea State, that which is a prime goal for this study.

4- Suggested future development potential for phase four suggested the following:

a) Suakin Island Development as a tourist island to encourage the revival of the Island as a living part of Sudan’s Cultural heritage in 3 Zones i) Cultural Development Area: i) Suakin Museum - New Museum on the history of the island ii) Corniche Area - Garden and performance area & restaurant facilities. iii) Muhafisa - Eco-Hotel restored Governor’s residence iv) Customs - Marine and Maritime Museum v) Mosques, Shafai and Hanafi Mosques restored ii) Suakin Coral Buildings Restoration Area: i) Traditional houses restored by owners with assistance from Small Business loans. ii) Archaeological areas to be labeled for visitors to explore, and historic features reused wherever possible. iii) Streetscape to restore traditional lighting and roads. iv) Bait Shams and the Wikala to be restored as larger Eco- Hotels overlooking the Western Harbor. v) Facilities to be Eco-Friendly but geared to more conventional larger comfort hotels. iii) Red Sea University Suakin Campus: In order to revive Suakin as a living part of Sudan’s culture, and as so much learning has reference to Suakin’s past, the South side of the island restored for the Red Sea University House Owners to be allowed to build accommodation with direct grants from University, in exchange for fixed rents. (Fig 2.24-2.25)

Fig 2.24- Suakin Island Reconstruction Model. By Mallinson Architects.

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Fig 2.25- Suakin Island Proposed Phase IV Master Plan. By Mallinson Architects.

This study questions the inclusion of a university campus within touristic grounds of limited space for anticipated future expansion, in addition to its cultural impact on the local community. Locating high population, high beach activities and intrusive building material to the coral community in a limited lagoon, and at zero distance from water body is likely to be in disagreement with environmental codes for a sustainable reef. The location of a beach area at a delta that receives flash flood erosions likely to be in need for costly maintenance procedures and is inferior to the local culture. Mr. Mallinson confirmed in a 2008 interview by author that no feasibility studies or business plans have been prepared for the suggested activities shown on the plan at the time of interview.

Mallinson Proposed Preliminary Master Plan also made general suggestions to the use of coastal wind energy, bio-fuel, solar energy, and thermal desalination to rebuild infrastructure, but the suggestions were not supported by studies to their particulars. In addition, a water management plan for the seasonal water runoff was presented

37 summarized in the reconstruction of the old water reservoir near to the Port Sudan Road. The reasons for the failure of the old dam were not investigated, nor was alternative solutions entertained.

The present study will explore feasible town planning approaches and advisable environmental codes and standards that will enforce integrated sustainable eco-town planning in Suakin within its’ cultural context, and will reflect on the values of the existing communities necessary for consideration, and will investigate in demand infrastructure and economic activities essential to enhance livelihoods in Al-Gaif while support tourist activities in the historic island.

5- CONCERNS RELATED TO THE COMPREHENSIVE SUSTAINABLE ECO- TOWN DEVELOPMENT MASTER PLAN FOR SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA STATE

The preliminary conceptual Suakin Master Plan proposed by Mallinson Associate Architects, along with the report presented to the UNESCO by Dr. Salem emphasized the redevelopment of Suakin Island for touristic purposes as a stand alone unit. The conceptual plan calls for an integration approach to the historic Coral Island and the rapidly growing Gaif in terms of the introduction of new infrastructure and the application of renewable energy systems. The targeted community for the proposed Master Plan is the tourist and urbanized population expected to visit or reside on the Island in response to anticipated urban development, and standard internationally recognized economic measures are assumed to be acceptable and applicable for the renovations of Suakin Island and Gaif.

The proposed plan suggested phasing redevelopment for the Island and Gaif, to include each of the following zones:

1- Historic Suakin Zone to include historic administration and hospitality services, and suggested the addition of education campus for the Red Sea University in hope that the university will administer the maintenance of the island.

2- Al Gaif Zoning to include each of the following: 1- Coastal (Harbor) zone for tourism and fisheries. 2- Osman Digne Port zone for travels and cargo transportation expansions. 3- Port Sudan Road transit zone 4- New Suakin City zone 5- Residential zone 6- Agriculture zone 7- Mixed use zone for commercial use. 8- Central Flood Management zone for storm water.

The present study recognizes the efforts made to produce the preliminary conceptual Master Plan, and is in agreement with the touristic theme, a number of elements introduced or overlooked, are of great concern to the essence of this thesis and are related to each of the following:

38 1- Part 2 of Mallinson Preliminary Master Plan Proposal, stated in the future development potential in phase I: “ Total Integration approach to Suakin Town Master Plan requires an approach that integrates the Coral Town with the rapidly growing Medinet Suakin and the Osman Digne Port Zone”. The proposed plan focus is on the redevelopment of historic Suakin Island structure and buildings, and did not present an integrated plan for the cohabitation of the biodiversities and multicultural socioeconomics of Suakin town or the Red Sea State.

This thesis is focused on the redevelopment of the Gaif town as an eco- cultural town model, and has conducted an analysis on the causes of the environmental degradation, and human deprivation in the Red Sea state, and will present provisions for a long term sustainable regional master plan that will help provide a balanced cohabitation of the inhabitants and the ecosystem of the arid coastal area in the Red Sea state.

2- Mallinson Proposed Master Plan made brief recommendations to introduce infrastructure to the existing Gaif town, and made suggestions to renovate existing public and privately owned buildings. The recommendations were based on the general characteristics desired for a developed settlement to compliment the redevelopment of the historic Suakin Island, and the site survey conducted by this research confirms the need to introduce infrastructure to Suakin District. However, the approach to separating existing settlement form new urban development is inconsistent with the concept of cultural integration and equity for social and political stability. Furthermore, imposing new urban development on tribally owned land through a process that disregards the interest of the rightful owners, and does not engage the majority population in decision making is an invitation for major political disaster and instability into the region as a whole.

At the time the present study was conducted investigation on the status of the proposed Suakin Island master plan, much delays were experienced in the Island renovation, and Mr. Mallinson confirmed during an interview on November 2008, that appearance of resentful land owners to historic buildings caused major delays in the renovation while the work has just begun. Furthermore the field survey noted the start of renovations in Al-Shafei Mosque and Al-Wikala prior to introduction of infrastructure. Existing renovations did not make consideration to finish ground elevation in relation to requirement of underground infrastructure, underground water table, nor to necessary slopes for water drainage on the island. Through the proposed master plan advised for a feasibility study to this concern, miss-coordination of necessary engineering phases was apparent at the time of conducting physical survey of the Island.

The present thesis conducted analysis of the physical environment of the Red Sea State, and of Suakin district as an eco-town model. The study of the physical environment and biodiversity of the coastal zone, in correlation with the requirements and regulations of the Red Sea Environmental municipalities. In addition, consideration of the USGBC, UKGBC and the International Green

39 Building Code (IGBC) will be the base for the recommendations presented by this study.

3- The Malinson’s study did not locate any investigation to identify the topography, physical environment and biodiversity of the Suakin district. Only one apparent erosion plain caused by seasonal watershed is marked1. The plan recommended the creation of simplified run-off irrigation channels with main inflow terminating in two engineered wadis to maintain annual water discharge to Suakin Basin. Bearing in mind the main “Khor” created by the water flow penetrates north side of the Gaif through the residential areas, and many other Khors flow down from the mountains seasonally throughout the eastern facing heights causing seasonal flooding in Al-Gaif Town (see Chapter IV for analysis of the physical environment).

The present study made efforts to understand the different characteristics and traditional use of the seasonal water sheds “Khors” present in the Red Sea State coastal zone, and the traditional use that sustained the livelihood of both the desert and coastal dwellers in the region. A comparative review is conducted to similar natural settings that have been developed, or are under development in the most recent years in similar coastal environments. The present study will view options to the treatment necessary to maintain sustainability to the natural water sheds in the region, bring to use water management understanding that will provide continuity for the traditional agro-pastoral activities, while presenting a desirable eco-cultural tourism setting for Suakin Gaif.

4- Phase III of Mallinson future development potential to Suakin, in listing recommended new town for development to the north of Al-Gaif summarized as follows: a. The introduction of a green zone to encourage the repair and rebuilding of the old Gaif town in traditional construction suggesting the removal of old structures and poor communities, and the improvement of localized services to accommodate for tourism. b. Replace poor quality buildings with live work units in modern construction and provide separate sanitation and welfare facilities as in British public welfare system. c. Provide eco friendly infrastructure services in the island to be connected to a new central service in the proposed new town to the north of current Gaif. d. Establish a central flood management zone to direct storm water through town, and recommended the establishment of a new water management regime for the harbor to reduce silting. e. The restoration of the historic walls as part of the new Suakin beautiful urban city proposed to the North of Gaif town.

The recommendations in phase III though indicate necessities in some terms; they are vague and are not presented in specific context and lack the inclusion of the socio- economics of the inhabitants, and that of the existing administration with regards to

1 Michael Mallinson Architects Proposed Master Plan, Water Management (1) current uncorrected water runoff.

40 public service and funding provisions. The suggestion to remove existing communities who are the real owners of the land is likely to create distrust between the natives and the authorities who will implement the proposal, and considering the history of the region, this suggestion may be considered an intimidation that may result in political unrest not only in Suakin, but regionally.

The preliminary proposed plan suggests the introduction of contemporary buildings in modern construction as in urban settings. This disregards the vernacular which gives Suakin town its unique setup, and introduces non-green material foreign to the environment and culture of both settlers and nomads of old Suakin Gaif. Mallinson’s plan ignored the need for redevelopment in old Suakin town, ignored the natives values and rights to the land, and ignored the need to re-establish economic and social equity in the area.

The present study analyzed the specific social, economic, political, cultural and environmental needs of the inhabitants in the Red Sea region generally, and in Suakin District particularly as a historic cultural, political and economic diverse community. This study explored related eco-town planning concepts and specified a holistic approach that considers feasible and available, ecologically friendly and economically achievable means that will help accomplish a holistic Master Plan for a sustainable eco-cultural town.

5- Furthermore; the plan indicated an agriculture belt to surround Suakin town and aligned the main North/South free-way to Port Sudan city. The agriculture land allocation proposed is one characteristic of the general green belt urban development movement. The plan did not make applicable consideration to the traditional seasonal activities of the agro-pastoral Bijah tribes. There are no indications in the conceptual plan review that suggests the inclusion of pastoral and agro-pastoral provisions, and the tribes were not considered in the decision making of the plan.

The physical and environmental analysis conducted by this study, presents the available natural resources that has been economically manipulated throughout the history of the Red Sea State, and are the base for traditional agriculture, pastoral and trades on which depended the livelihood of the Bijah who represent the majority of the population in the region.

6- A major concern that is over looked by the proposed Master Plan is the absence of recommendations to the integration of the socio-economics of the indigenous pastoral and agro-pastoral Bijah tribes, with the existing and future economic developments in Suakin District. The present thesis emphasizes the necessity of such integration to help provide sustainable income source to both agro and pastoral activities in future development in the Red Sea region, to help provide for poverty alleviation as specified by the 2005 eastern peace agreement.

7- An equally important concern overlooked by the proposed Master Plan is the absence of provisions that address the integration of increasing refugee population in the region, the instability it created to the existing native culture and settlements, creating unsafe health, social, economic and political

41 conditions in the Red Sea State. A good portion of the analysis conducted by the present thesis will touch on the existing refugee’s unsettled agendas affecting the security and socio-economics of the Red Sea State, and works solutions based on the integration of culture and human resources.

8- The proposed plan introduced to the historic island of Suakin, a permanent site for the Red Sea University1, and including residential students dormitories as standardized by western culture institutional demands, and are economically and socially feasible to the western cultures and the public service practices adopted in many international communities starting with community engagement and ending with taxation. The idea of integrating academics with the archaeological site may be institutionally and economically feasible if the Red Sea university applies related studies such as archaeology, tourism and hospitality, however the suggestion did not take into consideration the requirements of the ministry of higher education in Sudan, which implements the expectations of the local conservative cultural values in the education systems in Sudan, such values that include conservative exposure to foreign ideologies of western liberal culture. It further did not make considerations to future expansion plans for the Red Sea University faculties and buildings. Last but not least, this suggestion did not take into consideration the security aspects for foreign tourists, nor did it analyze and study the high density impact on the eco-redevelopment of the coral island.

9- Less critical issues but worth noting, is that the plan allocated spaces along the Gaif town beach line for tourist entertainment activities common and expected by a number of international tourist markets and cultures, such as the swimming beaches and diving center in close sight from the Pilgrimage harbor, and too close for comfort to conservative residential communities of the indigenous residents on Gaif town.

10- The green urban city concept introduced is based on the European understanding of the priorities and demands of the western culture and climate characteristics. However, the concept may be adapted to serve the local environment and demands of Suakin Gaif and the coastal area of the Red Sea State. This study will reflect on the endogenous climatic planning and design patterns established through the history of 7000 years civilizations along the Nile Valley and on the Eastern Desert along the Red Sea Coast.

The present thesis dedicates a good portion of the analysis to the study of cultural diversities in the region, both existing and transient, and to studying international concepts in sustainable eco-town planning related to eco-tourism and coastal-town planning, and will propose eco- cultural tourism solutions viable to a conservative and traditional multicultural market in the arid Red Sea State. This Thesis aim to furnish a holistic approach that will provide for a long term sustainable master plan, to help enhance the livelihood of the targeted population, preserve the ecosystem, aid in the rehabilitation of degraded environmental habitat, and encourage peace in the Red Sea State.

1 The Red Sea University is an engineering school located in Port Sudan city.

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2.2- REVIEW OF RELATED POPULAR CITY AND TOWN PLANNING CONCEPTS:

This section summarizes historic settlements planning evidence recognized by world history of architecture as leading examples of planned settlements. This section will also review and critically analyze the popular and trendy concepts of sustainable eco- planning and design, and will identify the concept of comprehensive integrated cultural town planning and design in relation to Suakin settlement. A brief on the evolution of town planning and design, and the emergence of sustainable planning is provided, and a review of theories in urban and town planning that influenced sustainable eco-planning is conducted and a summary is presented. A review of current green, sustainable eco- planning concepts and practices is conducted, and support current examples are presented. This includes in style regional, urban, community and neighborhood planning.

This chapter will also present the tool for assessing sustainability in eco-planning and will summarize the goals for culturally integrated, sustainable eco-planning.

Marsh, a Vermont naturalist wrote: 'The equation of animal and vegetable life is too complicated a problem for human intelligence to solve, and we can never know how wide a circle of disturbance we produce in the harmonies of nature when we throw the smallest pebble in the ocean of organic life'1.

2.2-1 THE EVOLUTION OF PLANNING AND DESIGN CONCEPTS

For the purpose of identifying world documented modern planning theories and concepts related to this research, a brief comprehension of the evolution of city planning brings forward an understanding of the relationships between technological advancements and man’s personal and community needs, and relay the similarities in the evolution of western organic and planned settlements to create integrated living environment that accommodates for the generated lifestyles and planning concepts adopted today in many countries in the world.

Five historic intertwined planning and architectural periods correlated with human growth, socio-economic development, the birth of new building technologies and the expansions of settlements are reviewed by this study and are recognized by the science of architecture and planning based on archeological evidence, and those are:

a- The Ancient Period which includes Primitive, Egyptian and Middle Eastern eras (7000 BC – 500BC). After which the dominant western historians focused on European evolution. This period directly influenced settlements on the ancient Eastern desert of Sudan and is summarized in Chapter V of this study.

1 PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AS MODIFIED BY HUMAN ACTIONS. By: Marsh George P. Shabcoff p. 56. University of Michigan Library 2005. 43

b- The Classic Period included the Greek and Roman eras (3000 BC–400 BC). Emerged in response to over growth of population and demand for specific administrative organization due to political expansions. This period indirectly influenced settlement patterns of the study area and a brief is provided in the appendix of this study. c- The Medieval Period includes Early Christian, Byzantine, Romanesque and Gothic eras (330 AD – 1400 AD). Where the development of Byzantine planning and architecture in the 1700AD. adopted Middle Eastern cultures and verged into Ottoman styles and was introduced into the Red Sea region in 1800AD. This period directly influenced the planning of Suakin Coral Reef Island and is discussed in Chapter VI. d- The Renaissance Period included movements and ideologies of Humanism, Individualism, Mannerism, Baroque and Proliferation of the Styles parallel to the development of Ottoman Islamic culture and social order exhibited in Ottoman town planning and environmental building designs. e- The Modern Period was an extension of the Renaissance and included Neo- Classicism, Romanticism, Historicism, the Transition into the Arts and Crafts Movement and the Art Nouveau (1750 AD – 1910 AD), and the Green Movement of the last two decades. The Green Movement reflecting transition back to environmental and cultural planning and design (see Appendix for city planning in ancient Greece, Rome, Medieval, Romanesque, Renaissance, Baroque and Classic Revival).

The 19th and 20the centuries witnessed the development of planning into a profession where different schools of thought competed in delivering the ultimate ideologies for sustainable living styles and contemporary movements such as the Garden City and City Beautiful1. The late centuries also witnessed reforms in health and services, and growth in population pushed urbanization into a contradicting pattern to the vision of sustainable urbanism. Worldwide growth in urbanism diffused the suburbs with the cities and produced functionally segregated settlements around towns and urban quarters. Sprawl took over surrounding greenbelts, and in many countries slums trailed along and the idea of urban sustainability converged into contradictions. These patterns of growth resulted in excessive use of resources such as land, energy and building materials. Sprawl continues to grow and with it grows even more excessive use of fossil fuels especially for transportation, impairing the environment, human health and the quality of life.

Social and environmental movements were in the rise for the last two decades worldwide, reaching a peek with the development of environmental reform movements and governmental agencies in the form of green associations, such as the US Green Building Council (USGBC) working on making green buildings available for the next generation, the US Department of Environmental Protection (USDEP) focused on environmental health and safety, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association (NOAA) focused on the conditions of oceans and atmosphere, the Program for the Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden (PERSGA) Regional Organization for Conservation of Environment of the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden, of which Sudan is a member, and it is focused on reducing production of persistent organic pollutants in the Red Sea Region, and the European Union for the development of sustainable

1 Philine Gaffron, Ge Huismans, Franz Skala and contributions from Rolf Messershcmidt, Eco-city – A Better Place to Live, Book I. Carlos Verdaguer, Jan Kunz, Rainer Mayerhofer, Csaba Koren, Kari Rauhala, Peter Raksanyi, and Francesca Sartogo. 44 settlements and for the improvement of urban environments. The European Union calls for: “a polycentric, balanced urban system and promotes resource-efficient settlement patterns that minimize land-take and urban sprawl”1.

The above mentioned environmental associations and agencies are considered leading professional groups in the science of environmental planning and design. Most recent establishments of similar environmental groups in the Middle East and North Africa have based their analysis and produced environmental planning procedures and codes that adheres to the eco-planning concepts adopted by European and Western environmental and planning agencies, such as the Dubai Green Building Council, Saudi Arabia Green Building Council, Egypt Green Building Council, and the Sudan Integrated Coastal Zone Management Agency (SICZM), which developed on the foundation of the PERSGA, and support of NOAA and UNESCO. These are the base references for this eco-town planning study on the Red Sea Coast in Sudan.

2.2-2 SUSTAINABLE ECO- PLANNING AND DESIGN CONCEPT

The general consent by world leading environmental planning organizations on the causes for regional, city and town environmental deterioration and decline is the suburbanization which produced spatially diffused and functionally segregated sporadic settlements, causing depletion of land and natural resources including the supply of building materials, excessive use of limited fossil fuel due to the growth of automobile and energy demands, and causing degradation of the land and the ecological systems by exerting pollutions and more pressure on the environment2. This consent is an agreement on the causes of apparent imbalance between habitation and nature, and a call for planners and environmentalist to re-evaluate current human growth and expansion patterns, and to consider strategic approaches to halt desecration of land and resources, and to conceive strategic long-term ideologies and methodologies that will ensure a sustainable, integrated and ecologically friendly future settlements.

The common vision for an eco-settlement shared by the USGBC and the Commission of European Communities summarized the concept of eco- planning as follows:

1- To plan and create eco-settlements, or re-establish eco-settlements that will support high density, mixed use spatial accommodations for current and future population growth, through sustainable re-planning of existing urban centers and, by reuse of brown fields and gray fields. 2- To design settlement patterns based on long term strategic approach favorable to safer pedestrian friendly communities, and to plan sustainable affordable alternatives to limit automobile dependency and reduce pollutions and congestions. 3- To plan and establish land-use planning measures, strategic approaches and methodologies that emphasizes sustainability development features, and eliminate elements of urban sprawl to insure future sustainable land development.

1 Commission of the European Communities (CEC), 1998, pp. 6 and 15. 2 USGBC, EUGBC, PERSGA, NOAA, CEC. 45

4- Create attractive neighborhoods and communities with mixed use urban quarters, designed public spaces, green areas and objects of cultural heritage to be integrated with the urban system of oriented affordable public transportation. This is to insure that the eco-town or eco-city contains varied surroundings and become a sustainable, healthy and pleasant place to live and work.

2.2-3 ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCE THE DESIGN OF A MASTER PLAN FOR A SUSTAINABLE ECO-SETTLEMENT

A- THE GENERAL ECOLOGY:

The Merriam Webster Dictionary defines ecology as the science concerned with the interrelationship of organisms and their environments, and as the totality or pattern of relations between organisms and their environment as derived from the Greek “Oikos”, meaning “household”, and is the root word for economy as well. Ecology also refers to the study of the relationships and interactions between living organisms including humans and their natural and built habitats, of plants and animals relationship to their environment. The community or spatial context is the environment within which material and energy flows between things, and renewable energy powers the essential processes needed for life at no cost, without polluting the environment and maintaining the functions of the natural systems, hence emphasizing the sustainability of the ecological systems1. This is illustrated by various ecological models that demonstrate the flow of energy and materials, the distribution of which is powered by sustainable energies (the sun), gravity and natural cycles. (Fig 2.26-2.27)

Fig 2.26- Natural water cycle is a comprehensive ecological system2.

1 Daniel E. Williams, FAIA. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN - Ecology as a Model. 2 United States Green Society water cycle images. http://www.google.com/search?q=usgs+water+cycle&hl=en&prmd=ivns&tbm=isch&tbo=u&source=univ&sa=X&ei=d63PTbT_F YjKrAeT7YzDCg&sqi=2&ved=0CC8QsAQ&biw=1012&bih=632 46

Fig 2.27- Biological Nitrogen Fixation is the natural process, either biological or a biotic, by which nitrogen (N2) in the atmosphere is converted into ammonia. This process is essential for life because fixed nitrogen is required to biosynthesize the basic building blocks of life, e.g. nucleotides for DNA and RNA and amino acids for proteins. Formally, nitrogen fixation also refers to other biological conversions of nitrogen, such as its conversion to nitrogen dioxide1.

In essence; recognizing the needs of an ecosystem or a community, understanding the hierarchy and importance of the elements that make the community including the bio- climate of the region, will guide the design to include a comprehensive system within the cultural context of the place or the region. Utilizing local resources and powering the system with sustainable energies will provide the desirable framework that will maintain functionality and sustainability of the designed system.

B- THE COASTAL ECOLOGY:

Ecology is distinguished based on the type of organisms and habitats being studied, and coastal ecology is a great concern to the focus of this study. Coastal zones present a blend of marine, lowland, reefs and earthly ecosystems which contribute to the breeding and nursing of the aquaculture of the place including fish, coral reefs, aquatic organisms, mangroves, seaweed, and sea-grasses that thrives on salty water, and is a base for seasonal migration for marines, mammals and birds. The functions of coastal ecosystems and their importance to life developments are unexpressive in terms of monetary terms, that which contributes to underestimating their benefits by the conventional economic market. However; coastal systems are a web of interdependent environmental systems and organism mutually important to the sustainability of life in the coastal zones, and are studies and monitored by multidisciplinary specialties in

1 APES Nutrient Cycle Information. http://andersonapes.pbworks.com/w/page/12868260/Nitrogen-Cycle 47 physical and biological sciences not the specialty of this study, but are exploited for their results and guidance on obvious architectural and planning related criteria.

Three direct threats to coastal ecosystems are identified by a number of studies1:

1- The subsistence needs of the local population. 2- The naturally occurring phenomena. 3- The demand of evolving modern economy.

According to studies on coastal cohabitate2, thirty nine percent of the world population lives about 100 km. from coastal lines, and main urban centers are on coastal lines or 50 km. away carrying higher densities than inland settlements. In sub-Saharan areas thirty percent of the population lives on coastal area and are on the rise expected to reach 81% by 2025. Stress imposed by human habitat on coastal zones is in the form of aggressive exploitation of watersheds for aquatic farming, ridding of human waste, construction and recreational activities and are direct contributors to the disturbance of the ecosystem and death of aquatic life.

Unplanned coastal developments of expanding or new settlements including residential, commercial, industrial and recreational establishments have adverse effects on coastal ecosystem. Waste disposal on unplanned locations of unidentified soils through unrecognized healthy waste disposal systems, results in pollution of the subsurface water table, and the exposure of waste in open surface dumps to high winds results in the transfer of light component contaminants to river beds and fringing reefs down winds of dump sites. Furthermore, dumping of solid waste in areas prone to flooding is subject to mobilization to the coastal beaches and reefs, degrading the quality of the region and potentially impacting the reef along the coastal length affected by the currents. Human settlements dependent on septic tanks and sewer disposal lines constructed of inappropriate material on porous soils potentially contaminate subsurface streams and the reefs fringes that are part of the natural underground distribution system3.

Human exploitation of biotic communities directly affects the ecosystem. Marine exploitation indicated by the growth of fish-farming for consumption, export and fish sports is due to population growth, the evolution of more effective fishing mechanism, the expansion of destructive fishing activities both commercial and recreational, and they all contributed to the decline of popular food and commercial fish supplies, and to the depletion of key functional groups of reef species along the coasts of different continents. Terrestrial systems exploitation of autotrophs and herbivores are common to logging of trees and hunting of mammals in the absence of monitoring and the

1 NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program, Roadmap for the Future. PP. 5-6. PERSGA, Sudan ICZM, and CAUSTO SOCIETY. 2 Jan Hoorweg and Nyawira Mathiga. Earthtrends 2009. Also see Advances in Coastal Ecology. African Studies Center –Leiden ([email protected]). World Conservation Society – Mumbasa ([email protected]). 3 G. Mathias Kondolf, John Radke, and Inas Ismail. MITGATING RISKS TO CORAL REEFS FROM LAND-DERIVED CONTAMINANTS. Results of Studies in the Caribbean and Applications to Wadi Flooding on the Egyptian Red Sea Cast. PP. 1-3. Department of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, University of California – Berkeley. [email protected].

48 inadequate enforcement of existing management systems have contributed to the exhaustion of species and the disturbance of the landscape ecology1.

Climate change attends problems that threaten the sustenance of life worldwide and the coastal systems in particular, according to scientific studies on the effect of climate change on coastal settlements. Scientific calculation predicts an increase in mean global temperature of 10 – 20 by the year 2025 as a consequence of green house effect2, which will result in oceans warming and rise of sea level causing dissembled shock to world physical and biological systems. Exacerbated by global climate change; naturally occurring disasters and processes such as drought, flash floods, flooding and rise of sea levels, are directly contributing to the erosion and or sedimentation of riparian surfaces, beaches and to the bleaching of the reefs. Sediments eroded from urbanized mountainous areas and inlands from the coastal zone, are transported rapidly to catchments of rivers and streams draining to lower watersheds and to the sea introducing an interchange of sand biological matter and other materials between dunes, intertidal beaches, surf zones and fringe reefs presenting hazards that includes nitrogen flow to the estuaries and sheltered lagoons negatively impacting the fauna3.

Corals are ancient marine animals with limited degree of organ development, and have evolved in the last twenty five million years into reef building forms, and they are considered the largest earthly structure of biological origin comprising 6,000 known species including stony corals, sea fans, sea pansies and anemones. The stony corals form the bases for reef structures4. Corals thrive on their biotic relationship with algae, and feed on plankton. The algae supplies corals with organic products of photosynthesis including synthesis of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) the base for limestone secreting capacity of corals, and produces oxygen which helps the corals respiration of carbon dioxide, inorganic nutrients and phosphates as metabolic waste. The Algae needs for consistent environmental conditions to temperatures tolerance of 14C-40C limits its growth to within the tropical belt, in saline water of 32-42 parts per thousand, and clarity to light in the euphotic zone. (Fig 2.28-2.29)

1 Gary W. Allison, Jane Lubchenco and Mark H. Carr. Department of Zoology, EFFECTIVENESS OF MARINE RESERVES. Ecological Applications, 8(1) Supplement, pp. S79-S92. Oregon State University – Carvalis and Biology Board of Studies, University of California, Santa Cruz. 2 Julius Olujimi. CLIMATE CHANGE AND COASTAL SETTLEMENT PLANNING IN NIGERIA. Bulletin of Science Association of Nigeria Vol. 28 (2007) 28-31. Department of Urban and Regional Planning, Federal University of Technology, Akure Nigeria. [email protected] 3 A.C. Brown and A. McLachlan. IMPACT OF EXPECTED CLIMATE CHANGE ON MANGROVES. Hydrobiologia Journal, Volume 295, No. 1-3/ Zoology Department, University of Cape Town, South Africa, and College of Science, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Publisher: Springer Netherlands January 1995. 4 Barnes, R.D., 1987; Lalli and Parsons, 1995, Barnes, R.S.K. and Hughes, 1999; Levinton, 1995; Sumich 1996. Functions of the Coral Reefs. 49

Fig 2.28- Anemone coral cross section1. Fig 2.29- Anemone coral bed – alive.

Reefs are diverse in character and extends outward from the shores to few thousands meters ranging in flat from minimum centimeters to meters in depth. Substrate of coral rock and sand form beds for sea grasses. The climate change that induces solar radiation and rise of sea surface disturbs the chain of events that supports the ecosystem of the reefs, in addition to change in salinity and contamination of sea water by oil, herbicides and sedimentation2. Climate change, pollutions and sedimentation causes coral bleaching and reductions in coral calcification and even to reef fatality.

Seagrass provides ecological services that enhance biodiversity such as organic carbon production and export, nutrient cycling, sediment stabilization, and trophic transfers to adjacent habitats in tropical and temperate regions, and are contributors to increasing anthropogenic influences in coastal ecosystems. This marine flowering plant is confronted with climate change and stressors including nutrient runoff, physical disturbances by invasive species, disease, commercial fishing practices, aquaculture and over grazing3.

The ecosystem of coastal zones includes riparian areas at the land water junctions alongside watersheds buffering streams from uplands precipitated pollutants such as nitrate (NO³); a byproduct of fertilizers, human waste treatment and fossil fuel combustion. Human manipulation to riparian is as ancient as human existence and evolved into technologically supported agriculture and transportation in the early 1700s to industrial use in the 1730s including energy generation and power intensive industries which in the 1900s resorted to riparian for convenient waste disposal. Environmental stress from urbanization and altering of hydrology included: extensive piping and storm drains network that bypasses waterways, engineered stream channels and dams which controlled water levels which in some cases

1 Anemone Coral Images. http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&tbm=isch&q=Anemone+coral+cross+section&aq=f&aqi=&oq=&sout=0&biw=1012&bih=6 32 2 Meehan W. J. and Ostrander G. K. CORAL BLEACHING: A POTENTIAL BIOMARKER OF ENVIRONMENTAL STRESS. Volume 50 No. 6, 1. April 1997, pp. 529-552 (24). Research article Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. Also see Clive R. Wilkinson. GLOBAL AND LOCAL THREATS TO CORAL REEF FUNCTIONING AND EXISTENCE – REVIEW AND PREDICTIONS. Marine and Freshwater Research 50(8) pp. 869-878. 3 Robert J. Orth, Tim J. B. Carruthers, William C. Dennison, Carlos M. Duarte, James W. Fourqurean, Kenneth L. Heck Jr., A. Randall Hughes, Gary A. Kendrick, W. Judson Kneworthy, Suzanne Olyarnick, Frederick T. Short, Michelle Walcott, and Susan L. Williams. A GLOBAL CRISIS FOR SEAGRASS ECOSYSTEMS. Volume 50, PP. 5-6. April 1997. Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health, Also see NOAA Coral Reef conservations Program, Roadmap for the Future. 50 resulted in riparian hydrologic drought, in turn impacting soil types, plant communities, fauna, and animals1. Riparian transport pollutions including solid waste to the seas, and when ecosystems become infected, the impact ripples through the structure of the entire natural assemblage. (Fig 2.30)

Fig 2.30- Hydrological circulation disperses contaminants from discharge areas through watersheds into the water table and aquifer through precipitation, and by streams to seas and oceans2.

International environmental and ecological science based societies, agencies and groups such as the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), the CAUSTO Society and PERSGA collaborate in researching and monitoring aquatic and marine life of coastal regions and are supported by regional regulatory bodies that mandate eco- science and eco-management actions for coastal zones. These related groups contribute affectively to the application of coastal and marine conservation programs established or empowered by international agencies leading efforts towards human development and environmental protection, such as the United Nations Environmental Development (UNEP), the United Nations International Development Program (UNDP). In essence; these agencies formed an integrated network of biophysical and socioeconomic information, standardization and communication systems that advocate the conservation, restoration and maintenance of healthy ecosystems functions and resources including human aspects. Services to ecosystems are necessary to help maintain the ecosystem and are categorized into three management groups:

1 .Peter M. Groffman, Daniel J Bain, Lawrence E. Band, Kenneth T. Belt, Grace S. Brush, J. Morgan Grove, Richard V. Pouyat, Ian C. Yesilonis, and Wayne C Zipperer. DOWN BY THE RIVERSIDE: Urban Riparian Ecology. 1(6): pp. 315-321. Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY. Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD. Department of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC. Northeastern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, Syracuse, NY. Northeastern Research Station, USDA Forest Service, South Burlington, VT. Center for Urban Environmental Research and Education, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore. Published by: Front Ecol Environ 2003. 2Tanya Splajt. INVESTIGATING LEACHATE MIGRATION CASE STUDY: Field Analysis and Modeling of Municipal Landfill in Northern England. Center for Waste and Pollution Research, Geography Department, The University of Hull. Hull, UK. E- mail: T.D.Splajt @ geo.hull.ac.uk

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1- Provisioning food species, water for agricultural and industrial use, timber, fibers, fuel, and genes. 2- Regulating elements that influence climate change, hydrological flows and cycles, erosion, removal of excess nutrients and wastes; mitigation and amelioration of natural hazards such as floods, flash-floods, storm surges, landslides, and high winds. 3- Cultural and religious opportunities of spiritual and symbolic values, recreational, aesthetic, educational and scientific research and awareness.

To implement monitoring and management that ensures a cohesive and sustainable system integration and flow; the approach to handling activities and actions necessary to achieve the goal for conservation, preservation and maintenance of coastal ecosystem must be cohesive and inclusive to all sub-organisms of the ecosystem 1. The agreed on principles dictate the following approach:

A. Address the needs for strategic coastal management plan based on sound science that investigates principals and priorities of the biophysical and socio-economical diversities and needs of the targeted coastal ecosystem. B. Take an ecosystem level approach to conservation integrating ecological, social, economic and cultural objectives that realizes human as an influential constituent of the ecosystem. C. Institute measurable and cost effective objectives to be implemented through partnering with the community of managers from national, state, territory, and regional entities, local communities, village chiefs and environmental management councils. D. Establish defined and transparent decision-making and funding process to reflect priorities and include the decision-makers and funding entities.

In essence; it is essential for a long term sustainable eco-planning development to address and integrate the needs of all elements that constitute a site including climatic, physical, environmental and ecological systems, and maintain a socio-economic and cultural approach that will provide for the continuity of a master ecological development plan and systems communication. It is also necessary to establish an integrated coastal management master plan to guide and monitor evolving biophysical and socio-economic diversities of the region.

C- THE SUSTAINABILITY SPHERES:

“Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”2

This is the definition of sustainable development as stated by the ‘Brundtland Report’3, and it further clarified that in order to achieve sustainability, the input into and the output from the designed system must fulfill the following:

1 NOAA Coral Reef Conservation Program, Roadmap for the Future. PP. 1-4. 2009 2 Brundtland Commission: Our Common Future. Agenda 1, History of UN Conferences on Environment and Sustainability 1987. 3 BRUNDTLAND REPORT. By the World Commission on Environmental and Development. 1987, p. 24. 52

1- The rate of resources used must not be greater than the rate of their regeneration: Resources used (Material + Energy) = or < Regeneration 2- The rate of emission must not be greater than the rate at which the pollutants generated by the system can be absorbed: Emission % = or < Pollutants Absorption %

A comprehensive sustainable system is thought to identify the social, environmental and economic fronts of the targeted region or community, and creates solutions that are fed by the regional natural and human resources and energized by sustainable powers of the region. A sustainable design foundation implies the integration of the system form, elements, materials, construction, culture and powering energy as parts of the whole. The whole being the solution to connecting the three dimensional categories which compose the sustainable development: community, environment and economy1. (Fig 2.31)

Sustainable Solutions = Environment Economy + Human Resource + Renewable Energy and Resources. Equitable Solutions Socio-Economic Viable diversity solutions “Green”

Environment Community

Bearable solutions “Green”

Fig 2.31- Three spheres of sustainability representing spatial interdependence and connectivity.

“In any endeavor, good design resides in two principles. First, it changes the least number of elements to achieve the greatest result. Second, it removes stress from a system rather than adding to it.” Paul Hawkin2,

Sustainability connects science and design, and it evolves as the knowledge of know how evolves making sustainability a characteristic of continuous motion towards improvements. This allows for the re-development of regions, communities and buildings to work for the evolving functional lifestyle. A lifestyle that is adaptable to the changes of the bioclimatic and power blackouts of natural events and disasters, because the ecology of the system is bio-climatically in tune with the regional sustainable energy pattern.

1 Daniel E. Williams, FAIA. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN. P. 14. 2007. 2 Paul Hawkins, THE ECOLOGY OF COMMERCE: A DECLARATION OF SUSTAINABILITY. New York – Harvard Business, 1993, .

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A plan or design that is based on natural materials but dependent on nonrenewable energy is a “Green” design and is not sustainable, for it cannot function in a blackout such as power shortage, or when the grid of potable water supply does not reflect the boundaries of the targeted bio-climate. Such events are common in rural Sudan and Nomadic temporary settlements. The challenges of providing a sustainable development or design lay in how to plan and design developments that are powered by place-based energy and resources, and to plan the development to function without non-renewables under the climatic conditions of the place.

Powering a development with a place-based energy resource makes it integral to learn and measure the bio-climate of a region including temperature, humidity, air movement, precipitation, winds, hydrology, species, soils and what the land is capable of supplying the inhabitants. It is fundamental to sustainable planning and design to overlay and measure what is needed by the inhabitants or expected users for comfort, activities, culture, stewardship, renewable energies and resources, what is offered by the site and the natural forces of seasonal variations, as they all come together in determining the appropriate approaches and opportunities for a sustainable development.

Three descriptive and quantitative measures are considered in sustainable design1:

1- Connectivity between the structure, the site, the ecology and the community with minimum disturbance and reinforcement to the existing functional environment. 2- Consideration to indigenous and functioning characteristics that existed sustainably on the site for centuries. 3- Reflective insight to the culture of prior generations while facilitating for future generations.

For sustainable planning design to read affectively and work as a wholesome system, considerations are made to the different scales of planning at the regional, urban, community, neighborhood and building scales. Bioregional resources and climate are the foundation for sustainable planning for each scale as they have remained consistent for centuries. In addition to the natural characteristics of the specific site within the region, its cultural and economic assets, and the presence of natural disasters and their impact on the site are characteristics that weigh on the relationships between sites. The relationships between neighboring sites; in addition to the regional characteristics and variations, are influenced by the context of connectivity between the sites, the microclimate in relation to seasonal and diurnal changes, the soil variation and water retention characteristics, the impact of adjacent land uses and vegetation. Furthermore; the relationship between adjacent sites and between a building and a site is subjective to the geometric relationships and proportions of the structures and sites, the neighborhood characteristics and scales, and the synergistic related to the inhabitants needs and comfort.

Sustainable planning and design at the regional scale facilitates the greatest positive impact on the overall sustainability of the region as it incorporates safe ecological practices that limits the consumption of non-renewable energies, and protects the environment. The process of sustainable design is based on studying and understanding

1 . Daniel E. Williams, FAIA. SUSTAINABLE DESIGN. Ecology, Architecture, and Planning P. 19. 2007. 54 the bases and relationships of bioregional systems, and applying that knowledge on the components of urban planning: infrastructure, utilities and settlement patterns. By applying the works of the natural systems in their natural process to urban planning, and establishing local and regional resource use, reuse, recycling and using place based energies in creating and distributing supplies and services; a positive integration to the regional systems is established. This creates a base to which the economic structure and government policies are incorporated to achieve long term efficient development patterns and stability.

“The role of government is to assume those functions that cannot or will not be undertaken by citizens or private institutions. But; forgotten is the true meaning and purpose of politics, to create and sustain the conditions for community life. In other words, politics is very much about food, water, life, and death, and thus intimately concerned with the environmental conditions that support the community. It is the role of government, then, as a political act, to set standards within the community.” Paul Hawken1.

2.2-4 URBAN PLANNING CONCEPTS WHICH INFLUENCED THE ECO- CITY/ ECO-TOWN APARITION

By 1800 human growth pushed for expansion beyond the fortifications of the Gothic and Baroque cities, and with the emergence of architecture schools of thought, innovations in technologies, industrialization and the evolution of new building materials and building technologies, the train and the automobile; the world came to neighborly order and cities experienced more demands for expansions. The expansions took place within unpredictable spatial relationships that followed the traditional ancient organic patterns, conflicted with the machine age, the application of new structural features and functions, and the need to plan for cities was realized.

Following are some of the leading theories that marked the evolution of planning:

A- Theory of Urbanism - Ildefonso Cerda 1867

Barcelona was one of the first European cities to rid off its fortification to allow for efficient expansion of what has become a congested epidemic-prone old town. Ildefonso Cerda, a trained architect and civil engineer gave birth to the concepts of integrating sanitarian movement principles to the peoples’ needs for natural light and ventilation in the homes, the need for green surroundings, effective waste disposal and sewage, and the needs for goods, energy and information. The Eixample optimized street layouts to facilitate for pedestrians, carriages, horse-drawn trams, urban railway lines, gas supply and large-capacity sewers; while furnishing for public and private gardens and amenities. By superimposing the diagonal cross-axis with chamfered corners, Cerda established a regional scale for the city blocks and made it possible to apply a repeated pattern and expand Barcelona on gridded blocks. (Fig 2.32)

1 Paul Hawkins, THE ECOLOGY OF COMMERCE: A DECLARATION OF SUSTAINABILITY. P. 166. New York – Harvard Business, 1993 55

Fig. 2.32- Eixample Barcelona. (Barcelona Expansión Plan) 18591.

The design of Barcelona ‘Eixample’ created by Ildefonso was based on a network approach to integration of physical systems and social needs, and contributed to the inception of the geometrical urban grid which incorporated the mix of land use and public transportation. Cerda is considered the first to create the concept of urbanism2, and authored the first two- volume General Theory of Urbanization in 1867.

B- The Linear City – Arturo Soria Mata 1882:

“The key factor in urban living is not distance but travel time.” Arturo Soria.

Arturo Soria Mata, a 19th. century engineer, thought to relieve the congestion inefficiencies of the city core, create connectivity between cities and suburbs through the shortest routes to reduce travel time, and provide growth opportunities for future expansions. Arturo proposed an urban plan that will transform the pre-existing cities into nodes of transportation that serve the urban corridors utilized for agriculture in- between. The proposed linear urban development integrates the tram and railways to transport urban corridor residence to their destinations directly in shortest time, and provide proximity between cities and country. The tram; as the fastest mode of travel in the 19 century (30 kilometers/ hour), took the central length of the main street at a 50 meter width, and specialized sectors lined the main road including residence of the upper classes. Crossway streets 200 meter long and 20 meter wide connected the main

1 Ildefonso Cerda, Theory General Theory of Urbanization 1867.

2 Professor Asmervik S. and Simensen T. THE ROOTS OF ECO-EURBANISM. Paper ID 254, Department of Landscape and Spatial Planning, University of Norway 2005. http://aesop2005.scix.net/cgi-bin/papers/Show?_id=254 Philine Gaffron, Ge Huismans, Franz Skala. ECOCITY. P. 14. Also see Barry Bergdoll. EUROPEAN ARCHITECTURE 1750-1890. 56 road to the residential blocks on both sides zoned for less privileged classes1. (Fig 2.33- 2.34)

Fig 2.33- The linear urban development plan.

Fig 2.34- Cross section through the linear development plan.

The development of the polycentric linear city encouraged by Arturo founded on the development of mass transit system, allowed for unit expansions along the city parallel zones without having to widen the distance from the main central road creating the never ending city, while advocating a sustainable agriculture in the urban corridors. Even though speedy mass transit was the vision for connectivity, the limited speed of the tram resulted in intervals of a linear city of less than 30 kilometer in length. The linear city created zoning sectors for railway lines, production and communal enterprises with relevant scientific and technical knowledge based establishments, green belt buffer zone, major highway, residential zones, park and agricultural zones.

C- The Garden City – Ebenezer Howard 1898:

A visionary with no formal education to architecture or planning, authored “A Peaceful Path to Real Reform 1898, and Garden Cities of Tomorrow 1902. The latter introduced the concept of combining the qualilty of country side with the urban city or creating urban country settlements with limited population of 32,000 within independent functional core and a boundary of 6,000 acres, of which 1,000 acres are to be under

1 Philine Gaffron, Ge Huismans, Franz Skala. ECOCITY. Also see http://www.dwell.com/articles/linear-city- .html#ixzz0t9wvCvRp 57 municipality control. The concept advocated the linear transit for connectivity between the nuclei population satellites, and brought the grandeous of the city Grand Boulevards to the town by planning 120 to 140 feet wide Grand Avenues that radiated from the nucleous, and provided spatial diferentiation between public, commercial, industrial and residential use filtered by public green spaces and private gardens that supported the social city understanding. This magnet between town and country allowed proximity to surrounding green spaces and became an inspiration for the Green Belt and New Towns concepts1. (Fig 2.35-2.36)

Fig 2.35- The Garden City Concept.

Fig 2.36- The Garden City model.

1 Asmervik S. and Simensen T. 2005 THE ROOTS OF ECOURBANISM. Paper ID 254 58

D- The Industrial Setting / Fields, Factories and Workshops – Piotr Kropotkin 1898:

A Russian geographer, writer, and a nobleman turned political thinker of anarchism by the end of the nineteenth century. At a young age he joined the imperial army’s order for Tsar Nicholas I, became an explorer of the Arctic Circle, and exposure turned him to sympathy for the Russian peasants enough to fund his own travels and revolutionary activities as he became a member of the First International, then a member of the Jura. At his return to Russia Piotr (Peter) Kropotkin embarked on scientific research and dissemination of the belief on the Anarchist Federation of Jura, and published a number of books of which two reflected the bases of his city planning ideologies.

The Conquest of Bread published in 1892 and Fields, Factories and Workshops published in 1899, both advocated the vision for a new society based on anti-statism and anti-authoritarianism, the principles of publicly owned means of production and theories on mutual aid between species and individuals. Kropotkin envisioned a system of economics based on cooperation and voluntary exchanges to support a socially, culturally and industrially sustained society, and eliminate the monetary exchange1.

Peters’ vision was in favor of a world economy free of territorial restrictions and of the introduction of maximum automation, emphasis on local organization, local production, and on the integration of industry and agriculture and believed that rural life is an inseparable part of industrialization and evolution2.

“Agriculture cannot develop without the aid of machinery and the use of perfect machinery cannot be generalized without industrial surrounding: without mechanical workshops, easily accessible to the cultivator of the soil, the use of agricultural machinery is not possible.” 3

Peter advocated the idea that a country should strive for self-sufficiency: “There is not one nation in the world which, being armed with the present powers of agriculture, could not grow on its cultivable areas all the food and most of the raw materials derived from agriculture which are required for its population, even if the requirements of that population were rapidly increased as they certainly ought to be.”

“The integration between manual and intellectual work, made possible by the introduction of machinery which would save human energy and allow for more free time in the pursuit of personal creative endeavors. The integration of town and country, of industry and agriculture, made possible by a total freedom in the movement of capitals and entrepreneurs all over the world. This would result, in the end, in a reduction in the unnecessary movement of many goods (produced locally everywhere) and in a balanced socio-economic development (rural and industrial) in every region.4”

1. Piotr Kropotkin. THE CONQUEST OF BREAD. Chapter XIV Production and Consumption. 1931 Edition. 2 Piotr Kropotkin. THE CONQUEST OF BREAD. Chapter XVII – Agriculture. 1913 Edition. 3 Piotr Kropotkin. Fields, Factories and Workshops Tomorrow. Second Edition 1912. 4 Piotr Kropotkin. Fields, Factories and Workshops Tomorrow. 59

E- The Organic City theory - and , 1915:

"An age that worships the machine and seeks only those goods that the machine provides, in ever larger amounts, at ever rising profits, actually has lost contact with reality: and in the next moment or the next generation may translate its general denial of life into one last savage gesture of nuclear extermination. Within the context of organic order and human purpose, our whole technology has still potentially a large part to play; but much of the riches of modern technics will remain unusable until organic functions and human purposes, rather than the mechanical process, dominate." Lewis Mumford1.

A New York engineer, influenced by Patrick Geddes’ ecological ideologies, Lewis Mumford indulged in self observation to historic evolutions of societies and cities, developed strong views and visions for cultural and social societies, and became a writer himself. In 1924 he published Sticks and Stones on architecture, The Story of Utopias and started systematic writings and attempts to apply the Geddesian ecological agenda to historical phenomenon by writing essays on regionalism discerning once again the Chicago School of Architecture2. His publication of “The City in History” won him the National Book Award, and for drafting city plan for Oxford, England; he was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom. By 1971, he published ‘The Myth of the Machine I and II The Pentagon of Power, The Translations of Man and testified before the US Senate Subcommittee on , and in 1975 he was made Honorary Knight Commander of the British Empire and awarded the National Medal of Arts3.

Mumford wrote on bioregionalism, anti-nuclearism, biodiversity, alternate energy paths, ecological urban planning and appropriate technologies, and was critical of industrialization and the era of ‘carboniferous capitalism’. His elucidation of the development of industrial evolution defined three consecutive, overlapping and interpenetrating phases that negatively affected the landscape and altered the corporeal character of cities, abused resources and spared no expense on commodities:

1- The Eotechnic phase 1300–1700 is multifaceted in water and wood.

2- The Paleotechnic phase 1750–1900 is a coal and iron multifarious. 3- The Neotechnic phase 1900 to present is diversified in electricity and iron.

The dawn of industrialization capitalized on nature’s assets to help evolve European settlements villages, gardens and fields; but after 1750 Mumford analytical approach to social history viewed industrial development to have adopted different source of power, material and social objectives that capitalized on nature’s revenues4. Mumford’s writings campaigned against mindless industrialization that resulted in soil degradation, deforestation, industrial waste, dependency in transportation and congestion. He advocated regionalism which prevents waste through conservation and provides economic bases for a sustainable evolving life. Both Lewis Mumford and Patrick

1 Lewis Mumford.. The Arts in Renewal 1951.

2 The Geddesian Gambit 1973, The Disciple’s Rebellion’ September 1966. Also see Edinburgh Review 96 p. 156, Guha Ramachandra and Martinez-Ailer, Varieties of Environmentalism: Essays North and South London: Earthscan p. 189. 1997. 3 Philip Boardman.. Lewis Mumford p ix of Patrick Geddes Maker of the Future. 4 Guha Ramachandra and Martinez-Ailer: Essays North and South London. 60

Geddes envisioned cities as living organisms evolving as they adapt to a changing environment and both promoted decentralization and mixed use of land. In 1920 Mumford wrote:

'Establishing its own special relations with its past, each generation creates anew what lies behind it, as well as what looms in front; and instead of being victimized by those forces which are uppermost at the moment, it gains the ability to select the qualities which it values, and by exercising them it rectifies its own infirmities and weaknesses.' (Lewis Mumford and the Disciple’s Rebellion-Patrick Geddes, 1995 – Appendix 2)

F- The Neighborhood Unit– Clarence Arthur Perry, 1923:

American Architect and Planner, founded the Regional Planning Association of America and authored “Regional Plan of New York and its Environs in 1923, and in the same year at a sociological conference Clarence presented his idea “the Neighborhood Unit” applied into New York City regional plan in 1929, and in 1939 published the theory in Housing for the Mechanic Age. Clarence, predisposed to the ideologies of urban studies and ecology of the Chicago School, developed the idea at the time when American cities began to embody industrialization, where the city expansion created longer travel distances between work and home, and the city offered little integration opportunities to workers and their families in the urban community.

To reduce travel distance and time and facilitate for self sufficient residential communities for the workers, Clarence integrated wholesome neighborhoods with the city within measured five minute walking distance from community service and interaction centers. Taking from the evolution of human settlements, the church or the school formed the nucleus of the neighborhood unit from which the standard pedestrian distance of quarter mile (400 meters) was measured, radiating to the boundaries at the major roads with shopping centers at the nodes. Placing the elementary school in the center ensured equal distance for resident children to walk to school safely without crossing major roads. Clarence believed that the limited population of 6000 to 10,000 residents encourages neighborhood interaction and fosters communal cohesion, that as a component of the town a planned self sufficient neighborhood functions as a village when standing free in the landscape, and when combined with others becomes a town1. (Fig 2.37- 2.39)

¼ mile radios = 5 minutes walk.

Fig 2.37- Clarence five minutes walking distance measured from the elementary school at the core.

1 Treasure Coast Regional Planning Council. Sustainable Neighborhood Planning For the Region, Streets, Blocks and Alleys: HISTORY OF STRATEGIC REGIONAL POLICY PLAN. Achieving a Network of Walkable Streets. April 2004. 61

Fig 2.38- Clarence Neighborhood Unit of 1929, applied in post war British towns, in Abercrombie and Forshaw’s Greater London Plan of 19441.

Fig 2.39- Clarence Neighborhood Unit Cluster.

G- Radburn Model – Clarence Stein and Henry Wright 1928:

In 1924, Clarence and White expanded and applied the Garden City concept to Sunnyside Gardens in Queens – New York, and in 1926 with landscape architect Marjorie Sewell Cautley, applied it to Radburn in New Jersey. The Garden City was modified to form a separated network of motorized traffic from pedestrians by

1 Philine Gaffron, Ge Huismans and Franz Skala. ECOLOGY. 2008. 62 facilitating a planned isolated pedestrian corridor system, in affect the residential “superblock” was introduced and the cul-de-sacs were integrated to accommodate a measured number of cars per household. On 149 acres (0.60 km²), Radburn was designed to include mixed types of residential units: single family homes, townhouses, two-family houses and apartment complex to host 3,100 people in 670 families. 23 acres (93,000m) were allocated for parks and amenities with the goal of assigning limited size lots for the homes. The late 20th century experienced economic and practice change that required additional automobiles per household, resulting in congestion in the cul-de-sacs and the driveways that lined it. (Fig 2.40-2.41)

Fig 2.40- Radburn aerial photograph. Fig 2.41- Radburn 3D, cul-de-sacs and pedestrian walkways1.

A comparative analysis between Radburn New Jersey, Reston Virginia which is pedestrian friendly but provided for more automobile, and a third unplanned neighborhood was conducted by the University of Michigan in 1970 focused on energy conservation. At a comparative rate of 47%: 23%: 8% pedestrian mobility to satisfy community shopping and activities including weekend leisure travel; Radburn proved to be conservative2.

The Radburn model was used in Winnipeg Manitoba in the late 1940s, and in the 1950s in Wildwood Park – Fort Garry. exercised the concept in the 1960s in Canberra, Charnwood – Curtin, Garran, Doncaster East Melbourne and Milgate Park Estate. Britain partially applied the model to Grove Hill in Hemel Hertfordshire, parts of Yates in South Gloucestershire and to an extension of Letchworth Garden City. However, The Meadows in Nottingham was declared unsafe and the Nottingham City Council stated: “the problem associated with the layout of the New Meadows Radburn style layout…contributed to the anti-social behavior and crime in the area.” (Nottingham City Council, 1975)

1 Google earth 3D aerials. Radburn, NJ. 2 University of Michigan research study on urban planning by: John B. Lansing, Robert W. Marans and Robert B. Zehner, "Planned Residential Environments" (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1970), p. 213 63

H- The Social City – 1962:

“Great cities are not like towns, only larger. They are not like suburbs, only denser. They differ from towns and suburbs in basic ways, and one of these is that cities are, by definition, full of strangers.” -Jane Jacobs1

With no formal training in city planning, but a community activist, Jane Jacobs wrote on urban problems and advocated for a place-based, community centered approach for urban planning that considers short blocks of mixed use developments and a concentration of densities in live –work downtown. Jane opposed monopoly of power by big government and big corporation and believed in community and individual stewardship. 1952, she became an associate editor of Architectural Forum and was a critic to what she observed in urban renewal including “slum-clearing” and high-rise housing. The Death and Life of Great American Cities, presented her interpretations of urban renewal as not safe, not interesting, not alive nor economically sound and she affirmed the sensibility of community insight. In The Economy of Cities, 1969 and Cities and the Wealth of Nations, 1984; Jane reflected on the importance of cities and their regions in their nations and in turn on the global economy.

To Jacobs cities are living organisms and ecosystems of buildings, streets, sidewalks, parks, neighborhoods, government and economy that evolve in their interaction with people as people evolve, and understanding the function of each element of the city and its inhabitants is the bases for structuring and planning functional and attractive cities. A vibrant and economically sound city is mechanized by the diversities of users and dwellers; hence the integration of diverse uses and users of mixed-use buildings, functions, services and of a range in age groups maintains the vitality of the city. Jane identified two core observations central to maintaining the social capital of any place:

1- Diversity at the neighborhood level to encourage residents’ loyalty to their local area in the face of economic and social change. 2- Appropriate and accessible settings for public interaction including open public spaces, pedestrian path and neighborhood shops.

Furthermore, to guide a development consistent with the life of a place; Jane argued that place-based expertise and community engagement are better fitted to direct community development rather than imported and prearranged government policies for planning2.

“The processes that occur in our cities are not arcane, capable of being understood only by experts. They can be understood by almost anybody. Many ordinary people already understand this; they simply have not considered that by understanding these ordinary arrangements of cause and effect, we can also direct them if we want to.” - Jane Jacobs.

1 Jane Jacobs – THE DEATH AND LIFE OF GREAT AMERICAN CITIES. P. 30. Vintage paperback edition 1992. 2 Jane Jacobs, CITIES AND THE WEALTH OF NATIONS – Principles of Economic Life, New York: Random House, 1984. THE ECONOMY OF CITIES, New York: Random House, 1969. SYSTEMS OF SURVIVAL – A dialogue on the Moral Foundation of Commerce and Politics, New York: Random House, 1992. A QUESTION OF SEPARATISM: Quebec and the struggle over Sovereignty, New York: Random House 1980. 64

I- Designing with Nature – Ian L. McHarg 1969:

Ian McHarg is a native of Glasgow, Harvard graduate in Landscape Architecture and City, participated in WWII and wrote of the devastation man brought upon cities and prairies. At the time when advancement in sciences and science societies were focused on subatomic particles, and conservatism was the popular for establishment leaderships such as the Smithsonian, interior and Agriculture; few ecologists such as Paul Sears, Stanley Cain, Eugene and Tom Odom, Pierre Danserau, Paul Ehrlich, Edward Dewey and Frank Fraser Darling; they married the ecological view as a moral position.

McHarg environmental concerns fueled his commitment as he started writing his book: Designing with Nature in 1967 incorporating his work Man and Environment, a course he designed to address the evolution of matter, life and man attitudes to nature in philosophies and religions, man psychological and physiological dependence on nature, and reflected on ecology. It incorporated analysis from professional projects he participated in and the teachings he designed for the course Ecology of the City and a number of design and planning projects he undertook for the University of Pennsylvania in Landscape Architecture; all employing ecology as the basis for problem solving.

Designing with Nature expresses the relationship between the universe in its elements such as the sun, the moon and the stars and its forces represented in the changing seasons, and articulate the cohabitation of the inhabitants of oceans, rivers, forests and creatures as components of a whole system of the universe and are all indispensable for evolution, survival and creation of the future. On the expansion of urban habitat and highways into rural landscape, the theory opposes developments into farmland contributing to depletion of land and hindering of public resources, subdividing to create private profit at the cost of public and natural resources. The expansion of highway associated to a cost benefit formula for single purpose with disregard to natural process; to McHarg it exemplifies anti-ecological views and an embrace to insensitivity towards life and the scars it creates upon the land and the cities. Designing with Nature advocates interstate highways that maximize public and private benefits by1:

1- Increasing the facility, convenience, pleasure and safety of traffic movement. 2- Safeguarding and enhancing land, water, air and biotic resources. 3- Contributing to public and private objectives of urban renewal, metropolitan and regional development, industry, commerce, residence, recreation, public health, conservation and beautification. 4- Generating new productive land uses and by sustaining or enhancing existing ones.

Designing with Nature is an attempt to redirect professional man –centered views and designs to instigate contemplation of basic values, to focus on the dynamics of survival between man and nature:

1 Ian L. McHarg. DESIGN WITH NATURE, p 32. John Wiley and Sons 1990. 65

“Man in space is enabled to look upon the distant earth, a celestial orb, a revolving sphere. He sees it to be green, from the verdure on the land, algae greening and oceans, a green celestial fruit. Looking closely at the earth, he perceives blotches black, brown, and gray and from these extends dynamic tentacles upon the green epidermis. These blemishes he recognizes as the cities and works, of man and asks, “Is man but a planetary disease?” - Loren Eiseley, Lecturer1.

Realizing the dependency between Sun, leaf and man, Designing with Nature identified water as the most critical common factor between ecological systems, a correspondent between regulatory mechanisms of the oceans, organisms achieved by temperature regulation through evaporation and regulation of alkalinity, a balancing factor to four elements of life: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen as they constitute all but one percent of living creatures, and are determinant of life, hence water becomes critical to every site2. The author calls for the application of knowledge on major natural processes and their interactions in establishing the degree of permissiveness or prohibition of natural resources in different land uses.

For urban expansions, McHarg views the increase of densities by expanding the periphery at the expense of open spaces as a growth unresponsive to the natural processes and inconsiderate to their values, and advocated for clustered growth layered economically and socially onto the ecological landscape, consequently introduced Landscape Ecology which enforces the study and improvement of relationships between spatial pattern and ecological processes in whole host of landscape scales and organizational levels; it integrates biophysical and methodical approaches with humanistic and holistic perspectives across natural and social sciences. Landscape ecology consists of four main principles: the development and dynamics of spatial diversities, exchanges across assorted landscapes, influences of spatial diversities on biotic and a-biotic processes, and the management of spatial diversities.

Results of the analysis and examination conducted by the author based on the principles of Landscape ecology identified eight natural processes mapped and measured for permissiveness and prohibition for certain land uses:

1- Surface Water: Waterfront locations to be limited to uses that do not shrink the present or prospective value of surface water for supply, recreation or amenity, and to satisfy land demands of industries that require water front locations such as ports, harbors, marinas, water and sewage treatment plants, water related industries; the linear frontage must remain in natural state to a width of no less than 200 feet each side as advised by physiographic principals for conservation and development*. Possible usage identified agriculture, forestry, recreational, institutional and residential open space. 2- Marshes: Land use should mirror the roles of flood and water storage, wildlife habitat and fish spawning grounds, and should be limited to uses that do not diminish the primary roles including agriculture and isolated urban developments. 3- Floodplains: A minimum of 2% or 50-year probability floodplain to be allocated free from all developments, exceptions to functions related to flooding or inseparable from flood prone areas such as ports and harbors,

1 Loren Eiseley, THE HOUSE WE LIVE IN lecture series in WCAU – TV. Feb. 5, 1961. *2 Ian L. McHarg. DESING WITH NATURE, PP. 43 to 53. PP. 58 to 61. P. 86 1962 66

marinas, water industries or water using industry, or least affected by flooding such as agriculture, recreation and institutional open spaces. 4- Aquifers: Vary in yield and quality, and though unlikely to be harmed by agriculture, forestry, recreation and low density development; industrial and urbanized settlements bring negative stress to the system such as septic mechanisms. Aquifers must be protected from toxic waste disposal, biological discharges, sewage and from injection wells. Future new types of development and industries must be examined for hazards before permitted on Aquifer sites, and management to Aquifers by impoundment of rivers and streams that transect them is necessary. 5- Aquifer Recharge Areas: Protection and management of point of interchange between ground and surface water is critical to insure recharge of percolation, and can be managed through careful separation of polluted streams from the aquifer, by impoundment of clean streams that transect it, and by regulating land uses on permeable surfaces that contribute to aquifer recharge. 6- Steep Lands: Affects area flooding and erosions, unsuitable for development, and slopes that exceeds 12° are not recommended for cultivation1, but can be manipulated for forestry and recreation. 7- Prime Agricultural Land: Suitable for high agriculture productivity and cultivation and though less expensive for expansions, the comparable cost of replacing it by brining inferior soils into production is likely to exceed investment cost. Prime agriculture land must not be sacrificed for urban development. 8- Forests and Woodlands: Natural vegetation cover is a component of the biome for the region and provides natural moderation to the microclimate, reduces sedimentation, flooding, drought and erosion, and is an effective constituent of the natural cycle for wildlife, water management and managed timber production. Forests and Woodlands can be utilized for forestry, recreation housing at the lowest densities, and air sheds prohibiting pollution source industries.

According to the above summary; natural processes are not ascribed values but are unitary and sensitive to changes of any parts, contrary to human adaptations and interventions that are incremental, disjointed and unrelated to the natural process. The planning process must consider the unitary makeup of the natural process, its value and incorporate these values into a single wholesome accounting system for measuring cost- benefit ratios of human interventions. Laws of land-use and development need to reflect the public costs in terms of flood, drought, water quality, agriculture, amenity and recreation potential, consequences of private action and identifying responsibilities to the landowners and developers.

1 The US Soil Conservation Service. 67

J- Pattern Language – Christopher Alexander 1979:

“We begin with that part of the language which defines a town or a community. The patterns can never be “designed’ or “built” in one fell swoop-but patient piece-meal growth, designed in such a way that every individual act is always helping to create or generate these large global patterns, will, slowly and surely, over the years, make a community that has these global patterns in it.- Christopher Alexander.

Christopher Alexander, a mathematician and Harvard graduate, believes that the large scale structure of the environment involves gradual and organic growth of towns and country, their elements and inhabitants steered by community stewardship and not necessarily by force from a central power. Christopher proposed that the relationships within a defined physical, climatic and cultural boundary are of hierarchy of social, cultural and political groups in which the families represent the smallest social group that forms the neighborhoods and work groups; the largest group represented by the administrative power in the body of councils and board of directors. The relationship of these groups survives based on taking responsibility for the patterns in their internal structure, subcultures, and act independently, thus empowering social responsibilities and community stewardship, and by community efforts the region is built by peace- meal process.

For a region to survive as a culture; Christopher proposed it must be kept independently, form its regional policies for diversified boundaries in scales and responsibilities, and achieve a balance in the distribution of its smaller elements the town’s statistical and spatial distributions, and the distribution of supplies and resources. In essence; balanced distribution of elements retains a lesser burden in the environment, and is sustained by community stewardship1.

“If the population of a region is weighted too far toward small villages, modern civilization can never emerge; but if the population is weighted too far toward big cities, the earth will go to ruin because the population isn’t where it needs to be, to take care of it.” (Christopher Alexander – A Pattern Language)

1Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishikawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King and Shlomo Angel.. A PATTERN LANGUAGE – Towns, Buildings and Construction, PP. 3 2007 68

2.2-5 CONTEMPORARY URBAN PLANNING CONCEPTS WHICH

CONTRIBUTED TO THE ECO- TOWN/ ECO-CITY VISION:

The Charter of Athens1 had the greatest influence on urban planning in Europe, and in North America urban sprawl, was the power that heightened urban problems in the 20th century, and to counterbalance urban sprawl a refining concepts immerged from the historic ideologies in planning, most that formulated in the last two decades stood out in support of Ecocity and Ecotown movements and are strongly related.

The following are some of the leading work in sustainable planning:

A- - Andre Duany, Sim van der Rijn, Peter Katz, Elizabeth Moule and Stefanos Polyzoides (1994), Peter Calthorpe (1991-1993):

Neo-Traditional Neighborhood Design (NTND) is an anti-suburbanization approach that favored the values of traditional communities in medium and small towns; it advocated a vision for smart growth to redirect planning towards diverse, sustainable, green communities. In an attempt to solve the problems of suburbia with an objective to create an environment suited to human scale; the concept of Traditional Neighborhood Design (TND) responds to local cultural and physical environments, contemporary transportation, developmental, legal and sustainability issues and identifies four criteria in the makeup of the neighborhood: Activities, Public Space, Circulation and Typological characteristics.

Learning from history and adopting basic planning principals from prior urban planners many are mentioned above; NTND address suburban growth that results from low density zoning ordinances contributing to pollutions, congestions, distant commuting to work, financial burdens, dysfunctional communities, environmental stress and poor quality of living and architecture along the horizontal expansion of suburbia. Neo- Urbanism advocates diversity and hierarchy of balanced mixed land uses, circulation web at the pedestrian scale, balanced neighborhood structure and distribution of densities.

Three elements of new urbanism are recognized by New-Urbanism to constitute the structure of human communities2:

1- The Neighborhood is the urbanized area that facilitates a balanced mix of most human activities within a ½ mile walk radius from a community service core to the neighborhood boundary with public routes and public service nodes. It is the area where humans spend most of their time.

2- The District is dominated by a single activity focused on providing public services to a larger scale of communities and neighborhoods. To accommodate the larger population and services and the resulting congestion; districts require

1 John R. Gold, CREATING THE CHARTER OF : CIAM and the Functional City 1933-1943. Paper to Oxford Brooks University 1998. 2 Peter Catz. Chapter I, Andres Duany and Elizabeth Plater –Zyberk. THE NEW URBANISM – Toward an Architecture of Community. PP. 17 -20. 2006. Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. . SUBURBAN NATIONS The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline of the American Dream. 2007 69

large public spaces and are fitted into the regional scale linking to the larger network of districts, transit systems and circulation corridors.

3- The Corridor, natural or manmade; connects or separates neighborhoods and districts, and at different scales and typology provide entries to boundaries and sub-boundaries, and facilitate functions that provide support to existing and new developments.

Moule and Polyzoides on New Urbanism proposed interrelated and mutually defined elements whose function responds to human activities, and are designed at the human scale to provide quality living environment and are represented by: Streets, Blocks and Buildings1. In agreement with Peter Calthorpe (1991) theory; Moule and Polyzoides (1994) reinforced the idea that streets hierarchical web system accommodates a variety of contemporary transport: vehicles, bicycles and pedestrians. Based on the design principles of streets and parking to protect pedestrian movements, streets provide alternative traffic routs, reduce neighborhood traffic and enhance diversity; however, the location of the street determines the dominant circulation mode. New-Urbanism see streets and pedestrian walkways for more than circulation spaces; but as community public spaces detailed with sidewalks, curves, furniture and landscape and identifies four considerations that enhances street character:

1- Pattern – reflect connectivity and continuous movement along the web system and is a magnet to mixed uses.

2- Hierarchy – designing streets that favor a balance of alternative transport in a hierarchy that influence street loads, types and distances to junctions to accommodate for both vehicular and pedestrian use and attractive rhythm of building form within each block.

3- Figure – designing streets based on their plan configuration and sections in relation to the proportions of building heights and setbacks from right of way, and providing for the shift in scale between streets and buildings by balancing traffic lanes with street loads, pedestrian crossings, horizontal and vertical street scape.

4- Detail – For the protection of pedestrians, designing streets using roadway geometry of minimum block radii helps calms traffic at crossings, and offering two way streets with landscape medians reduces crossing distance.

Blocks designed at the human scale with appropriate walking distance of 200 to 600 feet; provides for public spaces and buildings at the junctions where community activities, interactions and diversities are enhanced. The morsel of buildings that form the traditional block of mix uses and fitting walking length, within suitable mandated building heights and setbacks from the streets; create diversity in the activities and community life. The traditional block suggested covers a minimum of 200 feet and a maximum of 600 feet and allows for the incremental design of buildings that form the

1 Peter Katz. Elizabeth Moule and Stefanos Polyzoides. THE NEW URBANISM – Toward an Architecture of Community. Chapter II PP. 21-23. Also see David Mohney and Keller Easterling. SEASIDE. Making a Town in America, Princeton Architectural Press. 2006 70 block at mixed densities and encourages distant parking from the buildings. Moule and Polyzoides suggested a mixed configuration for allotting width and depth of building blocks to allow various densities at a ratio of 1:3-4 as appropriate for street geometric configuration to building heights to enhancing street-scape, and contrasting street landscape design.

Buildings are considered by Moule and Polyzoides as the smallest increment of physical growth that contributed to the design of New-Urbanism environment, and recommended that consideration to both building type and function be realized in designing for New-Urbanism. They argued that typology and functionality of buildings and designing for flexibility create adaptable buildings for future changes in use, and present attractive diversity, while reinforce harmony in neighborhoods which differentiate them from suburbia, and are desirable characteristic for a pleasant living environment. New-Urbanism favored the use of ecologically sensitive material, energy and construction methods in developing sites and encouraging labor intense and pollutant free construction, using low energy consumption.

Peter Calthorpe, for the past thirty years, promoted green and sustainable development, and was focused on designing communities that complimented the environment and well-organized living around a mix of jobs, housing and recreational, and around pedestrians to provide a mix of cycling, walking, private and mass transit. Creating environmentally and pedestrian friendly communities in a manner that saves valuable open space and environmentally sensitive land lead Calthorpe to designing cluster communities that catered to safe options of pedestrian and auto activities and inspired the concept of “Pedestrian Pockets”.

Balancing jobs, affordable housing and affordable transportation not only enhances a sustainable community, but contributes to a stronger regional economic base1. Pedestrian Pockets focus on creating affordable lifestyles while reducing residential development costs by presenting diversified opportunities in housing, community services and recreational spaces within the community. Bound by the ¼ mile walking radii from the center of the neighborhood to boundary routes; the center is designed to comprise a transit station including environmentally friendly light rail, offices and neighborhood retail.

Three goals of Pedestrian Pockets became an integral part of New-Urbanism:

1- Support alternative transportation including the private automobile. 2- Cluster mix use development to preserve valuable open space and environmentally sensitive areas 3- Provide an efficient development pattern that is affordable to diverse income.

To implement alternative transportation; a diverse network of roads must be designed in a hierarchical pattern of arterials and boulevards that supports access to walking neighborhoods and urban town centers within the pedestrian setting. (Fig 2.42-2.43)

1 Congress for the New Urbanism (2001). http://www.cnu.org/cnu_reports/Charter.pdf. 71

Town Center Village Center

Freeway Boulevard

Neighborhood Fig 2.42- Calthorpe Pedestrian Pockets Center Fig 2.43- The urban Network

The Bruxelles 2008 award ceremony for the Philippe Rotthier European Prize of Architecture at the Foundation for the Architecture (Foundation Pour L’Architecture Prix Europeen) was awarded to the first Eco- (ECC). An idea developed conceptually by Rene Schoonbrodt, Leon Krier, Andreas Feldtkeller, Richard Rogers and Salvador Rueda; based on reconsideration of the traditional European compact city as the best example of sustainable urban principles.

The idea of Eco-Compact City calls for developing defined settlements of organic neighborhoods and districts in balance with the natural environment, optimizing densities of the urban mixed-use blocks, distinctive to a web of open public spaces built proportionally to the social life of the residents. The optimum densities are to support the public service system of small retail and encourage efficient public transit. The city limits are defined by corridors and assigned 800 ha/Area with 150,000 inhabitants, the villages limits are by open areas assigned 410 ha/Area with 110,000 inhabitants, and the neighborhoods at 23 ha/Area and 5400 residents varied in individuality. The pattern of the ECC provides pedestrian-friendly surroundings that encourage community activities, safe pedestrian movements and the use of public transit against the private car, with the objective of reducing pollutions, maximizing the use of natural resources, and achieving functional and administrative autonomy.

Three major Eco-Compact settlement types are identified based on the activities and services they each facilitate to the citizens:

1- The Eco-Compact District: Provides for a limited range of human activities focused on major civic and urban infrastructure such as the Districts, University Districts, Campuses, Fair Districts, airports, intermodal centers, artisanal centers and industrial centers. Structurally; the center of the district facilitate orientation and human relationships, while managing organizations are provided

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for by recognizable systematic limits, and yet districts are interconnected by the public transit. 2- The Eco-Compact Village: A group of buildings forming a small organic settlement as a basic unit dependent from the urban center, and named after its social or economic characteristics such as a workers village, industrial or agricultural village. 3- The Eco-Compact Plaza: The open public and multifunctional space with frontage not exceeding 100 m. The Plaza hosts civic buildings such as libraries, churches and theaters, and is organically connected with the surrounding pattern of mixed use buildings

2.2-6. ECO-PLANNING AND DESIGN ELEMENTS AND OBJECTIVES:

Living in balance with nature and minimizing disturbance to the existing environment are the principal beliefs in the ideology of planning and design for eco-settlements. According to relevant studies in urban planning, the context of natural and built environment along with the five elements of urban planning, constitute the planning for eco-developments1, and is summarized as follows:

1. Context of the natural and built environment of the place and its surroundings. 2. Urban structure in its physical aspects in relation to the availability of land and land use regulations, the presence or scarcity of green spaces and the structuring of public spaces. 3. Transport of people, goods, information and knowledge within the place, nationally and globally. 4. Energy availability, distribution and consumption regionally and locally. 5. Resource availability, systems and flow. 6. Socio-economic activities and costs that influence the social homogeneity and economic process of life within the region, the city or town.

To achieve the necessary balance at the regional, community and neighborhood scales; eco-planning emphasizes the major goals for eco-settlements as they relate to the elements of eco-planning, summarized by this study as follows2:

1- Minimize disturbance to the particular space targeted for eco-development. Bringing minimum disturbance to a site is achievable through space saving and the development of high density mixed use functional structures, and through recycling of existing brown fields and abandoned structures. The realization of highest and best use of the space undermined the utilization of the spaces to be designed. For a city or town scale development creating a

1 Christopher Alexander, Sara Ishkiawa, Murray Silverstein, Max Jacobson, Ingrid Fiksdahl-King and Shlomo Angel. A PATTERN LANGUAGE – Town, buildings, Construction. Oxford University Press, 1977. Nahoum Cohen., URBAN CONSERVATION. McGraw Hill 2006. Kenneth B. Hall and Gerald A. Porterfield. COMMUNITY BY DESIGN – New Urbanism for Suburbs and Small Communities. McGraw Hill 2001 Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk, and Jeff Speck. SUBURBAN NATIONS. McGraw Hill 2000. 2 Philine Gaffron, Ge Huismans, Franz Skala with contributions from Rolf Messershmidt, Carlos Verdaguer, Jan Kunz, Rainer Mayerhofer, Csaba Koren, Kari Rauhala, Peter Raksanyi, Francesca Sartogo. ECOCITY – A BETTER PLACE TO LIVE. Eco- city Cleveland . P. 13, 16 to 32. 2009. 73

network of mixed use city quarters or town quarters limited by the users need for open green space on suitable sites, interconnected with the central urban infrastructure is likely to achieve qualified densities that minimize demand for land, minimize energy consumption and promote closed water cycle and social interaction 2- Minimize transportation demands. This is achievable through developing alternative transportation patterns that reduces contributions of undesired gasses and pollutions to the atmosphere; reduce dependency on the private car and provide accessibility for everyone to where living and work is brought together in a dense environment. Planning shorter travel distances for pedestrian friendly streets and public spaces supports the efforts to minimize the consumption of limited fossil fuels, and minimize disturbance by cars to the high amenity spaces within the sustainable city or town development. 3- Minimize use of primary materials and dependency on non-renewable energies through the use of place-based renewable power where consumption is at a balance with the natural production resources offered within the boundaries of the space. Integration of the built environment with the bioclimatic features of the space provides for long-term sustainability of the eco-design. 4- Minimize disconnect between municipal and regional resources by optimizing interactions of material and information flow within the region, and promote global communication networks. 5- Maximize respect for natural and anthropogenic context and environmental awareness to achieve social integration with the environment, encourage re- use and recycling of waste. 6- Minimize impairment of human health by satisfying basic safety and health needs, and structure a sustainable framework for responsible governance to create balance of decentralization within the concentrations. 7- Minimize segregation of cultural divides and maximize mental wellbeing, social diversity, cultural identity and community stewardship. 8- Minimize life cycle cost and realize a diversified sustainable local economy to achieve crises resistance.

The natural context of a region or a place is the overall landscape and bio-climate of the region or the place, to which the objective for eco-planning is to guard all natural elements within the context, including the topography, geology and atmosphere. A core element to Eco-planning goals for the natural context is to plan for the sustainable use of natural resources that surrounds the built framework within the natural context, and develop a landscape for long term economic power and social equity.

Sustainable forestry, woodlands, green buffer zones or shelter belts, meadows, hedges, streams, lakes, ponds, diversified rural and urban agriculture and eco-tourism are examples of sustainable eco-planning to the natural environment of the surrounding natural context. Within the city, the town or the neighborhood; planning for open green spaces within the cultural setting of the suitable site, and utilizing decentralized disposable systems for gray water or rain water collection for irrigation of green spaces, is an example of sustainable eco-planning of the natural context within the built framework. Multifunctional green spaces created on suitable locations within the urban quarters, in reduced automobile environment and accessible to pedestrians and cyclists

74 facilitate quality public spaces; encourages social contact and helps moderate the climate, hence it adds value to the Ecosettlement and helps maximize the bioclimatic balance within the . Maximizing the livability and connectivity of green public spaces is supported by providing active building frontages that encourage comprehensive community engagement, venture and care, that which facilitate safety and security.

For the built environment, and according to theories of sustainable eco-planning, the focus of eco-planning is in orienting the urban quarters or town quarters towards dense and transit structures that are visually integrated into the landscape. Increasing re-use of brown-fields and gray-fields reduces the demand for green-fields and material consumption, and planning for high densities in compact mixed use quarters qualifies for the costs of utility and public service networks, and encourages centralization of services and disposable systems. Infill development or densification within an existing place or the creation of high density quarters helps create a balance in residential, employment and educational uses, and in the distribution of supplies, health and recreational facilities. This involves the planning for appropriate provisions of spaces and building typologies that will facilitate for the placement of tertiary sectors within the neighborhoods, town or city quarters essentially providing for a variety of jobs within affordable transport distance. Infill developments qualify for economic concentration and decentralization of public transport, public utility services and disposal systems, the supply of daily goods and provide diverse opportunities for social connectivity that empowers and energizes the cultural heritage of the planned region. A balanced mix of land use in regions, cities and quarters is a core element of Ecocity planning.

Integrating the natural context with the built context is a core element of Eco-planning agreed on by sustainable and eco-planning authors as mentioned above, and it requires knowledge and understanding to the topography, geology, wind, sun, precipitation and seasonal changes of the region. This is in order to orient buildings in a setting that allows for appropriate exposure to natural light and energy, and appropriate natural ventilation and maximizing power conservation throughout the lifecycle of the structure. Consideration to structural forms and the conservation of construction material makes effective use of the natural resources in the region including clean and renewable energy, minimizing primary water consumption and impairment of the natural water cycle, manipulating recycled or recyclable material, incorporating green roofs and facades, making use of noise protection applications and protection form radiation. These are all contributors to indoor human comfort, and provide energy efficient, functional and sustainable living spaces for generations of users. Furthermore, the sustainable utilization of resource and material flow minimizes waste, emissions, effluents and resource shortage and establishes responsible management of natural resources.

The application of outdoor vegetation and water elements achieved through green terraces, vertical gardens and streetscapes, communal and private gardens supports a balanced bioclimate and helps minimize travel for leisure. It aids in stabilizing air pollution, reducing heat island effect and emissions from traffic, industry and unique climatic conditions through filtration and absorption. Greening provides aesthetically pleasing buffer zones for noise reduction and demarcation of circulation and multiple activities.

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Knowledge of the regional building resources both natural material and applications is an integral part of sustainable eco-design that accompanies eco-planning. Sustainable eco- design for buildings encourages the design of communicative, accessible, flexible and adaptable buildings. For construction, eco-design encourages the use of the local natural and adaptable material, and harmless finishes, in solvent and PVC-free installations utilizing local labor. This is in order to insure long term sustainable costs for structural maintenance, evolving use for future generations, and continuous job opportunities for the local population.

Air pollution, emissions of green gas and noise, habitat impairment, traffic accidents, health disturbances are results of transport and are compromises to quality of life in urban environments. Human activities and demands for centralized services in their locations are directly related to travel. Cities of short distances between activities, with satisfied basic needs and accessibility to services minimize the demand for transport; minimize the demand for primary materials and energy consumption, and minimize impairment of the natural environment and human health.

Leaders in eco-planning theories stress on alternative slow mode transport as one of the main objectives to the Ecosettlement. Slow mode transport is achievable through planning for short travel distances with minimum barriers, accessible to pedestrians and cyclists, and taking a positive planning and application approach to eco-friendly public transport systems. A positive approach implies planning for public transport systems that are affordable, powered by green energy and aimed to speed travel time while providing high measures of security and safety through the application of restrictive measures to make it more desirable than privately owned transport, and contribute to traffic calming.

To reduce the use of privately owned transport, the Ecosettlement planning for transport includes management approaches to parking facilities and spaces for commuters, service providers and residents and is associated with the living quarters and at a minimum for public spaces. Accessibility to public transport stations and stops within short walking distances to the users makes it more attractive to do with the private car. Goods delivery to individual purchasers, to neighborhood suppliers and to supply centers is managed through a coordinated goods delivery scheme which takes physical and restrictive measures that helps facilitate safe and calm environment, such as restrictions to the type, size and weight of delivery vehicles, and restrictions to delivery time in relation to rush hours.

The review on sustainable and eco-planning for urban and town development indicated that: be it a region, a city or a neighborhood, settlements thrive on socio-economic support, diversity, security, peaceful harmony, and achieving socio-economic peace is a core element of Ecosettlement planning. Maximizing mental well-being and community feeling, and minimizing impairment of the environment and human health is an objective of Ecosettlement that can be achieved only by satisfying the basic human needs for food, shelter, health care, education and income generation. Finding a balance between diverse and seldom incongruous interests and objectives is a core value of Ecosettlement, and achieving it leads to the peaceful collaboration of the culturally assorted inhabitants as advised by the above addressed planners. This requires the establishment of an integrated social structure in the neighborhoods of the Ecosettlement through social interaction opportunities in schools, places of worship,

76 multifunctional leisure and sports places, shopping areas, and integrated affordable mixed income living communities that provides for a range of social groups.

Realizing a sound economic structure is a vital element for a sustainable Ecosettlement as affirmed by eco-planning concepts, and is attainable by organizing innovative local economy, strengthening local sustainable industries and supporting competitiveness in all sectors of the economy. Planning an Ecosettlement takes into consideration the needs of inhabitants, businesses, industries and leisure institutions, and plans for a sustainable economic infrastructure of roads, parking spaces, and sustainable energy, water and telecommunication networks. Addressing potential conflicts of interest between businesses, institutions and residents, communicating and finding compromises to create balanced socio-economic vitality, will help facilitate mixed business and residential structures, create and secure jobs in an integrated cultural and socio-economic setting.

Creating affordable residential and commercial spaces encourages mix of uses in occupancy, services and social mix, and is achieved by planning for high densities which generates low land costs. Suburban settlements of single units are spread over a large area of land, usually less expensive in the upfront cost and yields low densities that are less attractive to economic activities, and often results in business cost to income becoming an undesirable compromise. It is discouraging to commercial activities, and results in long distance commutes to service centers. Expensive spaces limits the use to middle/ upper class population that afford high prices in the short run, and result in long term costly commuter services, hence planning a balanced affordable mix of spaces holds true for the Ecosettlement.

To confirm further the strategy advised by the authors, architects and planners and international environmental and urban development agencies addressed by this study, a review of the application and practicality of sustainable eco-planning on existing and newly developed settlements is conducted. The comparable projects and schemes reviewed carry characteristics of cultural diversities, socioeconomic, physiological and climatic coastal settings, similar to that of the arid Red Sea Coast in Sudan which is the focus of this study. The selected examples are summarized or presented somewhat verbatim so as not to distort the information.

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1- Tanzania: Strategic Urban Development Planning in Dar es Salaam

Fig 2.44- Streets of downtown Dar es Salam1.

“Dar es Salaam, Tanzania’s main industrial and commercial centre, has been experiencing rapid growth which has led to an equally rapid deterioration of living conditions. In the early 1990s, an overall framework for the future growth and development of the city was needed. The Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project (SDP) was launched with the establishment of different groups to develop action plans that cover issues of city expansion, settlement upgrading, air quality management, transport development, and public space enhancement. These issues were prioritized through stakeholder consultation and a number of demonstration projects started. These projects created the basis for further scaling-up to city-level of the underlying strategies. These outputs formed the basis for the Strategic Urban Development Planning Framework (SUDPF), which was developed through a three day stakeholders’ consultation, where different actors presented their present and future plans and projects and how they related to the 1979 Mater Plan. Working groups then mapped out areas of agreement and areas of conflict. Cases which had competing urban development and city expansion issues were resolved through consultations. Since strategies and action plans require spatial analysis, this meant the use of Geographic Information Systems to create maps that define areas with varying degrees of suitability for different activities, generating a composite land use pattern developed on the basis of coherent rules and principles. Several of the actions implemented - on transport, waste management and urban maintenance - resulted in marked improvements in service delivery and overall quality of urban space.

Subsequently, the approach was institutionalized both in Dar es Salaam, and nationally with other cities. As a result of Dar es Salaam’s engagement in this process and of the capacity developed, the city identified other areas of priority in the following years, such as urban safety and slum upgrading. An urban safety program was established, which led to several innovative initiatives, including the establishment of a municipal police force and revitalization of ward tribunals, as well as activities to empower youth. UN-HABITAT is providing technical assistance through the design of a Citywide

1 UN Habitat: Practices and Perspectives, Work at Country Level. URBAN PLANNING, A KEY ROLE IN SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT. P. 14. 2007. 78

Action Plan for upgrading unplanned and subserviced settlements by 2020. Funded by the Cities Alliance, this program enables Dar es Salaam’s local authorities to implement reforms necessary to conduct a city-wide intervention. After the preparation of a Citywide Upgrading Strategy in 2007, UNHABITAT worked on supporting socio- economic surveys and the preparation of a city base map which identified 73 unplanned settlements. Consultative action planning involving all key city stakeholders and partners took place. Currently, a long-term financing strategy for settlement upgrading is being developed.”1

2- China: Water Towns of the Yangtze River

Fig 2.45- Yangtze River Water Town site.

Fig 2.46 – 2.49- Renovated historic buildings of Yangtze River Water Town.

1 UN Habitat: Practices and Perspectives, Work at Country Level. URBAN PLANNING, A KEY ROLE IN SUSTAINABLE URBAN DEVELOPMENT. P. 16. 2007. 79

The six water towns of Zhouzhuang, Tongli, Luzhi, Nanxun, Wuzhen and Xitang in the Jiangnan region in an aquatic setting of lakes, marshes, streams and waterways along which buildings were lined up a few hundred years ago mostly serving as shops. Population growth, change in lifestyles and demand for services urbanized these ancient settlements faster than the local developmental controls, changing building use to mostly residential and impacting the historic structure of the settlements. In order to bring modernity and healthier living to the residents, sustainable planning was implemented in agreement and collaboration of both regulatory entities and resident communities by integrating efforts and responsibilities towards the common cause of sustaining the heritage and structures of the historic towns, inviting tourism and restoring the economy.

While the government funded the new installation of appropriate infrastructure and services, restoring the streets and waterways and reestablishing the original layout of the ancient towns; the towners maintained the refurbishing and rehabilitation of their properties to align with the historic features of the town, and the traditional characteristics of the buildings. To accommodate for community services and justify the cost of introduced public services; the mixed use building types and high density concepts were implemented through rezoning and allowing for shops, offices and residence to share clusters. To maintain the traditional character of the towns, original structures and context, material and building techniques were strictly observed. The restoration and urbanization efforts that started early 1980s were enhanced with a conservation and development plan that became effective in 1997, and with much success the six towns were declared historic towns in early 1990 and were included in World Heritage Sites in 1999. In 2000, Zhouzhuang received ‘Dubai International Award’ for Best Practice in Improving the living Environment, and in 2003 the project received Award of Distinction form UNESCO Asia-Pacific Heritage Awards1.

3- Egypt: Red Sea Unplanned Coastal Developments

Fig 2.50- Hotel Desert Rose Aerial. Red Sea Shores – Egypt2.

1 UNESCO, ASIA-PACIFIC HERITAGE AWARDS FOR CULTURE HERITAGE CONSERVATION. 2 Google images. 80

Hotel Desert Rose is one of many coastal developments on the Red Sea coast of Egypt, not too far from Shams and Marsas resorts. Most new developments were located on Wadis of flat topography, sandy beaches and easy access to the sea. The Red Sea coast is penetrated by wadis that are mostly dry water courses that flow seldom as a result of heavy rains that fall on the inland mountains causing sudden and intense flash flooding into the coastal plains. The long dry seasons made the wadis attractive to foreign developers who are unaware of the physiological complexities of the region at the time of constructing their projects.

A presentation on potential impacts of Wadi flooding on the Egyptian Red Sea coast was delivered at the ‘Sea to Sea’ second forum of February 14-16 2005 in Cairo. The concerns were based on a study in mitigating risks to coral reefs from land-driven contaminants conducted in the Caribbean as a coastal model, and the study demonstrated the inadequacy of the existing coastal zone management area to guard reefs in the Caribbean from anthropically increased deposit loads, and it emphasized the need to understand hydrologic process at the catchment scale. Field investigation of the Red Sea coast confirmed that wadis in their dry state appear as pre-existing pits with trouble-free opportunities for excavation, and were used as waste disposal sites by many of the new developments. The disposal sites observed included solid waste from restaurants and hotels, homes and construction debris, old car batteries and oils, paints and chemical products with high potential of contaminating the subsurface waters. Present high winds that exceeded 29 km/hr 30%-40% of the time relocated the light exposed waste to the shores. The discussion further explained that while the coastal area did not experience major flash floods for the last decade while developments are expanding; structures in wadis are susceptible to the sudden aggressive nature of flooding in the region, and that waste is subject to transport to the coast and may result in the fatality of the fringing reef. To that effect, and based on PERSGA regional conservation plan for the Red Sea; guidance documents were released by the Red Sea sustainable Tourism Initiative (RSSTI) of the Tourism Development Authority (TDA) of Egypt1.

2.2-7 HERITAGE, ETHICS, RELIGION AND SUSTAINABILITY

A- Heritage Sustainability:

An integral part of cultural sustenance is observing and conserving elements that are valued by the community as a moral practice or historical symbol of a nation. For planners and architects, buildings and settlement patterns is the evidence they seek to learn about a culture life styles, family and community structure and needs. Understanding the past contributions to the prosperity or disparity of present settlements, helps guide present efforts on redevelopment and helps identify indigenous and natural heritage conservation parameters for future generations. In most cultures and communities, disregard to fundamentals valued of the people is likely to lead disruptive actions and delays by the community, and may even result in the death of the

1 G. Mathias Kondolf, John Radke, and Inas Ismail. MITIGATING RISKS TO CORAL REEFS FROM LAND-DERIVED CONTAMINATS: RESULTS OF STUDIES IN THE CARIBBEAN AND APPLICATIONS TO WADI FLOODING ON THE EGYPTIAN RED SEA COAST. Department of Landscape Architecture and Environmental Planning, University of California. [email protected] 2008. 81 development, consequently it is to the benefit of new developments or redevelopments to engage all stakeholders, and make considerations to both natural and social heritage.

Heritage sites are significant because they help us understand the history of mankind, survival and the evolution of principles and technologies embodied in its fabric, settings, content, uses, and in peoples associations with the place. The value of a heritage to a certain community may not be monetary, but is determined by what it symbolizes in character of their history and traditions, and is best realized by systematic data collection and analysis to help determine the importance of different aspect to the site for the people. The cultural or heritage significance of a place facilitate ways to categorize methodically the value of the place aesthetics, historic, scientific or social, or a combination of depending on the assessment involved on its rarity, quality, representativeness and on the degree to which the place may contribute to the advancement of future research.

To address issues related to a heritage and to direct communication to the appropriate body and concerned citizens; it is advisable to identify the level of heritage obligations, statutory or under hereditary common law1:

- World Heritage - National Heritage - State Heritage - Tribal Heritage

Conserving a heritage is dependent on the determination of its value to one group of people or to the world in order to integrate management efforts of local, national or international communities to preserve the existing site and maintain it for future generations2. The size and state of the existing heritage site determines the monitory expenses expected to safeguard the fabric of the site, and the methodical site management commitments and practices will contribute to long term conservation. Focal points that contribute to the conservation of a heritage are: 1- Safeguarding the site, be it a building or a group of buildings, in their context including the boundaries of the visual landscape influenced by their presence. This may be accomplished by applying historic renovation techniques to structures, and establishing regulations limiting the use of buildings and sites to specific functions. 2- Retarding deterioration of existing fabric will minimize the risk of infecting additional parts of the site and minimizes the cost of replacement, and may be achieved through technical applications in restoration methods for building materials. 3- Restoration of the site or building to its original state by reassembling the different components through employing the components known to have been used in the development historically, without introducing new substance. However, it is important to consider up to date reinforcements necessary to ensure safety measures for future users3, and to help extend the life span for the site without distorting original context and features.

1 Dianne Firth.. HERITAGE AND CULTURE. 08 July 2008. www.yourdevelopment.org 2 UNESCO and ICOMOS Germany perspectives in preventive conservation and preservation. 1989 3 OSHA for health and safety. ANSI materials and testing. 82

4- Reconstruction considerations to heritage sites or buildings that have been ruined due to natural or manmade causes is likely to return the site to its original state, and provides the opportunity to introduce new materials into the framework. 5- Adaptation of a heritage site or building is feasible where preservation is unattainable, or when the accessibility of the structure or site is questionable to the health and safety of future users, or not accommodating to physically challenged users. Adaptation as a last resort must be achieved without disparaging the cultural significance of the site. 6- Zoning regulations help direct new developments within or near to heritage sites to flourish and contribute to the preservation of a historic site. Developments that provide business revitalization enhances place making and sense of community, increase property value and popularity of the place are valuable to heritage sites provided they ensure the preservation of the cultural significance of the site. 7- Management of conservation goals and use are vital to the sustainability of a heritage site, and is integral to the feasibility of long term cost effective conservation plans. It is imperative to establish long term management goals and strategies that include: a. The organization of good administrative record keeping. b. Clear and specific application procedures to the management plan. c. Identify committed groups and individuals with recognized roles and specific responsibilities in decision making and monitoring day to day management of the place, security and regular maintenance to ensure efficient long term conservation of the site. 8- Cost of conservation of a heritage site is justified by the long term return values of social sustainability, educational wealth and tourism opportunities.

Integrating the cultural significance of the place into the planning of a development brings a sense of pride to the community and generates their interest in not only the construction of the new development; but also in the long term sustainability of the place. Integration of heritage elements into new developments may be recognized in the application of historic elements related to aesthetic or structural use, or to spacial functionality, in balance with the development character, and can be encouraged by jurisdictions through facilitating incentives, bonuses, grants or any positive compensatory mechanisms.

B- Ethics, Religion and Sustainability:

Sustainable eco-planning’s primary goal is the integration of not only economic, physical and biodiversities, but also cultural diversities that impact the planning, design and sustainability of a contextual setup as a fundamental element in the fabric that constitute a sustainable community. Cultural diversities reflect the role and function of individuals within their families, clusters, communities and society observed in the principles around which each social entity organizes the individual or group activities.

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These principles culminate from grounded values, traditions and religions that become inherent in a society and they impact the way a community lives, and the way a community perceive value in sustainability. Great mainstream of world civilizations and societies including Animism, paganism, religious orders and scientific shift; have pledge allegiance to principles to which they turn as local or world crises and need may require redirecting in an attempt to make a better life. Many societies experienced shifts in political, economic, social and cultural evolutions to which they contributed, confronted, resisted or prevailed; and many developed clear directive to the importance of sustainability. Historic examples in planning shifts are evident in the transitions from ancient to gothic, to renaissance and contemporary; all associated with heritage of principles embodied in the subjugation implied by the authority in the shift, and impacted different groups lucratively or negatively.

Historically; ideological and theological principles represented the core for the evolution of different civilizations and societies literally and figuratively. Where those principles were symbolized by structures and spaces, they became focal to human evolution spiritually and structurally. Principles that were shaped by reason and rationality became a way of life and lasted longer with human evolution from one governed by theological edicts, to individualism and rationalism as reflected in the age of Enlightenment1 in Europe, and the emergence of influential scientific theories of Capitalism and Marxism that placed the individual at the center of moral values2. Secularization in the west disposed of religion to private entities and curbed it in many; but main streams in mostly Asia, Middle East and Africa continued to give primacy to secular values and recognizes the moral influences of religion in dealing with social issues3. Gardner4 in his writings argues that religion brings five major assets to sustainability:

1-“Sense of meaning and purpose 2-Inspiration to people to find a higher purpose in life 3-Population adherent to faith outnumbers their secular counterpart 4-Social capital5 investments of faith can be rendered towards sustainability both physical and financial 5-Social capital promotes social justice by providing basic needs and enhancing the physical, mental and social well-being of people”

According to the CIA fact-book, 2009; nationally concentrated and diasporically spread people of the three largest faith, Christianity, Islam and Hinduism account for 70% of the global population. Gardner believes they are a major force to be mobilized in support of sustainability.

The three heavenly books of Judaism, Christianity and Islam bestow responsibility, obligation and guardianship of what is created by God to the care of man. The Judaic rabbinic tradition recognizes: ‘See my work, how lovely they are, how fine they are.

1 M. Fitzpatrick; P. Jones; C. Knellwolf and I. McCalman. ENLIGHTNMENT WORLD. Routledge, London and New York. 2007 2 C. Taylor A Secular Age. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 2007 3 R. Hassan. A Muslim’s Reflections on a New Global Ethics and Cultural Diversity. 1996. http://www.Powerofculture.nl/uk/archive/Amsterdam/ukverslag_hassan.html 4 G. T. Gardner, Inspiring Progress. Religions’ Contributions to Sustainable Development, pp. 41-53 London, New York: W.W. Norton & Company. 2006. 5 Diesendorf, M and Hamilton, C. A Truly Civil Society. The 1995 Boyer Lectures. Sydney: ABC Books (Eds). (1997). Allen Unwin. Human Ecology, Human Economy. NSW. International Journal of Innovation and Sustainable Development. Volume I, Number 4.304 – 317. Indesrscience Publishers. 84

All I have created, I created for you. Take care not to corrupt my universe, for if you destroy it, no one will come after you to put it right’1. The Christian faith calls for: ‘The earth is the Lord’s, and every thing in it, the world, and all who live in it’2.

Islam, the dominant faith in Sudan, stresses the responsibility of mankind towards the environment. Many verses (Ayat) spoke the word of Allah clearly in regards to resources and conservation in the use of resources:

Surat Al-Anaam, on resources and conservation of resources:

(6.141) “It is He Who produceth gardens, with trellises and without, and dates, and tilth with produce of all kinds, and olives and pomegranates, similar (in kind) and different (in variety): eat of their fruit in their season, but render the dues that are proper on the day that the harvest is gathered. But waste not by excess: for Allah loveth not the wasters.

Surat Al-Araaf, on the benefits of resource and conservation:

(7-31)” O Children of Adam! Wear your beautiful apparel at every time and place of prayer: eat and drink: But waste not by excess, for Allah loveth not the wasters”.

(7-57) “It is He Who sendeth the winds like heralds of glad tidings, going before His mercy: when they have carried the heavy-laden clouds, We drive them to a land that is dead, make rain to descend thereon, and produce every kind of harvest therewith: thus shall We raise up the dead: perchance ye may remember”3.

The Quran gave ultimate responsibility to mankind to preserve earth and its resources:

(6:165) “It is He who hath made you (His) agents, inheritors of the earth: He hath raised you in ranks, some above others: that He may try you in the gifts He hath given you: for thy Lord is quick in punishment: yet He is indeed Oft-forgiving, Most Merciful4.

The Bible included 26 verses regarding respect for the environment. An example is:

You make him to rule over the works of Your hands; You have put all things under his feet, all sheep and oxen. And also the beasts of the field, The birds of the heavens and the fish of the seas, whatever passes through the paths of the seas5.

1 Rakover, n.d Eclesiastés, Rabbah 7:13,. 2 Psalm 24:1, Sandu, n.d 3 Quran p. 126, 129. 4 Quran, Surat Al-Anaam verse 165. 5 Psalms 8:6-8 _ Verse concept. 85

2.2-8 ASSESSING SUSTAINABILITY:

The shift to global environmental awareness and sustainability and the need to assess and implement ‘Green’ initiatives by environmental agencies and groups; a measurement approach was adopted by leaders in environmental conservation who acted under the title ‘Green Council’, such as the United States Green Building Council (USGBC), the United Kingdom Green Building Council (UKGBC), China Green Building Council (CGBC), Egypt Green Building Council (EGBC), Saudi Arabia Green Building Council (SGBC) still under consideration ….etc. And they are in agreement to the basic principles of sustainable development. European Union and North America in the front mandated an assessment system for ‘Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design’ (LEED), to serve as a ‘quasi de facto’ standard for green buildings and sustainability.

LEED measures performance of project types of new construction or major renovations with set values to assess six major areas1:

1- Sustainable Sites (SS) 2- Water Efficiency (WE) 3- Energy and Atmosphere (EA) 4- Material and Resources (MR) 5- Indoor Environmental Quality (EQ) 6- Innovation in Design (ID)

Sustainable Sites assessment measures the extent to which a sites is designed for minimum soil erosion, minimum waterway sedimentation, and minimum airborne dust generation during construction, and encourages pollution prevention activities while raising structures or landscape, and adhering to local health and safety and environmental protection codes. To direct development to urban areas with existing infrastructure, protect green-fields and preserve habitat and natural resources; LEED measures discourages hard development of farmlands, prime land at elevations lower than five feet above the regulated flood line or water table, sites within 100 feet of any watersheds, habitat for any species on threatened or endangered species lists, and former public parklands unless traded.

Sustainable development recognized by LEED, realizes opportunities for re-developing gray-fields and brown-fields through renovations and rehabilitation of existing landscape or structures at minimum footprint, by means of local environmental site assessment programs or ASTM International, particularly sites within communities of minimum 60,000 density or at ½ mile distance from residential zones of 10 units per acre density, within 10 miles of basic services, and maintaining barrier free access to pedestrians2. LEED identifies with community service centers that provides for places of worship, convenience stores and market institutions, schools and day care, community cultural centers and recreation parks, community healthcare and local craftsmen. The new or rehabilitated area to be classified as sustainable and green to be

1 LEARNING TO LEED (LEED NC Version 2.2). Parts 1 & 2. pp. 23-26. University of Florida, author of the present study participated in Treo Center 2009 16 hours Training Workshop. 2 www.astm.org also www.epa.gov/brownfields 86 planned within densities resultant calculations equal to and not less than 120,000sf/acre1:

1- Development Density = Square Foot (sf.) /Acres

2- Density Radius (catchment area) = 3√ Property Area (acres) x 43,560 sf. /acre

LEED measures supports reduction of pollution and land development impact by means of developing projects at maximum ½ mile walking distance to alternative transport including mass transit, or at maximum ¼ mile to public transport stations, and it discourages use of private automobile. Providing secure storage for private sustainable modes is encouraged to be at no further than 200 yards from building’s entrance, along with public facilities for at least 5% of building occupant, and promote use of low emission and fuel efficient vehicles to at least 3% of full time building occupants by means of providing incentives such as installing alternative fuel refueling stations and furnishing preferred parking for environmentally friendly automobiles2 and for community car-pooling.

Assessment to the degree of environmental conservation to the landscape context of a development is measured by the size of the area exposed to disturbance, and a minimum requirement suggests limitations to site disorder to exclude3:

 40 ft. beyond the minimum building footprint.  10 ft beyond surface walkways, patios, surface parking, and utilities less than 12 inches in diameter.  15 ft beyond primary roadway curbs and utility trenches.  25 ft beyond constructed areas with permeable surfaces that requires additional staging areas.  For gray-field sites, restore and protect a minimum of 50% of the site area excluding building footprint and invasive vegetation, or enhance building with native vegetated roof surfaces.  Promote biodiversity by providing minimum 20% vegetated open space from the total development area, and insure a vegetated area adjacent to the buildings’ footprint and minimum hard-scape.

Storm-water design is recommended to limit disruption of natural hydrology by reducing impervious cover, increasing on-site infiltration, and managing storm-water runoff. For existing imperviousness of less than or equal to 50%, it is required that a storm-water management plan be implemented to indemnify that post-development peak discharge rate and quantity does not exceed the pre-development peak discharge rate and quantity for the 1-2 year, 24 hour design storms. It is also recommended that the plan protects receiving stream channels from excessive erosion; maintain natural storm-water flows by promoting infiltration, and to maintain impervious surfaces by

1 Densities are measures of population capacities feasible to a defined space within an identified region that adheres to the requirements of the local culture. Please refer to local density requirements for smart growth. 2 California Air Resource Board. Zero emission vehicles. Also see American Council for energy Efficient Economy, and see Portland, Oregon, Zoning Code: Title 33, chapter 33.266 (Parking and Loading), and Institute of Transportation Engineers’ Parking Generation, 3rd edition. 3 LEARNING TO LEED (LEED NC Version 2.2). Parts 1 & 2. pp. 23-26. University of Florida, author of the present study participated in Treo Center 2009 Training Workshop. 87 specifying pervious paving, vegetated roofs, smaller footprints, storm-water harvesting, bio-swales, vegetated filter strips, retention ponds, clustered development and recycling of storm-water for non-potable uses.

LEED storm water design objectives are also focused on reducing or eliminating water pollution by reducing unreceptive cover, increasing on-site permeation, eliminating sources of contaminants, removing pollutants from storm-water overflow, and maintain infield performance monitoring data conforming to the acceptable means to the local regulatory bodies1.

Thermal gradient differences between developed and undeveloped areas (Heat island Effect) on a landscape context are induced by reflected radiation from structures and hard-scape. Sustainable sites consider minimizing radiation impact on microclimate, human and wildlife habitat and encourage the application of techniques that will adjust a minimum of 50% of the hard-scape, and or roof surface to pervious characteristics, such as ensuring mature shade within five years of building occupancy, exploiting paving material with solar reflectance index (SRI) of at least 29, implementing open grid pavement systems, or placing at least 50% of parking spaces under cover that has SRI of 292. Two categories of Heat Island Effects are identified by LEED as follows:

A- Non-Roof Heat Island Effect that results by high-reflectance materials on surfaces other than roofs, such as hard-scape causing warmer temperatures due to solar energy retention un-shaded areas. B- Roof Heat Island Effect from using roofing material having a Solar Reflectance Index SRI  78 for low-slope roof of  2:12, or SRI  29 for steep-sloped roof of  2:12; for at least 75% of the roof slopes in both cases.

Light Pollution Reduction is a sustainable site criteria focused on minimizing light trespass from the building and site, reducing sky-glow to increase night sky access, improving nighttime visibility through glare reduction, and reducing development impact on night-time environments. Technical consideration in the selection of light typology integrated with site light modeling techniques designing appropriate lighting for both site and building3.

Water Efficiency emphasizes limitation or elimination of potable water use and use of natural surface or subsurface water resources on or near the target site for irrigation. LEED stresses on the need to reduce potable water consumption for irrigation by a minimum of 50% from a calculated mid-summer baseline that takes into consideration the environmental conditions that influence irrigation rate and amount (Kmc), the characteristics, density and demands of the vegetation species to be planted (Kd) and

1 Guidelines for Management Measures for Sources of Non-Point Pollution in Coastal Waters, January 1993. www.epa.gov/owow/nps/MMGI 2 ASTM Standard E1980-01, Standard Practice for Calculating Solar Reflectance Index of Horizontal and Low Slope Opaque Surfaces. ASTM Standard E408-71 (1996) el-Standard Test Methods for Total Normal Emittance of Surfaces using Inspection – Meter Techniques. ASTM E903-96 – Standard Test Method for Solar Absorptance, Reflectance, and Transmittance of Materials Using Integrating Spheres. ASTM E1918-97- Standard Test Method for Measuring Solar Reflectance of Horizontal and Low- sloped Surfaces in the Field. ASTM C1371-04- Standard Test Methods for Determination of Emittance of Materials Near Room Temperature Using Portable Emissometers. ASTM C1549-04- Standard Test Method for Determination of Solar Reflectance Near Ambient Temperature Using a Portable Solar Reflectometer. 3 LEARNING TO LEED (LEED NC Version 2.2), Parts 1& 2. University of Florida, Treo Center at the School of Construction Education. Section 4, pp. 37-39. Also see ASHRAE/ IESNA Standard 90.1-2004, Energy Standard for Buildings Except Low- Rise Residential – Lighting, Section 9 (without amendments) www.ashrae.org 88 the demand variations between different plant types (Ks) planned for cohabitation, and the volume of water loss during evapo-transpiration (Kl)1:

(Kl) = (Ks) x (Kd) x (Kmc)

Irrigation Efficiency (IE)

Project-specific evapo-transpiration rate (ETL) = reference evaporation rate (ETo) x (Kl)

Project calculated baseline Total Water Applied (TWA) in (gal):

TWA/gal. = Area/sf. x [ET/in. ÷ IE] x CE x 0.6233 gal/sf./in.

For a sustainable site, LEED encourages the use of captured rainwater, recycled wastewater, and use of water treated for non-potable use by a public agency, and efficient landscaping material determined through analytical efforts on the soil, plants and high efficiency irrigation strategies. For wastewater technologies, it supports zero use of potable water in sewage conveyance, high-efficiency fixtures, dry fixtures and reuse of storm-water and gray water.

Energy Efficiency is an integral part of environmental conservation and is measured by the optimum energy performance of the building energy related systems, and the application of on-site energy renewable systems to at least 35% of the building energy, such systems as photovoltaic (PV) or solar thermal systems, bio-fuel based electrical systems, geothermal heating and electrical systems, low-impact hydro, wave and tidal power systems, and wind based power systems. It is also measured by the optimum performance of HVAC & R systems, indirect evaporative cooling, lighting and daylight controls and hot water systems.

Enhanced refrigerant management is critical to global warming and potentials of ozone depletion. According to LEED, refrigerants used in HVAC&R are chemical compounds that are stable but upon release, they impact the atmosphere by depleting the Earth’s Ozone layer (ODP), and contribute Green House Gas (GHG) to Global Warming (GWP). LEED advises against the use of Hydro fluorocarbon refrigerants (HFC) and (HCFC) and specifies a maximum threshold for base building HVAC&R as follows:

LCGWP + LCODP x 1,000,000  100

LCODP = [ODPr x (Lr x Life x Mr) x Rc]/Life

LCGWP = [GWPr x (Lr x Life x Mr) x Rc]/Life

Where LCODP is lifecycle ozone depletion potential, LCGWP is lifecycle direct global warming potential. GWPr is global warming potential of refrigerant selected, ODPr is ozone depletion potential of refrigerant selected, Lr is refrigerant leakage rate (0.5% to

1 LEARNING TO LEED (LEED NC Version 2.2), Parts 1& 2. University of Florida, Treeo Center at the School of Construction Education. Section 5, pp. 2, 4. Also see Uniform Plumbing Code (UPC) on wastewater technologies, and see Energy Policy Act (EPAct) 1992. Sections 1.6 – 1.0 89

2.0%), Mr is end-of-life refrigerant loss (2% to 10%), Rc is refrigerant charge (0.5 to 5.0 lbs per ton of cooling, and Life is equipment life (10 years or default by type)1.

Energy efficiency lowers operating costs and improves occupant’s productivity, and in order to ensure appropriate building and systems performance; project owner, design team and contractor are advised to establish energy efficiency design criteria, monitor and test the collaboration and performance of the engineered systems throughout the project design, production and construction phases. For building performance; computer modeling technologies are applied to the design phase to allow for different readings to the building form, penetrations size and locations, vertical and horizontal surfaces particularly exposed surfaces, and to building materials to evaluate cost and efficiencies. Energy efficiency assessment for LEED is guided by ASHRAE/ IESNA Standards2.

Included in LEED environmental conservation measurement system is the use, storage and disposal of building materials and resources as they impact directly the natural landscape, and ecological systems of the region. To minimize depletion of virgin resources and eliminate excessive waste, and retain cultural resources; extending the lifecycle of existing building stock is highly advised as it contributes to the conservation of natural resources and is maintained through:

1- Reuse of existing buildings through adaptation and rehabilitation, or through technical applications of parts or whole of structural elements such as walls, floor slabs or joists, roof decking, trusses and beams, and through reuse of nonstructural units and materials diverted from disposal such as wall and floor coverings and ceiling systems, cabinetry, doors and windows, brick and decorative items. 2- Employment of recyclable post-consumer construction materials from regional manufacturers 3- Implementation of construction waste management systems for the extraction of reusable and salvageable materials, to be directed to manufacturing plants. 4- Diverting construction waste from landfills and incinerators, and plan for reuse of excavation on the site. 5- Facilitating means for the reduction of waste from occupant use by designating accessible space for storage of hazardous waste and for recyclable collection system in coordination with waste collection agencies. 6- Utilization of technologies and strategies to upgrade energy and water efficiency. 7- Use rapidly renewable material for construction such as bamboo, cotton insulation, agrifiber, wool, linoleum, wheat-board, strawboard and cork.…etc.

1 LEARNING TO LEED (LEED NC Version 2.2), Parts 1& 2. University of Florida, Treeo Center at the School of Construction Education. Section 5, p 24. Also see International Performance Measurement & Verification Protocol (IPMVP) Volume III: Concepts and Options for Determining Energy Savings in New Construction, April 2003. www.ipmvp.org 2 ASHRAE / IESNA Standard 90.1-2004 sections 5.4, 6.4, 7.4, 8.4, 9.4, 10.4. and Prescriptive requirements on sections 5.5, 6.5, 7.5, 9.5 or performance requirements on section 11. 90

According to CSI Master Format 1995, divisions 2-10, default for total material cost is 45% of total standard construction cost in a bid. Material reuse is likely to reduce the cost of a construction bid by 45%:

Percent Reuse Materials = Cost of Reuse Materials ($) ÷ Total Material Cost ($) = 45% value on bid1.

Indoor Environmental Quality is measured by LEED in support of improving occupant’s health and comfort, and is focused on assessing performance of minimum indoor air quality including tobacco smoke control, indoor chemical and pollutant source control such as adhesives and paints. It assesses controllability of lighting efficiency and heat generation, natural day lighting and views for all livable spaces in buildings, and evaluates proper natural, mechanical or mixed-mode ventilation and thermal comfort systems based on the minimum requirements of ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 sections 4 to 72. ASHRAE Standard 62.1-2004 specifies minimum ventilation rates and indoor air quality that is tolerable to occupants. LEED advises the employment of technologies and strategies for monitoring the balance of indoor air flow and ventilation, tobacco smoke, and outdoor air delivery to carbon dioxide. Testing and monitoring of air flow systems is recommended to take place throughout the installation process of equipments, during construction closing and for preoccupancy building systems examination.

LEED recognizes the evolving culture human developments and of technologies that influence regional environmental sustainability and design of the living environment, and accommodates for future green buildings categories, systems, innovations in building and material performance and for potential new system management strategies.

SUMMARY:

Developing strategic approaches and methodologies to achieve integrated cultural eco- town and urban planning, based on environmental conservation and sustainability requirements contributes to smart growth and promotes socio-economic maturity, that helps support mixed scales of economic and cultural communities that solidify regional integrity. To achieve long term integrated and sustainable smart growth, it is necessary to integrate planning with economic and environmental budgets that meet contributory principles of sustainability and environmental conservation, inclusive of stakeholders and recognizing to cultural diversity. Mounting the appropriate planning tools and employing strategic planning management and monitoring techniques provides healthy access to land and resources, and promotes ecological conservation and market responsiveness.

1 LEARNING TO LEED (LEED NC Version 2.2), Parts 1& 2. University of Florida, Treeo Center at the School of Construction Education. Section 7, p. 12. Section 8, pp. 6 – 9. 2009 2 www.ashrae.org 91

CHAPTER III

Environmental and General Economic Data

MACRO AND MICRO ENVIRONMENT AND ECONOMICS OF THE RED SEA STATE IN SUDAN

3.0- INTRODUCTION:

At the time of preparing this chapter in 2009 – 2010, Sudan government and international institutions involved in the political and economic activities of the country were engaged in the establishment of different resolutions related to the referenda in preparation for anticipated separation of North and South Sudan. The data collected on environmental and economic resources was most recent to the period between 2006 (signing of the peace agreement), and 2011 (for the referenda). Hence a separation of borders anticipated by July of 2011 may reflect changes in population and resource statistics and on country border lines. At this time decentralization of government was at birth, hence GIS and national statistics was at limited access and composed of overall national configuration rather than regional and state and is reflected on the data provided.

Sudan is not only culturally diversified, but geographically and environmentally assorted and this chapter will highlight the characteristics of the geographic and environmental borders within which lay a wealth of natural resources impacted by the habitat activities throughout Sudan, and will focus on specifics of the targeted study area in the Arid Red Sea State, including ecological and economic regional data.

3.1- The Physical Environment of the Eastern Region:

The Red Sea (transliterated: al-Bahr al-Ahmar) is one of the 26 wilayat or states of Sudan, with an estimated population of approximately 700,000 (2000). Along with Kassala State, they represent the eastern region of Sudan. Port Sudan is the capital of the state, the main sea port for Sudan on the Red Sea, and the most populated city in the Eastern Region. The Halaib Triangle to the north of Port Sudan at the boarders with Egypt, is still claimed by Sudan; but has been under Egyptian administration since 2000.

A- Location of The Red Sea State:

The Red Sea State is located in the North East of the Eastern Region in Sudan, and covers an area of 218,887 square kilometers, bordered in the North by Egypt, in the East by the Red Sea, in the South by Eritrea and in the Southwest by Kassala State. The state is subdivided into eight districts (Mahallias), Port Sudan, Suakin, Gunub/ 92

Aulib, Sinkat, Hayya, Halaib and Toker/ Agig. The topography of the state defines three physical environments; the coastal strip includes Halaib, Port Sudan, Suakin, Toker and Agig, and is 50 kilometers wide at the maximum distance from the shores to the highlands. The highlands reach 1,200 meters above sea level penetrated by scattered valleys (wadis), and it includes Sinkat, Hayya and Gebeit. The plains extend to the west of the highlands into Kassala State. (Fig 3.1)

RED SEA STATE (Al-Bahr Al-Ahmar)

Fig 3.1- The main coastal city (Port Sudan) and towns of the Red Sea State1. Please note the overall map of Sudan is prior to the referenda borders.

B- Topography of Eastern Sudan:

Eastern Sudan is divided between desert and semi-desert, and includes rivers and wadis of seasonal streams that are sedimentary silt soil groups of high fertility. These are the wadis of Al Butanah between Khartoum and Kasala, the wadis of Al Qash Delta east of Al Butanah extending its sedimentary sand and silt to the north of Kasala and is characterized by seasonal flash floods, and the wadis of the coastal plains and wadis of the Red Sea Hills.

The plains of south Darfur, south Kordofan, Al-Dindir, Al-Rahad, Al-Butanah and Al- Gash delta are largely populated by nomadic and semi-nomadic live-stock herders, whose seasonal movements are controlled by the availability of grazing plains and water bodies much needed for their animals. The Qash River, which passes through Kasala, provides fertile grassland for grazing camels, sheep and goats for an extended period after the flood season, and the long term moisture provides for food crops and cotton. (Fig 3.2-3.3)

1 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Port Sudan. * Photography by others. 93

Fig 3.2- Sinnar and the Butanah plains*. Fig 3.3- Al Gash River in Kasala*.

North of Al-Gash is bounded by the Red Sea Hills which extends through the southern borders of Egypt, and they are characterized by a dry and cooler climate than their surroundings. A number of low wadis in-between the mountains are a water hold which provides grazing for the Beja camels post the rainy season. (Fig 3.4 – 3.9)

Fig 3.4, 3.5- Jebel Iwainat and the Red Sea Mountains1.

Fig 3.6-3.7- Jebel Iwinat is a major water source for the Bijah camel herders2.

*1 Google Earth Aerials. 2 Google Earth maps. 94

*Fig 3.8-3.9- Jebel Marrah is a seasonal grazing wadi – Kassala , Red Sea Mountains.

Below the mountains, the coastal plains, dry and barren vary in width from sixty kilometers in the south east near the town of Toker, to twenty four kilometers in the north east near the Egyptian boarders, and are bounded by thick coral reefs seawards. (Fig 4.10-4.13)

Fig 3.10-3.11- Jebel Alba – Red Sea Mountains coastal plain1s

Fig 3.12- 3.13 - Coral reef shores and Fringing reefs2 - Coastal zone of the Red Sea, Sudan3.

1 Photography by author. 2 Fringing reefs at the south eastern coast of Sudan – NASA photograph. 3 Google Earth aerials and Images. 95

C- Soils of Eastern Sudan:

The Eastern Desert is sandy and filtered with rocky areas and the Red Sea Mountains. Sedimentary silt soil group is found along rivers and wadis that sporadically discharge into the Red Sea throughout the north eastern coastal plains of the Red Sea State. These soils are also found at Toker and Al-Gash delta in the Kasala plains and the South East. This group of soils is characterized by high fertility as they are renewed annually, and are mostly farmed for cash crops.

D- Geology of the Red Sea State in Eastern Sudan:

The Red Sea Mountains were known to the ancient Pharos, Ptolemys, Nubians, and Arabs for their wealth in Gold and Jems, and they continue to be the most diverse resource for minerals, metals, natural gas and possibly oil. (Fig 3.14)

Legend: Tertiary Mesozoic Paleozoic Basement Intrusive

Extrusive

Fig 3.14- The Geological Map of the Red Sea State1.

1 World Bank Maps. 96

E- Hydrology of the Eastern Region and the Red Sea State:

The Eastern Region comprises four major water bodies which influences the livelihood of the Beja and their livestock:

1-The Red Sea is the main water body bordering Sudan on the East, and is characterized by high salinity and a wealth of aquatic life.

2-The Atbara River is the only tributary form the Ethiopian heights ,50 km north of Lake Tana flowing 805 km, and joined by Angereb River (Tekeze from Amhara region) in Gedarif, before reaching the Nile north of Khartoum at the city of Atbara. It is mostly active for the period between July and December, flooding during the rainy season up to 5 meters in depth and receding in the summer to but a few pools and ponds. (Fig 3.15)

Wades sporadic Dungnab runoff into the Red Sea Khor Arbaat RED SEA Suakin Toker Delta Tokar Al-Baraka Atbara River River Mareb The Nile (Gash) River River Anseba River from Asmara Rivers from Ethiopia flow into evaporating ponds

Fig 3.15- The main water bodies of the Eastern Region1.

3-The Gash River (Mareb River), flows out of North Eretria at the joined boarders of Ethiopia, Sudan and Eretria. It has a catchment area of 5,700 square miles, and an

1 Map by Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Diagrams by author. 97 annual runoff of 0.26 billion cubic meters. The Gash River flows 440 km into the Sudanese plains near Kasala where it dissipates into the sands of the Eastern Region. This river is characterized with flash flooding and is a cause for major natural disasters in the Eastern Region. The Mareb is historically known to be the boundary between the land of Bahr Negash (Tigrinya Kingdom of the sea), and the Medri Bahri (land by the sea to the north). 2001 witnessed a sighting of the first sizable elephant herds in this region since the Eritrean war of 1955

4-Al-Baraka River rises from northern Asmara in Eritrea, merges with the Anseba River in south Kassala and flows for over 640 km before reaching the Red Sea at Al Baraka Delta.

5- Particular to the Red Sea State are the seasonal stream formations which sporadically discharge from the Red Sea Mountains into the Red Sea. The major streams (Khors) are Khor Arbaat in the north, Khor Kilab, Khor Moug, Hoshiery Valley and Khor Nawarat south of Port Sudan. At times, these streams cause flooding that devastates the coastal towns, as in Al Gaif Suakin, and Khor Arbaat north of Port Sudan.

3.2- THE MICROCLIMATE OF THE EASTERN REGION:

The highest monthly and average of each climatic measure is considered for Kassala State, Red Sea State and El-Gadaref State in the following tables, taken from the years 2003-2006. Measures for the 2007 flood disaster in the Eastern Region is not included, but is observed in the final analysis.

Table 3.1- Monthly average maximum temperature by metrological stations (in centigrade degrees) 1

Station/Month Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. Kassala 34.9 36.6 38.5 41.6 42.9 39.3 35.6 33.2 35.7 Port Sudan 28.3 27.4 28.5 32.8 37.7 41.0 43.3 43.3 39.6 El-Gadaref 36.4 33.3 40.5 43.0 42.8 38.2 33.1 32.6 33.9 Station/ Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Average Kassala 39.5 37.9 35.7 37.6 Port Sudan 34.8 32.2 29.1 35.0 El-Gadaref 37.0 37.4 35.9 37.0

Table 3.2 Monthly average minimum temperature by metrological stations (in centigrade degrees)

Station/Month Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. Kassala 17.5 19.5 38.5 24.2 27.5 26.1 23.5 23.1 24.3 Port Sudan 18.8 18.1 28.5 21.3 26.1 27.5 29.9 31.3 27.9 El-Gadaref 18.7 20.2 40.5 25.5 27.7 23.7 21.7 21.5 21.9 Station/ Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Average Kassala 25.8 23.2 18.8 Port Sudan 25.5 24.2 21.0 El-Gadaref 22.9 21.9 19.3

1 Sudan Meteorological Authority. 98

Table 3.3- Monthly average rainfall by metrological stations (in mms)1

Station/Month Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. Kassala 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0 2.0 1.8 16.3 94.3 40.0 Port Sudan 0.0 0.0 0.00 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 El-Gadaref 0.0 0.0 TR 0.0 5.0 118.2 424.9 179.6 110.0 Station/ Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Average Kassala 3.3 0.0 0.0 Port Sudan 0.0 7.6 0.0 El-Gadaref 11.0 0.0 0.0

Table 3.4- Monthly average relative humidity by metrological stations (in %)

Station/Month Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. Kassala 39 36 30 21 20 39 49 65 50 Port Sudan 69 69 62 62 55 29 33 37 49 El-Gadaref 33 31 24 25 26 51 72 74 71 Station/ Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Average Kassala 37 33 39 38.2 Port Sudan 67 64 66 55.1 El-Gadaref 53 34 33 43.9

Table 3.5- Monthly average wind direction by metrological stations

Station/Month Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. Kassala N NE NE NE NNE S S SW SW Port Sudan N N NW NW NW W W WSW W El-Gadaref NE NE NE NE N SW W SE SW Station/ Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Average Kassala NE NE NE Port Sudan NE NW NW El-Gadaref S N NW

Table 3.6- Monthly average wind speed by metrological stations

Station/Month Jan Feb. Mar. Apr. May. June July Aug. Sept. Kassala 6 6 6 5 5 8 8 7 4 Port Sudan 6 8 10 8 7 9 8 9 7 El-Gadaref 4 5 5 3 3 5 4 3 2 Station/ Month Oct. Nov. Dec. Average Kassala 4 5 5 Port Sudan 7 9 10 El-Gadaref 2 3 4

1 Sudan Metrological Authority. 99

3.3- THE RED SEA PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT:

A- Geography:

A direct translation of the Latin name Erythraeum (Erithraean) is the noun Red used to reference the Red Sea, Al-Bahr Al-Ahmar in Arabic, and Qeyh Bahri in Tigrinya. The Red Sea is surrounded by Egypt in the northwest, Israel and Jordan in the North, and Saudi Arabia in the East, Yemen and Somalia Djibouti and Eritrea in the South, and Sudan in the West. The Sudan shores stretch to 853 kilometers, with a territorial sea of 12knots/meter (nm), contiguous zone of 18 nm, a continental shelf of 200 meters depth or to the depth of exploitation, and the sea represents the lowest point at 0. (Fig 3.16)

Fig 3.16- Countries bordering the Red Sea1.

The main towns and cities on the Red Sea coasts include: Aqaba, Arkiko, Assab, Dahab, Eilat, Hala'ib, Al Hudaydah, Hurghada, Jeddah, Marsa Alam, Massawa, Nuweiba, Port Safaga, Port Sudan, Sharm el Sheikh, Suakin, El Suweis, Taba, El-Tor. Of these Suakin, Jeddah, Massawa are the oldest historical ports on the Red Sea.

B- Salinity:

The high saline body of water covers the Great Rift Valley which extends from Sinai in the North to the Arabian Peninsula south covering a stretch of 2335 km long, 360 km (+190 miles) width forming a surface area of 450,000 square kilometers (174,000 square miles), with depth reaching 2200 meters/ 7200 feet near the center. Geological reports propose that the Red Sea continues to widen and is expected to become an ocean2. Salinity is the result of dissolved inorganic salts in seawater expressed as a percent (%). The salinity for ocean open waters range is 33%-37%, that of the Red Sea is 41%. The high salinity is due to the high evaporation, low precipitation and lack of

1 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia – The Red Sea Region. 2 Model on the Red Sea drift. John Tuzo Wilson. 100 major river inflow. The high salinity is a great concern for the inhabitants of the shores in terms of potable water and irrigation. Furthermore, and based on the UNEP reports, the water renewal in the Red Sea is slow estimated to exchange with the ocean every six years for the 200 m above the thermocline suggesting that it takes 200 years for the entire Red Sea to exchange with the Indian Ocean1.

C- Temperature:

The surface water temperature of the Red Sea averages 70-77°F (21-25 °C), and visibility of 660 feet (200m)2. Tidal range fluctuates between 0.6m (2.0 ft) in the north to 0.9 m (3.0 ft) in the south near the Gulf of Aden, and winter means sea level is 0.5 km (1.6mi) and is influenced by prevailing north and northeastern winds. At the reefs, the tidal velocities exceed 1-2 m/s (3-6.5 ft/s), and are mostly concentrated near Egypt, Israel, Saudi Arabia and Sudan. Never the less, the Red Sea temporal and spatial currents are low at 0.5m (1.6ft), and are also influenced by winds.

D- Winds:

The Red Sea zone winds are North Westerly in the summer lasting to four months with velocity of 15-20 cm/s (6-8 in/s), while the reverse in the winter draws tidal currents with velocity reaching 50-60 cm/s (20-23.6 in/s) with a maximum of 1 m/s (3.3ft). The seasonal and regional variation and reverses of winds are influential factors in the coastal developments and marine activities on the Red Sea Arid zone.

E- Precipitation:

The Red Sea zone is also characterized by high rate of evaporation and little precipitation, it holds a number of volcanic islands, very few water bodies on the shores that are mostly seasonal, and it has a limited flow relationship with the major Oceans which resulted in very high salinity.

Table 3.7- Beaufort Wind Scale Related to the Red Sea State3

Beaufort Wind Wind Sea Wave Sea Number Type Speed (knots) Surface Height State (feet) 0 Calm <1 Mirror-like 0 1 1 Light Airs 1-3 Ripples <1 1 2 Light Breeze 4-6 Wavelets 1-2 1 3 Gentle Breeze 7-10 Scattered Whitecaps 2-3 2 4 Moderate Breeze 11-16 Many Whitecaps 4.5 3 5 Fresh Breeze 17-21 Moderate Waves 6 4 6 Strong Breeze 22-27 Large Waves Develop 12 5

1Assessment of Land-based Sources and Activities Affecting the Marine Environment in the Red Sea, and Gulf of Aden. UNEP, Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 166. 1997. 2 Cambridge Encyclopedia Vol. 62. 3 The Library of Congress. Country Studies Program, US Army GIS.2003. 101

7 Moderate Gale 28-33 White Foam Begins 16 6 8 Fresh Gale 34-40 Foam Streaks 24 6 9 Strong Gale 41-47 Seas Roll 30 6 10 Whole Gale 48-55 Heavy Seas, Hanging Crests 40 7 11 Storm 56-64 Medium Ships Lost Behind Huge 50 8 Waves 12 Hurricane >64 Great Danger >50 8

3.4- ECO-DIVERSITY OF THE RED SEA:

This Biblical Sea1 is a host to numerous coral reef islands, along with extensions of coral reefs 3-10 km offshore parallel to the shores, and at times extending from the shores as the case in the south eastern shores of Sudan. It is the world’s most northern tropical sea with high biodiversities of fauna and flora, sea-grass beds, salt-pans, salt marshes, mangroves, and is a home to over 2,000 invertebrate species and over 200 soft and hard corals. 10% of the species are particular only to the Red Sea2.

A- The Red Sea Reefs:

Three types of coral reef are identified in the Sudan waters including fringing reef, barrier reefs and atolls, some are recognized internationally as Marine National Parks. Of those, Sanganib is an atoll of 35 km northeast of Port Sudan, Makoar Island and Dungonab Bay are at 176 km north of Port Sudan. Dungonab is a protected reserve for endangered Sea Turtles, Sharks, Manta Ray and resident and migratory birds, Sandpipers and Crab Plover3. (Fig 3.17-3.18)

Fig 3.17- Taila Coral Island north of Port Sudan. Fig 3.18- Green Coral Island South of Suakin

B- . Biodiversity of the Red Sea:

Biological and marine studies on the Red Sea coasts of Saudi Arabia, Jordan, Israel and Egypt throughout the1985 – 2000 confirmed over 265 groups of coral species4 with the

1 The Exodus 34:7 I Kings 9:26 calls this the Red Sea. 2 PERSGA – Red Sea Species list. 3 Dr. Osman Mohamed Saeed. Animal Resources Research Corporation, FAO. Corporate Document Repository. Ministry of Science and Technology, Sudan – September 2004 4 Sheppard & Sheppard 1985, 1991, 1993, 1997. Also Antonius et al 1993 & MEPA/IUCN 1987, 102 greatest diversity in the central region of the Red Sea and more than 6% are endemic1. The corals are a base for the ecological structure and many are particular only to the Red Sea and are depended on by aquatic life of sea species that forms the food chain in the area. (Fig 3.19-3.26)

The following figures are online images provided by different agencies such as National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) and Cousteau Society:

Fig 3.19- Clam Fig 3.20- Brain Coral

Fig 3.21- Fungia Coral Fig 3.22- Gorge Coral Fig 3.23- Sponge Purple.

Fig 3.24- Icon Starfish Fig 3.25- Fiji Lion Fig 3.26- Coral Plush Fish

Wallace 1999 and Veron 200 – DeVantier et al, in press. 1 Recent PERSGA Activities Addressing Conservation of Biodiversity in the Red Sea and Gulf of Aden. Ahmed Khalil and Zahir Al-Agwan. 11th. Global RSAP meeting 5-7 October 2009, Bankok. 103

3.5. THE RED SEA ENDANGERED SPECIES:

A- Endangered Marine:

Numerous species that inhabit the Red Sea or migrate from the Indian Ocean to the Red Sea shores are listed endangered by different international and local environmental agencies such as NOAA, Sudan ICZM, Hurghada Environmental Protection and Conservation Association (HEPCA), and PERSGA reported the Red Sea facing 30% endemism. According to the PERSGA Activities report, the Red Sea is home to 1350 fish species of which 17% are endemic, 7 turtle species of which 3 are endemic, marine mammals including a small population of Dagung and 15 cetacean species. Toping the list of endangered Red Sea species are the Sea Elephant, Sea Horse, Sharks (top of the food chain), Tuna, and five of the seven species of turtles that exist in the word today where they migrate seasonally to the Red Sea1. (Fig 3.27-3.28)

Fig 3.27- 3.28- Dagung (breeding mammal) and migratory Turtle of the Red Sea2 .

B- Endangered Green Canopy of the Red Sea Coast:

Mangrove forests are scattered along the Red Sea coasts and concentrated in the southern region where the soft bottomed substrate and the salinity is reduced at the points of sea and ocean water exchange. Where sediments accumulate in sheltered areas along the coast, salt marshes form between terrestrial and marine environments particularly where the few seasonal rivers and streams meet the sea water. They form the beds for plants that help stabilize the coast from erosion, and establish the foundation for a diverse ecosystem by utilizing incoming nutrients and provide habitat and food sources for growing organisms. The salinity gradient from north to south of the Red Sea, and the emergence of few deltas to the south influences the distribution and variability of marshes based on the species tolerance to salt3. A more luscious

1 Dr. Sharif Bahaa al-Din, Scientific Advisor to the NGO Nature Conservation Egypt (NCE), Dr. Agnese, Marine Biologist at the Turtle Research and Conservation Project at HEPCA. Indian Ocean –South East Asian Marine Turtle Memorandum of Understanding. 8 March 2011. 2 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia – Red Sea Endangered Species. 3 PERSGA Saudi Arabia, Sudan ICZM. 104 growth is experienced to the south of the Red Sea State near the Eritrean boarders. Eleven species of seagrass are identified in the Red Sea1. (Fig 3.29– 3.34)

Fig 3.29 – 3.30- Mangroves are more lush south of the Red Sea where salinity is less2.

Fig 3.31- Sargessum – Red Sea grass. Fig 3.32- Red Sea - Dahlak Cactus.

Fig 3.33 – Desert Flora Fig 3.34- Kef Mariyam.

1 UNEP: www.unep.ch/seas/main/persga/red.html 2 List of Red Sea Endangered Species. PERSGA 2009 105

C- Endangered Mammals and Birds.

According to most recent reports on the Red Sea coastal habitat by PERSGA, outsized proportions of land mammals and breeding birds are in pristine state perhaps due to low pollution rates recorded in the area; however, a number of species are labeled endangered toping the list are Ibis, Desert Vultures, Boobies, Sooty Gull, Senegal Thick Knees, Desert Iguana, Desert Fox and Gazal. (Fig 4.35-4.40)

The following photographs are provided online by PEREGA, NOAA, and Cousteau Society:

Fig 3.35-Ibis* 3.36- Boobies (Migratory)*

Fig 3.37- Sooty Gull (Migratory)* Fig 3.38- Senegal Thick-knee (Migratory)*

Fig 3.39- Desert Fox* Fig 3.40- Gazal1

*1 Listed endangered species. PERSGA Saudi Arabia. 106

3.6- ECONOMY OF THE RED SEA STATE:

A- Fisheries in the Red Sea State:

Fisheries of the Red Sea are a major economic element in the sustainability of food security and income generation for the towns and rural settlements along the coastal zone of Sudan.

Seven fishing zones are identified and supported by Sudan Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Resources and Irrigation of the Red Sea State, OXFAM and ACCORD1:

1- The Sardine and Sejanus Fishing Zones: Are Bays, Inlets and “Marsas” of single channel, bilobate and trilobite water bodies running perpendicular to the coast line extending up to 5 km. inland at a water depth of up to 100 fathoms. 2- The Mullet Milk Fishes and Lethrinus Fishing Zones: Are Coastal Boat Channels that extends for up to half a mile from the shores and are of three fathoms in depth. 3- Cranz Litharinus Plectropomas Fishing Zones: The fringing reefs that are parallel to the coast at up to 2 miles distance inwards. 4- Aprion and Sharks Fishing Zones: The Deep Boat Channels of depth up to 200 fathoms. 5- Lutjanus Bohar, L. gibbus, Variola Louti Fishing Zone: The Outer Barrier Reefs within the continental edge. 6- Agus, Cranx Mackerel and Tuna Fishing Zone: The Pelagic zone of 300 fathoms in depth. 7- Confined 71000 hectares Trawling Zones: Distributed into Delta Toker 29500 hectares, Gulf of Ageig 6500 hectares, Marsa Mogadam 3000 hectares, Khor Nawarat 2000 hectares and few other areas. Trawling is practiced by limited seasonal trawlers in the south and north parts of the Red Sea Sudanese coast following the catch of shrimps, lizard fish, goat fish and threadfin bream.

Export consumption is supported by a number of small exporters utilizing local fishermen, and by a few 20 tonnage capacity foreign trawlers whose major target is shrimps. Eight shrimp species are fished by the coastal inhabitants, bottom trawling and by foreign vessels. Cartilaginous fishes including 30 species of sharks and 21 species of skates and rays are also targeted by foreign seasonal fishermen, along with the cultivation of 280 bony fishes species. According to FAO country review, no industrial or recreational fisheries are present.

Mari-culture emphasis on oyster cultivation, historically targeted the exportation of oyster shells for button manufacturing, cosmetics, medicinal and inlay works. During the condominium rule, oyster cultivation reached 477 tons in 19232 from the Dungonab farms alone. Farming of Black-lip Mother of Pearl shell (Pinctada margaritifera) is a

1 Dr. Osman Mohamed Saeed. Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology, Sudan September 2004. FAO Corporate Document Repository. 2. Mohamed Saleh Dirar - History of Suakin and the Red Sea. Labor in Dungonab P. 19 107 major family farms industry in Sudan coast, along with the large investments in artificial pearl production. Black-Lipped mollusks are used to culture black Tahitian pearls and white-Lipped mollusks are used to culture cream, ink, silver or white pearls. (Fig 3.41)

Fig 3.41- Typical cultured pearl1.

Skin diving for wild Molluscs is also a traditional skill for the majority of the coastal population on the Red Sea coast. Pinctada margaritifera, Trochus dentatus, Strombus, Lambia, Chicorus, Fasciolaria and Syparaya spp are the commercial species farmed, of which the first two are exported to Europe. Salt water Mollusk (Akoya) are larger than freshwater pearls, smoother, rounder and have higher luster. Strombus Lambia and Tridachia, shell and meat are used for poultry feed and local perfume production2. (Fig 3.42)

Fig 3.42- Skin diving for Molluscs is a traditional occupation for coastal tribes.

The labor intensive fisheries by traditional mechanisms in the short fishing range and limited market outlets today, keeps the Sudanese fishermen subservient to the constraints placed on them by the buyers.

B- Agriculture, Horticulture and Livestock:

Low intensity farming is practiced seasonally by pastoralist and agro-pastoral families in the Red Sea State, but according to most recent reports in 20103, fertile soil of the region encourages efforts for high productivity to compete with the production of surrounding countries.

1 Google Earth Images. 2 Dr. Osman Mohamed Saeed. Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology, Sudan – September 2004. 3 Dr. Mustafa Osman Ismael (presenter). The International Donor and Investors Conference for Eastern Sudan, Kuwait, December 1-2 2010. 108

C- Mining in the Red Sea Mountains:

Mining for gold and emeralds is an ancient trade for the inhabitants of the Red Sea Mountains. The birth of many ancient highland and coastal settlements in the region is attributed to this old trade which reached its peak during the commercial voyages of Ptolemas with Punt 300BC. The Kushit trade along the Eastern Desert is discussed in Chapter Five. The gold rush in 600AD-900AD resulted in the first migration of the Arab tribes to Bilad Al-Habash (ancient Arab reference to Sudan), and contributed to the establishment of the first mining settlements on the highlands such as the towns of Sinkat and Gebeit. (Fig 3.43-3.44)

Fig 3.43- Town of Sinkat Aerial1photograph Fig 3.44- Town of Gebeit Aerial*photographs

The Red Sea minerals include oil, asbestos, chromites, copper, diamonds, gold, iron ore, mica, silver, talc, tungsten, uranium and zinc. Production of granite, cementitious products and gypsum are also current. Out of the 10 mines located on the north ranges of the Red Sea Mountains, 8 are active2. (Fig 4.45-4.46)

Fig 3.45- 3.46- Mining in Red Sea Mountains north of Musmar, Red Sea State¹.

Fig 3.47- 3.50-Augit (Volcanic Mineral)3. Citrine. Cuarzo-rojoe. Gypsum.

1 Google Earth 3D aerials and Images. March 2010 2 Library of Congress – Federal Research Division Country Profile: Sudan, December 2004. 3 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Volcanic Minerals. 109

D- Oil Concessions:

The first Oil excavation in Sudan was permitted in 1959, but Agip efforts in Darfur were not fruitful and only Chevron in 1979 broke through with major discoveries mostly around southern States borders. Following was a period of Chinese, Malaysian and even Canadian holdings to different concessions in the country. Oil concessions in Sudan are organized for production purposes, and out of the 27 designated blocks, the Red Sea State hosts blocks 13, 15 and 16 and a good portion of block 10 which is not yet awarded to any company. Oil exploration in the Red Sea State extends seawards along Sudan’s 91,600 squared km economic zone and along the 717 km coast line. (Fig 3.51)

Fig 3.51 – Oil Concessions on the coastline.

In 1995 the Red Sea Oil Corporation logging in the Suakin and Toker areas on the Red Sea coast announced successful logging that reached 9500 feet in depth marking prospective oil drilling zones1. Following that Canadian Arakis Energy developed the Heglig and Unity oil fields in south Kordofan, and joined the Greater Nile Petroleum Operating Company in extending a 994 mile pipeline from these fields to the Suakin oil terminal. With a design capacity of 450,000bbI/d, the terminal was completed in 1999 with the starting production of 150,000 bbI/d, now increased to 300,000 bbI/d.

The Red Sea State embrace Port Sudan, the only access for the nation to international waters and holds the main oil export terminal for the longest oil and gas line in the nation. Two major oil refineries are located in the Eastern Region and the Red Sea

1 VANCOUVER, Bc. Business Wire of December 13, 1995. 110

State. Refined capacity of Khartoum and Port Sudan refineries are estimated by OGJ at 121,700 bbI/d, The Port Sudan refinery near the Red Sea is the smallest with a capacity of 21,700 bbI/d only, a 2005 contract awarded PETRONAS the building of additional new refineries in Port Sudan1. (Table 4.8, Fig 4.52)

Petroleum Traffic 2007 (Import & Export)

Month Import Export Total JAN 84365 19253 103618 FEB 69216 9571 78787 MAR 52891 50744 103635 APR 71766 7220 78986 MAY 76566 44161 120727 JUNE 40279 35030 75309 JULY 77740 48798 126538 AUG 45340 49914 95254 SEP 30789 54960 85749 OCT 91337 59292 150629 NOV 47733 88016 135749 DEC 72330 83978 156308

TOTAL 760352 550937 1311289

Table 3.8- Petoleum Traffic through Port Sudan 20072.

*Fig 3.52- Petroleum Traffic 2007 – Sudan Port Authority.

*1Energy Information Administration, County Analysis Briefs: Sudan. September 2009. File:///Z:New CABS/V6/Sudan/Full.html 2 Port Sudan annual port activity data, Sudan Port Authority. When referencing this data please consider change in export data anticipated for post referendum. 111

3.7- SUMMARY:

The location of the Red Sea State on the only access to sea water is a priority to Sudan economy and security. The Red Sea State topographic variation from coastal eastwords to mountainious westwords within its climatic zone of the arid and semiarid characteristic, gives the State a wealth in a range of natural resources vital to the survival of the regional inhabitants, and are major contributors to the national economy. This versatility in natural resources in conjuciton with the State heritage enhances the state attractiveness for diverse advanced industries and technological developments, and formulate a base for sustainable economic and social growth.

112

Chapter IV

SETTLEMENT PATTERNS AND HUMAN GROWTH ON THE RED SEA COASTAL ZONE

4.0. INTRODUCTION:

The most primitive settlements that contributed to indigenous historic cultures are said to have been established on the fertile deltas and along the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates in Mesopotamia, the valley of the Nile in East Africa, the Punite on the coast of East Africa, the Indus Valley in northwest India, and the Valley of Yangtse in China, no evidence as to which came first. However; evidence of Homo-sapiens migration from Africa, 200,000- 100,000 years ago through the coastal lines, lead archeologists to suggest that the first Homo-sapiens brought stone technology to Europe and Asia as they migrated north and east along the shores of Africa1.

For the purpose of this study and to propose a wholesome sustainable Ecotown planning for Suakin, integrating the history and heritage of the Red Sea region in the planning process is critical to the success of future regional redevelopment efforts. Hence a brief is presented on ancient and most recent political history directly related to the nations of the Bijah contributions to the history of Sudan, complimented by a summary of the Bijah descent from Puntice, Axumite and Semitic heritage presented in Appendix II. The investigation conducted for this portion of the study, focused on the development of ancient settlement patterns in Semitic settlements in the Arid and Semi Arid lands of the Red Sea coastal regions, and traced the historic migrations of the Semitic tribes and their influences on settlement patterns on the Eastern Desert. This chapter will identify the similarities in the settlements patterns and vernacular, to the lifestyles and vernacular of the Eastern Desert inhabitants as a cultural group, sensitive to the environment and adaptive to the climate since pre- Islamic era, and will reflect on the post-Islamic cultural and eco-town planning of Suakin Island.

Suakin Island and Gaif town are of historic, economic and political value in the development of the Red Sea coastal zone, unfortunately in most recent history, the town underwent extreme economic, cultural and physical deterioration that followed its decline as a major sea port by the end of the Condominium rule in Sudan in early 1900s. This chapter summarizes the events that lead to the deterioration of Suakin town, and will reflect on the existing status and characteristics of Suakin Island and Gaif town, including physical, environmental and socio-economic factors that will influence the redevelopment of Suakin town and other future developments.

1 Translated by: Helen Atkins, Peter, Bontan, Authea Bell, Peter Black, Jacqueline Griguin Staolberge, Pieter Hos, Talaias Kommerell, Lain Mcmillan. Editeor: Peter Der Menuelian. EGYPT, THE WORLD OF THE PHARAOHS. English Edition 1998 Also see: Charles Bannet, Daminique Valbelle. Forward by: Jean Le Chant. THE NUBIAN PHARAOHS. Black Kings on the Nile. 2008. 113

4.1- Puntite Settlement on the West Coast of the Red Sea Region

Studies on Hamitic and Semitic origins by scholars such as Stuart Munro-Hay, H. G. Wells, George Elliot and Sir H. H. Johnson supported by Biblical verses, refers to the civilization of the Kushite (Cush) of East Africa as organized mariners, fishermen and traders, well established prior to Pharaonic era, and having influenced the civilization of the Lower Nile2. Petrie, in his latest excavations of Nagada II and Nagada III revealed the existence of human settlements and cultures in the Upper Nile Valley that influenced the civilizations of the lower Nile and Punt on East African coast.

The fall of Punt to the Axumite left little archaeological traces on the settlement type at Punt, however, historic mention of Punt in ancient Persian and Ganges archeological inscriptions portrayed the Puntice as an organized civilization of mariners and tradesmen whose activities extended to Persia and India prior to their engagement with civilization of the Nile Valley. The earliest documented records of Punt are of rock art writings and the records by Pharaonic traders from 3000 BC. These hieroglyphic referred to all of the lands in south of Nubia (Cush) as Punt and Yam. Punt was first accounted for by Pharaoh Sahure 25th century BC, followed by accounts from the reign of Queen Hatshepsut 1495 BC in temple of Deir el-Bahri at Thebes3. Registered efficient organized trade between Upper Egypt and Punt was portrayed on the walls of the temple depicting the type of goods, trade processions, and the type of shelter used by Puntite. (Fig 4.1 – 4.3)

Based on descriptions on the Palermo Stone, the Egyptian Hieroglyphics discovered on the 12th century Dynasty port at Wadi Gawasis north of Quseir in 1977-1978, and on Greco and Roman inscriptions; a number of coastal settlements including Bernice at the north border of Halaib, and Elephantine thought to be the Roman quarantine semi-island just north of Suakin Island. Hoffman findings4 and Fattovich Geo-archaeological map5 concluded, that the extents of Egyptian sails were no further than Toker6; the area where all goods demanded by Egypt were attainable. The area referenced is the Eastern Desert of the Kushite bedewin tribes. (Fig 4.4)

The relief in Dir el-Bahari showed the dwellings of Punt as domed structures on stilts, with woven reed mats walling the lower ground floor. (Fig 4.5-4.6)

2 Wells. Ancient Monarchies, Vol. 1. Rawlinson. -Philosophy of Ancient History. P. 52, Bunsen-. Prehistoric Nations – Chaldea and Cushite, P. 95-96, Baldwin. Outline of History, Vol. 1, P. 158. 2008 3 Konemann. Egypt The World of the Pharaoh – P. 185. 2008. 4 Hoffman in P. Harris I. (77, 9-10). 1973. 5 SAK supplement 4, 1991 Map showing the coast between Port Sudan and Toker is the ideal starting point for expeditions into inner Africa, as it provided all trade objects provided by Punt. 6 Toker Delta is located on the South East of Sudan coastal line, and is a historic agricultural settlement inhabited mostly by Bijah tribes. 114

Fig 4.1- 4.2- Wife of the ruler of Punt on Temple of Hatshepsut 1490-1470 BC. The plate carving of Queen of Punt fitted into the reliefe on Temple of Hatshebsut. Wilkinson 2000.

Fig 4.3- The Punt fleet of Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahari; on the left upper register the ships are loaded (from: Saeve-Söderbergh, T., "The Navy of the Eighteenth Egyptian Dynasty", Uppsala Universitets Årsskrift, 1946). Below the ships several different marine animals are depicted which could have lived in the sea near Punt.

Fig 4.4- Location of Ancient Punt and the trade routes from Lower Egypt7.

7 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NC_Punt.jpg 115

Fig 4.5- The Hall of Punt in the 2. Porticus showing 7 houses of the same type building.

Fig 4.6- Relief showing dwelings on stilts behind palm trees and ladder leading to the flat groungd. It also shows Myrrh trees and animals that shared the land. The rendering to the right is a depiction of the Puntice shelter.

Post-Meroetic era, and Axumite invasion of the wadis north of the Semian Mountains, and of the coastal Kushite region of the Red Sea (400 BC – 10th Century AD); the nomadic Kushite continued to inhabit the Eastern Desert, developed temporary settlement patterns linked to their seasonal migration following sources of food, and were based on the wadis of seasonal water sheds as in the Gash River banks8, and in Deltas as in the Toker Delta on the Red Sea Coast. The development of Bernice and Elephantine by the Greco Egyptian and later re-occupied by the Romans, were based on ship industries and shipping as they became major ports on the Red Sea Silk and Spice .

8 Gash River is a seasonal river tributary of the Blue Nile flowing from the Semian Mountains in today’s Ethiopia, into Wadi Kasala in modern Sudan. Kassala State and the Red Sea State comprises the Eastern Region of Sudan. 116

4.2. Types of Semitic Settlements and their Influences on the East Coast of the Red Sea State in Sudan

The information provided in this section is extracted from the study on history of migration and commerce between the West, East and North Coast of Africa, following the Trans Saharan Trade routes between Timbuktu, ancient Egypt and Ancient Kush till 1400, the name known in Bilad el- Saudan (currently Central Africa and Sudan) as “Darb el-Arbaein”. This also includes extractions from historic documentation on the Islamic Empire expansions into Africa. Detailed review on the historic socio-economic and political relevance of Arab invasions onto Egypt and Sudan, and relevance of Darb el-Arbaein to the Red Sea coast and Suakin is presented in chapter V and appendix III of this study. (Fig 4.7)

Egyp Northern Africa t Berber States Port Jeddah in Arabia Timbuktu in Mali Port Suakin

Port Adulis Fig 4.7- Map showing the most important Trans Saharan trade routes till 1400. Several states are highlighted, including the Ghana Empire (until the 13th century) and 13th - 15th century Mali Empire. Note the western trade route running from Djenne via Timbuktu to the trade entrepôt of Sijilmassa. Present day Niger in yellow, and extending eastward to Suakin on the Red Sea coast and to the Adulis south of Suakin.

The analysis conducted by this study identifies two periods of major historic Semitic settlements that took placer on the Eastern Desert of Sudan:

A- Ancient, Pre – Islamic, nomadic and agro-pastoralist migration from Yemen and the Arab South West coast on the Red Sea. Yemen and the Arab coast are of Mesopotamian, Asiatic influences that developed through the Indian Oceanic trade and the expansion of the Persian Empire that extended to ancient Egypt9. B- Post Islamic colonial settlements during the expansion of the Islamic Empire, the Ottoman and the Anglo Egyptian periods.

The first Semitic migration dates to the D’mt Kingdom in 8th century BC, prior to the Sabaeans migration ca 4th – 5th. BC. Tribesmen from the Nagran, Yemen and Hadaramoute migrated across the Red Sea to Axum10, and continuous migration followed during the Jewish, Christian and Islamic periods. Two Semitic settlement patterns are identified:

1- Nomad settlement of pastoralists and merchants who roamed the desert and coasts. 2- Sedentary settlements of agriculturalists who settled on Oases, Wadis and Deltas.

9 See chapter IV on Ancient Dynasties of Egypt. 10 See chapter IV on the Axumite Empire and History of the Eastern Desert. 117

1- Semitic Nomad Mobile Settlements on the Red Sea Region:

The nomad tribes who migrated from Yemen and south Arabia were goat herders and skilled merchants. The donkey was their mode of transportation till they adopted the camel11, and their livelihood depended on constant mobility.

High standards of discipline, devotion and loyalty to family and tribe are the essence of nomadic life on which their survival depended. Unlike the sedentary tribes, the bedewin sense of worldly possessions is limited to his tent, sleeping mats and covers, food supply and prized wife and children. “A man’s tent is like a God temple,” is the proverb used by Semitic, Berber and Saharan Bedwins for centuries, and is reflective of a transcendent culture within the indigenous bedewin tribes of North and Central Africa, and the Arabian Peninsula.

The Eastern Desert became the multicultural pot mix for all Bedewin trans-relations across the Red Sea from Arabia and Mesopotamia through Jeddah, Yemenite through the African Horn, Massawa and Suakin, Axumite from the Semian Mountain, and a number of African Saharan who extended the culture of Timbuktu and Central Africa through trade to Arabia and Mesopotamia through Suakin. These migrating bedewin remained as a subgroup who continued to migrate and inhabit the Kassala Wadi of the Eastern Region to this day, following the same traditional nomadic lifestyle and pattern of shelter.

Like most nomads, migratory Semitics preferred light temporary shelters, and the goat or camel hair tents provided continuous ventilation needed for the hot dry summers, and shelter from the North winter winds of the arid environment on the Red Sea coast, and was the lightest for continuous mobility. The family team work of the bedewin nomad extended to the making of their shelter, where men sheared the herds and the women weaved the tents and mats. The same type of tent is still used by Arab nomads in Saudi Arabia, the Gulf and Yemen. The tent provides for cultural spatial planning and comfort of the bedewin families and their guests12. (Fig 4.8)

Fig 4.8- Typical Arab Bedewin tent space planning.

11 Studies in Sudanese History, Yousuf Fadl Hasan PP. 12 to 94. Also Pre-Colonial Beja: Periphery at the Crossroads. Also Al-Baladhuri; op. cit., 239; Al-Maqrizi, op. cit., III, pp. 252-3; Al-Masudi; op. cit., III, pp. 42-3. 12 Kaiser Talib. Shelter in Saudi Arabia, PP. 25 to 30. St. Martin’s Press, August 1984. 118

A standard bedu tent indulged the family with the largest half for sleeping and food preparation, while men occupied the guests’ zone. An able head of household may extend his hospitality to providing an additional tent for guests, and is usually installed at a distance. The color and shape of the Arab tents varied by region depending on the type of animal hair, tribal stripes at times are used. When adopted Islam, in addition to their shelter; the Arab bedewin added a book of Quran to his box of possessions, and the functional spaces of the tent continued to modern day. (Fig 4.9)

Fig 4.9 Modern Arab Bedewin tent. Stripes, color and interior decoration varies by region.

Ancient mobile tribes of the Eastern Desert in Sudan shared ancestral lineage with Yemenite and Arab tribes of the eastern coast of the Red Sea, and with Bilad Al-Habesh. The Bijah lead a culture of division, disputes, regrouping and constrain of access to any stranger. The Bijah tribes or people of the Red Desert are pastoral and are of selective seasonal cultivation, however; they maintain close distance in the peripherals of major settlements and trade routes, as they kept a brisk with the spice trade route between north and south the Red Sea coast, and the land of the Zinj south of Punt. Bijah of the Dynastic era traded Myrrh and Puntice supplies for produce with farmers of the Nile Valley13. With the fall of Punt, the invasion of Axumite and the Arab – Nubian agreements, the Bijah interaction with neighboring settlements was subdued. The Bijah integrated small stock herding in the drier areas and cattle in the delta lands, in addition to wild grain gathering and fish farming at the seasonal watersheds along the coast of the arid Red Sea region.

Either sides of the region, the Bijah mobility followed the pasture for their camels and herds of sheep, goats and oxen, on which depended their diet; hence their mobility was controlled more or less by the seasonal rains, tributaries and deltas between the Nile Valley and the Red Sea. (Fig 4.10- 4.11)

Fig. 4.10- Hadendowa camel riders*. Fig. 4.11- A Bijah tribesmen*.

13 Pre Colonia Bijah: A Periphery at the Crossroads – Nordic Journal of African Studies 15 (4) PP. 479-487 2006. *British Archives – 1930 Sudan Eastern Desert. 119

The closest lineage to the Arab bedewin in the Eastern Desert today is the Rashaida and Zubaidiya who are also bedewin, but they rarely integrate with the Bijah. The Zubaidiya continue to migrate between Somalia, Eritrea and south eastern Sudan in Kassala and the Red Sea regions. The Zubaidiya maintain the goat hair weaved tent for shelter, at times where a longer stay is planned a mud plastered straw home is constructed. Layout of the tribal camp is related to the seasonal winds and privacy of the family. (Fig 4.12)

Fig 4.12- Rashaida and Zubaidiya straw and mud shelter 14.

Hadendawa, Habab, Hadareeb, Ababda, Bishariin Bedawiet Bijah adopted straw mats tents for shelter, an abundant local material and lighter to carry. The mats weaved by the women, are supported on the same structural principles of the Arab tent, spatially planned based on family comfort and security, oriented according to seasonal winds and performed in the same manner for ventilation and air circulation. The Bijah tribes continue to migrate between Eritrea, Ethiopia, Sudan east coast and wadis up to southern Egypt. (Fig 4.13)

Fig 4.13- Hadendawa Bedewin family tent. Note the pitched roof as the Arab tent formed by the central support structural wood member*.

Due to the consistent mobility of the nomad Bijah (Bellamy) tribes along Eastern Sudan, and due to the nature of the light loads they carry, there is little traces of nomadic settlements along the Eastern Desert. Due to the disciplined self preservation introverted culture of the Bijah15, little is known about the culture and laws by which the Bijah Bedewin survived thousands of years in the Arid Red Sea Desert.

14 British Archives – 1930Sudan Eastern Desert. *British Archives – 1830Sudan Eastern Desert. 15 Mohammed Salih Dirar. History of Suakin and the Red Sea, Also History of el-Habab and Hamaseen. 2008 120

2- Sedentary Semitic Settlements of the Red Sea Region:

Ancient sedentary Semitic tribes migrated from Yemen and south western Arabia to the eastern desert through the same route as their counterpart; many filtered through the Eastern Desert to the Nile Valley, intermingled with the indigenous tribes, and took the life of agriculture and fish farming as did the agro-pastoralist Bijah along the watersheds in the Eastern Desert. Post-Islamic Arab migration from the North as mentioned in chapter IV followed the Gold and Emerald mines of the Red Sea region. Historic Massawa in Eritrea and Suakin in Sudan, are the main sites that preserved the Semitic sedentary settlement patterns, typical of pre-Islamic coastal settlements noted in Mecca and Jizan in Arabia, Nagran, Hadida and Zabid in Yemen. Nagran is the ancient Biblical settlement of Beni Thaleb, the Christian tribe massacred by Dhu Nuwas (490-525 AD), known in Quran as “As-hab el-Ekhdude”16. With the exception of Jeddah that was established in the post Islamic era, and flourished on trade, the other cities were agriculturist. (Fig. 4.14-4.17)

Fig 4.14 – 4.15. 180ECE Mojin-tian historic settlement – Yemen17

*Fig 4.16- Jebel Bura Coffee terraces. *Fig 4.17 - Ancient Kohlan mountain settlement and terraced agriculture fields – Yemen Red Sea Mountains.

Agro-pastoralists are the second form of Semitic settlements of Bedewin in Eastern Sudan. These settlements developed concentrations along the Deltas of el-Baraka River in Toker,

16 Ronald Lewcock. THE OLD WALLED CITY OF SANA’. PP. 20-23. Also see History of Abyssinia, the conquest of Tehama and the Wars of Abraha. *17 Google Earth Maps and images. June 2010. 121 and el-Gash River in Kassala, and few in the Dungonab are north of current day Port Sudan. (Fig 4.18 a, b)

Delta Toker Town of Toker City of Kassala Gash River

a. b.

Fig 4.18- Delta Toker at el-Baraka River, and Wadi Kassala at el-Gash River18.

Arab miners expanded inland into the Red Sea mountains and established mining villages that developed into towns on crossroads between east west routes to the Nile Valley, and southern northern routes into the Northern lands of Arab and later Ottoman ruled land in Egypt. Wadi Ceija19, Sinkat and Gebait are said to have been mountain settlements that developed on Arab mining trade, where the Arab articulated productive tribal marriages (Nesbas). Gebait became a military base for the British garrison by the late 1800 AD20. (Fig 4.19) Town of Sinkat, a cross roads to coastal Town of Gebait to the north of settlements. Sinkat.

Fig 4.19- Bird’s eye view of Sinkat and Gebeit, two highland settlements on the Red Sea Mountains in Sudan – August 201021.

18 Google Earth 3D- August 2010. 19 Kheir 1982: 296, Linant 1881: 92, Hassan 1967: 39ff. 20 Yusuf Fadl Hasan. Studies in Sudanese History, Khartoum 1885 campaign series 23. 2008 edition. 21 Google Earth 3D maps. June 2010. 122

4.3. FEATURES OF SEMITIC SETTLEMTNS AND VERNACULAR STRUCTURES ON THE RED SEA COASTAL AREA

Semitic influence on the Eastern Desert was attributed to the migration of tribes from Yemen, Hadremute, Nagran and Jizan regions of South West Arabia. This study traced these migrations to the Late Persian Period 664-332 BCE, followed by the Ptolemaic Empire 332 BC-30 BC and the Byzantine Empire period 330-616BC. Arab and Yemenite groups continued to cross the Red Sea into the Horn of Africa, moving North and South along the coast line, or taking the wadis inland. The historic investigation conducted by this study attributed the reasons for these crossings to political and economic activities of different ethnic groups, many related to Biblical eras. A historic review relevant to these migrations and their interaction is provided in chapter V.

Historic settlement in Arabia, shares similarities in pattern and architectural style with Semitic settlements found in different parts of comparable climatic regions in Arabia, Mesopotamia and Africa22. The most common historic features for climatic Semitic settlements on the arid and semi- arid regions are:

a- Settlements are sited around water resources in oasis (wadis) or coastal locations. b- Open air public spaces are multifunctional economic and cultural centers. c- Dwellings are closely knit clusters adaptable for future expansions. d- Monolithic villages built under one roof in townhouse style. e- Pedestrian path are narrow shaded or covered, many times leading to dead end path “Zugag”, in dwelling clusters, and is uses for circulation and social events related to the extended families residing in the cluster. f- Mud and adobe are the predominant building materials used for dwellings, used in the form of sundried brick and plaster over brick or stone. g- Coral brick and lime stone mortar are common on coastal zones, and many are finished with carving decoration. h- Stone is used for monolithic foundations under mud brick walls, for walls and paving. i- Wood is used for roofing with woven reed or straw, and is used for skeleton structural support by mobile dwellers, and also for doors and windows in sedentary structures. Doors and windows are placed carefully to allow privacy to residents and neighbors. j- Buildings are planned around a central open space and are built multilevel. They are situated in relation to southern sun and northern winds seasonal effects. There is no apparent segregation of classes, however; quarters are defined for hosting different relations with the family quarters superseding in size and privacy, and so were women quarters. This is evident in both sedentary and mobile vernacular of the Red Sea Regions. k- Courtyards are a dominant feature in dwellings and are central in relationship to domestic quarters and family activities. l- Atriums are common in use where they provided circulation space on upper floors around the continuous light and ventilation chamber. Atriums also work as buffer zones between guest quarters and family domains. m- Wind towers or high level windows are used for natural ventilation and natural light.

22 Kaizer Talib, SHELTER IN SAUDI ARABIA – Academy Editions, PP. 39 to 116. Also see Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia on Semitic settlements. See History of human growth and settlements in Yemen. 123

n- Wood Rowshans are common and carried Turkish influence in post Ottoman’s Empire expansion. o- Food storage is planned for in the form of communal granaries, or as an attached space to dwellings. Spatial layout included family animals as well. p- Bathing structures are provided in dwellings or public bathing quarters.

Most common socio-cultural and climatic features of Semitic towns on arid and semiarid climates are:

1- Open air Multifunctional Town Center. 2- Multistory, mixed use building types, monolithic roofs and narrow shaded pedestrian streets.

Courtyard, Atriums and Wind Towered Structures. A- Open Air Multifunctional Town Center:

From a caravanserai station where tents were the temporary shelter in Mecca, Adobe dwellings with reed roofs were adopted and laid to surround the open space that enclosed the water hole. This open air town center continued to be the commercial center and focal point for most built structures around it till present day. (Fig 4.20)

The Kabaa expansion.

High density of Old Mecca Neighborhood.

Fig 4.20- The Kabaa is the focal point for the settlement in Mecca. This aerial photograph indicate construction progress for the redevelopment plan. The lower left indicate the remaining old Mecca buildings. Source: Google images October 2010.

124

Positioning a prayer place as a town or neighborhood focal center is a characteristic of most Arab regions in Mesopotamia, Arabia, the Gulf, North and West Africa. It developed over centuries and molded by many political and socio-economic influences to include souqs (markets), hammams (public bath), Khans (guest houses) and mosques in the post Islamic era, and included other services.

El-Finaa open air market in Marrakesh is an example of outdoor expression of life pattern in an arid climate, similar to Tatuine open air market in Tunisia, The communal pool central space in Hababa Yemen, and the Central Market in historic Omdurman in Sudan. These open air markets carry the same resemblance in the multifunctional activities that includes trade, social gathering, prayer and entertainment and have all interacted culturally and politically through history. (Fig 4.21 a, b, c, d)

Fig 4.21 a- El-Finaa open air market & Mosque Fig 4.21 b- Tatuine open air market in Tunisia*

Medieval Cistern Historic Fort of of Hababa Hababa

23 Fig 4.21 c- Medieval cistern. Fig 4.21 d- Aerial view of historic Hababa settlement . In Hababa, Yemen

23 Photography by Google 3D maps and photo gallery. 125

B- Multi-Story, Mixed-Use Building Types, Monolithic Roofs and Narrow Shaded Pedestrian Streets:

The expansion of the Semitic settlements through history necessitated the decentralization of commercial activity as was the case in Dynastic Egypt (See chapter III). The radiating expansions brought the multi use buildings into the settlements landscape, and lined the narrow pedestrian streets with commercial spaces within reach of the neighborhood inhabitants. Semitic sedentary merchants included spaces for their businesses as part of the dwelling, positioned along the streets, while the family was given privacy away from wondering eyes. This mixed use building types that developed out of necessity, provided a sustainable community brining services to the neighborhood and at walking distance to residence.

Semitic settlements patterns and building types conformed to the physical and climatic regional variations. The highland settlements that gave refuge to the mountain tribes in South Arabia and Northern Yemen, show unique pattern of close knit tall multi story buildings that once again lined up narrow pedestrian streets. Monolithic dwellings of mud brick or stone walls extended under one roof in a townhouse formation, creating clusters of building blocks, at times bridged by an overhead path which connected the women courters. High level windows penetrated the thick organic walls providing ventilation and indirect natural light, while protecting from direct sun exposure. A climatic feature observed in the dwellings and temples of Pharaonic Dynasties along the Nile Valley, and in the building styles and patterns in historic Suakin Island as well. The placement of external window openings and doors were usually coordinated to give privacy to neighboring occupants, and higher from reach even by passing camel riders. Once again as used by dynastic dwellings on the Nile Valley, the mud plastered slab over wood beams and reed thatch, created an additional roof top space for family activities, particularly in the hot humid arid zones where dwellings did not include ground open space. Traditional monolithic dwellings that presented examples of these patterns are noted in Jeddah, Mecca, Jizan and Asir in Arabia24 and in almost all of Yemeni historic and traditional settlements. This is also observed in the monolithic dwellings in historic Suakin Island and North Africa. (Fig 4.22 a)

Fig 4.22 a and b- Adobe and mud-brick multi-story, monolithic dwellings in Libya. Photographs by others.

24 Kaizer Talib. SHELTER IN SAUDI ARABIA- Academy edition. PP. 31-127. Published by: John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 1, April 1984. 126

4.22 c- Reconstruction of a first century farm house in Palestine where the roof houses 4 dwellings. The roof exhibits working space including olive oil production. A similar space planning characteristic of dwellings in ancient Egypt25. See appendix I.

Fig 4.22 d and e- Adobe and mud-brick monolithic town of ancient Amran in Yemen. Mud-brick and adobe plaster, punched high windows lined with lime mortar, and the roofs are used for household activities. Use of the roof space is a pattern noted in Dynastic arid Nile Valley dwellings too26.

Fig 4.22 f and g- Historic Mud-brick tower houses of Shebam and Waded in Yemen27.

25 Biblical Architecture. 26 Google Maps and Photo Gallery. 127

Fig 4.22 h and I- Dar el-Hagar highland settlement, Decorative elevations of lime mortar on brick, stone or coral block are unique to Yemen.

Fig 4.22 j, k, and l- Traditional multi-story, mixed use buildings and narrow paved pedestrian streets in historic districts of Tunisia, Jeddah and Hababa in Yemen. Stone and mud-brick are the main building materials. The streets were shaded by the tall buildings, and cantilevering Rowshans28.

Mixed use building types, traditional space planning, narrow and irregular street patterns of Semitic settlements were a climatic model in pattern and building material, sustainable and progressive in integrating population growth with services and community development.

C- Courtyards, Atriums and Wind Towers:

The courtyard and atrium are climatic features of vernacular dwellings in the arid and semi- arid regions of the Nile valley and North Africa, the coastal zones of the Red Sea in Arabia and Yemen, in Mesopotamia and the Far East, it is a climatic design that accommodated for the Arab Islamic culture shared by most North African and Middle East countries. Whether underground or on the ground, the courtyard or atrium served different environmental and cultural purposes, and was known to be in use in Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Morocco, Tunisia, Egypt, Jordan, Yemen since 3000 B.C. (Fig 4.23)

27 Selma Samar Damluji, The Architecture of Yemen, 2008. 28 VI Atroshenko; Milton Grundy, Mediterranean Vernacular – A vanishing Architecture Tradition. Publisher: Rizzoli, NY 1991. 128

Underground Atrium

Fig 4.23- Tatuine Tunisia – underground dwellings29.

The atrium is often surrounded by the main structural space on almost three sides, where the extended neighboring shelters left only the walls facing the streets uncovered, but shaded by the tall and close knit walls, and left only the roof tops exposed to heat. Professor Keizer Talib in his book “Shelter in Saudi Arabia”, identified two cycles of air movements through the atrium that contributed to temperature moderation in the courtyard homes30. The night cycle where the cool air descends into the atrium moving into the surrounding living spaces, helps cool the spaces and the thick mud structures of the shelter. These structures maintain coolness till the afternoon of the following day when the courtyard is exposed to the direct afternoon sun. The afternoon sun starts the second cycle of cool air rising from the structures through the courtyard, but the tick mud party walls take as long as twelve hours to transfer temperature. Some shelter adopted verandas and balconies to separate the courtyards from living spaces, providing an intermediate shaded area for circulation. This system of buffers and screens helps drop the diurnal temperature by 5 to 10° C, and in larger urban homes the atrium is repeated in different quarters to allow for even air circulation. (Fig 4.24)

Cool night air descends Afternoon warm air rises

Fig 4.24- Matmata Tunisia – underground dwelling atrium air circulation atrium.

29 North Africa Vernacular. Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia . 30 Keizer Talib, SHELTER IN SAUDI ARABIA – Academy edition. P. 52 , John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 1984. 129

In multistory building types, an additional function of the atrium is a means for natural ventilation, and a light well for upper floors. In rural villas and farm homes where properties are fenced, peripheral verandas are adopted to protect the external walls from direct heat, and provide external living space. The atrium provided air circulation for cooling drinking water jars that are placed strategically in the most shaded area in the atrium, and some jars are used to spray water onto the ground where the evaporation aided in moderating the temperature.

In larger rural homes where water was plenty, a fountain was placed in the atrium to help humidify the air, and landscape was adopted where the courtyards grew larger. Water features in the form of pools and fountains in ancient living spaces are observed in the Dynastic Nile Valley, Berber North Africa, Persia and Babylonia31. (Fig 4.25 - a, b, c)

a. b.

c.

Fig 4.25 a, b, c- The atrium functions as a light well and ventilation shaft. Atriums and courtyards are adorned with pools, fountains and landscape to help moderate the temperatures32.

Furthermore, the atrium served as a spatial definition for social and cultural household order. A courtyard or atrium is located central to circulation spaces between family living quarters, services and guest areas, and the upper floors interior balconies provided space for circulation and a buffer to the sleeping quarters. (Fig 6.26 a, b - 5.39)

31 Thomas and Hudson, edited by George Michele. Architecture of the Islamic World, Its History and Social Meaning. 1995. Also see Corinne Verner and Cecile Treal. The Villas and Riads of Morocco. 2000. *32 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia – Vernacular of North Africa, Morocco. 130

a. b.

Fig 4.26 a, b- The contemporary atrium is a center for social and cultural functions in North Africa*.

Hot air out

Prevailing wind in through high level windows

Air circulation

Fig 4.27 - Atrium functional diagram33.

The use of wind towers and high level windows was common in many Semitic coastal settlements along the Indian Ocean, where both functioned as climate moderator, wind shafts and indirect light wells. These structural elements and openings are placed strategically in relation to the northern winds and southern sun for maximum efficiency. (Fig 4.28 – 4.29)

33 Keizer Talib, SHELTER IN SAUDI ARABIA. Publisher: John Willey and Sons Ltd. 1984. 131

Fig 4.28- Traditional wind tower in UAE. Fig 4.29- Mud brick wind tower in Bahrain34. Prevailing wind

Prevailing wind in Hot air out through high level windows.

Air circulation

Fig 4.30- Wind tower in air flow diagram35.

Be it the tent made of woven goat, lamb or camel hair, or the mud-brick multistory structure, Semitic settlement patterns and vernacular buildings carried on the forms that facilitated the spatial needs of the community and family within their cultural values, and mindful to the needs of future generations in the family. Traditional sedentary and mobile settlement patterns on the Red Sea coast; handed down through thousands of years; responded to the physical and ecological environment in which they resided, and from which they employed sustainable resources for shelter and food.

34 Rmnathan.. WIND TOWER, AN ARCHITECTURAL ELEMENT OF LOCAL IDENTITY IN UAE. http://hubpages.com/hub/Wind_Tower_-_An_Architectural_Element_of_Local_Identity_in_UAE 35 35Keizer Talib, SHELTER IN SAUDI ARABIA. Publisher: John Willey and Sons Ltd. 1984.

132

4.4. MAJOR POST-ISLAMIC SETTLEMENT PATTERNS, ZONING AND BUILDING TYPES ON THE RED SEA COAST

The analysis of historic cultural and climatic town planning and architecture design on coastal settlements along the Red Sea region, confirmed direct historic and cultural relationships between the three main historic coastal settlements of Jeddah, Masawa and Suakin Coral Island in Sudan, the prototype settlement which this study is focused on.

The climatic and cultural characteristics of Semitic settlements established then, and their influences on the East African coast continued into the post Islamic era. Family privacy and segregation of sexes and functions was emphasizes by the shared cultural guidance, some interpretations of Islamic ideologies, and by the Ottoman architecture styles and space patterns, evident by the settlement patterns and building styles in the three ports. The similarities in the tribal traditional culture that practiced community functions and trades, family privacy and unity, and segregation of gender and household activities persisted till present day.

The following is an analysis of the planning and architecture of the three major historic ports on the Red Sea Region.

1- Jeddah:

In 646 AD, Al-Khalifa Othman Ibn-Affan established Jeddah in place of Al-Shuayba to the north as it presented a safer harbor, but Jeddah did not take a major role in the Red Sea trade till the 10th Century when the Fatimid rule in Cairo dominated the Abbasid of Baghdad and the Indian trade followed the shift to the Red Sea as the major trade route to the Mediterranean through Egypt. Jeddah became the major trade port on the Arabian hot- humid eastern coast of the Red Sea, receiving caravans from Egypt through the Sinai Desert, merchants and pilgrims from Africa through Suakin, Asiatic pilgrims from the Indian Ocean, and even Persian merchants abandoned Seraf and established residence in Jeddah36 . Jeddah thrived on fish-farming, boat building, hunting, commerce including the spice and slave trade, and on Pilgrimage in the Islamic period. By 1869 the Opening of the Suez Canal and arrival of the steam ship enhanced the importance of Jeddah which then became the largest stop between the Port of Eden and Egypt. The city port of Jeddah survived a number of declines during the Ottoman campaigns against Al-Saud and the Egyptian Mamluks campaigns which anointed the Prince of Jeddah the ruler of Seljuk Habash of the Eastern Desert in now Sudan, and Suakin was the capital for that region. (Fig 4.31)

36 Ahmed Ibn Faraj, Hijazi 16 century Chronicles. James Wellsted British Reports of . THROUGH THE ARABIAN DESERT TO A BEAUTIFUL LAND. Brigham Young University – Religious Studies Center. 1831. http://rsc.byu.edu/archived/book-mormon- authorship-new-light-ancient-origins/6-through-arabian-desert-bountiful-land-co 133

Fig 4.31 - Jeddah Harbor in 1938. Multi story coral brick and white washed buildings oriented towards the shores in a nonlinear grid37. Note the resemblance to Suakin historic harbor p 167.

The settlement pattern in Jeddah is typical to that of other towns that developed along the west cost of Arabia from North of Saudi Arabia to Zabid in south Yemen, and it was an extension to pre-Islamic planning of Semitic settlements and vernacular. Traditional family and community values, where many families shared the bread earning, household duties and upbringing of the children; influenced the structural pattern of the buildings layouts, building facades and the streets. The expansion of the nucleolus family dictated the horizontal extension pattern of the dwellings to accommodate for new couples and relatives, many times extending the family dwelling to a block area under one roof creating the townhouse building type. This is reflected on the irregular grid pattern of the settlement blocks and streets of old Jeddah. (Fig 6.32)

37 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, Jeddah Islamic Harbor 1938. 134

Non-linear, , dense old Linear grid pattern, new settlement in Jeddah. developments in Jeddah.

Fig 4.32 - Comparison of grid pattern and density, between old settlement communities and new developments in Jeddah. New suburban developments in Jeddah are planned for single family homes in smaller densities per fedan, in rectangular blocs and linear streets.

The pattern of the narrow pedestrian streets of the ancient port in Jeddah was set by the orientation of the streets towards the shoreline. The narrow streets lined with monolithic roofed multistory blocks were protected from the direct sun rays except in the afternoon, and from the direct effect of sand storms. Shaded and dead end lanes provided private travel path between neighboring family homes. As Jeddah expanded in the Islamic era, the streets radiated from the port and shores, but the Mosque (Masjid) in the open air commercial spaces remained the focal point for the community.

Most buildings in Jeddah were characterized by white washed facades, wooden doors and projecting decorative Mashrabiyas (Rowshans) made of teak wood. The Mashrabiyas extended over the narrow streets providing additional shade to that cast by the tall walls along the lane. The overall street and building blocks took a pattern similar to that of the Red Sea coastal towns, in their irregular building clusters that lined up the narrow irregular streets. (Fig 6.33 a-b)

135

a. b.

Fig 4.33 a-b. Pedestrian streets in old Jeddah are narrow and laid in an irregular grid between clusters of traditional townhouses. Note the high parapet and functional roof space, and the shaded streets.

The Rowshans (Mashrabiyas) maximized ventilation to the enclosed building block that lacked the benefits of courtyards experienced in the hot dry regions of central Arabia. The Rowshans functioned as bay windows which gave the interior additional space overlooking the exterior, while providing privacy, ventilation and filtered light into the living space. (Fig 4.34 a-b)

a. b

Fig 4.34- Historic houses of the coastal town of Al-Balad, and the historic town houses in Yanbu Al-Bahr.

Rowshans in the Islamic era became a common feature in most Ottoman territories; variation is minor to the decorative styles, material and aesthetic trends of each region, and Suakin Island took the strongest resemblance to Jeddah both in the layout pattern and building styles. (Fig 4.35- a, b, c, d)

136

a. Cairo b. Tunisia c. Syria d. Jeddah

Fig 4.35 a – d. Examples of Rowshans aesthetics variations between coastal regions of the Ottoman territories.

Kaiser Talib, in his book Shelter in Saudi Arabia described and depicted the standard traditional weave and units of the Rowshans in Jeddah, influenced by the craftsmanship of settlers from Persia, India and Yemen after Jeddah diverted the spice trade road from the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean. Greenlaw, on the other hand, depicted those of Suakin Island and was based on the Jeddah example. Both depictions and most current photographs indicate resemblance between the vernacular buildings of Jeddah and Suakin. (Fig 4.36 – 4.39)

Fig 4.36-4.37- Decorative and ventilated wooden facades of houses in Jeddah as depicted by Keizer Talib38.

Fig 4.38-4.39- Balcony and overhang Rowshans and ventilated wooden facades of rich Jeddah merchants as depicted by Keizer Talib*.

*38 Keizer Talib. SHERLTE IN SAUDI ARABIA, Academy Editions, Martin’s Press. PP70 – 71 John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 1984. 137

Dwellings on the Red Sea coastal zones were built of thick coral block on monolithic stone foundations, plastered with lime mortar, at times decorated with moldings and carving. A characteristic common to most settlements in Arabian coastal towns starting from Jeddah moving south to the areas of Northern Yemen, and crossing into Masawa heading north to Suakin. Another common feature is the wood beams that supported the roof layers of mud and crushed mud-brick with lime mortar (Khafjae) on reed matting or wood planks. The plan layout of most dwellings consisted of the typical central atrium which buffered the ground floor frontage to accommodate guests, the service quarters which included food storage and hammams to the more private and larger space to the rear. The upper floors provided ample privacy and circulation for the family and women quarters. The roof wood beams are left cantilevering on the exterior for future expansions that came with the growth in the family39. (Fig 4.40-4.41)

Fig 4.40-4.41- The coral block buildings and wood Rowshans of Jeddah40.

Most physical planning for public spaces and dwellings in the Middle East and North African regions responded to the arid and semi-arid climate and microclimate of each respective region, and to the Bedawiet and Sedentary Semitic cultural values, evident by archaeological and historic documentations41. Many of the aesthetic features of Jeddah’s historic buildings were an adoption and adaptation to climatic moderation techniques brought by Far Eastern craftsmanship and labor such as the Indian wood Rowshans and doors, and the decorative door carvings that resembled Persian, Indian, and Byzantine models and techniques.

39 Keizer Talib. SHELTER IN SAUDI ARABIA, Academy Editions, John Wiley and Sons Ltd. 1984. 40 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia . Vernacular of Saudi Arabia. 41 Ernst J. Grube, James Dickie, Oleg Grabar, Elenor Sims, Ronald Lewcock, Dalu Jones and Guy T. Petherbridge. Edited by: George Michell. ARCHITECTURE OF THE ISLAMIC WORLD - Its History and Social Meaning, with a complete survey on key monuments. Also see David Talbot Rice. ISLAMIC ART. Published by: Thames and Hudson. 30 Bloomsbury Street London. WC1B 3QP. 138

II- Massawa:

Abyssinia came in contact with Islam at its dawn in 615 AD when new Muslim believers fled from Mecca to its emperor Negashi in fear of prosecution, and Abyssinians became one of the first non-Arab ethnic groups companions to Profit Mohammed (peace be upon him). The history of Abyssinia and lineage to the Bijah of the Eastern Desert is described in Appendix I & II, and reflects on the Semitic Jewish and Christian heritage of the evolving ancient nations and empires that ruled over the West Coast of the Red Sea and the African Horn in Aden. Abyssinia’s history of royal and tribal feuds extended to military incursions on Arabian ports along the Red Sea, and resulted in repeated take over by Muslim forces of the Dahlak Islands, the last in the 8th century by the Umayyad including Massawa and made it a main port in place of Adulis. Port Masawa brought together diverse cultures, professions and craftsmanship to the Dahlak and the main land evident by the Dahlak graveyards that listed names, roles and status of the once living42, and it is recorded that by early 20th century more than twenty public and private mosques were established including Hanafi Mosque and Sheikh Hammad complex, and the Ottomans established Sharia Court as the central local institute for regulating and preserving Islamic principles in Massawa. (Fig 4.42)

Fig 4.42- Massawa Island Aerial. Photography by Google Earth images.

Massawa through history suffered cycles of violent sacking and fires that destroyed ancient structures. The most recent history of Massawa is apparent in the architecture derived from its Turkish, Egyptian and Italian heritage testifying to its long history of colonial occupation and prosperity. The building types and patterns in Massawa share similarities in design, materials and construction techniques to sister ports on the Red Sea particularly to Jeddah and Suakin, present in the irregular street patterns that radiated from the center in Massawa island, the cluster of mixed use buildings with central courtyards, and in the use of coral block, trilobite arches and doorways, trellised balconies and Rowshans, and in the wood carved lintels and window frames. (Fig 4.43– 4.46)

42 The Authorities of the city of Massawa in Eritrea. MASSAWA AND THE RED SEA – History and Culture. Organized by: The Alliance Francaise in Asmara with the assistance of the Division of Cultural Heritage of UNESCO. Pp. 46-53. 2008 139

Fig 4.43- Fig 4.44-

Fig 4.45- Fig 4.46-

Fig 4.43– 4.46- Islamic, Ottoman settlement of historic Masawa in Eritrea. (second city of Ottoman Sanjak Habesh on the Eastern Desert). Photography by Google photo gallery.

The planning pattern of late 1800 – early 1900 also exhibited similarities in the irregular pattern, narrow streets, almost radial to the core of the island, lined with multistory mixed use building types, and open multifunctional public spaces. (Fig 4.47)

Fig 4.47- Massawa settlement pattern – aerial. Note the similarity in planning pattern to that of Suakin Island. Photography by 3D Google Earth images.

During the administration of Khedive Ismail in 1865, Massawa became the second largest city on the Red Sea coast, for Sanjak Habesh of the Mamluks (see Ottoman rule over the Eastern Desert Appendix III), and experienced two decades of major urban construction and public works. The promotion of agriculture lead to high migration of merchant and labor that resulted in population growth, and in 1870 governor Werner Munzinger ensured linking Massawa to Tawoled by a causeway and fresh water aqueducts. A succession of violent events related to Italian and British successive rules, escalated competition between the British and French on colonial expansion, the end of WWII, the building of the Suez Canal and the Industrial Revolution all lead to the deterioration of livelihood and economics of Massawa and its place as an active port43.

43 The Authorities of the city of Massawa in Eritrea. Organized by: The Alliance Francaise in Asmara, with the assistance of the Division of Cultural Heritage of UNESCO. MASSAWA AND THE RED SEA. History and Culture. 140

III- SUAKIN ISLAND:

Suakin (Portus Evangelon*)

Fig 4.48- Ptolemy Greco-Roman world map 150 AD redrawn 1474 – British Archives.

1- Islamization, rise and fall of Ancient Suakin :

Located on the western coast of the Red Sea at 19 º – 7º N., 37 º – 20 º W., 720 miles south of Suez, 200 miles to Jeddah by sea, and 285 miles north of Massawa within an inlet from the Red Sea. Suakin was an ancient main port on the Eastern Desert and according to the Old Hebrew bible, it hosted the commercial fleets of King Solomon since the 10th century BCE44. Legend has it “that Suakin was once a residence for the “Jinni’s”, but a voyage from Massawa sent by an Abyssinian emperor loaded with gifts including seventy Abyssinian beauties, directed to the King Solomon in Jerusalem took an unplanned long stop in Suakin during which the Jinni’s took interest in the 70 beauties. After a long stay in Suakin, the voyage continued to Jerusalem but arrived with those beauties in inception and the fleet blamed the Jinni’s for the wrong doing. In return King Solomon exiled the beauties to Suakin and condemned the island to become a prison for all his enemies”. Ironically, the Umayyad condemned their oppositions to the Dahlak Islands, the Fung condemned their

Pp. 54 - 65 44 BOOK OF KINGS. Genesis 10:1 *Portus Evangelon is the Last Roman port on the Red Sea western coast. On its remains, Suakin emerged. SUAKIN CORAL ISLAND EXHIBITION at St. John’s College Library – Cambridge. Mallinson Architects http://www.thearchitecturestore.co.uk/Suakin/Suakin1.html 141 oppositions to Suakin as well, and the Egyptian Mamluks condemned the Orabi’s to Suakin in 188245.

The ancient western coast of the Red Sea extended from Punt south of today Eritrea to the North at Sinai, inhabited by the Bijah nations who followed their camels and herds to seasonal pasture, and intermingled with pastoral nomadic tribes at the Nile tributaries that descended from the Abyssinian Mountains, and were governed by tribal common laws and ethics. As did Massawa, ancient Suakin experienced successive political and economic events that kept its status fluctuating between high economic advancement and deterioration, related to the interest of occupying forces known to have manipulated the port through durations of prosperity and retreat, including the Greek, Pharaonic Dynasties and Romans. With Islamic forces taking over around 615 AD, the Umayyad taking over Massawa; and the rediscovery of Gold along the Red Sea; Arab migration to the Eastern Desert increased resulting in heightened aggressions between the two ending with forced curbing to the revolts of the Bijah in 868 AD. By 883, Suakin was occupied by Yemeni and Arab coastal tribes most known are the nations of Beni Halba and Juhaina Arab merchants, the Artigas (Yemeni merchants and pastoralist from Hadaramout), and Zubaidiya (Yemeni merchants and agro-pastorals from the wadis of the East Red Sea Mountains, many consummated marriages with the different Bijah tribes to ensure peaceful economic relations. As the population of Arab, Yemenite and fractions of the Bijah increased in Suakin, the Khasa (indigenous inhabitants of Suakin) moved out south and into the wadis beyond the Red Sea Mountains, and the Arab and Yemeni merchants inhabited the region with the Hadendawa, the Beni-Amir, the Hadareeb, the Belo, the Habab and other Bijah tribes including the Tigre.

Suakin Island continued to serve as a main port for trade between the west coast of Africa, the Berber of North Africa through “Darb El-Arbaein” shipping to Mesopotamia through Jeddah, to the Mediterranean through Egypt, and to India and Persia through Aden and the African Horn. The cargo was a rich wealth of ivory, exotic animals, herds and camels, gold, copper and varieties of gems and pearls, mostly the merchants supplied the slave trade to Arabia. A more detailed account of the slave trade is mentioned in chapter four. With the spread of Islam embraced by northern, western Africa and most regions in Bilad El-Sudan46; Suakin became a pilgrim’s port to Jeddah; but with the Mamluks power in Egypt came the revival of Eidab to the south of Halaib, once a Roman garrison and mining port; now rebuilt to accommodate pilgrims from North Africa, and with that started the decline of Suakin. The forced application of Islamic Zaka and Taxes by the Mamluks on the Bijah, and mismanagement of Bejah’s Amir (prince) to Islamic laws resulted in lengthy frictions between the Bijah and Turks, and finally to the exclusion of the Bijah prince in 1265 AD and replacing him with an Artiga prince and governor loyal to the Sultan of Egypt. Alas, corruption, piracy and political unrest in Suakin and Massawa continued till the crusade

45 Mohamed Salih Dirar. HSITORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA. P. 24. Publisher: Dar Sudan for Books. 2008 46 Yusuf Fadl Hasan. Edinburgh, THE ARABS AND THE SUDAN. From the Seventh to the Early Sixteenth Century, pp. 8-9. 1967 142 wars on the Red Sea and the invasion by Portuguese armada under Stephan De Gama in 1541AD47. (Fig 4.49)

Fig 4.49- Suakin 1541 (Pub 1866) as recorded by Admiral Joam de Castro of the Portuguese armada – Survey map from Michael Mallinson survey for the rehabilitation of Historic Suakin 200648.

Suakin Island was the center of multicultural political events lead by a succession of Bijah, Yemenite, Hejaz and Turkish governors. While the Bijah nations united their aggravations against foreign powers, they continued tribal disputes between their different fractions and other tribes from the Funj region, even united with the Sultanate Al-Zerqaa to do with the Hadareeb Bijah appointed on Suakin by the Turks. Disputes with the Funge continued till 1820. (Fig 4.50-4.51)

47 Mohammed Salih Dirar. HISTORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA. Pp. 34 – 44, 2008. G. R. Elton, . THE NEW CAMBRIDGE MODERN HISTORY, II, ED. P. 592. Cambridge 1958. 48 British Archives and See chapter I of the present study for more information on the survey. 143

Eidab

See fig 5.73

Agig

Massawa

Fig 4.50- Ottoman and Funge Territories 1508 – 1820 (16th – 19th centuries) shows the Eastern desert divided between the Ottoman in the North and the Funj to the South. The insurgence of the Funge into the Eastern Desert was a result of long wars between the Funge and Abyssinia49.

49 O. G. Crawford. THE FUNG KINGDOM.. Also see Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia on The Fung Kingdom. 144

Funj Fort Turkish Missing Fort

Fig 4.51 Suakin in 1857 was split between the Ottoman and Fung. Its location completely inserted inland and surrounded by reef isolating it from direct currents and passing ships. This characteristic made Suakin the perfect harbor for slave trade that extended till 193550.

The Portuguese armada sacking to Suakin was cut short by the Ottoman naval forces directed by Sinnan Pasha out of Egypt, where they cleared the Red Sea coasts including Jeddah, Suakin, Massawa, and in Yemen took in Zabid, Hadida, Moukha and Zalee and appointed the general governor of Hejaz to administer the Region. The Artiga nations appointed by the Turks in cohesion with the Funge to govern Suakin, paid Zaka to the Funge Kingdom were driven out by the Turks, and Suakin became a district for the Hejaz paying Zaka and taxes to the Ottoman Sultan in Egypt. Nevertheless; and according to the writing of Mohammed Salih Dirar, the tribal leadership in Suakin went to the Boshab, the Dsiyab, then to the Korbab till Sudan independence. However, none of the colonial powers recognized their leadership and they were stripped of their land, and Suakin was rebuilt by the Turks into a military district along with Massawa where it served for troops and arm supplies to the Turkish army war with Yemen and the Arabian coasts, and hosted injured soldiers for treatment till 1911 when Yemen gained independence. Suakin harbor continued to supply Arabia, Alsham (Mesopotamia) and Egypt with cultivated crops and products from Sudan and Abyssinia under the administration of the Turkish Governor of Jeddah and during the transfer of power to the Saudi Prince of Jeddah after the death of Egypt Khidaiwi. The prince of Jeddah maintained Suakin and Gaif till the district was joined to Sudan in 1865 and was reestablished by the Condominium as a fort from which they lead battles against the Bijah nations who supported the Mahdi’s efforts for Sudan independence51. Contributions made by the Bijah Nations and leadership to the independence of Sudan are explained in Chapter V of the present study.

50 Wichtigsten Hafen Seiner Westhalfte, DATH ROTHE SMEER. UND DIK. - The Von Heuglin’s Reise 1857. Ostl. Lnage Von Paris. 51 Mohamed Salih Dirar. HISTORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA. PP. 52-60. Dar Sudan for Books 2008. Also see Donald Featherstone. KHARTOUM 1885. CAMPAIGN SERIES. GENERAL GORDON’S LAST STAND. PP. 11-13, 17-18, 39-52 2008 edition. 145

4.5. SUAKIN ISLAMIC SETTLEMENT PATTERN AND BUILDING

DESIGN

Fig 4.52- Suakin Island and Gaif – Historic photograph from the British Archives. Note the similarity to Jeddah Port.

According to Dirar (2008), Suakin Island and Gaif experienced revitalization and redevelopment upon its inclusion to the territory of the Ottoman Khidaiwi of Egypt in 1866 in exchange for seven thousand pounds tariff paid to the Turkish Sultan by Egypt. This awarded Suakin to Egypt and transferred the administration to Mumtaz Pasha who replaced opposing Ottoman Soldiers and employees with Egyptians before initiating major rehabilitation efforts on Suakin that has become the only documented planning efforts for Suakin in the post-Islamic era.

Mumtaz Pasha ordered and directed the redevelopment of Suakin by engaging the locals in rehabilitating their homes, and encouraged all Suakin citizens to build homes even if one room per family. Furthermore, he planned and applied economic revitalization by inviting and encouraging Egyptian merchants to invest in Suakin, purchase and develop land for their residence and business, and he encouraged Egyptian and Italian shipping lines to provide transport services through port Suakin, of those mentioned in the book are Ibrahim Beck Fahmi, Khidaiwi and Robatino shipping companies. This encouraged Egyptian and Hejaz merchants, employees and citizens to migrate in large numbers to Suakin and Gaif, and furnished for exploitation of port Suakin by the influx of British naval and commercial fleets after the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869. By 1422 Suakin was a “Quibla” for Indian merchants and workers who deserted the Island in 1663 as a result of Ottoman high

146 tariff; but by 1881 the revival of Suakin port and market attracted Indian commerce and migration once again.

In 1869 The Muhafazsa was the first administrative structure built by Mumtaz Pasha, followed by the customs, the quarantine, the post office, the military barracks and two cotton factories in Al-Gazira. The Khidaiwi expanded business opportunities further in 1875 by leasing the districts of Barber and Zayla. (Fig 4.53 – 4.54 )

Fig4.53- El-Muhafasa (Wikala). Durham Archives.

Fig 4.54- El-Wikala (Caravanserai) (1881) plan as depicted by Greenlaw52.

Jean-Pierre Greenlaw. 52 THE CORAL BUILDINGS OF SUAKIN. Egypt style buildings P. 76 2001 edition. 147

Fig 4.55- Post Office at front right 1903. Durham Archives.

Fig 4.56- Post Office South Elevation. Fig 4.57- Post Office North Elevation.

“Note the south elevation is lined with windows to capture the summer breeze, while the north elevation is protected from the northern winter winds by the arched circulation path.. Also note in the second photo the shaded balcony and veranda situated to the East to capture the morning light and cool breeze”.

148

Fig 4.58 Use of natural light and ventilation in the interior space of the Post Office.

The first zoning regulations promoted by Mumtaz Pasha and implemented by the wealthy merchants in Suakin included mixed use buildings for residential and commercial use, multi story buildings for up to four stories for both residential and business occupancy, Multifunctional commercial centers to host caravansaries, visitors and provide business interaction spaces and storage facilities, administrative buildings for district management including security, regulatory and taxation activities and buildings for worship. Buildings construction exploited the local materials using coral block and limestone from the surrounding site for foundations and walls, and used wood for floors and roofs53. In 1881, Mumtaz Pasha directed a modification to the perimeter of the Island by constructing a built- up pavement around the Island that provided a ducking zone for small ships; this perimeter was adjusted later by the British to accommodate the garrison to guard the Island. (Fig 4.59)

Fig 4.59- Suakin aerial restoration in 1900 by J. P. Greenlaw. Note the garrison walk through that surrounds the island.

53 Mohammed Salih Dirar. HISTORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA. Pp. 83-88. Publisher: Dar Sudan for Books. 2008. J. P. Green law. THE CORAL ISLAND OF SUAKIN. 149

Of the most noted private palaces and homes in the Island was the private home of Al- Shenawi, the public residence he built for the poor*, the Diyafa Residence (guest house) he built for administrative visitors, and the four stories “Bait Al-Gedid” which he constructed for the military commanders54. Also noted is Khorshid Effendi residence, Sheikh Ahmed Mohammed Shams and the home of Ali Shawish Al-Jeddawi. (Fig 4.60- 4.62)

Britain in 1882 at the start of the condominium located a consulate in Suakin to administer the Red Sea affairs (see history of Sudan Appendix III). A bridge to linking Suakin Island with Gaif was constructed by direction from General Gordon Pasha along with a fort at the Gaif to hold British military garrisons, military storage and prison, and included five security gates and watch towers around the fort55. (Fig 6.63)

Fig 4.60- Al-Shenawi Diyafa Residence. Fig 4.61- Khorshid Residence.

Fig 4.62- Sheikh Ahmed Mohamed Shams residence on the left, and partial elevation of Ali Shawish Al- Jeddawi residence both located just inside of Gordon Gate.

54 Mohammed Salih Dirar. HISTORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA. Pp. 83-88. Publisher: Dar Sudan for Books. 2008. J. P. Green law. THE CORAL ISLAND OF SUAKIN. *Suakin Island was a home and business place for the Elite throughout the Ottoman and the Condominium, where strict building regulations indirectly drove the locals out of the island on to Al-Gaif. 55 Mohammed Salih Dirar. HISTORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA. Pp. 83-88. Publisher: Dar Sudan for Books. 2008. J. P. Green law. THE CORAL ISLAND OF SUAKIN. 150

Suakin Quarantine (Elephantine)

Suakin Island

Suakin Fort

Fig 4.63- Historic Map of Fort Suakin 188256.

The rehabilitation and expansion of Suakin by Mumtaz Pasha followed a similar pattern and style of buildings as the ones developed in settlements along the Red Sea coasts, in a manner that reflected the pre-Islamic cultural and climatic features shared by settlements on arid and semiarid regions of Arabia, Yemen, North and East Africa as discussed previously. Conversely, the renovations applied aesthetic features of the Egyptian and Turkish styles that represented colonial influence and presented Suakin in an eclectic style by the early 190057. The pre-Islamic features noted in Suakin planning included the irregular, narrow and shaded streets that radiated from the core as reconstituted in Green law’s aerial view in fig 5.83, the open air public spaces used for multifunctional activities, the multistoried mixed use buildings for commercial and residential buildings, where shops and businesses lined up the pedestrian streets, the overhang Rowshans that shaded the streets, and provisions for administrative spaces that occupied the core, and the town was limited in distance by a one mile diameter. Furthermore, the buildings are designed with family and guest quarters segregated in space and distance with central courtyards and inward balconies on upper floors for circulation and buffer zones. The buildings were provided with service spaces such as kitchens, storage and bathing facilities, and constructed of local natural

56 British Archives – Suakin, Sudan. 57 See pre-Ottoman buildings in Suakin as per Michele Mallinson Architect writings: http://www.thearchitecturestore.co.uk/Suakin/Suakin1.html 151

materials utilizing indigenous local labor making Suakin an ecologically planned and designed town by today’s planning standards. (Fig 4.64 a, b – 4.65)

Fig 4.64 a- and b- Open air public spaces with Al-Shafai Mosque (spiritual building) as the focal point at one open area and an open air market in another.

Open neighborhood space Narrow, irregular pedestrian Townhouse dwellings of Suakin. and shaded streets. Party walls extend beyond the roof surface.

Fig 4.65 a. Historic photographs58 of Suakin Island. Note the irregular layout of the coral-brick multistory, townhouse dwellings

58 All historic photographs of Old Suakin Island are from the British Archives. 152

Townhouse dwellings of Suakin. Party walls Open air town center extend beyond the roof at Shafai Mosque and surface. Wikala.

Fig 4.65 b. Historic photographs of Suakin Island. Note the central open space which included El- Shafai Mosque and El-Wikala representing the administration zone of the island

Fig 4.66 a & b- Historic photographs showing multistory mixed-use building types.

153

Fig 4.67- The home of Osman Digna to the right in a mixed-use zone

Fig 4.68- Atrium in el-Wikala. Fig 4.69- Courtyard in the Old Mosque.59

59 British Archives – Suakin, the Sudan. 1939 154

Fig 4.70- Bait Shams - Suakin late 180060 showing a central atrium and privacy in space planning

Fig 4.71- Section through a house showing roof top terraces, family quarters and commercial ground floor spaces¹.

60 THE CORAL BUILDINGS OF SUAKIN – Jean-Pierre Greenlaw. The Small Turkish Houses P. 50 155

Fig 4.72- 4.73- Bay Windows with Rowshans of decorative wood. The overhang shades the narrow pedestrian streets, provide additional interior space and wider view to the exterior while providing privacy. Durham Archives.

Fig 4.74- Decorative window Rowshans of Suakin. Durham Archives.

Fig 4.75a, b- Carving on limestone and use of white plaster. Shenawi Bah residence interior decoration to the left and “Egid Muwashah” on door frame at Al-Muhafisa to the right. Suakin ruins.

156

Fig 4.76-Historic photographs of Suakin Island at the end of British Egyptian condominium in 1929. Suakin Island became the capital for Seljuk Habesh by the end of Ottoman rule over the Red Sea region. The historic buildings reflected eclectic styles of both indigenous Red Sea building facades, and the Ottoman features influenced by Fatimid architecture.

4.6. THE DECLINE OF SUAKIN:

The industrial revolution found its way to the Red Sea coast through the implied conquest of the condominium administration. Bringing Sudan into the monarchic territory of Great Britain, like other non-European lands under the protection of Britain meant plentiful raw supplies to the machine economy in Europe, exploiting the fertile wadis for the “White Gold” (cotton), mining for minerals, metals and gems, and exploiting the flora and aquatics of the Red Sea for pearls and shells to feed the European elite and manufactories. The steam ships used for mass and speedy transportation required open ports on deep waters to accommodate the large fleets and large scale operations planned for the British economy. The peripheral town of Sheikh Bergooth at 30 miles north of Suakin provided easy access both by land and sea to the newly open Suez Canal, and diverted modern developments from Suakin, and was established as a new port called Port Sudan. (Fig 4.77)

157

Fig 4.77- The New Port Sudan accommodated faster and larger steam ships, and became an international harbor linked directly to the Mediterranean through Suez Canal. British Archives.

The new port greatly impacted the commercial activities in Suakin in the following ways61:

1- The train line established by Mumtaz Pasha 1882 in Suakin to move supplies from the quarantines to the barracks and cotton factories to the south was converted by the British to a direct train line in 1904 for transporting large scale cotton cargo to the newly developed Port Sudan, and connected the central line coming from Atbara to Port Sudan as well by 1905. Suakin Port limited operations to the transportation of coal, iron and other mining products till 1912 when all import and export operations were transferred to Port Sudan, with that terminating the commercial need for Port Suakin. 2- The Eastern Telegraph company established in Suakin in 1874 to connect Suakin with Toker, Kasala, Barber and Egypt, and to connect Suakin Suez and Aden developed a telegraph line in 1911 to connect Suakin with Port Sudan, transferred all operations to the new headquarters in Port Sudan including the lines with Jeddah, and by 1924 terminated the Suakin office. (Fig 4.78) 3- By 1908 both the National Bank and the Town Hall were transferred to the new offices in Port Sudan limiting commercial activities further and resulting in the departure of all major merchants from the Island.

With all labor migrating to Port Sudan, most residents disserted Suakin seeking higher earnings, but Suakin remained a seasonal pilgrimage port till the present day, with the local residents of Al-Gaif surviving on the bare minimum.

61 Mohammed Salih Dirar. HISTORY OF SUAKIN AND THE RED SEA.. Publisher: Dar Sudan for Books. 2008. J. P. Green law. 158

Fig 4.78-Eastern Telegraph Company building in Port Sudan – British archives.

4.7. CONCLUSION:

This analysis is based on archaeological and historical records and literature on political and socioeconomic factors that contributed to the life and decline of Suakin Island, and in conclusion, it is evident that Semitic influence in Sudan and the Eastern Desert is ancient and an integral part of the civilizations and human growth on the Nile Valley and the Red Sea coastal zone of East Africa.

The Islamization of the Eastern Desert may have been a progression of the socioeconomic growth experienced in the region, but was enforced by political and economic expansionist powers of the Pharos, the Arab, the Turk and the Anglo Egyptian who exploited cultural insecurities and conflicts with connoisseur for biased and profitable gains.

This study found strong relationship between not only the lineage and culture of the Eastern Red Sea coast to that on the Western Red Sea coast; but also in the traditional and climatic settlement patterns, building design and construction technologies inherited in the Red Sea Coastal zone, evident by archaeological findings, historic records, cultural similarities within the uniqueness of the tribes, and in the language derivations supported by commonalities in the different faith adopted in the region.

It is apparent from the archaeological findings and historic reviews by others referenced in the present study, that space planning and design in the arid and semiarid regions developed from the need to accommodate human and population growth, environmental requirements, technological developments, political and economic shifts, and cultural aspects of the different civilizations including mythology and faith. It is also apparent that manmade influences in political and economic shifts and on cultural disintegration are vital elements in the rise and decline of communities, towns and cities particularly in the case of Suakin Island on Sudan’s maritime desert on the Red Sea coastal zone.

159

Chapter V Research Field Work and Analysis

EXISTING CHALLENGES TO THE PROPOSED HOLISTIC DEVELOPMENT OF THE RED SEA STATE.

5.0- INTRODUCTION:

This chapter presents the research fieldwork findings to the existing investigated and analyzed regional physical, environmental, and socio-economics and the status of Suakin Island and Gaif and its catchment area, and will reflect on different existing aspects that will influence the redevelopment of Suakin Island and town into a sustainable, cultural eco-town. Existing elements that impact Suakin sustainable eco- town development includes environmental, socio-economic and administrative factors.

Environmental factors that influence the long-term sustainability of the region, current and future community and district wide development efforts, include all regional, environmental and ecologic matters discussed in chapters IV of this study. This chapter will focus on the research findings and confirmed survey documentation regarding physical, climatic, ecologic and socio-economic factors currently impacting the development of the Arid Red Sea State coastal zone and Suakin redevelopment into a prototype sustainable eco-town.

Theoretical and existing socio-economic factors that influence the long term maintenance of a sustainable eco-town master plan for the coastal zone of the Red Sea State and for Suakin are summarized in the previous chapters of the present study. This chapter, however, will reflect on the fieldwork findings of existing aspects that impact the regional development of the Red Sea State and in particular Suakin town. The findings including environmental, social, economic and cultural status of the coastal land and inhabitants, and their impact on the environment will be discussed and illustrated photographically.

160 5.1 FACTORS THAT IMPACTED REGIONAL GROWTH OF THE RED SEA STATE COASTAL ZONE AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF SUAKIN

The fieldwork conducted by this research on December 1-5, 2010 encountered numerous issues that negatively impacted the physical environment and natural habitat of the arid Red Sea State regionally, and of Suakin town district. This study also confirmed various social, economic and political factors that contributed to the escalation of environmental and socio-economic degradation, poverty and political unrest in the region, and the findings are grouped as follows:

1- Natural Phenomena, ranging from desertification of the Red Sea State wadis and shores, to soil erosions and scaling of green cover and canopy. 2- Manmade Phenomena includes: Lack of long term administrative planning and management, socio-economic influences and environmental mismanagement.

I. NATURAL IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND SOCIO-

ECONOMICS OF THE RED SEA REGION:

A- Climate change influence on the region is apparent in the high temperatures and long dry seasons that forced the nomad Bejah and Rashaidah to settle in an excruciating environment in the Eastern and Red Sea States of Sudan1. (Fig 5.1- 5.2)

Fig 5.1- 5.2- Nomad shelter in the plains of Kasala and the Red Sea State2.

Those who chose to take advantage of government housing programs are able to obtain shelter for their families within the city limits of Toker, Kasala and Suakin, but resulted in the emergence of new socio-economic problems discussed further in this chapter.

Long dry seasons impact on green cover and canopy forced the Bejah nomads to move their herds of camels and goats close to the shores in search of pasture as the mountain plains and those beyond the Red Sea Mountains dried out. This also impacted the

1 Physical environmental and socio-economic survey on the Red Sea State in December 1-5, 2010. by: Fedaa I. El- Dosougi. 2 Photography by author, December 2010.

161 production of dairy products and meat which is the main food source in the region. (Fig 5.3 – 5.5)

Fig 5.3- 5.4- Herding cows and camel on dry pasture along the road to Suakin from Kasala. Field Survey trip December 2, 20101.

Fig 5.5- Camel pastor on the Red Sea Shores. Note that there is no presence of green canopy and the sand piling at base of shrubs. Red Sea State survey trip December 3, 2010*.

B- Shortage of Water Resources further contributed to health and economic restrains on the inhabitants of the Red Sea region. Seasonal rivers and hand dug wells are the traditional water sources for the Bejah pastoralists who settle along water basins (Khor) currently impacted by low rainfall and long dry summer seasons. Water scarcity is the main cause for low land productivity and reduction in the livestock (camel). The UNST reported that only 35% of the Red Sea State population has access to healthy drinking water, and only 10% of the rural population access safe drinking water. Most families who purchase water for household and flocks spend 50% of their household income on drinking water2. (Fig 5.6)

Fig 5.6- Traditional water well3.

*1 Photography by author on December 2010 2 Dr. Mustafa Babiker, University of Khartoum, and Dr. Sara Pantuliano, Addressing chronic livelihoods vulnerability in Red Sea State. Sudan. Overseas Development Institute. Oxfam - February 2006. 3 Photograph from Google Earth Photo Gallery.

162 C- Desertification: Sand Storms encumbered the Eastern Desert landscape and inhabitants. Dry desert summers bring dust storms (Haboob) and high winds continue to cause sand shifts and dumping onto the wadis and plains of the Red Sea Mountains and onto the shores resulting in scaling of the land and burial of desert shrubs on which survived desert species, hence breaking the natural ecological cycle of the place. The coastal zone of the Red Sea State experience rain both in the winter and autumn where it results in flash floods in urban area of Port Sudan, and along the coasts most apparent in Suakin, Toker and Mohammed Goal. This also raises the humidity level, which in addition to other manmade phenomena, contribute to the growth of insects and related epidemics such as flies and mosquitoes apparent in all coastal area and wadis visited during the environmental survey. (Fig 5.7- 5.11)

Fig 5.7- Sand storms over the Red Sea Coasts- Satellite image from Google Earth1.

Fig 5.8- Haboob over Port Sudan – May 2009. Fig 5.9- Twister over northern boarder2.

Fig 5.10- Sand shifts buries desert shrubs. Fig 5.11- Sand dunes encroachment on shelter3

1 Photography from Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia – The Red Sea State, Sudan. 2 Google Earth maps and photo gallery. 3 Photography by author, December 2010

163 Sand storms overwhelm agricultural plains and wadis of the Red Sea mountains and coastal plains adding to desertification of the region. The photographs below are taken in December of 2010 where rain flooded urban areas, it was only enough to keep few shrubs and a very small scale Sorghum (type of corn) green. Most small scale planting for domestic use and pasture is along the low sides of the only freeway from Khartoum through Kasala, Sinkat and Gebait to Halayeb north of Suakin1. (Fig 5.12-5.13)

Fig 5.12- 5.13- The roadside landscape to Suakin and Port Sudan through Sinkat and Gebait reflects the harsh sand shifts and dumps build up on shrubs, with few encounters to small scale roadside Sorghum farming.

D- Sudden Seasonal Flash Floods during summer and autumn are common in the Red Sea Region where the main watersheds down the plains of Kasala, Sinkat, Gebait, Suakin, Toker, and to the North of Port Sudan up to Halayeb where it creates seasonal lagoons along the Red Sea Coastal zone and washes down the soil onto the reefs causing bleaching. Flash floods also create damage to coastal settlements as in Suakin where the water levels in flood zones is measured at five (5) feet min2 during rain seasons impacting shelter, transportation and businesses. (Fig 5.14-5.19)

Fig 5.14-7.15- Scaled ground cover over Wadi Sinkat from both high dry winds and summer temperatures, and from erosion by seasonal flash flooding, the main cause to property damage3.

Fig 5.16-5.17- Flash flood covering plains at the coast line and leave low eroded land in dry season1.

1 Physical environmental and socio-economic survey December 1 to 5, 2010. by: Fedaa I. El-Dosougi. 2 Suakin Mapping and Planning Department. Interview with Dr. Osama Mustafa El-Zain – Director for Civil and Mapping Department in Suakin. 3 Google Earth maps and photo gallery.

164 Flashflood seasonal watersheds

Fig 5.18- Seasonal flashfloods into Wadi Sinkat in the Red Sea Mountains2.

The Red Sea Road main bus route to Port Sudan and Khartoum via Sinkat and Kasala. Lagoon

The main bus transportation station.

Historic Elephantine

Suakin Coral Island

Old Suakin Gaif Town to the old fort boundary Suakin main route to freeway

Fig 5.19- Al-Gaif main flashflood lines erodes soil dumping into the reefs and inflicts structural damage on residential neighborhoods at the lagoon*.

1 Photography by author, December 2010 *2 Photo from Google Earth 3D aerials and photo gallery. Diagrams and graphics by author.

165 E- Pandemics long standing flood waters become a host for larvae and increase the risk of pandemics on crops and inhabitants. Locust is one of many pandemics that escalate seasonally and impact agriculture fields in the wadis and plains of the Eastern Desert. (Fig 5.20)

Red Sea State

Delta Toker

Locust Breeding area

Fig 5.20- Locust breading areas south of the Red Sea State coastal zone- FAO1.

Flies are a constant pandemic in cities and towns of the Red Sea State, and they are the result of insufficient sanitary disposal systems. Heaps of unprotected waste mounds are witnessed by the survey on December 1-5, 2010 throughout the northern side of Port Sudan drenched in stalling rain water particularly in the market, public transportation square, waterfront near the port docs, around the wood fuel market near the old train rails. Sporadic stalling rain water and garbage particularly plastic waste is witnessed along the beach area between Port Sudan and Suakin.

F- Invasive species such as the infamous Mesquite are carried in by dusty winds during the long drought seasons overwhelm local ground cover. (Fig 5.21-5.22)

Fig 5.21-7.22- Mesquite invasion (thorned weed that grows into a bush) is encountered in different parts of the Red Sea State mostly in the southern boarders and along the road to Port Sudan and Halayeb. ( See chapter IV for information on endogenous coastal green cover)2 .

1 FAO Images – Sudan Red Sea State, Locust breeding areas. 2 Photography by author. December 2010.

166 II. MAN MADE PHENOMENA IMPACT ON THE ENVIRONMENT AND

SOCIO-ECONOMIC OF THE RED SEA REGION.

1- Environmental Mismanagement:

A- Insufficient Public Waste Management System: Waste Management insufficiencies are the main cause for land, air and water pollution along the coastal zone, both urban and rural. Absence of regulatory controls and enforcements over waste dumps gave way for citizens and industries to dump waste on “Khores” that flood during the rain season and transfer waste to the lagoons. This is in addition to the absence or insufficient systematic waste collection points and monitoring, which encourages many including campers to dispose waste along the shoreline.

The survey conducted by this researcher visited existing camping grounds along the shores of the Red Sea State to the south and north of Port Sudan, and a number of marinas in Port Sudan and Suakin areas. The result of which are repeated unsightly contaminated shores mostly with empty liquid and foods containers, animal skin and remains from slaughter, fire pits or mounds, plastic bags, paper and even human waste in resort sites. All matters are left exposed to wind, birds, flies, rodents and water drafts that carry the waste into the lagoons and reefs. (Fig 5.23)

Fig 5.23- Arose Beach littered with garbage due to lack of waste management and lack of regulatory monitoring1.

Three waste management companies of which one is government owned operate in Port Sudan and yet waste dumps are an apparent hazard in many parts of the city particularly around shopping areas. The little available garbage collection points are insecure, most 3rd class residential neighborhoods are not reached by city waste management services particularly the suburbs of Port Sudan and Suakin. The survey conducted during the rainy season confirmed the flooding of many dumps that floated or soaked and became host for insect population causing an obvious flies, roaches and mosques pandemics. It is the deduction of this research that these

1 Photography by author. December 2010

167 pandemics resulted in typhoid, malaria, bilharzia, diarrhea and allergy1 epidemics experienced by surveyed residents. (Fig 5.24-5.26)

Fig 5.24-5.25- Port Sudan landfill at seasonal watershed, and litter at tidal lagoon just North of Port Sudan.

Fig 5.26- Suakin local market apparent lack of waste management and lack of proper sanitary2 enforcement .

B- Lack of or Insufficient Sewage Disposal System: City dwellings are provided with individual septic tanks and are reliant on independent monitoring and systematic cleaning, as is the case with most cities in Sudan. In the suburbs, family homes are provided with an external in-ground tank designed to retain disposable waters that is drained through a surface pipe which leads the water into the streets,3 and the majority of the rural areas has no access to sanitary facilities. The UNST reported that 70% of the population in the Red Sea State lack access to sanitation facilities, and more in rural areas. Public sewage is not available and in the case of suburban Suakin where government replaced squatters shelter with a wall fenced yard; families re-assembled their portable shelter within the walls but did not provide for toilets and showers since it is not required nor enforced by the municipality4. This survey also confirmed that along the newly constructed water front public spaces “Cornish” in Port Sudan is also lacking sanitary disposal provisions and so does the public beaches between Port Sudan and Suakin and to the North of Port Sudan up to Aros, all lacked public toilets and provisions for sanitary disposal.

1 Health information is obtained from interviews with teachers, some students, public transportation drivers and residents from northern Port Sudan neighborhoods adjacent to markets and water fronts. Official records are unavailable. 2 Photography by author. December 2010 3 Water drainage systems in residential suburbs are similar to those organized in the 3rd Pharaoh Kingdom. See Appendix III. 4 Dr. Osama El-Zain, Director of Survey Department – Suakin. December 3, 2010. [email protected]

168 C- Lack of or Insufficient Public Drainage System: Attempts are made by the municipality of Port Sudan to provide drains for rain water in the city of Port Sudan, however systematic cleaning and monitoring to drain pipes and sewage flow is lacking. The survey conducted during the rain period of December 1-5 observed flooding in most city streets where the main drains are clogged with mud, and where the drains are misplaced in elevation relative to the street surface. Once again it was observed that garbage floating on the street edges caused additional clogging to the drains. To reduce flooding the city of Port Sudan operated suction trucks to major roads and at a limited capacity not inclusive to all neighborhoods. Regulated sewage disposal is not available in Suakin Gaif and its expansions and flooding continues to be a major obstacle to improving all living quarters. (Fig 5.27)

Fig 5.27- Pond like formation from rain water in-front of the military club after three days flooding in Suakin town1- experienced by author.

D- Depletion of Green Canopy: The unplanned settlement of Bejah nomads around the cities and towns of the Red Sea State forced the nomads to adopt environmentally disturbing practices in their effort to make a living. Unregulated environmental monitoring over green canopy gave way to vending of wood fuel and burning woods for coal. Coal and wood vendors are observed along the main roads between towns through Sinkat and Gebait to Suakin. (Fig 5.28-5.29)

Fig 5.28- Uncontrolled cutting of green canopy2. Fig 5.29- Wood fuel vendor*.

Herding follows the seasonal migration of tribes between country boarders and between coast and wadis beyond the Red Sea Mountains. That allowed for the natural period of growth to the points of departure. Drought and political pressures limited seasonal nomadic migration for camel herders who moved their herds to the coastal zone of the

1 Photography by author. December 2010. 2 Google Earth Images.

169 Red Sea State. The concentration of grazing along the shores disturbed the natural growth cycle for the green canopy and ground cover, and enhanced the depletion of many coastal species that once hosted migratory birds nesting (see chapter IV on environmental survey). (Fig 5.30- 5.31).

*

Fig 5.30- 5.31- Camels grazing south of Delta Toker, and typical silt, sandy beaches with sparse vegetation to the north of Ageg and bare to the north of Port Sudan1.

F- Unregulated Fishing: According to NOAA and PERSEGA, unregulated fishing is one of three key environmental threats to the Red Sea. The use of gillnets is a traditional fishing methods used by the locals along the Red Sea Coast, where fishermen catch is less selective and inclusive to young and bearing marines. Gillnets fishing increases the risk of species losses as it does not discriminate between the targeted species and others such as sea turtles that get tangled in the net. Gillnets fishing is recommended for replacement by lobster traps which allows for the release of bearing marines and small species2. (Fig 5.32-5.33)

Fig 5.32-Gillnet Fishermen in Port Sudan*. Fig 5.33-Baby fish caught by gillnets increases the risk of depleting the species*.

Furthermore, local fishermen discovered income source in fishing shark fins to supply foreign fishing fleets in the Sudan Sea Waters such as Japan and China. The interview conducted with the ICZM office in Port Sudan confirmed3 that local fishermen do not discriminate in fishing for shark fins even in the lagoons where sharks breed, and

1 Camels on Gaif by Google Earth Images. * Photography by author. 2 The World Bank, PERSGA, FAO fisheries technical paper page 435.71 and Trends in oceanic capture and clustering of Large Marine Ecosystem 2003, The Red Sea Strategic Action Program (SAP). 3 Presentation by Dr. Taha El-Taher Bedawi, Director of ICZM office in Port Sudan, December 4, 2010.

170 inspite of the international restriction on sharks considered to be an endangered species of the Red Sea. (Fig 5.34)

Fig 5.34- Shark fins removed for sale and meat disposed off1.

III. ADMINISTRATIVE MISMANAGEMENT:

A- Population Imbalances:

The Red Sea State inhabitants are a mix of indigenous tribes who continue to carry a traditional nomadic life style they share with bordering migratory tribes, settlers from the inner cities and towns of the Nile Valley who are Sudanese of diverse ancestral and regional cultures (see chapter IV and V), and refugees from neighboring countries such as Uganda, Eritrea and Ethiopia.

The United Nations agencies, the World Bank and other international institutions give different estimates of Sudan’s population. For example the US Population Reference Bureau estimated the population of Sudan in 2008 at about 39,445,000, while the US Department of State estimated Sudan’s population in 2008 at 40,218,456. As for the Institute de la Statistic, Québec, Canada, Sudan’s population in 2008 is estimated at 41,348,000.8 Other sources estimate the population of Sudan to be at much higher numbers2. Sudan population census of 2008 estimated the overall population at 41,087,825, contested in some parts of Sudan forcing the Sudan Central Bureau to re-examine the census and present the July 1st, 2009 results which estimated the overall population at 42,087,000. 6% of the total population is Bejah tribes whose residence is concentrated in the Eastern Region. The 2008 census contributed to the current elected administration of Sudan and is the reference for this study. (Fig 5.35)

1 NOAA Images – Endangered species of the Red Sea – Sharks. * Photography by author. 2 5th. Population and Housing Census in Sudan – An incomplete Exercise. A DRDC Report, February 2010

171

Fig 5.35– Population growth of Sudan 1956-2008¹

The 2009 census estimated a population of 1,396,110 on the Red Sea State, with Port Sudan having the highest density of 308,195 representing 51% of the state population and 90% of its urban population. Suakin is estimated at 35,000 permanent residents which increase seasonally by nomadic fractions of the extended families of unrecorded census. This census was funded and monitored by the United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), Population Census Support Unit (PCSU)1.

The Eastern region of Sudan includes Gedarif, Kasala and the Red Sea State and was inhabited throughout history by a majority of Bijah tribes. This region is culturally, economically, politically and ecologically disheveled, and all three states are covered under the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement (ESPA) of October 14, 2006. The Bejah are a confederation of pastoral and agro-pastoral tribal groups whose culture is strongly attached to their ancestral land of the Eastern Desert, and they maintain their customary laws in resolving their internal conflicts on resources and land (see chapter IV and V). The UN believes that areas inhabited by cattle herders and nomads are grossly undercounted both in the cities and major towns in addition to displaced refugees from Uganda, Eritrea and Ethiopia arriving in varying numbers annually. (Fig 5.36)

Fig 5.36- Percentage of decrease in Sudan’s Nomad Population by Region (1956- 1993)2

1 UNFPA Volume 1, Issue 3, December 2006 before the 2008 census. 2 5th. Population and Housing Census in Sudan – An incomplete Exercise. A DRDC Report, February 2010

172 B- Sprawl and Squatting:

Suakin is a major concentration residence for the agro- pastoral Bejah, and the major meeting place for the nomad Bejah tribes for the Camel Market seasonal migration, and for the annual tribal celebrations and ceremonies. The migration of the local tribes from the wadis to the coastal zones, their extended families from beyond the Northern boarder with Egypt and the Southern boarder along the Abyssinian Mountains, and the migration of refugees from Eritrea and Ethiopia created unplanned sprawl around Port Sudan, Suakin, Toker and other major settlements along the coastal zone and wadis of the Red Sea State. In addition harsh weathering of the land and depletion of the green canopy forced many nomads into settling at the peripheries of cities and towns. Sprawl became an expansion to the town’s landscape, and the new dwellers impacted the order of the existing towns socially, economically, politically and health-wise. (Fig 5.37 – 5.40)

Fig 5.37-5.38- Entry to Suakin Gaif –1 Most squatters are Bejah families resettling on tribal owned land but not planned by the administration of Suakin2.

TOWN LIMITS

SQUATTERS

COTTON FIELDS

Fig 5.39- Sprawl in the town of Toker has taken place between town and cotton fields1 which boarders the seasonal watersheds and Ethiopian (Abyssinian) Mountains to the South.

1 Survey on the Red Sea State and Suakin on December 3, 2010. 2 Photography by author. December 2010

173

Fig 5.40.a- Squatting generates permanent communities around Toker measured for up to 5 kilometers radius.

An example of cultural influences on the lives of Suakin residents is the seasonal nomadic visits which impact the public schools timetable. An elementary teacher at Suakin Elementary School2, in an interview expressed concerns regarding the high rate of students’ absentees in particular during the migration, agriculture and festival seasons. When the extended families, pastoral fraction landed in Suakin, it was time for rejoicing regardless of the scholastic time table administered by the Sudan Ministry of Education3.

An attempt to provide public housing for the large numbers of squatter nomads was made in Kasala, Toker and Gebait. In the case of Toker the new development or expansion of the town to include public housing produced long parallel roads that extended to long kilometers without and did not accommodate for public centers, green spaces or unique town features. The never ending roads and cookie cutter homes lining them created a monotonous walled in roads that separated residence from service areas in the old town of Toker. (Fig 5.40.b)

Fig 5.40.b- Rows of housing and lack of open spaces in Toker.

1 Google Earth, March 2010. 2 Mrs. Ghadah Ibrahim El-Sayed. Masters of Arabic Language, University of Khartoum 2008. Um-Ghad Elementary School, Hay El-Arab – Port Sudan. December 2, 2010. 3 Mrs. Ghadah Ibrahim El-Sayed, is an elementary teacher and a graduate student at the University of Khartoum, school of languages. Arabic Language Studies.

174 In the case of Kasala and Gebait, prototype housing from earth block was funded by the UNDP in an attempt to invite Bejah nomads into urban living. The planning process did not engage the targeted Bejah community neither in the town planning nor in the architecture design for the homes, and did not make consideration to human resource that will occupy the town and make it functional1. The new plan did not account for a rehabilitation program for the tribes men and women who needed to acquire skills that will help them in making a living while residing in their new homes. The architecture design did not take into account the domestic cultural demands for the tribal families, and where food preparation by women depended on coal and wood fuel as they did in the desert; appropriate ventilation was not provided and resulted in many respiratory sickness between women and children. As a result, these attempted settlements now stand as ghost towns. (Fig 5.40.c)

Fig 5.40.c- Gebeit uninhabited prototype housing settlement.2 Built of Concrete blocks.

A master plan that will engage all stakeholders in the planning is needed to provide for an integrated socio-economic environment that will support functional settlements in the Red Sea State, and providing lively service centers in neighborhoods is a key to introducing attractive settlements. Involving families in creating programs for designed housing is necessary to ensure the suitable applications and use for the intended spaces.

C- Political conflicts:

Along the southern boarders of the Red Sea State and the Eastern States limitations are implemented on seasonal tribal migration between coastal and mountain Bedewin to the wadis of Kasala, and on the Kasala and Kordofan tribes migration to over the southern boarders into Ethiopia. These were traditional seasonal migrations for pasture and water resources mutually respected and maintained between tribal leaders and practiced over thousands of years on a once boarder free land3. War residues of planted mines along the southern cotton and Durah fields, along with the extension of administrative boarder

1 Conference on The Future of International Construction in Sudan, Reading University and Khartoum University workshop December 2010 – School of Architecture. Also State survey December 2010 by Fedaa El-Dosougi. 2 Photography by author. December 2010. 3 See chapter V on history of the Bejah.

175 policies that did not take into consideration the traditional aspects of the inhabitants on both sides of the boarders, contributed to overgrazing of the herds on limited parameters, and to limiting trade between boarder tribes including the northern boarders of Halayeb. (Fig 5.41-5.42)

Fig 5.41 – 5.42 Camel Market in Halayeb now encumbered by administrative fees, boarder regulations and political tension between the Bejah tribes of the northeastern Desert both sides of the boarder and the administrative forces in Sudan and Egypt1.

Nomad settlers forced to establish shelter in the edge of cities and towns along the coast followed the footsteps of their ancestors who served Roman ports and travelers, and took over manual seasonal labor at Port Sudan and Port Suakin, vending and waiting on travelers along main travel routes. (Fig 5.43-5.48)

Fig 5.43-5.44- Squatter settlement at the entry to Suakin2.

Fig 5.45- Bus waiting and a Bijah vendor sells nuts in Suakin Fig 5.46- Coral vendor in Suakin1

1 Google Earth Images. 2 Photography by author. December 2010.

176

Fig 5.47-5.48- Sinkat vendors at Bus Stop in December 2010. Many Bejah tribesmen and women found bread earnings in vending along travel routes2.

D- Refugees and Returnees: A 2007 report by the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR), reported a total of 157,710 displaced refugees from Eritrea and Ethiopia have established residence in the Red Sea State, mostly making residence in Kasala and the Red Sea states. 100,000 more are reported to have resided in the Red Sea state in 2008. (Table 5.1)

Table 5.1– UNCR report 2007.

The report indicates that out of the total estimated 157, 710 refugees, only 95,000 received assistance from the UNHCR. It stated that only 33% of refugee households have latrines, 5% of refugee women receive sanitary materials, and food aid reaches only 70% of those who need it. (Fig 5.49 – 5.51)

Fig 5.49- Arriving at Kasala refugees’ camp. Fig 5.50- Refugee giving birth in camp.

1 Google Earth Images. 2 Photography by author. December 2010.

177

Fig 5.51-5.52- Refugee mothers and children in Kasala camps 2005-2006. IDPs and Returnees continue to poor into the Eastern Region and 10000 registered annually are recorded to enter the Red Sea State. Data on unregistered refugees is unavailable1.

The UNHCR report of 2007 further express concerns regarding the high under-five mortality and crude mortality rates in all camps, scarcity of healthcare and sanitary facilities, high rate of sexual and gender-based violence in the camps, and the placements for employment and child education for the refugees2. These statistics in addition to the social concerns of integrating refugees with the indigenous dwellers and providing means for coexistence between their cultures adds to the complexity of the regional planning for the Red Sea State. Currently and based on the survey conducted on December 1-5, 2010; two refugee camps have been placed peripheral to main settlements as around the city of Kasala to maintain more manageable socio-economic and political conditions and to preserve tribal peace in the region.

E- Impact of Post Conflicts- Landmines and Blockage:

The Sudanese Association for Combating Landmines (JASMAR)3, directed by the United Nations Mine action Office (UNMAO), conducted a survey on 1,072 suspected mine impacted areas in the Red Sea, Kasala and Gedarif in the Eastern Region. The survey indicated sixteen (16) impacted communities, a ratio of 1.5% of the communities in the Eastern Region, Kasala where 12 communities were identified was impacted the highest. One community with a population of 4000 in the Red Sea state was impacted, and ten (10) suspected communities were inaccessible in 2007 - 2010. (Fig 5.53 – Table 5.2)

1 Photography by unidentified NGO-UN-IDP Sudan. 2 UNHCR Global Appeal 2007. p. 3 3 United Nations Mine Action Office (UNMAO). Survey Action Center, Mines Advisory Group report on September 4, 2007 p. 3- 4, 8, 11, 13

178

Fig.5.53- Map of Surveyed Communities – UNMAO 2007.

Table 2- Inaccessible Communities 2007-2009

Table 5.2- Results of surveyed communities – UNMAO 2009.

The existence of such mines is still a determent to the safety of the inhabitants, and is a cause to socio-economic blockages in most of the southern parts of the Eastern States. (Fig 5.54, Table 5.3 – Table 5.9 following pages).

179

Fig 5.54- Map of Hazard areas in the Eastern Region. UNMAO 2007 - 2010.

Table 3- Past Mine Action Activities in Impacted Communities

Table 5.3- Mine Action Activities in Impacted Communities – UNMAO 2010.

Table 4- Average Annual Percentage Injuries by Gender

*Table 5.4

180 Table 5- Type of Wound Suffered from Mine Incident by Geder

*Table 5.5

The UNMAO interview to the impacted communities in 2007 confirmed mines blockade of Housing, Roads and paths, Infrastructure, Migratory and Fixed pasture, Irrigated and Rain-fed cropland , Non agriculture rural land use, and access to drinking and other water resource. (Table 5.10, Fig-5.55)

Table 6- Number of IDPs Expected to Return in Impacted Communities, by Locality

*Table 5.6- Number of IDPs expected to return to impacted areas.

* All table by UNMAO 2007-2010.

Fig 5.55- Results of the Landmine Impact Survey June 30, 2007 – UNMAO1.

*1 UNAMO Landmine Impact Survey Report of June 2007.

181 The process of clearing existing mines exposes volunteers to termination, for it is critical and dependent on manual labor. (Fig 5.56-5.57 UNMAO photography 2007-2010)

*Fig 5.56- Found remnants of landmines in Kasala. * Fig 5.57 Area 3, marked as Area Suspected Hazard.

Fig 5.58- Sifting through suspected land mines in Kasala. Fig 5.59- Demining training near Yei.

These results will further impact the type and feasibility of new developments in the region and the re-development of existing towns. A master plan for the integration of the different local tribes, refugees and returnees is very much needed to establish a unified community that works towards peace and harmony between the different cultures in the region.

182 IV. SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS THAT IMPACTED THE DEVELOPENT OF THE RED SEA REGION.

A- Tribalism:

Tribalism is a characteristic of the existing cultural diversities in the Red Sea region, and an interview with Dr. Osama Mustafa El-Zain1, director of Suakin Planning explained the impact of tribalism on planning services needed to help re-develop flood zones in Suakin. The area is occupied mostly by Hadandawa, Artigas and Shayaab where most shelter is made of light construction and lacked sanitary accommodations. For Suakin Planning Department to embark on an overall road map for the area so as to facilitate for permanent durable shelter and ambulatory services; these efforts were met with tribal refusal to relocate any shelter from it’s current spot. The planning administration had to develop technical and communication methods that will not distract the existing bedwyn shelter or community, and position the planned 200 square meter 3rd class residential development exactly on the occupied spots. This left the new residential development with a non-structured road map that is economically and technically challenging to future plans to accommodate for public services.

To understand in practice the dynamics between regional tribes, this research conducted a physical survey of tribal neighborhoods and performed separate interviews with tribal members whose families expanded throughout the Red Sea State and Kasala State. Awad-Allah a taxi driver from the Beni-Amir, a Rashaidah family and with Om El- Hassan Adaro, a Hadendawa wife and mother, summarized the culture of her tribe Hadandawa and conflicts with Beni-Amir. The Rashaidah emphasized complete cultural segregation, and the Howsa segregated culturally from the rest of the tribes since they are considered by many invaders from northern Nigeria. The relationship between these tribes is conservative and sensitive in its social order characterized by segregated marriages except for few, and nepotism in economic supports from the community. (Fig 5.60-5.61)

Fig 5.60 – 5.61- Om El-Hassan Adaro (Hadandawa) and Warda’s family (Rashaidah). Om El-Hassan lives between Kasala, Haya and Suakin as she moves around in search for work. Warda and her family live in government housing neighborhood in Kasala suburb and are confined to their home and neighborhood2.

1 Dr Osama Mustafa El-Zain. 2 Field survey and photography by author. December 2010.

183 The interview with families indicated that there is a great need in the Red Sea state suburban areas and towns overall and in Suakin in particular for community awareness, engagement and services to encourage tribal integration in housing and service quarters.

B- Health:

According to the UNHD report on human development status in the Red Sea state for 2006, The Global Malnutrition rates in the eastern region of Sudan are constantly exceeding the 15% emergency threshold. The surveys prepared in coordination with the World Health Organization (WHO), indicate that the Red Sea state malnutrition ratio varies between 19.7% in the Port Sudan suburbs to 30.8% in Sinkat. In 2007 the Red Sea state averaged 19% in malnutrition despite the food assistance provided by humanitarian agencies active in the region. In refugee camps, the Global Malnutrition average ratio remained below 10% for the last six consecutive years monitored by the United Nations State Team (UNST)1.

Excess Iodine intake correlates closely with thyroid disease; as explained by Dr. Izzeldin Hussein, a researcher with the Institute of Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition at London Metropolitan University. A survey and testing conducted by the Institute in 2006 on selected children from Port Sudan basic schools, confirmed high concentrations of UIC reaching a maximum of 1470.25 mg/I on students with visible goiter. Exceeding the tolerable upper intake level of 300 – 600 mg/I set by the U.S. Institute of Medicine (IOM), suggesting that children ages 4-8 are at high risk for thyroiditis, hypo- and hyperthyroidism, and goiter. The ratios confirmed on 75% of children tested are associated with thyroid abnormalities (Institute of Medicine 2001)2.

The UNST report also documented a high under-five mortality rates estimated at 2.01:10,000/day in Kasala, 1.83: 10,000/ day in the Red Sea state, and a maternal mortality ratio of 685:100,000 live births in the eastern region. Pitiable access to health care services in the region is a great contributor to the problem, where only 20% of the rural areas are covered. This is in addition to the high cost of available medical treatment in urban Port Sudan, and a number of social and cultural factors that are key contributors to the problem, such as the excessive mutilation of female genitals practiced on an estimated 90% of the region.

Vulnerability to HIV is very high in the eastern region, in areas of high mobility population including refugees and internally displaced persons, seasonal migrant and sex workers, military and nomads, the homeless and children.

Pandemic disease outbreaks are also reported in 2006 and 2007 including Malaria, dengue fever, meningitis, cholera and TB. Many are associated with the changes in seasons, but mostly are due to poor sanitary conditions and scarcity of healthy potable water. A most recently completed central hospital relieved some of the hardships in Suakin and surrounding catchment areas, but specialty medical treatment facilities such as renal

1 UNST (Kasala, Red Sea) and UN Resident Coordinator Office, Sudan. East Sudan Analysis and Priorities, May 25, 2007. 2 Population living in the Red Sea State of Sudan May need Urgent Intervention to correct the Excess Dietary Iodine intake. Dr. Izzeldin S. Hussein et al. ICCIDD Middle East and North Africa. Institute of Brain Chemistry and Human Nutrition. London Metropolitan University. P.1- 5

184 and physical therapy centers are lacking, in addition to the lack of community health centers needed to reduce travel needs and bring more awareness to family medicine.

C- Institutional Deficiencies:

1-Deficiencies in the Educational System and Facilities: An elementary teacher from the Hadandawa tribe expressed concerns in regards to the use of Arabic language verses Kushits language in the schools. According to Mrs. Manal Hassan Ali1, incidents of students who used the Kushits language (their mother tongue) in scholastic exams have resulted in failure of the students and their misplacements in educational levels. The investigation conducted by this research confirmed that current educational curriculum of Sudan implements an Arabic Language based program which is not sufficient to the tribal cultures who sustain indigenous Kushits variations and traditional Bedawiet teachings. Regimented education programs in the region are impacted by the mobility of the families whose way of living has no place for urban disciplines, and whose traditional teachings are applied to their daily way of living as explained by Mrs. Manal Hassan Ali and confirmed by the Rashaidah families interviewed. The Red Sea State, and based on the Sudan Ministry of Education measures, and according to UNESCO reports has a high illiteracy level averaging 50% - 89% in rural areas, a low primary school enrollment estimated at 44.9%, and dropout rate of 15%.

The Sudan new peace agreement and constitution in 2006 recognized all indigenous languages practiced in the country as official languages, and the Comprehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) advised development and protection of indigenous people’s rights2. Furthermore, the guiding principles in the interim constitution requires that a process be instituted to amend the relevant laws, including the customary laws of land ownership and practice and local heritage3, yet no apparent efforts are made up to December 2010.

More detrimental to the educational system in Suakin particularly, is the need for sufficient educational tools, supplies, potable water and sanitary means in the minimum available educational facilities. In addition lack of public libraries, media awareness, technical training programs and facilities all add to the deficiencies in the institutional organization which in turn reflects on the work and market status in Suakin.

2- Deficiencies in Communication and Cooperation Between Stakeholders: According to the survey visits and interviews conducted in December 1-5 of 2010; and after visiting Port Sudan Planning Department, Port Sudan Survey Department, Suakin Survey and Planning Department4, ICZM Office, United Nations Industrial Development Program (UNIDO) 5and in comparing existing and in-progress re- planning efforts by Suakin Survey and Planning Department to Suakin preliminary

1 Mrs. Manal Hassan Ali, Al-Arab Shamal Elementary School – Port Sudan. December 3, 2010. Hadandawa tribe. 2 Comprehensive Peace Agreement 2006. 3 World Intellectual Property Organization, Indigenous and local communities’ concerns and experiences in promoting, sustaining and safeguarding their traditional knowledge, traditional cultural expressions and genetic resources. Geneva, February 25, 2008. Mrs. Fawzia Yusuf Glal-Eldin, Sudanese Association of Archiving Knowledge (SUDAAK), Khartoum. 4 Dr. Osama El-Zain, Director of planning and survey department – Suakin. Interview by Fedaa El- Dosougi in 12-03-2010 5 Dr. Avilio Fernando Medina Pizzali, Chief Technical Advisor UNIDO, Project for modernization of Small Scale Fisheries – Red Sea State. Interview by Fedaa El-Dosougi December 4, 2010 on the redevelopment of Suakin central market.

185 Master Plan proposal by Mallinson Architects Associates, it was apparent that different local and International agencies active in Suakin are working in separate re- development plans not related to any common nor shared Master Plan, nor are there independent feasibility studies for each activity.

In an effort to establish stationary settlements for squatters around Suakin Gaif; Suakin Survey and Planning Department under the direct supervision of Dr. Osama Zain is conducting a survey to the exact location of each temporary shelter in a tedious manner necessary to maintain tribal peace. The area in discussion is proposed by Michael Mallinson preliminary master plan to be the site for a future urban city of Suakin to the North of the existing main road leading into the Island (see Chapter I). The tribes who settled in the area are now replacing their tents and cabins with concrete block and mud brick homes on a site they proved to be inherited from prior generations (see chapter IV on history of the Bejah), and the area is zoned as type III residential with lots at 200 sq. m. each. Dr. Osama and his team of two technicians are facing the challenge of convincing the new homeowners to situate their homes according to the main streets planned by the department for future installation of infrastructure and for accessibility, and this has proved to be cumbersome to even the minimum planning necessities of providing access to ambulatory and rescue services. The proposed future new urban city for Suakin will have to be planned inclusive of the local residents needs and with consideration to existing settlements to allow for cultural integration, equity and peace in the coastal town of Suakin.

The United Nations Industrial Development Organization economic program lead by Dr. Avilio Fernando Medina Pizzali, is working to redevelop the fish market in Suakin and is assisted by the planning department in Port Sudan where drafting services are provided, but are not managed by an experienced architect nor a professional planner. The proposed market plans did not take into consideration the physical limitations of the site as far as elevations and roads relationships. According to the interview conducted with Mr. Pizzali, the proposed market did not engage stakeholders and the local population in Suakin was not allowed the opportunity to participate in the new development, nor did the design consider future proposed master plan, nor did it make allowance for the installation of infrastructure or the integration of the new fish market plans with the existing buildings, or the existing market. Communication and cooperation between municipalities and experts is necessary to ensure a cohesive and inclusive master plan for the area.

D- Lack of Open Market and Dependency on Marginal Local Trades:

The Bijah pastoralists, have over centuries developed dynamic survival strategies which exploited various natural resources in the Eastern Desert. Of those are: mobility for seasonal conveniences, heard diversification and redistribution to survive the desert and long periods of drought, strict customary rules to maintain family and tribal rights. This late century, discriminatory colonial and the following government policies managed to aggravate the Bijah exacerbated livelihood, and forced the tribes to shift from livestock herding to reliance on unsustainable trades incorporated into the natural pattern of seasonal migrations, such as charcoal making and pilgrimage auxiliary seasonal services. (Fig 5.62-5.67)

186

Fig 5.62 - Suakin Market bare necessities1. Fig 5.63- Grain market in Suakin2.

Fig 5.64- 5.65- Traditional boat making and boat yard in Suakin3.

Fig 5.66- Traditional Sambook used for fishing and transportation4.

Fig 5.67- Traditional Camel herding along the Eastern Desert is seasonal from north to south Sudan boarders, and to the plains of Kasala and south to the Simian Mountains5.

The local urban population in Suakin travels to Port Sudan, Kasala and Khartoum for major shopping activities where the market provides more varieties in consumer goods. Suakin town is in need for a central shopping and consumer supplies facilities to help

1 Google Earth Photo Gallery. 2 Photography by author. 2008. 3 Red Sea Chronicles – DVD- www.maxingout.com/Sudanese-shipyard.htm 2008. 4 Red Sea Chronicles – DVD – www.maxingout.com/sudanese -shipyard.htm. 2008. 5 Photograph by others.

187 reduce daily transportation needs between major urban sites. In addition, the local trades are in need for development and the establishment of organized and more focused local trades will engage the community in the local economy at many levels.

E- Negligence in the rehabilitation of the existing ruins on the coral island Suakin. The importance of this site to the redevelopment of the settlement is high (see chapter IV). The Sudan Ministry of Tourism and Natural Habitat, along with the Ministry of Archeology and Antiquity, supported by international archeological organizations and the UNESCO Researches are making efforts to renovate the existing ruins. However, a comprehensive study to rehabilitate the site and to develop support systems essential to a healthy and economically viable settlement has not been conducted1. Furthermore; the on-going rehabilitation of the island did not take into consideration the introduction of infrastructure with regards to the existing level of the ground floors surface to the existing roads and courtyards in relation to the required depth to install infrastructure. The rebuilding also did not consider reinforcing the newly built structures so as to extend their life cycle, and eliminate the risks of demolition from unexpected earthquakes as did the one in the mid-thirties2. Provisions for accessibility in applying international codes and requirements for designing egress, steps and stairs, and sanitary services for public use in buildings being renovated or rebuilt at this time are not provided3. In general the on-going renovations from 2006 are proceeding seasonally and in a very slow pace, slower than the continuous decay taking place. (Fig 5.68 – 5.71).

*Fig 5.68-7.69- Ruins of Suakin as of December 3, 2010 continues to crumble4.

Fig 5.70- 5.71- Ongoing renovation did not consider requirements for the installment of infrastructure before rebuilding, nor did it follow a strategic renovation process for building structures such as the renovation of roofs prior to internal walls, that which left renovated internal coral block walls exposed to weathering and damage from humidity is already apparent on the renovated buildings5.

1 Michel Mallinson Architect, interview on November 2008, London England. 2The Secretary of Interior’s Standards for The Treatment of Historic Properties with Guidelines for Preserving, Restoring, Rehabilitating and Re-Constructing Historic Buildings. By: Kay D Weeks & Anne A Grimmer. US Department of Interior, National Park Service, Cultural Resource Stewardship and Partnerships, Heritage Preservation Service. Washington DC. 1995. 3 Red Sea State survey of 1-5, 12, 2010. 4 Survey visit to Suakin on December 1-5 of 2010. By: Fedaa El-Dosougi (author). 5Photography by owner. December 2010

188 5.2 SUMMARY OF FIELD WORK FINDINGS:

Though nature and climate change played a part in the desertification, soil erosion, and on the endangerment of habitat along the Red Sea coastal zone, man inflicted additional negative impacts on the environment and on the social and cultural ingredients that are the base for a peaceful and integrated social order. Even more unconstructive is what lack of awareness and minimum exposure has brought about on the economic components that help plant the seed for a healthy society. Administrative short sightedness and even negligence in some circumstances and absence of long term planning, maintenance and follow-up is the stroke that broke stability within the different communities that form the Red Sea costal societies.

In light of the above findings it is apparent that there is a need for a cohesive, integrated, sustainable and long term regional master plan that will engage all stakeholders in the process of developing ecologically and economically viable and sustainable coastal settlements1.

1 For more up to date images on the current state of Suakin Coral Island, please see portfolio of images by author.

189 Chapter VI Suggested Solutions & Recommendations

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT OF THE RED SEA STATE – Suakin as a Prototype Cultural Ecotown.

This chapter presents a summary of the characteristics that supports Suakin Gaif re- development as a prototype sustainable eco-town on the arid Red Sea State coastal zone as investigated based on standard scientific planning methodologies. This chapter will also explore the possibilities of implementing world recognized sustainable town planning theories (Chapter II) that will help the integration of the multicultural communities in the area, and will help provide opportunities for the development of a cohesive, environmentally friendly, culturally and economically feasible neighborhoods, communities and towns along the arid Red Sea State coastal zone.

6.0 - INTRODUCTION:

The geographic location of Suakin town, its physical characteristics and the environmental landscape on which the town grew and needs to survive for future generations maintains all elements of a coastal site and settlement as made clear in chapter IV of the this study. The field work findings in chapter VII reflected on the geographic and climatic features and changes that severely impacted life in the Red Sea State the past twenty years. Climatic change is apparent in the eroded flood zone and desertification along the coastal line and in the wadis of the Red Sea State. Human negative impact on the coastal line necessitates the development of strategic neighborhood parameters, roles and responsibilities towards the establishment of sustainable eco-towns.

The Red Sea State diverse natural resources mentioned in chapter III are a rich attraction for technological developments, but the challenges facing the state as documented in chapter V contributes to the underdevelopment of the coastal zone of the Red Sea State and of Suakin, the second largest settlement on the coast.

Tribalism, an indigenous characteristic of the region along the Red Sea coast is discussed in chapters V and VI, and it continues to be an influential element in the structure of the Bijah society which is slightly integrated into few urban environments such as in the city of Port Sudan, Kassala and in Khartoum. Where a town population is dominated by Bijah tribes such as in Suakin, it is mostly inhabited by the Hadendawa, Ortega, Shayaab and Beni Amir who are of closely related culture and blood lines, the divide is not so apparent as it is where tribes other than Bijah share the resources. Much divide recorded in chapter V, is found in the wadis of the Red Sea Mountains and in Wadi Kassala where resources are shard by Bijah tribes dominating East of Al-Gash River (see Chapter II and Appendix II for history of tribes and settlements), and by others such as the Rashaidah and Howsa dominating separate quarters to the west of Al-Gash River.

190 In Suakin, the issue of tribalism rises where administrative activities approach land ownership and where land ownership rights abide by ancestral tribal laws and understanding. It is also realized in the socio-economic relationships between the local tribes and refugees squatters mostly to the south of Suakin and near to Ageg and Toker. Tribal tensions as described in Chapters II and Appendix II are historically recorded to extend between different groups and even within the tribe families and may take the form of aggressions over resources, land, and even over minor social variables.

The integration of the diverse cultures in the region are a priority in planning for future sustainable settlement and landscape, and engaging the community in the process is vital to encourage ownership, maintain peace and help develop long term stability in the region. Equitable opportunities supported by necessary training, mentoring and monitoring are invaluable to help elevate poverty in the region, and the introduction of technology and media is likely to expose Suakin to both national and international markets’ changing trends, and will provide economic expansions in the State.

Lack of infrastructure and insufficient public services are most detrimental to the desired growth of the region health-wise and economically. Infrastructure is a priority in developing the Red Sea Region, toping the list is potable water, sanitary means, sewage disposal, water retention systems, waste disposal systems, public roads accessible to services such as ambulatory, fire rescue and security services, electricity and gas.

Environmental sustainability means are a major necessity to help maintain the rich ecological systems of the area on land and in the sea. Public awareness and capacity building will provide the tools for implementing, monitoring and maintaining the different infrastructure systems placed for future generations.

Regional and city zoning, building and environmental codes reviewed by this study provide minimum directives and are in great need for major review and inclusions of up-to date requirements and rules that will ensure healthy, aesthetically pleasant and sustainable future developments that will support efficiently the population growth and economic market in the area.

6.1- SUAKIN EXISTING ZONING, PLANNING AND BUILDING REGULATIONS:

Three major zoning districts are currently adopted in Suakin area: Island, Gaif and parameters to the base of the Red Sea on the West, and Port Suakin to the East:

1-The Historic District: It includes Suakin Coral Reef Island as described in chapters II and VI of this study, Elephantine the secondary coral reef island to the North of Suakin Island used as the quarantine by successive historic civilizations and powers that occupied the Eastern Desert, and the peripheral coastal area of the Gaif that once supported the colonial occupation on Suakin Island extending along both sides of the canal and had once been occupied by the port commercial warehouses.

191 2-Al-Gaif includes the old town of Suakin inhabited by the natives who inherited the land from ancestral generations and provided labor to the colonial island. It also includes the expansions up to date extending to the base of the Red Sea mountains particularly to the south of Suakin.

3-Port Suakin occupies the same location as the historic port and is planned for further redevelopment. (Fig 6.1)

c

c f g b

c

a

d

e e

Fig 6.1- Aerial Photograph of Suakin Town catchment area and it includes1: a. Suakin Coral Reef Island b. Elephantine Island c. 100ft. deep beach area of peripheral historic sites d. Old Gaif town e. New Gaif expansions radial to Suakin Island f. Suakin town entrance and transport center g. Port Suakin.

No indication is made to emphasize the rich historic building elements of the historic Coral Reef Island, and neither has the city made priorities in the administrative codes to health, accessibility and security. World theories proposed for application to Suakin town encompass the majority of the international planning, building and environmental codes and can be made applicable to the existing and future developments.

1 Aerial photograph by Google Earth, Diagrams by author.

192 6.2- STANDARD TOWN PLANNING PROCEDURE INCORPORATED IN THE PRESENT STUDY:

The standard planning procedure applied to this study represent the minimum required for future sustainable ecological master planning and is diagrammatically summarized as follows: (Fig 6.2-6.5)

Fig 6.2- Standard relationships road map of geographic and environmental elements in sustainable design and construction1.

1 By author while project manager for Spillis Candella DMJM. Ras Al-Had Tourism and Resort Town – Ras Al-Had, Oman. Project Process and Update Report 2006.

193

Fig 6.3- Relationship diagram of socio-economic and cultural influences on sustainable design and town planning1.

*Fig 6.4- Relationship diagram of governmental regulations and restrictions on the sustainable design of buildings and site planning1.

1 By author while Project Manager for Spillis Candela, DMJM. Diagram from Ras Al-Had Tourism and Resort Town – Ras Al- Had, Oman. Project Process and Update Report 2006.

194

Fig 6.5- Direct relationship of primary infrastructure on sustainable town planning design capacity *and impact on the environment2.

Further studies to the structure of each community or neighborhood that contribute to the build up of a sustainable town or city will require investigation and analysis of the population census, building types, composition desired to reflect the economic and cultural activities of the town. Specific analysis to the requirements of public activities practiced in the area including commerce, trades, institutional, public entertainment and seasonal festivals, transportation and communication trends, will help define the different quarters and land use within the town and is summarized as follows: (Fig 6.6)

1 Life safety codes are not adopted in Sudan, but are a necessity for an expanding country and town in the business of real estate development and tourism. 2 By author while Project Manager for Spillis Candela – DMJM. Diagram from Ras Al-Had Tourism and Resort Town – Ras Al- Had, Oman. Project Process and Update Report 2006. *Design Capacity is the capacity at which each individual element of a design be it infra structure or a building structure is designed and calculated to accommodate for a specific range, quantity and number of users.

195

PRELIMINARY ANALYSIS FOR AREA PLANNING AND DESIGN

ENVIRONM ENTAL ZONATION

USE ZONATIO N

STRATEGIC MASTER PLAN DESIGN

Fig 6.6- Strategic Master Planning Process Diagram for Sustainable, Cultural Ecotown1. Please refer to figures 8.2-8.5 for each section of this diagram.

6.3- THE APPLICATION OF INTEGRATED SUSTAINABLE ECO-TOWN PLANNING ON THE RED SEA STATE COASTAL ZONE IN SUDAN.

The goal of this study is to facilitate the redevelopment of existing Suakin town into an ecologically friendly community, and to furnish minimum practical guidelines on which future new sustainable developments can be organized. History of town and city planning reviewed in Section II of Chapter II portrays numerous scenarios for growth in historic cities that continued to lead world developments technologies, and most historic theories were based on the physical need for security, social and economic reforms as was the case for the linear cities, the industrial cities and the garden city leading green neighborhoods. These are the same needs that exist in Suakin today (see Chapter V).

1 By author while Sr. Project Manager for DMJM 2006. Modified by author for this research June 2010. Ras Al-Had Tourism and Resort Town – Ras Al-Had, Oman. Project Process and Update Report.

196 The historic settlement of Suakin Island present indigenous planning that reflected most historic planning theories even at prior dated documentations than most recent theories such as today Green Communities (see Chapters II and IV for comparison). The planning of Suakin applied cultural ingenuity and provided for the daily activities of the community within the available affordable means and resources at a close proximity within the Island parameters, and extended its industrial and defenses to the peripherals and inland as presented in the literature survey in Chapter II and in the socio-cultural and socio-economical analysis provided in Chapter II. Also see Appendix II on a brief history of Sudan.

The analysis of Suakin historic planning provided in chapter II and IV showed Suakin as an embodiment of many characteristics in the most current planning ideologies for green and ecologically friendly communities including the quarter mile radius walk- able neighborhood, the multiuse building types, the open public spaces, the narrow private secure roads, shopping street fronts, shaded narrow community roads prior to the invention of the automobile, and the high density multistory buildings constructed from local materials in an environmentally and culturally satisfying design. (see Chapter II and IV for comparison).

Though Suakin Island lacked today’s required infrastructure (energy, potable water supply and sanitary disposal) as did most world historic cities at one point, it persistently implemented planning and building strategies that helped reduce heat island effect, air pollution and supported energy efficiency (see Chapter II & IV). Characteristics now required for green buildings1 and enforced by many international environmental codes2. This conclusion supports the use of eco-town planning in this culturally rich and diverse town of Suakin, and its application encourages planning ideologies which are not foreign to Suakin Island.

1 LEED V2, V3 for green and sustainable buildings. 2 US Environmental Code – US EPA, Sudan ICZM.

197 6.4- FEASIBILITY OF SUSTAINABLE TOWN PLANNING IN SUAKIN:

Al-Gaif old town is similar in life style to the Pedestrian neighborhood in its own modest way, where automobile ownership is limited to officials, whole sale merchants and few families and is a pattern that reflects the social and economic status of the citizens in Suakin. The existing neighborhoods surveyed (see Chapter V for field work findings) exhibit no implementation of specific zoning in old Gaif town, and lifestyle reflects patterns that can be modified through rezoning, community engagement and rehabilitation. Efforts to revive the old town supports that attempts by the present research to forward feasible sustainable planning guidelines that are likely to help in the rehabilitation and redevelopment of the area, and the application of most recent popular environmental planning approaches in Suakin Gaif is summarized as follows: (Fig. 6.7)

7.77 kilometers distance from water front to mountain base.

Suakin Island @ 23.19 kilometers from Port Sudan airport to the north.

Main paved highway from Port Sudan to 11inland kilom viaeters distanceSuakin. from water front to mountain base.

Fig 6.7- Suakin location in the Red Sea State coastal zone. The Garden City

A. Location: Suakin is in close proximity to main public transport both land and sea, and central to main settlements north and south along the coast of the Red Sea at 30 to 60 minute travel distances, the maximum recommended by the Garden City concept (see Chapter II Linear & Garden city concepts).

198 SUAKIN ISLAND AND GAIF 2 mile distance to main public transportation station.

Residential area seasonal exposure Main travel rout to flash flooding to Khartoum & along this route. Port Sudan

Fig 6.8-- Existing major seasonal flash flood (water source) slope and route from Red Sea Mountains possible to control technologically within a regional Master Plan. (see brief on LEED analysis Chapter II section ii)

Historic Buildings along the water front.

Existing Souk (no other) Residential Expansion

Fig 6.9- Existing Suakin Gaif aerial photograph. The Linear City.

B- Settlement pattern need for redevelopment: The old town took an irregular settlement pattern, but linear to the water front and expanding north and south in the same manner (see Chapter II Linear City Concept-expansion of coastal cities)1.

1 Suakin aerial by Google Earth, Diagrams by author, the Linear City from Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia.

199 Main travel road Flash Flood Zone Small open space utilized mostly for circulation Narrow & irregular road patterns Open space with little inaccessible to utilization services. Typical.

Open space with no utilization

Residential cell on free hold estate. Typical. Fig 6.10- Al-Gaif Old Town Settlement Pattern and land utilization.

C- Accessibility: Old Suakin Gaif existing roads follow irregular patterns, are lacking road hierarchy, inaccessible by automobile in many areas, and the town encompass numerous underutilized land1. Grouping of irregular residential blocks, correlate with catchment of extended family residential cell, with dead end roads that leads into private courtyards. The proposed hierarchy of streets defines functions of their surroundings and acts as parameters for zoning, land use, security and accommodate for underground infrastructure2, and maintaining narrow pedestrian friendly roads encourages community integration and reduces automobile accident risks. (Fig 6.11)

Fig 6.11- Proposed narrow pedestrian streets encourage social integration and community engagement3.

1 Suakin aerial by Google Earth, diagrams by author. 2 Diagram from Ras Al-Had Tourism and Resort Town – Ras Al-Had, Oman. Project Process and Update Report by author for Spillis Candela , DMJM. 2006. Modified by author for the present research June 2010. 3 Rendering by author.

200 The existing landscape in Suakin shows possibility for providing radiating accessible roads, and reforming un-utilized open space into public multifunctional areas. Aligning green belts with the main travel routs and around the town helps reduce glare, slows down wind and reduces dust storms impact the town. (Fig 6.12)

Neighborhood Green belt buffer streets are intimate Highway zone along freeway and w/ speed limit (Freeway) at environmental and and neighborhood city parameter. safety barrier watch

City (downtown) Hierarchy of roads street with crossing Neighborhood core service defines zoning and access islands for public and green open space to neighborhoods transport and safety

Fig 6.12- Proposed re-planning for accessible roads.

D- Proximity to Public Transportation: Suakin is located at close proximity to public transportation that which helps reduce automobile dependency reduces air pollution (dust, noise), reduces health and safety risks associated with smoke inhalation, heat exposure, stressful activities and automobile accidents anticipated in high density areas1. (see Chapters II and V). (Fig 6.13)

Existing flashflood concentration area proposed for manmade canal to be extended from lagoon to be used for rain water collection, irrigation and inland aquatic activities.

Proposed new inland, medium to high rise urban development of high densities. Maintain core service areas and open public spaces. Avoid canyon settings to insure equal exposure to natural light along streets, and provide equal views to water frontage. (see figures 8.16 – 8.21)

City cross section.

Fig 6.13- Proposed Green belt buffer zone between major highway and urbanized zones

1 LEED V3

201 E- Green Belt and buffer zones: In addition to reducing traffic accident risks and noise pollution, a green belt will help reduce heat island effect that may be created by future urban structures and provides continuity to environmental natural belt for migratory inhabitants1. This may be incorporated in the form of farmlands and through the rehabilitation of endogenous canopies and shrubs. Green buffer areas around public spaces will act as parameters to residential areas, help reduce temperature extremes and aesthetically define road hierarchy. (Fig 6.14-6.16)

Green buffer zone (public Provision for open space) in urban landscape space/ pedestrian using indigenous canopy pockets in coastal and shrubs, in addition to urban settings. high salinity hardy plants.

Fig 6.14- Planning for pedestrian friendly public spaces. Calthorpe Pedestrian Pockets.

Green belts in the urban setting landscape are advantageous in providing security and privacy buffer zones between commercial districts and residential quarters, and provide for social functions in addition to reducing glare and heat island. (see section 6.8 for feasible sustainable water supply systems.

Mixed use high density quarters at medium height only typical to historic island zoning to be implemented in Gaif, town landscape setting

Green buffer provides: . Noise, Glare, Heat & Dust reduction . Green open public spaces . Privacy to residential district . Defined road hierarchy

Quiet residential low noise quarters of existing single family homes.

Fig 6.15- Use of green buffer to identify boundaries between zones and help reduce pollution.

1 Diagrams by author. Aerial by Google Earth.

202

Fig 6.16 Environmental setback for sustainable shorelines and reef.

F- Set-backs and height restrictions: Height restrictions allow open streetscape and natural light for both town and urban settings, and mandate a minimum of 50 meter set- back off shore line (reef) in existing coastal towns and for new coastal developments1. Setback from shorelines will help eliminate artificial light reflection on water surface and aquatic life, and the green cover will help reduce soil erosion. Height restrictions are also necessary to regulate streets exposure to natural light and help in greening sidewalks for shade and aesthetic effects. (Fig 6.17- 6.19).

Natural light exposure limited to noon.

Fig 6.17- Building heights that allow only noon light to penetrate streets are undesirable*.

Wider range for natural light exposure.

Fig 6.18- Height restrictions that allow natural light to penetrate streets and buildings are desirable for green sustainable planning and building design2.

1 Coastal ecological urban setting. Rendering by author. *2 Diagram by author.

203

Fig 6.19- Water front view corridors.

BEACH AREA OF COAST INLAND OF COASTAL ZONE 4 Stories height restriction More than 4 stories allowed inland Lower densities Higher densities Less artificial light intensity Higher artificial light intensity Most views for water frontage Less views for water frontage

G- Maintain land value: allow for view corridors towards water fronts enhance real estate value to a greater distance from shoreline, and minimize densities along the reefs while provide higher densities in land particularly in urban settings. This will help maintain aquatic life in the reef.

6.5- FEASIBILITY OF IMPLEMENTING SUSTAINABLE CULTURAL INTEGRATION, DIVERSITY AND MIXED USE HIGH DENSITY QUARTERS IN SUAKIN.

At the neighborhood scale, existing zoning recognizes commercial and residential zoning, where residential institute three (3) single family residential categories as classified in the code survey in chapter II of this study. This study proposes rezoning of Al-Gaif to make allowances for mixed use high density quarters, and specifically defined districts to serve high volume commercial, industrial, institutional, and farms for both town and urban settings inland and along the coast as deemed environmentally friendly. A list of suggestions is provided in the summery at the end of this chapter.

The existing zoning did not take into consideration the underutilized large open spaces that separates neighbors in Suakin (see fig 6.10), however; this characteristic provides an opportunity for rezoning that encourages utilization of the numerous open spaces in Suakin to support future increase in densities, that which brings more diversities. Hence, the open spaces in Suakin may be manipulated for the redevelopment of sustainable, pedestrian mixed use neighborhoods with core services areas and multicultural public spaces as follows:

204 Main entry road to historic Island

Small open space for green public use.

Medium open space for low-rise mixed use infill.

Large open space for mixed use infill and core service area.

¼ mile radios neighborhood.

Residential cell on free hold estate. Typical.

Fig 6.20- Overlay of ¼ mile radius parameter for standard 15 minutes walking distance.

1- Sustainable pedestrian friendly neighborhood: Sustainable neighborhoods demonstrate core service locations and utilized open spaces, mixed use residential quarters to support high densities, provide live work setting and encourage cultural integration1. (see fig 6.10 for underutilized spaces)

Historic District (Suakin Island, Elephantine and Gaif Frontage. 100 ft. min. width of water front for ecological frontage (see US EPA)

Neighborhood unit

Fig 6.21- ¼ mile radius pedestrian neighborhoods and ecologically friendly water front 2.

1 Diagrams by author. 2 Aerial photograph by Google Earth. Diagrams and specifications by author.

205

Proposed canal for rain and gray water collection.

New neighborhood catchment area @ ¼ mile maximum.

New open public spaces between neighborhoods @ close distance to public transportation route.

New neighborhood core service area within walking distance and low automobile circulation

Peter Calthorpe Network setting

Fig 6.22- Proposed service core neighborhoods network and irrigation canals.

2- Mixed use quarters and clusters and network setting provide access to variety of services, job diversities and cultural integration. Transitional high density mixed use quarters are recommended for a portioned introductory of (non Bijah) citizens into Suakin Gaif (predominantly Bijah) to encourage cultural integration and avoid massive sudden change that is likely to be rejected by the indigenous people (see Chapter IV for culture).

Residential units above ground level for privacy and security

Fig 6.23- Sustainable mixed-use quarters provide work-live opportunities and services at walking distance , thus help reduce air pollution and automobile accident risk1.

1 Diagram by author.

206 Service floors at close Commercial space at mid and proximity from end user. ground levels provides a Under cover parking helps work/live setting reduce heat island and glare (see LEED)

Fig 6.24- Maximum use to land value1.

3- Re-evaluation of the existing zoning code: Suakin, existing three zoning categories for single family homes are based on a 200 sq. m., 300sq. meter and 400sq. m. lot size2 awarded to families of 2 – 15 members indiscriminately in a number of Red Sea towns including Suakin*, and are insufficient even to the average Sudanese family of 5-6 members, due to the cultural needs of local families including settlers and bedwins alike, where the average Bijah nucleus family is 8 members (not including seniors). The average Sudanese family in general account for family seniors (grandparents) in the nucleus family plans, and in many instances in the Red Sea State, the Bijah account for extended family as well (see chapter IV for Bijah culture). The present study suggests rezoning for residential lots based on programmatic analysis of the end users and their relation to Suakin future planned urban centers and economic, and suggests making allowances that encourages high densities and provides for family expansion, and for sustainable family living style, such as providing additional space for extended family and for family produce garden.

4- Employ sustainable infill: Suakin open spaces provide opportunities for rezoning to increase densities and provide mixed use town quarters through the use of sustainable infill while providing for open green spaces for community activities. (Fig 8.25-8.26)

Fig 6.25- Existing low density residential cells*. Fig 6.26- Rezoned high density, mixed use

Residential with core focal space3.

1 Diagram by author. *2Dr. Osama El-Zain, Director of Suakin Mapping and Civil Engineering department. Interview on December 3, 2010. *3The Remaking of Oakland Green City – Building Community fro Bottom Up. Village Bottom Community Development

207 5- Central service areas: Service areas central in a neighborhood may include market, craft shops, family health centers, community centers, police and social service posts, communication post and open green public spaces, and is necessary to revive existing communities and engage them in integrated activities. (Fig 6.27)

Fig 6.27- Core service area in green open space provides opportunities for social interaction (a meeting place), reduces daily travel distance for shopping and enhances opportunities for local jobs1.

Current attempts by Suakin city administration to revitalize the existing market and local trades such as fishing are focused on reuse of the existing historic fish market and the existing produce market, both lack proper ground structure for healthy operations and are at more than ½ mile distance from Suakin Gaif expansions that extend to more than 2 miles linear distance southwards. Core service neighborhoods may act as satellites for not only the local central market, but also for technical training, communication and exposure to the national community through neighborhood community centers. Public schools overcrowding may also be relived by activating community centers as educational institutions within reach for families and children, and are likely to impact positively family and child security issues caused by long travel distances to service posts and to schools.

Coordination between community centers, government agencies and independent organizations such as Sudan ICZM will help enhance community awareness and engagement in environmental, social, educational and professional development, which is likely to improve the economic status of the local community (see Chapter V for fieldwork findings). Engaging the local community with environmental institutions and agencies is necessary to expand the arm for agencies to monitor the local environment and maintain environmental codes yet to be established. Engagement of local residents in planning for redevelopment of their community arms them with directed knowledge that enhances their sense of land and community ownership, which is a strong characteristic of the Bijah tribes.

The cultural and economic relationship between the majority inhabitants of Suakin, Eritrea, Ethiopia, minority tribes and the Bijah nations of the Northern Eastern Desert, is necessary to explore in order to understand the socio-economic context that contributed to the decline in the area, and is likely to determine the success of Suakin redevelopment.

Corporation and Eco-city Builders. P51. 1 Sketch by others.

208 6.6- FEASIBILITY OF IMPLEMENTING SUSTAINABLE HERITAGE CHARACTERISTICS IN THE REDEVELOPMENT OF SUAKIN AND NEW COASTAL TOWNS:

Survey on historic Suakin Island planning, structures and building material indicated that the old town is planned and built based on environmental, cultural and security measures unique to the location of the island, its physical, social and political environment. Suakin town continues to hold the same unique characteristics including multicultural mix, economic and political leadership in the region; however, it lacks its historic pleasant aesthetic features and organization (see Chapters II and IV). Buildings of historic Suakin are of local green material and built by local tradesmen, a characteristic recommended today by leading international sustainability and environmental codes (see section ii of Chapter II for IGBC, LEED). (Fig 6.28- 6.30)1.

Fig 6.28- Carved Coral Block Fig 6.29- Carved Wood Fascia Fig 6.30- Wood Roshans

The mixed use functional building design is encouraged by international theories for sustainable cultural and functional design (see chapter II), and the application of historic features such as Mashrabiyas on windows, mixed arch window styles, wood finishes, white wash on block walls is feasible due to the availability of materials, crafts and labor. Proposed building designs produced for this study applied these features to different building types and masses that reflected uniqueness in the application and positive possibilities certainly will reflect the unique character of Suakin town. Fig (6.31- 6.32)

Fig 6.31- Proposed application of Suakin Island aesthetic features on contemporary architecture at same height limits as historically documented – 4 story height for mixed use buildings2.

1 Photography by others. *2 Architecture design by author June 2010, pencil rendering by others.

209

Fig 6.32- Proposed application of Suakin Island aesthetic features on modern architecture at over 10 stories high, for mixed use buildings in urban settings*.

6.7- FEASIBILITY OF DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

SERVICES IN SUAKIN:

The arid Red Sea State coast is blessed with plentiful natural resources with sun and wind exposure in the lead, and both are main drivers for sustainable solar and wind power technologies booming in different parts of the world. The field survey conducted for this research indicated shortage and even lack of energy production in many towns and villages throughout the state (see Chapter V).

Most recent attempt by the Sudan Ministry of Science and Technology 1 is introduced to provide sustainable energy posts for 100 distant settlements around Sudan, but with limited capabilities to power only basic social communal services including primary schools, religious buildings, teacher’s dormitories, health centers, police units, administrative units, main roads and community centers. Most distant settlements in the Red Sea State do not know the luxury of associating with many of these posts, and the survey conducted witnessed less than a handful of solar powered, small scale stations along the travel route between Kassala and Port Sudan as it passes through Haya, Sinkat and Gebait2.

The Preliminary Master Plan by Michael Mallinson Associates Architects (see Chapter I literature survey), suggested the use of sustainable energy resources, and a one solar energy tower to be located central on the travel distance between Suakin and Sinkat, and a wind powered turbines to be located along the beach (reef)!

The literature review and studies on the development of similar indigenous coastal towns conducted by this research (see section ii of Chapters II), and based on

Sudan Ministry of Science and Technology, Unit for Collecting and Producing Solar Energy, lead by Mr. Ali Osman Mohammed Taha, vice president to the Republic of Sudan and by Dr. Isa Bushra, Minister of Science and Technology. Al-Rai Al-Am news paper. Tuesday, February 17, 2011. 2 Field survey on December 1-5, 2010 to the Red Sea State by author.

210 international agencies recommendations1, confirmed that use of sun and wind powered stations is likely to help feed overall city and town demands for energy, specially in supplying energy to infrastructure such as water desalination plants, public drainage and waste disposal systems and in the irrigation of public spaces. At the community scale, based on the dwelling unit demand, the technology for renewable energy comes at a high cost for establishment than what the average citizen may qualify to incur, however; and with the market trends towards sustainable developments, communal contributions to small scale stations may fulfill the needs for new community developments.

This study encourages and recommends further investigation and strategic studies on the feasibility of renewable power stations at the both town and community scales in the Arid Red Sea State. Exploration of alternative power production systems is highly recommended particularly in the area of wave energy production2, and waste recycled power plants that relies on community waste collection for recycle to feed back the community with necessary energy3. Recycled waste is an advantage of strategic eco- town planning and a positive contributor to an environmentally friendly community. In addition to energy production, waste recycling contributes positively to the health of citizens, and to introducing diverse recycled industries for plastics, metals and fertilizers which in turn provides work opportunities in the region. (See brief on LEED analysis in Chapter II).

6.8- FEASIBILITY OF DEVELOPING SUSTAINABLE WATER SUPPLY

SYSTEM IN SUAKIN:

Vital to sustainable development of Suakin is the provision for a sustainable water supply system to replace existing reliance on Hafir (manmade rain water collection ponds) and to provide healthy potable water for the region (see chapter III & V). One existing desalination water plant is located at the furthest north of Port Sudan and has limited capacity not fulfilling to the increasing density in Port Sudan, let alone the whole region. Ideas are interchanged post the development of new Meroe dam to extend water pipelines from the Nile to feed the Eastern Desert of the Red Sea State. Alas, it is the only information available for this study, hence it is an area much recommended for further investigation and analysis particularly to cost and health. This study conducted preliminary investigation on the desalination plants operations history and problem solving for a number of coastal areas in the US, Israel and Asia to understand their process, requirements and impact on sea water, land and atmosphere. In addition this research reviewed reports by PERSGA on the impact eighteen desalination plants had on the east coast of the Red Sea and the challenges experienced in reaching sustainable solutions. (Fig 6.33)

1 UN Habitat, Planning Sustainable Cities. UNISCO. UNID. 2 Wave Energy Technologies for energy production and desalination. http://www.40southenergy.com/wave-energy-machines/ 3 Florida Waste Management Agency, City of Pompano Beach waste management and power plant.

211

Fig 6.33- Ashkelon-Israel Sea Water Reverse Osmoses (ASWRO) simplified process diagram1. The plant is run by gas turbine power and produces 100 m3/yr the largest in the world.

The plants in Florida and Oregon experienced rejection by environmentalists who feared the two most common problems of desalination:

1- Discharge of concentrated saline solution back into the water stream.

2- High energy use and green house gas emissions.

Various solutions are provided by different specialists in the industry such as providing protection layers to limit gas emissions and recycle of desalination waste (Fig 6.34)

Fig 6.34- Simplified standard diagram of desalination process1 indicating proposed use of heat insulation and reuse of brine in industry.

1 http://www.water-technology.net/projects/israel/israel4.html

212 High energy cost for desalination was a burden absorbed by the consumer and was an additional unconstructive encumbrance to reliability on such plants. Recent research and focus on sustainable energy encouraged the use of renewable energy to power desalination plans, and diverse methods of different capacities and cost are made available to power stationary and portable stations that service distant areas. (Fig 6.35)

Fig 6.35- Typical cost for Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plant2.

Renewable energy applied to powering desalination plants proved successful to the largest desalination plant in the word at Ashkelon that fed on turbine power station. The operation became more economically viable as the technology improved, and proved more advantageous to drought impacted areas, and can be provided in a wide range of outputs to cater for small isolated communities or to contribute significantly to water supplies for large cities, for irrigation and industries as plied in Spain and the United Arab Emirates. This study encourages exploration of alternative sustainable potable water supply systems that incurs minimum cost.

1 http://www.dwc-water.com/technologies/desalination/index.html , June 2010.

2 http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/blogs/gleick/category?cat=2782, June 2010

213 6.9- CONCLUSION:

Comprehensive sustainable eco-town development of Suakin is a goal synonymous with the comprehensive peace agreement (CPA) of 2006 that calls for equity to ensure opportunities for all citizens of the Red Sea State to achieve economic, environmental and social well being. Comprehensive eco-town planning for sustainability and integration provides guidelines that help achieve the goals of the CPA through strategic and methodical applications of sustainable town planning concepts, in an integrated cultural setting based on environmental conservation, and powered by renewable energy.

Planning for environmental sustainability ensures that citizens enjoy the benefits of clean air, clean water, and healthy environment at home, work and in amusement. Provisions for family healthcare at the community level ensure every person access to an affective health-care delivery system.

Strategic and guided restoration, protection, conservation and use of natural systems and resources in land, air, water, energy and biodiversity helps maintain the ecological wellbeing of the region, and ensures long term environmental, social and economic sustainability for present and future urban and nomadic generations. Long-term sustainability of natural resources provides the backbone for economic prosperity, and adequate and meaningful jobs eliminate poverty, provides opportunities for high quality living and diversities in engagement in the competitive global economy.

Strategic social and economic integration in mixed use communities fosters diversities in values and ethics to amalgamate, provides opportunities for full range of creative experiences and modes of communication. Pedestrian friendly communities and towns encourage citizens to engage, participate and influence the natural resource, environmental and economic decisions that affect them. Core service provisions in satellites settings provides equal access to life long learning opportunities in education, culture and training that equip citizens for meaningful work and help them understand the concept of sustainable development. In essence, guided integration creates stewardship and ethics that values diversity and encourages individuals, institutions and corporations to take affective roles towards their environmental, social and economic responsibilities.

To achieve sustainable healthy, equitable and peaceful socioeconomic integration, strategic sustainable eco-town planning is necessary to the Red Sea State in Sudan. Strategic socioeconomic integration guides the community, neighborhood or town to create facilities, produce and purchase products, based on long tem environmental and operating costs within the socioeconomic nucleus of each neighborhood or town. Hence, establishing economic measures for the value of biodiversity and ecosystems, while ensuring each geographic and socioeconomic multicultural community bears costs and brunt justifiably, in turn will contributes to stability and peace in the region.

214 6.10- SUGGESTED GUIDELINES FOR A SUSTAINABLE MASTER PLAN DEVELOPMENT FOR THE RED SEA STATE

This study suggests the following basic guidelines that helps incorporate sustainable eco-town development in Suakin as a prototype eco-town on the coast of the arid Red Sea State:

- Establish a horizontal measure for the maximum end of tidemark in coordination with the Ministry of Environmental Affairs and other concerned agencies such as the Sudan ICZM and international environmental agencies.

- Establish a threshold of construction development along the Red Sea coast including safe depth of sanitary systems in relation to the natural water table.

- Allocate protective areas for the rehabilitation of natural resources, while enable the public to use and benefit from the coasts with the exception of the areas allocated for certain purposes.

- Ensure continuity of natural corridors for inhabitants’ use throughout the coastal area.

- Ensure minimum disturbance to ground water source and level.

- Define a setback for existing Gaif settlements at a minimum of 34 meters (100 feet) off reef, 50 meters for new developments where construction has limited impact on the environment, 150 for sandy beaches and around canals, and 300 meter off reef for new developments along scenic natural coasts where high cliffs dominate the surface. Refer to international environmental codes1.

- Update existing zone districts and local land use codes to implement sustainable redevelopment and sustainable mixed use development.

- Create new zone districts based on approved sustainable town planning goals - Allow flexibility in housing location, type and density within the densities allowed by a revised zoning code that takes into consideration the actual size and needs of the Bijah family.

- Provide flexibility in lot size, configuration and vehicular accessibility to neighborhoods.

- Define clear standards that promote compatibility between new and existing developments.

- Encourage development of mixed use residential quarters for mixed economic prospects at close proximity to work place and services

- Re-establish building height limits that address grade variations, environmental requirements (natural light, ventilation), aesthetic and cultural requirements.

1Green Site Development - LEED V3. See US EPA for coastal construction.

215 - Provide alternatives to rigid lot size and density transfers along with density bonuses to encourage friendly neighborhood developments including attached single family zones

- For residential districts, provide flexible average lot sizes consistent with the average Sudanese family structure and accommodate for cultural diversities.

- Mandate control codes that target development of vast areas and surface parking within targeted downtown provisions, require more efficient use of land and provide incentives for higher density development.

- Encourage mixed income, mixed use developments in both residential quarters and commercial downtown planned areas.

- Establish land use zoning and codes that promote urban agriculture.

- Provide flexibility in building orientation standards to encourage pedestrian friendly neighborhoods and commercial districts.

- Mandate group parking standards to help reduce dependency on automobile, reduce parking surface and heat island effect.

- Mandate public right of way to accommodate for off-street parking both in residential and commercial districts.

- Mandate standard guidelines for safety in environmental design.

- Mandate standards for landscape or green space rations to built areas to maximize ground cover and promote soil stabilization for all building types and public sites.

- Mandate standard requirements for water retention in public and private spaces.

- Ensure appropriate neighborhood scale and provide maximum commercial development area within residential neighborhoods to ensure accessibility to services.

216 6.11- RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE STUDIES.

The following are areas of deficiencies in regional planning and organization encountered through the investigation and analysis phases of this study. These area are strong contributors to a successful sustainable eco-town planning, but time provisions for this research did not allow for intensive focused explorations. However, future studies as an extension to this research may help achieve a comprehensive strategy for a wholesome master plan towards a sustainable Red Sea State, and they are as follows:

1- Development of zoning and building codes that allow for cultural integration and self sustainability at the community level – applications and enforcement

2- Development of environmental codes and coastal management systems, application and enforcement

3- Technical studies on alternative sanitary and waste management systems in correlation with population growth in the Red Sea State

4- Studies on impact of anticipated coastal tourism on cultural values and economics of the Red Sea State

5- Strategic socio-economic planning for resettlement of the indigenous people

6- Strategic planning and design for affordable housing and public faculties including design for mobile communities

7- Studies on strategic community redevelopment and services, with focus on cultural integration and environmental sustainability

8- Development of sustainable water harvesting for agriculture and public utilities

9- Environmental studies on impact of the growth of aquatic transportation and activities in Suakin port

10- The sustainability of the Red Sea State natural resources and endangered species through creating and enforcing public awareness programs and training facilities

11- Environmental research on the coastal water biological infestations, and on insects migration

12- Establishing green belt, green agriculture projects

13- Development of Green transportation systems

14- Development of indigenous green building material and

15- Development of traditional regional crafts and trades for the international market

16- Studies on sustainable green industries for the Red Sea State

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- 227 - APENDIX I

Geography and Climate of the Sudan

A- Location:

Jumhūrīyat as Sūdān (Republic of the Sudan), is the county’s current official name, and is located to the north east of Africa on the Red Sea coast. That is 15 N 30 E. Khartoum is the capital of Sudan and the economic and administrative city of the country, located in the central region at the junction of the White Nile, and the Blue Nile. Omdurman is the largest city in Sudan, and is the native capital, located to the west of Khartoum1. Port Sudan is the capital of the Red Sea State and the main harbor for Sudan on the Red Sea, established in 19052. Suakin is the second seaport for Sudan, located 30 miles south of Port Sudan, and is one of the main historic ports on the Red Sea.

The total area of Sudan is 2, 505,813 sq. km. of which 2.376 million sq. km is land, and 129,813 sq. km. is water. The Sudan is divided into twenty one (21) regions that are diversified in geography, history, economics, culture, ethnicities, languages and faith. The unity of these regions and their interaction is what creates the wealthy environment and culture of Sudan. (Fig. 1)

Fig 1- Sudan Regional Boundaries based on geographic, topographic and biodiversity. State boundaries are provided in upcoming chapters. This map is prior to July 2011.

1 www.googlearth.com Sudan. 2 Salih Dirar. History of Suakin and the Red Sea. Yusuf Fadl Hassan. Studies in Sudanese History.

- 224 - Prior to July 9, 2011, Sudan was the largest country in Africa and was bordered by nine African countries: North by Egypt 1,273 km., East by The Red Sea coastline of 853 km., East with the Semien Mountains of Eritrea 605 km. and Ethiopia 1,606 km, to the South by sub tropical Kenya 232 km. and Uganda 435 km. to the South West by Central African Republic 1,165 km., and the Democratic Republic of Congo 628 km., to the West by Sahara desert of Chad 1,360km, and to the North West by Libya 1 . (Fig 2)

Fig 2- Sudan Location Map2 Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum

1 Journal of arid environments, ISSN 0140-1963, CODEN JAENDR - 2006, vol. 68, pp. 113-131. 2 Library of Congress – September 22, 19997

- 225 - B- Topography:

The land of Sudan is a flat sedimentary plain which varies from the dry desert and semi-desert regions of sandy soil and dunes in the north and North West (the Libyan Desert region) with small watering holes as in Bir and Natrun, the semi arid eastern Sudan ( the Nubian Desert region) with clay group soil and hardly any oases. (Fig 3)

LYBIAN RED DESERT SEA NUBIAN MOUN- DESERT TAINS

NORTH RAHAD DARFUR (KASALA)

+ DINDIR (GEDARIF)

A L J ANGA- Lake A SANA Tana SOUTH Z MOUN- DARFUR I TAINS NUBA MOUNTAINS R (KORDUFAN) A

TROPICAL SOUTH Fajarial, Shambe + Sudd (world largest swamp)

MOUNTAINS OF THE AMATONG, DIDINGA +

DONGOTONA Lake Victoria

Fig 3- The Sudan Topography. Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum

The central clay plains stretch eastward from the Nuba Mountains in Kordofan region, to the Abyssinian frontier with the Kassala region, they represent the only protruding highlands between Khartoum and the furthest reaches in southern

- 226 - Sudan. Further south east, between the plains of Dindir and Rahad rivers (sharing the Gedarif and Kassala regions); another low ridge slopes immerges down from the Semien Mountains of Abyssinia. These clay plains supports the most productive settlements around the Nile tributaries and seasonal rivers from the Semian Mountains, and they extend to the semi Island region (Al-Jazirah) which lies between the White and Blue Niles, and is the highest producer for major economic crops in Sudan. (Fig 4.4pp-4.7pp)

Fig 4- Kordofan Region – West Sudan1. Fig 5- Jebal Alnuba - Sudan¹

Fig 6-7- Niyala south Darfur Region is a seasonal grazing field for Nomads.

The Blue Nile extends from Lake Tana in Ethiopia (Abyssinia), and the White Nile from Lake Victoria in Kenya. The two rivers meet at the junction between the three main cities Khartoum, Omdurman and Khartoum North (Khartoum Bahri-industrial city) and form the Nile River whose alluvial banks are about two kilometer wide, stretching 1,700 kilometers northwards to at the Nile delta on the Mediterranean. The Nile path created the most important geo- morphologic phenomenon in Sudan, penetrating the Northern desert with fertile

1 Flicker 2009

- 227 - valleys which provided for 7000 years of ancient civilizations to grow along its banks. The Nile and its tributaries cover an area of 25,000 sq. km.. (Fig 8)

The Blue Nile and White Nile junction in Khartoum.

Tuti Island

Fig 8- The Nile junction in Khartoum

The South subtropical region is the great Nilotic plain of the red soil group. It is penetrated by the White Nile and its large lakes of Fajarial, Nu and Shambe, and the Sudd which is the world largest swamp encompassing expansive lakes, lagoons and aquatic plants. The streams that flow down the highlands onto the Sudd are flanked by tropical forests which extends further south into Congo. (Fig 9-10)

Fig 9- The Nilotic Plains of south Sudan Fig 10- The tropical forests of south Sudan

Eastern Sudan comprises the desert and semi desert sand soils in the north, the fertile clay soil of the Kassala and Gedarif plains between the Blue Nile and the Red Sea Mountains. To the east of the Red Sea hills, lay the arid coastal plains along the Red Sea shore which constitute the main context of the present study.

- 228 - C- Geology:

The diversity of Sudan extends to its geology which represents a wealth of minerals, metals, oil and natural gas. (Fig 11)

Fig 11- Geological map of the Sudan1. Sudan map prior to 2011 referendum

Legend: Tertiary Mesozoic Paleozoic Basement Intrusive Extrusive

1 World Bank Maps.

- 229 - D- Hydrology:

The Nile annual water flow is estimated at 85.6 billion cubic meters, of which 58.9% comes form the Blue Nile. Of the total Nile water supply, 57.9 billion cubic meters is the annual reserve for Egypt, and only 27.7 billion cubic meters are used for irrigation in Sudan as amended by the 1959 Nile Water Agreement. 9,000 billion cubic meters is the estimated underground water reserve in Sudan, and are distributed between the Nubian sedimentary basin in the Northwest, and the Umruaba Formations basin in the South-central region. Two billion cubic meters of underground water is currently used to supplement river water for irrigation of 4 million feddans and for urban uses. An additional 36 million feddans are irrigated seasonally with rainfall1. (Fig 12-13)

Fig 12- Hydrology of Sudan2 . Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum

1 Journal of arid environments, ISSN 0140-1963, CODEN JAENDR - 2006, vol. 68, pp. 113-131. 2 World Research Institute – Development Data Group – World Bank.

- 230 -

Fig 13- The Nile River and its Tributaries in Sudan1. Sudan map is prior to 2011 referendum

1 World Research Institute – Development Data Group – World Bank.

- 231 - E- Climate:

Sudan climate is predominantly tropical of high temperature year round. Variation in the climate is associated with aridity in the North to semi humid climate in the South. March – October is the summer season where the highest temperature peak reaches 42.9 degrees centigrade in May and June in the North, and 34 degrees in the South.

The rainy season is limited to the summer and is affected by the equator and the tropic of cancer where the highest rainfall is in August. Rainfall in the North is less than 50 mms increasing gradually to 1,400mms in the furthest south where the cultivation season extends to six months of the year, meanwhile severe drought can overwhelm the Sahel and northern region. The most devastating 1 cycles of drought were experienced in 1968-1974 and 1983-1985 . (Fig 14- 21)

Fig 14- Nubian Desert North Sudan. Fig 15- Alberkal Pyramids of Nebta-North Sudan

Fig 16- Date Palms in Karima on the Nile Bank. Fig 17- the Nile North of Khartoum. Karima is

part of the Nubian Desert on the River Bank.

1 Journal of arid environments, ISSN 0140-1963, CODEN JAENDR - 2006, vol. 68, pp. 113-131.

- 232 -

Fig 18- The Blue Nile in Khartoum – Central Sudan.

Fig 19- Drought season north of Khartoum just off the Nile bank.

Fig 20- Sobat River – South Sudan. Fig 21- Adok near Jongolai – South Sudan

F – Economics of the Sudan:

A- Agriculture: About half of Sudan’s total land area (251 million hectares) is suitable for agriculture, but only about 17 million hectares are actually cultivated even though 80% of the workforce is employed in agriculture utilizing 40 million

- 233 - feddans of the 200 million feddans arable land. Most farming is traditional and concentrated in rural areas.

Except for a brief period (2006-2011) when oil constituted a significant share of Sudan’s GDP, Sudan was almost fully dependent on agriculture, where most recent reports indicate agriculture contribution to 40 percent of gross domestic product (GDP)1. Grains (primarily sorghum) and livestock (camels, cattle, goats, and sheep) form the backbone of the traditional economy. Gum Arabic, millet, peanuts and sugarcane are produced in significant quantities, sesame, sugar, cotton and livestock are the most important agricultural exports. Traditional cultivators west of the White Nile grow cash crops such as sesame, peanuts, and cotton in addition to sorghum, around the Nuba Mountains. Al Gezira irrigation project developed under the condominium period became a cotton producing and exporting region in Sudan. East of the Blue Nile where mechanized rain- fed crops are grown, dams and irrigation projects were established in Kosti, Al Gadaref and Kassala in the Eastern Region.

G- Fisheries: Both fresh and salt waters of Sudan are rich with various types of fish, and the waters are capable of producing an estimated 140,000 tons of fish annually. Capture fisheries practices are concentrated around the Nile River and its tributaries, the rivers extending from the lakes on the Semian Mountains into the Red Sea State, and the territorial waters of the Sudan on the Red Sea2. (Fig 4.22)

Fig 22- Trends in Inland Capture Fisheries by Country. Sudan is at a positive indicator3.

Of the 140,000 tons/year total fish potential, the country produces 8.8% of Finfish fisheries at 57,000 tons/year. The Nile River is estimated to provide 100,000 tons annually, and 5,000 tons from the Nuba Lake4. The Red Sea 750 km. Sudanese coast constitute a 91600 sq. km economic zone, 22300 sq. km are shallow coastal zones where traditional fishing techniques are carried out by local fishermen for

1 Library of Congress – Federal Research Division County Profile: Sudan, December 2004 2 Animal Resources Research Corporation, Ministry of Science and Technology, Sudan – September 2004. 3 World Research Institute – Development Data Group – World Bank. 4 Journal of arid environments. ISSN 0140-1963, CODEN JAENDR - 2006, vol. 68, pp. 113-131.

- 234 - consumption. Further information on the Red Sea State fishery is detailed in section 3.5 on the Red Sea State Economics.

H. Mining: According to the reports on country profile by the US Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress; Sudan’s mineral wealth includes oil, asbestos, chromites, copper, diamonds, gold, iron ore, mica, silver, talc, tungsten, uranium and zinc and is dispersed throughout the Sudan regions. Oil and gold are Sudan most valuable exports at this time.

I. Sudan Energy Production

1- Oil Production:

Oil was discovered in Sudan during the early 1980, but not until 2006 was the country invited to join the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), when the country production was at 500,000 barrels per day, mainly from the south fields. Drilling assignments in 2009 expanded to offshore on the Red Sea, and by January 2009, Sudan proved oil reserves were estimated at five billion barrels higher than the 563 million barrels estimated in 2006, and is one of the six African proven reserve holders. (Fig 23)

45 LIBYA 40 NIGERIA 35 ALGERIA 30 ANGOLA 25 SUDAN 20 EGYPT 15 10 5 0 LIBYA NIGERIA ALGERIA ANGOLA SUDAN EGYPT

Fig 23pp- African Proven Oil Reserve Holders, 20091. Sudan Oil reserve is estimated to occupy 2/3 the overall land expansions. (See OPEC reports and maps 2006-2009).

Sudan National Petroleum Corporation (SUDAPET) activities in oil exploration and production is both independent and in venture with foreign petroleum companies, mostly Asiatic licensed by the Sudan National Petroleum Commission (NPC)2 to conduct oil explorations in Sudan. Some active oil corporations at this time are China National Petroleum Corporation (CNPC), India Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) and Malaysia Petronas. (Fig 24)

1 Energy Information Administration, County Analysis Briefs. September 2009. www.eia.doe.gov file:///Z:/NewCABs/V6/Sudan/Full.html. Also see: CIA World Factbook – Sudan. USAID – Sudan. US Treasury Department Office of Foreign Asset Control. 2 National Petroleum Commission (NPC) is established October 2005 to regulate licensing and contracts, and ensures equal sharing of oil revenues between Sudan oil producing regions.

- 235 -

Fig 24- Sudan Oil and Gas Concessions – World Map Bank. Sudan map prior to 2011 referendum

- 236 - The Global Trade Atlas statistics for 2008 indicate a 480000bbI/d oil production by Sudan, 86000 bbI/d was local consumption and 394000 bbI/d was the export crude oil to Asia1. (Fig 25 – 26)

Fig 25- Sudan Oil Production and Consumption 1998-2008

Fig 26- Sudan Oil Export 2008

1 Library of Congress, Country Studies: Sudan. 2008

- 237 - 2- Electricity:

Both public and private sector electric generation is produced in Sudan. 2000 Sudan’s total installed electrical generating capacity was rated at more than 2,500 megawatts, of which 46% was hydropower expected to increase by the completion of new dams in 2009-2010. The statistics provided by the National Electricity Corporation (NEC) (National Grid) indicate actual production for 2000 – 2005 lower than the rated capacity, and only the public sector consumption is compiled. Energy generation comprises hydro, steam, diesel, and gas combined at an average of 3742.433 annually. (Fig 27)

Eastern Region

Fig 27- Sudan National Grid up to 2005. Curent data not available. Sudan map prior to 2011 referendum

Much of the country lies outside the national power grid and uses diesel fuel to generate power. The major consumption sectors recorded by NEC are Agriculture, Industrial, Domestic, Commercial and Government sectors, and an average consumption is indicated. (Table 1a)

Table 1a- Average annual consumption of electricity by sector1 2005. The impact of Oil production is likely to result in more industrialization and additional energy consumption. See Table 3.24 for available 2007 – 2008 data.

Sector/ Year Average Annual Consumption Agriculture 85.03 Industrial 474.44 Domestic 1305.12 Commercial 372.24 Government 364.303 Total 2601.133

Fig 28- Total Energy Consumption in Sudan, by Type for 2008

1 Sudan National Electricity Corporation 2003-2005.

- 238 - A country analysis by the International Energy Statistics in April 2010 provided the following comparison produciton schedule for the different energy generation in Sudan compared to Africa and world production. It also indicates the contribution in Carbon Dioxide Emmission from power generation, which in turns contributes to world climate change. (Fig. 29-30)

Fig 29- Contribution in CO2 from Petroleum.

Data 2007 2008

Petroleum 1000 barrels/day Sudan Africa World Rank Sudan Total Oil Production 466.18 10,711 84,392 31 480.21 Crude Oil Production 463.77 9,949 72,989 31 477.80 Consumption 88.00 3,129 86,142 79 89 Net Exports/ Imports (-) 378.18 7,581 -- 19 391 Refinery Capacity 122 3,212 85,355 74 122 Proved Reserves 5.000 114 1,317 23 5.000

(Billion Barrels)

Fig. 30- Contribution in CO2 from Natural Gas, Coal & Electricity.

Data 2006 2007

Sudan Africa World Rank Sudan Natural Gas (Billion Cubic Feet) Production 0 6,591 103,977 86 0 Consumption 0 2,947 104,425 106 0 Net Exports/ Imports 0 3,644 -- -- 0 Proved Reserves 3,000 485,841 6,124,016 55 3,000 Coal (Million Short Tons) Production 0 276 6,779 66 NA Consumption 0 211 6,737 117 NA Net Exorts/ Imports (-) 0 1,650 -- -- 0.000 (Trillion Btu) Electricity (Billion Kilowatthours) Net Generation 4.04 547 18,015 115 NA Net Consumption 3.40 480 16,379 115 NA Installed Capacity (GWe) 1.114 110 4,012 114 0.00 Total Primary Energy (Quadrillion Btu) Production 0.715 35 469 57 NA Consumption 0.185 14 472 101 NA Energy Ingtensity (Btu/$2000U.S ) 3,148 ------NA Carbon Diaxide Emissions (Million Metric Tons of CO2) Total from Consuption of Fossile Fuels 12.26 1,057 29,195 95 NA

- 239 - J. Sudan Industry and Manufacturing:

Kenana is the largest integrated company in the world for cane growing, sugar manufacturing, animal feed, ethanol, produce farm and forestry products. It was incorporated in 1973 by Arab finance, Western technology and natural resources of Sudan. Located south of Khartoum, at 150 miles distance, on the eastern bank of the White Nile. It is 34% owned by the Sudanese government with Kuwait Investment Authority holding 30%, and Saudi Arabia 12%, and is a major sugar supplier to the Middle East and African market. Celebrating its twenty-fifth anniversary in 2000 reaching a record sugar harvest of 387,044mt of sugar in 2000 alone, surpassing its 300,000mt design capacity1.

Several refineries produce petroleum products for local market consumption and little exports. Cotton based textile production is a chief manufacture in Sudan, edible oils, soaps, cement and cigarettes, along with light manufacturing are also available. 2000 witnessed notable growth in the industrial sector.

K. Water Supply:

Daily water supply for households in urban and rural areas (in Cubic Meters) as indicated by the Sudan National Electricity Corporation. (Fig 31)

Specification Average Annual / Year Supply Urban 1250076.6 Rural 1156166.6 Total 2406243.2

Fig 31- Average daily water supply for households in urban and rural areas (in Cubic Meters) for 2003-2005.

1 All Business, A D&B Company. Kenana hits record sugar harvest. By Williams Stephens. African Business – Tuesday, May 1, 2001

- 240 - APPENDIX II

History of the Eastern Desert

KUCHETIC (Bijah) CIVILIZATION IN THE EASTERN DESERT OF Bilad Al-Soudan

INTRODUCITON:

The history of the Red Sea State is inseparable from that of the ancient history of the west coast on the Red Sea, and is very broad in the ancient borderless physical area, its heritage and its influence on other historic civilizations, and even as recent as the twentieth century historic events in Sudan particularly post adoption of political borders in late 1800AD.

To understand the roots of this region, its inhabitants and how it came to be what it is today; a comprehensive review of a number of ancient civilizations who came in touch with this region is necessary and enlightening. A review of history of the Sudan provides a summary and timeline of these cultures. These ancient relations are what shaped the culture, the people, the economy, and the politics of the Red Sea State, and is likely to influence future communication or plans for developments in this nomadic region; hence it becomes necessary to speak of this region in a similar language to that of its inhabitants.

The Bijah nations are indigenous to the Eastern Desert and associated with different civilizations along the Nile and the Red Sea throughout history, but due to their bedwin culture, little is documented on the Bijah history in bits and pieces where the tribes came in contact with settled groups. In order to present one account of the Bijah history; this study traced numerous essays in history where the Bijah lineage, activities and associations are mentioned including history of civilization on the Nile Valley, History of Sudan and Biblical literature and documentaries. A variation of titles are encountered referencing the Bijah such as Kuchit (Kuchit/ Cushit), Bellamys, Abyssinian and even Habesh and most essays agreed on the Bijah to have always been bedwin, migratory desert people and spoke Kushitic language.

This chapter traces the origin of the Bijah tribes and their relationships to other tribes from the Middle East and Africa, and reviews their political and economic history in relation to neighboring civilizations, invasive cultures and faith including Christianity and Islam.

This chapter further presents a summary of the impact trans-Saharan and international trade had on the Bijah and the Eastern Desert in particular to historic Red Sea trade routes and coastal settlements.

Contributions by the Bijah tribes to Sudan as they united during the Condominium era are also summarized by this Chapter. These summaries will furnish an

241 understanding of the history of the Bijah, their culture and their role on the existence of major settlements on the Sudan coast on the Arid Red Sea State.

SOUDAN – LADN OF THE BLACKS

Bilad Alsoudan (Sa..WA..daan. referring to the Land of the Blacks), was known to the Arabs of 800AD as the trans-continental savannah belt stretching from the Red Sea coast to the Atlantic Ocean, and lying between the Sahara Desert and the tropical forests. This belt is not to be confused with the Niger, Congo, and Zambezi, and it does not include the Zing of the East African coast. This belt reflects the African Islamic history which affected the cultures between the two coasts of Africa. It is the region that gave birth to the first Islamic Black Sultanates which helped maintain economic and political relations between North Africa and Arabia.

Bilad al-Takrur was the Arab identification to the land west of the current Dar Fur extending to the Atlantic Ocean, separating the central and western region further from Nubians north of the Nile, and the Beja of the Nilotic Sudan1. (Fig. 32)

Fig. 32- The Land of the Soudan extended from the Atlantic Ocean in West Africa to the Red Sea on East Africa1. The arrows indicate trade route from south African coastal regions.

1 Yusuf Fadl Hasan, Studies in Sudanese History, English edition. P. 192. 2008.

242 VALLEY OF THE NILE CIVILIZATION:

The Nile Valley, witnessed major human activities, settlements and dynasties reported to have flourished between 7000BC-8000BC2. Professor Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie; an archaeologist at the site of Naqada in ancient Egypt in 1894, excavated 2200 graves with goods pointing to the existence of a more ancient civilization than the dynastic era. At Abydos in 1899, more excavation confirmed the prehistoric settlements of an agricultural civilization identified to be of Cushite origins, and is referred to as the Predynastic Period3. (Fig. 33)

Fig. 33- Map of current Egypt, Abydos is indicated in Red4.

This civilization is confirmed to be the first Cushitic settlement on the banks of the Nile Valley, and they hold the ancestral lineage to the Hamitic Dynastic Pharaohs. Petri’s theory aligns with the Biblical verses which refer to the Egyptians ethnic names of Mizraim, brother of the Cush, the Ethiopian of Phut and Canaan5, and it exasperate the debate over the origin of the Egyptians*.

1 Rice University World Historic Maps Archives – Sudan. – Texas, USA. 2 Drusilla Dunjee Houston, Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushitic Empire, p. 22 2008 3 Marie Parsons, William Flinders Petrie, Father of Pots, p. 3 2009. 4 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Kingdoms of the Nile Valley. 2010. 5 Bible – Genesis 10:6, 13, 14. * See Appendix III on The debate over Egyptian origin.

243 HAMITIC RACE OF THE NILE VALLEY AND THE EASTERN DESERT

The Eastern Desert was known to the Greek, the Roman and the Israelite as the land of the Bellamys. To the Hebrew scholars, Cush (Kush) was the countries of the Torrid Zone occupied by the Hamitic race whose language was much diverse and popular than the Semitic, and is related to the Neolithic and Heliolithic cultures, of whom many are related to the Dravidians of India. The Dravidian Empire extended from India to Spain¹. It was also emphasized by Sir H. H. Johnson, a historian; that the Hamitic language was the tongue of Crete, Lydia, the Basques, the Caucasian-Dravidian group, the Sumerian and the Elamite who were the first to present a concept of government to civilization1. Egypt, Chaldea, Babylon, Mizraim, Nimrod, Punt, Phoenicians and the ancient Canaanites are all descendants of Ham and have lead the foundation for civilization in the development of art, architecture, astronomy, navigation, agriculture, textile industry, science and literature2. Punt holds the closest lineage to the Bijah nations of the Eastern Desert and is documented in up coming sections.

Both the Hebrew and the Christian Bibles confirms the relationship between these tribes or races, where it refers to the sons of Ham as Cush, Mizraim, Phut and the race of Canaan. Archaeological findings confirm the relationship along the south shores of Asia and East Africa, with the southern and eastern coasts of Arabia3. (Fig 34)

Fig 34- The Hebrew map of Ancient Races4: Hamitic Semitic

According to historians, Kuch established Brabra and Chaldean settlements along the Nile valley as early as 7000BC-8000BC. The Nile nations split into Egypt and Chaldea in 5000BC. Again, the kingdom was divided in 3500BC-3000BC5 under the Hyksos who reached the African Horn as they advanced and took over the coastal region of Arabia along the Indian Ocean, and established their dynasty in Lower Egypt. (Fig 61a – 61C)

1 Wells, Outline of History, Vol. 1, p. 158. 2008 2 Rawlinson’s Ancient Monarchies, Vol. 1. 2008 3 Bunsen, Philosophy of Ancient History, p. 52. 2008 4 Hamitic migration on the Red Sea Coast. Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. 2008 5 John D. Baldwin, Prehistoric Nations, pp. 95, 96. Abe Books Corporation – UK. 1873.

244

Fig 35a- Hyksos Empire boundaries Fig 35b- Hyksos Dynasty of Lower

Egypt 11th -18th Dynasty1.

Fig 35c- Hyksos; A group of Asiatic peoples (perhaps the future Hyksos) depicted entering Egypt c.1900 BC from the tomb of a 12th dynasty official Khnumhotep under pharaoh Senusret II at Beni Hasan.2.

The Kuchit Sabaeans, Himyarites and Eritrean settled in South Arabia and continued to develop, while the Kuchit Bellamys (Bihah today) inhabited the Eastern Desert of Africa along the Red Sea coast. These Kuchit nations were reshaped by the rise of the Assyrian in 1300BC, and by the Semites Nomads afterwards; however they maintained their settlements till modern times¹.

1Philip Curtin, Makeda’s Education – from The Horizon History of Africa, NY 1971. 2 Wikipedia free encyclopedia http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyksos

245 ANCIENT DYNASTIES OF THE NILE AND THE EASTERN DESERT

A- The Nile Dynasties:

The Nile from 31° 35 N. latitude, at the Nile Delta on the Mediterranean, to 24° 5 30" N. latitude, at the First Cataract is referred to as Egypt Proper. Late Egypt extended to 18° 30 N. latitude, at Gebel Barkal in Napata. Napata was the furthest southern extent of the Egyptian Dynasties. (Fig 36)

MEMPHIS

ASWAN

EASTERN DESERT

KARMA

Fig 36- Twelfth Dynasty expansion1.

Two dynastic periods defined the history of civilization in the ancient Nile Valley:

1- First Period: comprises the first seventeen dynasties. 2- Second Period: comprises the last thirteen dynasties.

Identification by current literature refers to three periods:

- The Old Kingdom, includes the Third to Eleventh Dynasties (Ancient Empire)

1 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Ancient Kingdoms of the Nile Valley.

246 - The Middle Kingdom, includes Twelve to Seventeen Dynasties (Moyen Empire) - The Empire includes Eighteen to Twenty Dynasties (Nouvel Empire).

During the first period, Usertasen III of the Twelfth Dynasty, conquered the Upper Nile (Nubia) up to the Second Cataract to terminate the harassment from the nomad tribes (Bellamys) who inhabited the land between the Nile and the Red Sea, thus marking the end of the first period, and securing the trade route to the Red Sea coast. Trade was the second form of revenue for Egypt after agriculture. The ancient Egyptians built roads for commerce to as far as Mount Lebanon, Arabia to the South through the Red Sea, to Punt and the Somali coast.

The Second Period was characterized by the Asiatic wars, the wars with Libyans who managed to establish a kingdom in Memphis. This period witnessed the expansions into the land of Nubia by Thotmes I of the Eighteenth Dynasty, up to Nopatia south of Aswan. (Fig 5.5 above)

Nobatia (al-Maris) became the first Cushite 1(Kushit) kingdom of the three whose influence extended south to Sinnar on the Blue Nile, and eventually united with al-Muqurra to form the Kingdom of Nubia (second Kushit Kingdom), extending to Kaboshiyya with Dongola as its capital. Alwa was the third Kingdoms on the Blue Nile with Soba as its capital2. The Eastern Desert inhabited by the Bellamys continued to be a hostile neighbor to the Kingdoms of the Nile Valley. (Fig 37.a, b, c)

Fig 37-a. Dongola, Nubian Tombs3.

Fig 37-b. Masawarat Alnagaa Temple and Ram head Sphinx*.

1 Cush (Hebrew: ) was one of the sons of Ham (Genesis 10:6) 2 Yousuf Fadl Hasan, Studies in Sudanese History, chapter 1, p. 11. 2008 *3 Photography Google images.

247

Fig 37-c. 18th Dynasty, Tomb of Huy- Thutmose IV and Amenhotep III 1400 to 1352 BC1.

B- The Eastern Desert Kingdoms:

The terminologies used by ancient civilizations when pointing to the land of the Nile correlated to each ancient culture. The Hebrew text identified the land occupied by the Hamatic (Khammitic) tribes as Cush, rendered in the Greek text as Ethiopia, and was used to reference the land of the Kuchit and Meroetic Dynasties, and was used by the Greek to reference the people of the land as the Ethiopians.

Archaeological findings relate the coastal areas of Eritrea to the first human adaptation to living in coastal environments 125,000 years ago2, and confirmed the existence of trade between the two shores of the Red Sea to the seventh millennium BC, and the events of Solomon’s (970-931BC) Fleet in the area as related in the Book of Kings3.

Ancient Yemenite epigraphic documentations confirmed the existence of an ancient ethnic group called Habashat in today’s Yemen site, and was thought to have moved by the first millennium to Africa. The Arabs used the term in reference to the land beyond the Red Sea in Africa, and was used by the Turks to identify their territory along the west coast of the Red Sea from up north at Sinai down to Masawa, and referred to it as the Habesh Seljuk (Habesh Willayat), later used to reference the land of the Bijah. The term Habesh is currently used to identify current Ethiopia. The name Ethiopia has been adopted by the Abyssinian Emperor in mid 1900 colonial period over current day Sudan, Ethiopia and Eritrea, and must not be confused with the ancient land of Ethiopia (current day Sudan).

The Bellamys are non Arab Hamatic and Semitic (Himyarites) nomads who populated the western desert of the Red Sea coast from Sinai north to the Land of Punt south at the Horn of Africa. These desert people were the trackers for Greco Pharos during their expeditions and quest for myrrh, ivory, gold, iron, cupper, incents, spices, slaves, precious animals and war elephants. When Ptolemaist established main trade ports by the first century CE along the coastline leading to Punt, including Myos Hormos, Bernice and Ptolemas of the Hunt in the area of present day Suakin; the ports supported the main route for the spice and

1 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. Ancient Kuchit Kingdom. 2 The Authorities of the city of Massawa in Eritrea, UNESCO. The Division of Cultural Heritage. Massawa and the Red Sea,

History and Culture. P. 41-43 2010 3 Genesis 10:6.

248 slave trade from Azania on the eastern coast south of Axum, and the silk trade from India and China to Rome. (Fig 38-39)

Fig 38- The roads to Punt*.

Fig 39- Top to bottom: Myos Hormos, Berenice, Ptolemaist of the Hunt and Adulis on the Red Sea east coast of the spice trade road*.

Punt was located on the area of the Gash River delta in south east of present Sudan, and north of present Eritrea, accessible by land through Wadi Hammamat, and by the Red Sea.. Punt declined in 325BC but gave birth to Adulis that remained the main port for the Empire of Axum (4th – 7th AD). Axum (present day Eritrea) is the capital city created by the Abyssinian tribes who fought their way from the Zing borders after the decline of Punt. The insurgence of Abyssinian tribes into Axum forced Punt endogenous tribes mostly Tigrinya to move north of the Simian Mountains into the plains of Eastern Desert (Kush), now Kasala plains. Axum emerged 1-8 centuries AD, occupying most of Tigray highlands1, survived to witness struggles in c900 failing in c 1000, and with it vanished the port of Adulis.

1 The Authorities of the city of Massawa in Eritrea, UNESCO. The division of Cultural Heritage, Massawa and the Red Sea- History and Culture P. 41-43. 2010.

249 The unrest following the fall of Axum resulted in the migration of the Agaw tribes to the north, forming a number of Beja kingdoms, three main ones are:

1- The Baqlin Kingdom inhabited the Rora Habab and Barka areas, and were agriculturalists and pastoralists. 2- The Basin Kingdom of the Nara and Kunama inhabited the Gash Barka furthest north. 3- The Jarin Kingdom inhabited the land south of Masawa to the Barka River to the west and to Zayla (Somali Land) and they included the Dahlak Islands.

The Belew Kingdom emerged six centuries later and controlled the low lands which extended to Sewakin (Suakin in present day Sudan), but were forced to move further north by the Amhara, and settled in the Seraye, part of the Hamasien land in now Kasala wadis1, and in 200 years they replaced the Baqlin, Basin and Jarin in the Eastern Desert. The largest Dahlak on the Red Sea west zone, was inhabited by the Hedjaz Arabs who arrived escaping prosecution of Quraish. The Dahlak grew to be Massawa (see Ayyubids Sultanat, appendix IV) which developed into a main port in the Habesh Seljuk of the Byzantine in late 1800 AD2.

Ptolemas of the Hunt declined with the decline of the Ptolemaist and Suakin3 emerged and flourished during the Byzantine, and became the main Muslim pilgrimage port on the west coast of the Red Sea. As the Khedive Ismail army retreated from Bilad al-Habesh during World War I, Massawa and Suakin served as garrison for the Anglo Egyptian Condominium power on the Red Sea coast. (Fig 40)

Ptolemas of the Hunt

Historic Suakin Island Suakin Town (Gaif)

Fig. 40- Archaeological site of Historic Ptolemas of the Hunt (Elephantine) and Suakin ports4.

1 Dirar Salih Dirar, History of Bijah and Hamaseen 2008.

2 Winta Weldeysus: Settlements of Societies in Eritrea. http://www.shabait.com/about-eritrea/history-a-culture/212- settlement-of-societies-in-eritrea

3 Dr. Mahmoud Azmi, Netherlands-Flemish Institute in Cairo. 1, Sharia 11211 Zamalek, Cairo. 4 Google Earth Aerial. June 2010

250 FAITH IN THE EASTERN DESERT:

The Bellamys of the Eastern Desert formed trade relationships with the Christian Nubian and Alwan Dynasties, but few tribes converted to Christianity and though hostile towards the imposed taxes by the Nile Dynasties, they continued to be the desert guides to the Greco-Egyptians through their trade with Punt, and through their expansions into the plains and wadis of south and south eastern Sudan (Kassala currently).

Post the Islamic invasion of Egypt in late 639 AD, Arabs encountered Nubians harassment to the Muslim Egyptian boarders with alarming strategies to the Caliphate Omar Bin all-Khattab in Arabia. This led to two major campaigns in 641 AD and in 651 AD between the Nubians and the Muslim armies, the latter led to a siege of Dongola and forced the infamous Bagt peace treaty with the Caliphate1, and subjected the Nubian kings, their subjects and the land to exploitation by the Arab for the following 600 years.

The tribes of the Eastern Desert (Bilad Al-Habesh) continued to be independent from the agreement, and it was reported by Islamic scholars that Bilad Al-Habesh was a refuge to the first Muslims who escaped the vengeance of Quraish and were greeted by Al-Najashi²; but even that could not help the Bellamys avoid the impact of the Bagt. The Bagt treaty did not prevent the Arab from encroaching into the Nubian land, or the Eastern Desert. The treaty presented the opportunity for the Arab trade and Muslim influence to infiltrate the Eastern Desert region2. (Fig 41)

Fig 41- Nubian tribute to bait Alwali, 14 century3.

The Direct and first influence of Islam on the Red Sea west coast came with the Muslim occupation of the Archipelago of Dahlak in Bilad El Habesh (Abyssinian occupied ancient Punt region), in vengeance to the raids on Jeddah by Abyssinian pirates in 637 AD/ 16 AH.

1 Yusuf Fadl Hassan. Studies in Sudanese History. ² Al-Najashi is the Emperor of Axum. ³ Heliodors , in his Greek narrative ‘Ethiopia’, a description of the Sudanese Meroe tic kingdom). Meroe was the capital of Ethiopia. Also see Greek Biblical Psalm 10:63 2 See Axumite Meroe tic wars, the conquest of Jeddah by Abyssinians and Arab colonization of Massawa – Appendix iii. 3 Drusilla Dunjee Houston, Wonderful Ethiopians of the Ancient Cushitic Empire, p. 22. 2009.

251 The domestication of the camel by the Beja encouraged a rain of raids by the Beja on the Nubian kingdoms, and the Arab settlers of southern Aswan, while they traded on produce with Egyptian agriculturalists. The raids resulted on a forced treaty in the 700s submitting the Beja to pay a tribute of 300 camels annually, but the raids continued for another 200 years on the Nubian kingdoms forcing the Bijah into a second treaty in 831AD that enforced Zaka on the Beja in addition to the tribute, and guaranteed protection of Mosques along the Nile Valley.

Arabization of the Bijah tribes came with the re-discovery of the Gold and Emeralds mines in the west coast of the Red Sea by Arab traders in 946, and resulted in a Gold rush to the Eastern Desert Mountains. Muslim Arab traders of Egypt whose passage to Nubia was limited by the Bagt, opted to take the eastern desert route and forced their stay on the Bijah Land1. Rabia, Mudar and Yaman were the first Arab tribes to gain control over the mines region through establishing lineage with chiefs of the Bijah tribes.

THE EASTERN DESERT A WORLD ECONOMIC GATE:

The Eastern Desert served as an economic gate between North and Central Africa, The Middle East and Far East, and to the northern Mediterranean coasts. Along with pilgrimage and political activities in the region, two world trades that were most economically and politically influential manipulated Port Suakin on the Eastern Desert for the transfer of goods:

1- The West African Spice Trade. 2- The Slave and Ivory Trade.

1- West African Spice Trade:

Trade caravans continued to pour into Port Suakin on the coast of the Eastern Desert from the North through Egypt and Nubia, and through the Arbaein Road (Darb Al- Arbaneen, African Spice Road) from the north west and west coast of Africa. Traders from Himyar and Arabia also came through Abyssinia from the East, and from the Zinj south eastern coast of Africa, through Punt (Axum - now Eretria) and the Land of Somali, all trading in Gold, Copper, Iron Orr, Ivory, spices, linen, exotic animals, incents and slaves, following the steps of their predecessors the Egyptian Dynasties, the Hyksos, the Ptolemaic, the Nubian and the Fung.

The roads from Morocco brought traders from Spain, along with the roads from Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli and Timbuktu met in central Africa then headed east to Nubia and Port Suakin on the Red Sea Coast. This route continues to serve spice and camel trade to present day, however the route is interrupted in the early 1900 due to political and economic changes in the region, and due to the emergence of new ports on the Red Sea and the adoption of new trades that supported the industrial revolution in Europe. (Fig 42)

1 Yusuf Fadl Hassan, Studies in Sudanese History, pp. 12-14 Also see Pre-colonial Bijah: A Periphery at the Crossroads. PP 480-484 2009. The ancient Bijah country was the Eastern Desert know to the Arab as (Bilad Al-Ahbash, or Habash).

252 ALGERIA TUNISI A

TRIPOL I

MORROCCO ASYUT

SALIM A SUAKIN DONGO WEST LA COAST SENNAR

Fig 42- Darb Alarbaein (Spice Road), through central Africa1.

Christian pilgrimage route from Abyssinia to Jerusalem through the Eastern Desert continued for centuries prior to Islam, and it paved the road for the hundreds years where Muslims took from North and West Africa to Jeddah, then to Mecca through Sinai or Port Suakin. (Fig 43)

Fig 43- Pilgrim Caravan from the West Coast of Africa Pre 19002.

1 Yusuf Fadl Hasan, Studies in Sudanese History, p. 94 2 Durham University library – Historic records – Sudan.

253 2- The Slave and Ivory Trade

Slavery in ancient history was an inescapable color blind evil which impacted all lands and races, and the coast of the Eastern Desert was no different. Servitude in the Land of the Blacks; increased by the expansion of the Pharos land during their Asiatic wars for soldering, during the expansion of Islamic Empire and once again during the expansion of the Turkish Empire for army recruits, house servants and concubines.

As slavery took a commercial approach during the industrial revolution by Europe slave traders, it linked to the ivory trade, targeted the Shilluk and Denka Land in the depth of South Sudan, and continued to manipulate Port Suakin till terminated by the Condominium Government in1935. Appendix iv on Slavery and the Land of the Black gives an overview on the history of slavery, its impact on Sudan and the Eastern Desert. (Fig 44 – 45)

Fig. 44 - 45- European Ivory and exotic animals’ traders targeted and pushed into the Shilluk and Denka land1.

The impact of the slave trade and servitude on the development and decline of the Beja land is revisited in the section covering the Turkiyya and Anglo Egyptian periods.

THE OTTOMAN TURKIYA IN THE EASTERN DESERT:

Two integral parts of the Turkiyya (Dar al Islam) in the Soudan (now Sudan) were:

1- Ash –Shamalyah, which was the northern region of the Land of the Black. 2- Ash-Sharquiyah, which was the eastern region of the Land of the Black.

Both regions came under Mohammed Ali Pasha’s rule when his armies conquered the Fung Sultanate. The Sanjak (sub-province) of the Eyelat province in Egypt was governed by Ibrahim Pasha in1550; it constituted the Ottoman expansion into the Middle Nile Valley past the 2nd Cataract, 600 kilometers from present Khartoum and represented entry to Ash-Shamalyah. The Sanjak of Habesh was under the Turkiyya rule before 1550AD, and extended to present day Eritrea. Suakin was an Ottoman port since 1524 AD and the Ottoman capital of the Al Sharquiyah (Seljuk

1 British Archives – Historic Photograph - Expeditions into the Nile.

254 Habesh) , governed by the Turk Amir of Jeddah. The Funge and Tajur Sultanates were independent and defiant. (Fig 46)

EIDAB

SUAKIN

MASAWA

.

Fig 46- Ash-Sharquiyah Region1(Eastern Desert Mamlukes State).

Three Turkiya periods governed Sudan:

1- The First Turkiyya. 1550- 1600’s. 2- The Turku-Egyptian 1823-1886. 3- The Egypto British 1898-1916

The first era witnessed the expansion of the Turkiyya south of the Egyptian frontiers, and establishing a new phase frontier at Qasr Ibrim fort for the Sanjak of Ibrim, also the Sanjak of Said (brother of Ibrim)was established2, and Sanjak of Mahas. Qasr Ibrim led the northern invasion into the Funge Sultanate. The second part of phase one was securing full control of As-Sharquiyah region, and Habash Sanjak. They represented the Eastern Turkiyya front in the conquest of the Funge Sultanate, and the Abyssinian Christian Empire. (Fig 47)

1 Ottoman Mamlukes in East Africa. Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. 2 Ibrim was the adopted first son of Mohamed Ali Pasha; Said was the son of Mohammed Ali Pasha. Wikipedia free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Dynasty

255

Fig 47- The Ottoman Empire by 1683 prior to conquest of al-Funge Sultanate1.

The second era in1823, Mohamed Ali’s army, led by his son Ibrim Pasha2; conquered the Fung3, and Ismail Pasha, his son; annexed Darfur in 18744. Qasr Ibrim fort continued as a base for northern Turkiyya military activities in Sudan till 18875, but was abandoned after the Mahdiya. 1865, Emperor Yuhaness IV of Abyssinia, seceded the Habash Sanjak to Ismail Pasha with Suakin and Masawa (Masowa) as the main cities on the Ottoman Eastern Province, and the main ports on the Red Sea west coast. As the Abyssinian front failed to advance, the Ottomans garrisoned Suakin and Masawa (Masowa) and they became attached to the Jeddah Eyelat (state). Jeddah was governed by Tusun Pasha6, brother of Ibrim Pasha of Sudan and Egypt.

The third era started with the French conquest of Egypt in1798, where payments to Qasr Ibrim and it’s garrison ceased, but it was the only unoccupied Egyptian territory and became the base for Mamluks Jihad against the French, and survived till 1887. (Fig 48)

1Ottoman Empire. Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia. 2 Ibrim Pasha, Wikipedia free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt#Last_years 3 Dr. Yusuf Fadl Hassan. The Funge are dark skin tribes whose kingdom extended to the 3rd cataract north, and large tracts of Bijah land. Studies in Sudanese History. P 31. 2008. 4 Ismail Pasha, Wikipedia free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isma'il_Pasha 5 Mohammed Ali Dynasty, Wikipedia free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Dynasty 6 Tusun Pasha of Jeddah, Wikipedia free encyclopedia, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tusun_Pasha

256

Fig 48- Anglo-Egyptian Condominium Sudan – British Archives, Map 132 .

On the East, the Abyssinian wars brought only devastation to the armies led by Ismail Pasha, and incurred great expenses adding to the debts of Mohammed Allis’ Dynasty. The scare of World War I brought Turkiyya in line with the great powers

257 of Britain and France. In 1879 Disagreements between Khedive Ismail, the Great Powers, and the Turkiyya resulted in replacing him with his son Tewfik who was opposed by Ahmed Orabi’s freedom movement, an opportunity for Britain to move into the country in pretence of supporting Khedive Tewfik, declaring the countries of Sudan and Egypt as protectorates, and proclaiming Sudan an Anglo-Egyptian Condominium. (Fig 49-50)

Fig 49- Sultan Mohammed Ali Pasha, Ibrim Pasha of Sanjak Ibrim, Said Pasha of Sanjak Mahas1.

*Fig 50- Khedive Ismail of Sudan and Egypt; Tewfik Pasha, and King Farouque.

THE CONDOMINIUM ON THE EASTERN DESERT IN 19TH CENTURY:

The Anglo Egyptian Condominium Sudan (1899-1955), had a cultural, social and political impact on the Sudanese people; the foreign invasion brought the attention of the divided tribes to a common cause which required they overlook their differences in ethnicities, languages and faith2. (Fig 51)

*1 Ottoman Mamlukes expansions and acquisitions. Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, *2 Donald Featherstone, Khartoum 1885 campaign series 23, General Gordon’s Last Stand, pp. 6-8 Osprey Publishers. 1993.

258

Fig 51- Egypt and the Sudan Operations 1883-18851.

In 1881 at Abaa Island Al-Mahdiya movement started with the first campaign, by the Mahdi (Mohammed Ibn Ahmed el-Sayyid Abdullah 1844-85). By 1883 the Eastern Desert was rolling with the Beja tribal wars. The most known were the wars between the Ashraaf, Kamilab, Nabtab, Maala, Tamriyam, Mansaa, Hadendawa, Bisharin, Bahta, Tigrinya, and the Habab to mention a few.

Osman Digna, a merchant of Arab lineage, was quick to make the effort and meet with the Imam Al-Mahdi, win his support and become his Ameer on the Eastern Desert. With the Imam endorsement, Osman Digna received the loyalty of the Red Sea Bijah nations and brought peace between the Beja tribal leaders through tribal marriages. Landing peace between the tribes helped unite them and they swore

1 Donald Featherstone, General Gordon’s Last Stand, pp. 6-8 Osprey Publishers. 1993

259 allegiance to Osman Digna as advised by Al-Mahdi, thus confirming the unification of Sudan tribes. This was followed by a chain of battles in every region of colonial Sudan, with Osman Digna forcing all major towns in the East under his flag, the Mahdi focused his efforts in defeating the Anglo-Egyptian challenges along the Nile Valley, and captured Khartoum in 1885. With General Gordon beheaded, the Anglo-Egyptian administration lead by General Gordon collapsed, and Al-Mahdi set the first Islamic union in Sudan. (Fig 7852)

Fig 52- General Charles Gordon Pasha, Imam Mohammed Ibn Ahmed el-Sayyid Abdullah, and Ameer Osman Abubakr Digna1.

Imam al-Mahdi died six months later and the Islamic government he set, with his three deputies as Khalifas ended in a rivalry which continued to 1891 with Abdallahi ibn Muhammad as an unchallenged leader of the Mahdiya. Division of the Khalifa lines after the death of Al-Mahdi was an opportunity seized by the Anglo Egyptian second campaign lead by Kitchener who re-conquered Sudan in 1898. The defeat of Alkhalifa in Karary and submittal of Omdurman reinstated the Anglo-Egyptian rule, and Sir Reginald Wingate succeeded Kitchener as governor genera in 18992. (Fig 53)

Fig 53- Lord Horatio Herbert Kitchener and Sir Frances Reginald Wingate Governor General3.

1 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, Condominium Sudan. 2009 2 The Library of Congress. Country Studies Program,. Political History of the Sudan. 2009 3 Wikipedia Free Encyclopedia, Gen. Kitchener in Sudan. 2009

260 Osman Digna and his army maintained defiance in the East till they were annihilated in 1891 in Trnktat, and Digna was forced to join the Khalifa army in west Kordofan where he continued the fight till November 24, 1899 when the Khalifa and his followers were killed in the battle of Algadeed (Um Dibaikrat). On his way to the East, a stop at Urba ended with Digna’s capture, exile to Egypt and ended his battles with the Condominium army. With this the Eastern Desert came under one rule by Grate Britain. In 1915 Osman Digna was returned to Halfa and was diseased in 19261.

The Anglo Egyptian Condominium in Sudan managed to set the grounds for Sudan Political Services by adopting penal and criminal procedural codes established for India, and continued the Ottoman separation of civil law and Sharia. This period witnessed the set-up of Sudan boundaries by British treaties with Ethiopia and the Belgian Congo, and securing Darfur back to Sudan union after Sultan Ali Dinar reclaimed it under Ottoman suzerainty. The Governor General of Sudan administered the different regions through the tribal leaders and Sheiks for judicial power, once again inducing fraction and tribalism in Sudan.

The economic developments that took place during the Condominium were aligned with British industrial expansion, and were focused on the sugar and cotton production, and on agriculture crops grown mostly on the central Nile Valley (Gezirah) and quiet areas including the Gash River basin and the Toker Delta. Public education was introduced along with the telegraph, the railway, and the establishment of Port Sudan2. (Fig 54.a, b)

Fig 54.a- Sugar cane fields in Al-Gazera*.

Fig 54b- Cotton field labor was conducted by families including children*.

1 Mohammed Salih Dirar. History of Suakin and the Red Sea. PP 114-127. 2008. 2 The Library of Congress. Country Studies Program,. The Political History of the Sudan.

261 With Britain accepting Egypt’s declaration of independence in 1922, Sudan Nationalists whose activities were lead by Ali Abd al Latif in 19211, worked towards bringing equity to the Sudanese worker, establishing Sudan Defense Forces (SDF). The 1936 Treaty of Alliance set a timetable for British governance, and during World War II in 1940, Sudan Defense Forces prevented the Italian invasion from advancing into Sudan, and recaptured Kasala by 1941. A parliamentary administration for the unification of north and south Sudan’s eastern borders was established in 1948, to the disagreement of Egypt and the Sudanese National Unionist Party (NUP) who favored unification with Egypt. In 1953 Egypt; Mohammed Naguib administration signed the Anglo-Egyptian Accord which stated the transition period for Sudan to move into self-government. The declaration of independence was adopted unanimously December in 1955, and Sudan became independent in January1, 1956 (Fig 55)

Fig 55- President Ismail al-Azhari leads the NUP government in 1954, and under his leadership the declaration of independence was adopted and it encompassed all of Sudan political boundaries including the Eastern Region. Additional information on following administrations is included in the appendix2.

1 The Library of Congress. Country Studies Program,. Political History of the Sudan. Ali Abd al Latif, of Denka origin, organized demonstrations in Khartoum which led to his exile to Egypt. *Sudan History on the Web – Historic photographs, photographer unidentified. 2 For summery of the History of Sudan and Egypt, see Appendix III.

262 SUMMARY OF THE HISTORY OF SUDAN & EGYPT1

General chronology of the lower and middle Nile region Southeast Egypt Northeast Sudan Lower Palaeolithic 500,000 - 200,000 BCE Middle Palaeolithic 200,000 - 45,000 BCE Upper Palaeolithic 45,000 - 22,000 BCE Late Palaeolithic 22,000 - 9,000 BCE Epipalaeolitic (Mesolithic) 9000 - 6000 BCE Early Neolithic 6000 - 5000 BCE Fayum - Badarian Khartoum Neolithic 5000-4200 BCE 5000-3000 BCE Prehistoric Merimde - Naqada "A-Group" Khartoum Neolithic Egypt 4200-3100 BCE 3800-3000 BCE Predynastic Egypt Lower Nubia Pre-Kerma Culture 3100-2575 BCE depopulated? 3000-2500 BCE Old Kingdom 2725-2125 BCE First Intermediate Period 2125-1975 BCE C-Horizon Kingdom of Kerma Middle Kingdom (C-Group) (Kushite Kingdom) 1975-1640 BCE 2300-1520 BCE 2500-1520 BCE Second Intermediate Period Pharaonic (Hyksos) Egypt 1630-1520 BCE New Kingdom 1540-1075 BCE Third Intermediate Period 1075-715 BCE Kingdom of Napata 25th Dynasty (Kushite Kingdom) 770-657 BCE 1075-300 BCE Late Period (Persian invasions)

1 After N.Y. Adams (1984), Nubia: Corridor to Africa, Princeton (Princeton University), London (Allen Lane); and J. Baines and J. Malek (2000), Cultural Atlas of Ancient Egypt, Abingdon (Andromeda Oxford Ltd.); see also: H. Barnard (2007), "Additional Remarks on Bellamys, Beja and Eastern Desert Ware," Ägypten und Levante 17: 23-31.

263 664-332 BCE

Ptolemaic Empire Graeco- 332 BCE-30 CE Kingdom of Meroe Roman (Kushite Kingdom) Egypt Roman Empire 300 BCE-350 CE 30-330 CE Byzantine Empire 330-616 CE Byzantine Persian Invasion Egypt 616-628 CE Kingdom of Kingdom of Makuria Byzantine Empire Nobatia (protected by 629-641 CE (Ballana Culture) the baqt) 300-700 CE 500-1323 CE Rashidun caliphs 641-658 CE Umayyad Caliphate 658-750 CE Abbasid Caliphate Islamic 750-969 CE Egypt Fatimid caliphs Kingdom of Makuria 969-1171 CE Ayyubid Sultanate 1171-1250 CE Mamluk sultans Banu Kanz (Awlad Kenz) 1250-1517 CE 1323-1517 CE Ottoman Empire Sultanate of Sinnar Ottoman 1517-1798 CE (Funj) Egypt Invasion of Napoleon 1504-1821 CE 1798-1801 CE Khedives and kings of the Dynasty of Mohamed Ali Mohamed Ali (1805-1848) - Fu'ad II (1952-1953) Mahdi Revolt Increasingly controlled by the British Empire 1883-1898 CE Modern Unilateral independence Egypt 22 February 1922 Anglo-Egyptian Sudan Republic of Egypt 1899-1956 CE 18 June 1953 Full independence Republic of Sudan 18 June 1956 1 January 1956

264