Appendix A

Constellation Names

The list below gives the name of each of the 88 constellations recognized by the International Astronomical Union (IAU), the official three-letter designation, and the Latin possessive.

Name Abbr Possessive Name Abbr Possessive Andromeda AND Andromedae Circinus CIR Circini Antlia ANT Antliae Columba COL Columbae Apus APS Apodis Coma Berenices COM Comae Berenices Aquarius AQR Aquarii Corona Australis CRA Coronae Australis Aquila AQL Aquilae Corona Borealis CRB Coronae Borealis Ara ARA Arae Corvus CRV Corvi Aries ARI Arietis Crater CRT Crateris Auriga AUR Aurigae Crux CRU Crucis Bootes BOO Bootis Cygnus CYG Cygni Caelum CAE Caeli Delphinus DEL Delphini Camelopardalis CAM Camelopardalis Dorado DOR Doradus Cancer CNC Cancri Draco DRA Draconis Canes Venatici CVN Canum Venaticorum Equuleus EQU Equulei Canis Major CMA Canis Majoris Eridanus ERI Eridani Canis Minor CMI Canis Minoris Fornax FOR Fornacis Capricornus CAP Capricorni Gemini GEM Geminorium Carina CAR Carinae Grus GRU Gruis Cassiopeia CAS Cassiopeiae Hercules HER Herculis Centaurus CEN Centauri Horologium HOR Horologii Cepheus CEP Cephei Hydra HYA Hydrae (continued)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 243 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 244 Appendix A

(continued)

Cetus CET Ceti Hydrus HYI Hydri Chamaeleon CHA Chamaeleontis Indus IND Indi Lacerta LAC Lacertae Piscis Austrinus PSA Piscis Austrini Leo LEO Leonis Puppis PUP Puppis Leo Minor LMI Leonis Minoris Pyxis PYX Pyxidis Lepus LEP Leporis Reticulum RET Reticuli Libra LIB Librae Sagitta SGE Sagittae Lupus LUP Lupi Sagittarius SGR Sagittarii Lynx LYN Lynx Scorpius SCO Scorpii Lyra LYR Lyrae Sculptor SCL Sculptoris Mensa MEN Mensae Scutum SCT Scuti Microscopium MIC Microscopii Serpens SER Serpentis Monoceros MON Monocerotis Sextans SEX Sextantis Musca MUS Muscae Taurus TAU Tauri Norma NOR Normae Telescopium TEL Telescopii Octans OCT Octantis Triangulum TRI Trianguli Ophiuchus OPH Ophiuchi Triangulum TRA Trianguli Australis Australe Orion ORI Orionis Tucana TUC Tucanae Pavo PAV Pavonis Ursa Major UMA Ursae Majoris Pegasus PEG Pegasi Ursa Minor UMI Ursae Minoris Perseus PER Persei Vela VEL Velorum Phoenix PHE Phoenicis Virgo VIR Virginis Pictor PIC Pictoris Volans VOL Volantis Pisces PSC Piscium Vulpecula VUL Vulpeculae

Reduction Examples

Chapters 6–8 covered the transformation process that converts raw instrumental magnitudes to standard magnitudes. The next few appendices include worked examples of the steps in that process using a spread sheet. The example files, including data, in Microsoft Excel 2010® xlsx format are available in a ZIP file: http://www.MinorPlanetObserver.com/pgbook/PG3_SpreadSheets.zip The examples are provided so that you can understand the data manipulation that is required and how things might go astray. Your software may perform the calcula- tions for you and so be a “black box” that generates results. If using the same data as provided in the spread sheets and you don’t get similar results, then first double- check that you entered or imported the data correctly. If the program has its own worked examples, try those to see how the program data and those in the spread sheets differ in style format. Appendix B

Transforms Example

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 245 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 246 Appendix B

Fig. B.1 Spread sheet layout for finding transforms (Microsoft Excel™)

This example assumes that the V–R color index is used throughout the reduction process. The overall process is identical if using one of the standard color indexes, e.g., B-V or SG-SR.

Spread Sheet Layout

Note that there are four pages to the spread sheet. Each of the first three pages holds the data for a given filter. The setup for the filter pages is the same except that the values in Columns D through J have the data for the filter on that page. The discus- sion below describes the setup for the V page. The Hidden Transforms 247

Table B.1 Data layout for V transforms calculation Cell or range Header Purpose A2:A9 Name Arbitrary name assigned to star B2:B9 V Catalog V magnitude C2:C9 R Catalog R Magnitude D2:D9 v1 Instrumental V mag, image 1 E2:E9 v2 Instrumental V mag, image 2 F2:F9 X Air mass of center of field H2:H9 Average of V instrumental mags, AVERAGE(Dx, Ex) x = row number I2:I9 V- Instrumental v-r color index, Bx – Hx x = row number Y-axis values in plot J2:J9 V-R Catalog V-R color index, Bx – Cx x = row number X-axis values in plot

The plot is a type “X-Y Scatter.” From the trend line formula, the transform for V would be

V = vo – 0.109 (V–R) + 21.665 where vo is the exoatmospheric instrumental magnitude. In this example, the first order extinction terms were set to 0.0 and no second order extinction was included.

Clear Filter to Standard Magnitude Transforms

As discussed in Sect. 6.5, it is possible to transform observations made with a Clear filter to a standard magnitude band, usually Johnson V. While first order extinction terms can be ignored, the second order extinction term should not be when using a Clear filter. The spread sheet example does not include a second order term. Try adding one to the calculations and see what happens.

The Hidden Transforms

A so-called “hidden transform” (Sect. 8.4) is used to correlate the instrumental color index to the standard color index. This transform allows you to find the stan- dard color index for the comparisons and target as well as the standard magnitude of the comparison stars if not available. These transforms are not used to convert target magnitudes to the standard system. The sample spread sheet provides a fourth page to compute the (V-R) vs. (v-r) hidden transform. 248 Appendix B

Fig. B.2 Hidden transforms page (Microsoft Excel™)

Table B.2 Data setup for hidden transforms calculation Cell or range Header Purpose A2:A9 Name Arbitrary name assigned to star B2:B9 V Catalog V magnitude C2:C9 R Catalog R Magnitude D2:D9 v1 Instrumental V mag, image 1 E2:E9 v2 Instrumental V mag, image 2 F2:F9 r1 Instrumental R mag, image 1 G2:G9 r2 Instrumental R mag, image 2 I2:I9 Average of V instrumental mags, AVERAGE(Dx,Ex) x = row number 9 J2:I9 Average of R instrumental mags, AVERAGE(Fx,Gx) x = row number K2:K9 - Instrumental v-r color index, Ix – Jx x = row number X-axis values in plot L2:L9 V-R Catalog V-R color index, Bx – Cx x = row number Y-axis values in plot The Hidden Transforms 249

The solution you’re finding converts a given instrumental color index to the standard color index. If you reverse the roles of the two axes, then you won’t find the right color index values for the comparisons and target. From the example above, the formula to convert a v–r instrumental to (V–R) standard magnitude would be (V–R) = 0.977(v–r) + 0.016 The slope should be close to 1.00 (here it’s 0.977), which would indicate a per- fect match of your system to the standard system. If you get something significantly different, check the original data and formulae. If you still have problems, confirm that you were using the V and R as you thought. I once had the filter control soft- ware set up incorrectly and so images were being taken in R instead of V and vice versa. That makes for some very frustrating days and nights! Appendix C

First Order (Hardie) Example

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 251 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 252 Appendix C

Fig. C.1 Spread sheet design for first order extinction, Modified Hardie method (Microsoft Excel™)

This example shows how to use a spreadsheet to compute the first order extinction in a single filter using the modified Hardie method (see Sect. 8.3.2). Recall that this method requires images from two standard fields, one at low air mass and the other at a high air mass. Spread Sheet Layout 253

Spread Sheet Layout

The spreadsheet contains three pages. Each page holds the data for a given filter. Only the V page will be discussed. The other pages are set up identically, save that the instrumental magnitudes and other appropriate substitutions for the given filter are made.

Table C.1 Data setup for modified Hardie calculation Cell or range Header Purpose A2:A9 Name Arbitrary name, Fld 1 A13:A24 Arbitrary name, Fie Fld 2 B2:B9 V Catalog V mag, Fld 1 B13:B24 Catalog V mag, Fld 2 C2:C9 R Catalog R mag, Fld 1 C13:C24 Catalog R mag, Fld 2 D2:D9 v1 Instrumental V mag, Fld 1:Img 1 D13:D24 v1 Instrumental V mag, Fld 2:Img 1 E2:E9 v2 Instrumental V mag, Fld 1:Img 2 E13:E24 v2 Instrumental V mag, Fld 2:Img 2 F2:F9 X Air mass, Fld 1 F13:F24 X Air mass, Fld 2 G2:G9 Tv V filter transform G13:G24 H2:H9 Average instrumental v mag, H13:H24 AVERAGE(Dx,Ex) x = row number I2:I9 V-R Catalog V-R color index I13:I24 Bx – Cx x = row number J2:J9 v(adj) Instrumental v-r color index, J13:J24 Bx–Hx – (Ix*Gx) x = row number F10 Mean X Avg air mass, Fld 1 AVERAGE(F2:F9) F25 Avg air mass, Fld 2 AVERAGE(F13:F24) J10 Mean Avg v(adj), Fld 1 AVERAGE(J2:J9) J25 Avg air mass, Fld 2 AVERAGE(J13:J24) J11 S.D. StdDev, Fld 1 STDEV(J2:J9) J26 StdDev, Fld 2 STDEV(J13:J24) 254 Appendix C

The values in J2:J9 and J13:J24 were based on the reduction formula Mr = Mc – Mf – (Tf * CI) Mr reduced magnitude Mc catalog magnitude in given filter (V for C) Mf instrumental magnitude in given filter Tf transform for given filter CI standard color of star using catalog values The plot is an X-Y scatter. Cells F10 and F25 are used for the X-axis. Cells J10 and J25 are used for the Y-axis. Only the two cells in Columns F and J are used, not the range of cells in rows 10–25 of those two columns. Appendix D

First Order (Comp) Example

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 255 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 256 Appendix D

Fig. D.1 Spread sheet for finding first order extinction, comp star method (Microsoft Excel™)

This method uses the instrumental magnitude of a comparison start in the target field against the air mass for each image.

Spread Sheet Layout

The spread sheet has only two columns and two calculated fields. Spread Sheet Layout 257

Table D.1 Data setup for the comp star method calculation Cell or range Header Purpose A2:A61 X Air mass of the star B2:B61 C1IM Instrumental mag of comp star E2 Slope Slope of least-squares solution SLOPE(B2:B61,A2:A61) E3 Corr Correlation of least-squares solution CORREL(B2:B61,A2:A61)

The trend line for the plot shows the intercept value. It is not used, though it may be of interest since it would be the instrumental magnitude of the star outside the Earth’s atmosphere. Remember that this solution is actually finding the combination of first and second order extinction (see Chap. 7). For a Clear filter, the second order term can be significant. For a better solution, see the approach outlined in Chap. 7. To keep with the convention of brighter magnitudes at the top, the Y-axis was set to display data in reverse order. Appendix E

Standard Color Indices

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 259 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 260 Appendix E

Fig. E.1 Spread sheet design for finding the color index of comparison stars and target (Microsoft Excel™)

Once you’ve determined the transforms and, if necessary, the first and second order extinction values, you can find the standard color indices of the comparisons and target. These values will be used in the differential formula for finding the standard magnitude of the target in a single color. Notes 261

Spread Sheet Layout

Table E.1 Data setup for finding comparison star standard color indices Cell or range Header Purpose A2:A6 Name Object ID, V filter images A9:A13 Object ID, R filter images B2:B6 v1 Instrumental v mag, Img 1 B9:B13 r1 Instrumental r mag, Img 1 C2:C6 v2 Instrumental v mag, Img 2 C9:C13 r2 Instrumental r mag, Img 2 D2:D6 v3 Instrumental v mag, Img 3 D9:D13 r3 Instrumental r mag, Img 3 E2:E6 X Air mass for V images E9:E13 Air mass for R images B16 k’v First order V extinction B17 k’r First order R extinction B18 Tvr Hidden transform (V-R) B19 ZPvr Hidden transform zero point (V-R) B22:B26 CI1 V-R color index, Img 1, (((B2-B$16*E2)-(B9-B$17*E10))*B$18) + B$19 (see notes) C22:C26 CI2 V-R color index, Img 2 (((C2-B$16*E2)-(C9-B$17*E9))*B$18) + B$19 (see notes) D22:D26 CI3 V-R color index, Img 3 (((D2-B$16*E2)-(D9-B$17*E9))*B$18) + B$19 (see notes) E22:E26 Mean Average of V-R mags AVERAGE(Bx,Cx,Dx) x = row number F22:F26 SD Standard deviation of the mean STDEV(Cx,Dx,Ex) x = row number G22:G26 Cat Catalog V-R for comps and target H22:H26 M-C Mean–Catalog difference Ex – Gx x = row number H27 Mean Mean of Mean–Catalog differences AVERAGE(H22:H25) H28 SD Standard deviation of mean STDEV(H22:H26)

Notes

The hidden transform values are not those from Appendix B, but were found on a different night using a different reference field. They are similar but differ in the zero point values. The dollar sign ($) in a formula allows copying a cell to another without having the spreadsheet automatically increment the column and/or row. 262 Appendix E

There appears to be a slight systematic error of 0.015 mag, meaning that the (V–R) values are a little higher than their catalog values. This is acceptable, ­especially in light of the fact the final derivation of the standard magnitudes depends on the differences of the color indices. Thus, while systematically high by a small amount, the error between the true and derived differential color index for any one comparison and the target, i.e., (V–R – (V–R)), will be nearly 0. Appendix F

Comparison Standard Magnitudes

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 263 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 264 Appendix F

Fig. F.1 Spread sheet design for finding comparison star standard magnitudes (Microsoft Excel™)

The derivation of the standard magnitudes for the comparisons uses almost the same data as when you found the standard color index of the comparisons and target. Here, you will use the same data for the V and R filters but also include data for the Clear filter, which—presumably—was the primary filter for imaging the target field. This allows you to see how well the Clear to V reduction works and how it matches to the reduction using the V filter.

Spread Sheet Layout

The general layout of the spreadsheet is the same as in Appendix E, save that the C filter has been added. Remember that, this time, the average value for the three instrumental magnitudes is used in the reduction formula. This still allows finding a standard deviation, which gives an idea of the uncertainties within the ­measurements and reductions. A comparison to the actual catalog values is included in the spreadsheet to see how well the method worked. The target is included in this exercise to see what value would be derived. In Appendix G, the target standard magnitudes will be found using the differential formula. Spread Sheet Layout 265

Table F.1 Data setup for finding comp star and target standard magnitudes Cell or range Header Purpose A3:A7 Name Object name, V images A10:A14 Object name, R images A17:A21 Object name, C images B3:B7 v1 Instrumental mag; V filter, Img 1 B10:B14 r1 Instrumental mag; R filter, Img 1 B17:B21 c1 Instrumental mag; C filter, Img 1 C3:C7 v2 Instrumental mag; V filter, Img 2 C10:C14 r2 Instrumental mag; R filter, Img 2 C17:C21 c2 Instrumental mag; C filter, Img 2 D3:D7 v3 Instrumental mag; V filter, Img 3 D10:D14 r3 Instrumental mag; R filter, Img 3 D17:D21 c3 Instrumental mag; C filter, Img 3 E3:E7 X Air mass, V filter images E10:E14 Air mass, R filter images E17:E21 Air mass, C filter images F3:F7 Avg inst v mag F10:F14 Avg inst r mag F17:F21 Avg inst c mag AVERAGE(Bx,Cx,Dx) x = row number G3:G7 sd Standard deviation v mag G10:G14 sd Standard deviation r mag G17:G21 sd Standard deviation c mag STDEV(Bx,Cx,Dx) x = row number H3:H7 CI Object color index, from Appendix E H10:H14 H17:H21 I3:I7 V Calculated V mag I10:I14 R Calculated R mag I17:I21 C to V Calculated V mag See Notes J3:J7 V Catalog V mag J10:J14 R Catalog R mag J17:J21 C to V Catalog V mag K3:K7 V Calculated-Catalog V mag K10:K14 R Calculated-Catalog R mag K17:K21 C to V Calculated-Catalog V mag Ix–Jx x = row number B23 k'v First order extinction, V filter B24 k'r First order extinction, R filter B25 k'c First order extinction, C filter D23 Tv Transform, V filter D24 Tr Transform, R filter D25 Tc Transform, C filter (C to V) F23 ZPv Transform zero point, V filter F24 ZPr Transform zero point, R filter F25 ZPc Transform zero point, C filter (C to V) 266 Appendix F

Notes

The first order terms are the same as those used in the exercise for the standard color indices (Appendix E). The transforms are from the same run that generated the hidden values used in Appendix B. The standard deviations in Column G do not include the uncertainties in the first order extinction, transform, and nightly zero points. However, they do show the relative stability of the measurements. The formula for the V, R, and C mags in Column I respectively, are

Fx - (B$22*Ex) + (D$22*Hx) + F$22 x = row number Fx - (B$23*Ex) + (D$23*Hx) + F$23 Fx - (B$24*Ex) + (D$24*Hx) + F$24

Note the changes in the references to the cells holding the first order, transforms, and nightly zero points. The dollar sign ($) prevented the program from automati- cally incrementing row and/or column references when doing a copy/paste. As you can see, this was a good night. The values in Column K are near 0.01 mag. You hope to get such good results all the time. Note that the C to V reduction very nearly duplicates the catalog as well as the derived V values. Another thing to notice is that the C instrumental magnitudes are, on average, about a magnitude brighter for any comp star or target and about half a magnitude brighter than the red filter images. This shows you how much filters can reduce light and why the C filter is sometimes the difference between getting useful data and not. Second order extinction was not included for the Clear filter reductions. As discussed in Chap. 6, this term is often significant for the Clear filter and should be included for the most accurate result. Appendix G

Target Standard Magnitudes

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 267 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 268 Appendix G

Fig. G.1 Spread sheet layout for finding target standard magnitudes using differential pho- tometry (Microsoft ExcelTM)

The more rigorous approach to reducing the target raw magnitudes to a standard system depends on differential photometry. This way, the first order extinction and zero point terms drop out of consideration (assuming you’re working above 30° altitude and/or your field is not a degree or more on a side). The observations in this exercise were made with a Clear filter with the results being given as V magnitudes. Notes 269

Spread Sheet Layout

Table G.1 Data setup for finding target standard magnitudes using differential photometry Cell or range Header Purpose A2:A5 Name Object name B2:B5 V-R Object V-R color index C2:C4 V Comp star V magnitude A22:A61 JD Julian Date – 2400000.0 B22:B61 Comp1 Inst mag of Comp1 C22:C61 Comp2 Inst mag of Comp2 D22:D61 Comp3 Inst mag of Comp3 E22:E61 Target Inst mag of Target F22:F61 T/C1 Target mag using Comp1 G22:G61 T/C2 Target mag using Comp2 H22:H61 T/C3 Target mag using Comp3 See Notes I22:I61 Mean Avg of target mags AVERAGE(Fx,Gx,Hx) x = row number J22:J61 S.D. Standard deviation of Mean STDEV(Fx,Gx,Hx) x = row number

Notes

The V-R color indexes for comparison stars and target as well as the V magnitudes for the comparisons were found using the processes covered in earlier appendices but with a different data set. The T/C1-T/C3 values were computed using the formulae

(Ex - Bx) + B$7*(B$5 - B$2) + C$2 x = row number (Ex - Cx) + B$7*(B$5 - B$3) + C$3 (Ex - Dx) + B$7*(B$5 - B$4) + C$4

The X-Y scatter plot uses the values in A22:A61 for the X-axis and the values in I22:I61 for the Y-axis. The Y-axis is inverted so that brighter magnitudes are at the top. A plot using a larger version of the data set is shown in Fig. G.2. 270 Appendix G

Fig. G.2 Target standard magnitudes using a larger version of the data set Appendix H

Henden Fields

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 271 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 272 Appendix H

The finder charts here are based on photometry by Arne Henden when he was at the U.S. Naval Observatory–Flagstaff. The fields are distributed about the sky but, unfortunately, favor northern observers. The fields cannot be considered standard stars but “secondary standards.” For the most accurate transforms, Landolt fields should be used. Still, these fields can provide a high degree of accuracy and be used by collaborations to reference all measurements against the same field. The main advantage of these charts is that they include native R magnitudes and not those found using conversion formulae based on other magnitudes. Each chart is 0.25° on a side. The magnitude scaling has been exaggerated some so that faint stars are not lost. However, the scaling does allow the brighter stars in the sequences to be quickly located on an image, which is the main goal. Up to 26 stars, labeled “A” through “Z”, are indicated on the chart. Only stars from the Henden sequences are labeled. The other stars on the chart are either in the sequence but too faint to be labeled or part of the MPO Star Catalog. The latter was used to include a sufficient number of additional field stars so that the field could be readily identified. Below each chart is the RA/Declination of chart center, the name of the file from which the data was taken, the date of the file. The photometry data are given in a table under the chart and title.

Table H.1 Photometry table column definitions Header Description Letter ID corresponding to ID on chart Name Arbitrary name based on field name and line number in file RA (2000) J2000.0 Right Ascension of star DC (2000) J2000.0 Declination of star B-V B-V color index V Johnson V magnitude V-R V-Rc magnitude; R = V – (V-R) VE Error in V magnitude BVE Error in B-V magnitude VRE Error in V-R magnitude Appendix H 273

If a given magnitude is empty, no value was available from the Henden sequence. There were three requirements for building the charts. • No star was used for which there were fewer than three observations. • All magnitudes are the actual values from the data files. • There was no conversion to R or (V–R) based on B/V magnitudes. You should not use a star if there is no error or if the error is significant, i.e., more than 0.02–0.03 mag. 274 Appendix H

Fig. H.1–H.78 Appendix H 275

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 276 Appendix H

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 277

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 278 Appendix H

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 279

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 280 Appendix H

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 281

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 282 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 284 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 312 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 315

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 316 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 318 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 320 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 322 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 324 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 326 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 328 Appendix H

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 329

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 330 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 332 Appendix H

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Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 349

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) 350 Appendix H

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix H 351

Fig. H.1–H.78 (continued) Appendix I

Landolt/Graham Standard Fields

The Landolt fields are the calibration fields when trying to convert the instrumental magnitudes of your system onto the Johnson–Cousins system. These charts are based on data derived from the original paper by Landolt (1992) and imported into the LONEOS catalog (Brian Skiff, Lowell Observatory). The original file was filtered to remove known or suspected variables and the positions updated to J2000. There are no listed errors, but they are on the order of 0.01 mag and less in most cases. The charts had to be made 1/2° on a side to include a sufficient number of stars. Most amateurs have fields much less than this, usually 20 arcminutes or less. The charts include a square at the center, drawn with a dashed line that indicates a 20 arcminute square field. With careful work, you can extend the number of stars you use in the transforms determination by shooting more than one area of the field through the vari- ous filters while keeping at least one star common to all the subfields that you image. Immediately below the chart is the J2000.0 Right Ascension and Declination for chart center. This is followed by a photometry table.

Table I.1 Photometry table column definition Header Description Letter ID corresponding to ID on chart Name ID from Landolt paper RA (2000) J2000.0 Right Ascension of star DC (2000) J2000.0 Declination of star V Johnson V magnitude B-V B-V color index; B = V + (B-V) V-R V-R color index; R = V – (V-R) V-I V-I color index; I = V – (V-I)

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 353 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 354 Appendix I

Graham Fields

Five additional charts are included that are not original Landolt fields. They are located at about –45°. These fields should not be considered true standard fields, since they do have systematic errors of up to 0.02 mag. However, they do serve well as secondary standards for those in the Southern Hemisphere since the fields transit nearly at the zenith.

Reference

A.U. Landolt, UBVRI photometric standard stars in the magnitude range 11.5–16.0 around the celestial equator. Astron. J. 104, 340–371, 436–491 (1992) Reference 355

Fig. I.1–I.22 356 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 357

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 358 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 359

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 360 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 361

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 362 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 363

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 364 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 365

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 366 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 367

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 368 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 369

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 370 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 371

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 372 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 373

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 374 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Reference 375

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) 376 Appendix I

Fig. I.1–I.22 (continued) Appendix J

Hipparcos Blue–Red Pairs

Blue–Red pairs are used to determine second order extinction, usually to adjust derived magnitudes for B and C filters. The second order correction for V, R, and I is usually small and can be ignored in all but the most critical cases. Using the Hipparcos Catalog and the criteria below, several dozen pairs of stars were found. The magnitudes have been reduced from the Hipparcos to the Johnson–Cousins BVR system using formulae in the ESA documentation (Perryman 1997) and elsewhere. The values should be sufficiently accurate for finding second order extinction terms. If using only the B and V magnitudes, then the pairs can also be used as secondary standards for finding transforms using the (B–V) color index. The derived R values are probably of insufficient accuracy to use the (V–R) color index and R transforms. It would make a good project to determine the quality of the R magnitudes by back-checking derived R magnitudes in Landolt fields using the Hipparcos stars.

Building the List

1. The Hipparcos file of approximately 118,000 stars was scanned to find all stars

within the range of –0.2 < (B–V)T <1.8. This range is given in the Hipparcos documentation as being where reasonable conversions of Bt and Vt to Bj and Vj can be made. 2. The V magnitudes were derived by using the Hp magnitude and performing a linear interpolation using the (V–I) magnitude from the catalog against one of two lookup tables found on page 67.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 377 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 378 Appendix J

3. The tables differ depending on spectral class, with late G, K, M dwarfs being treated differently from O-G5 (II-V) and G5III - M8III stars. 4. The value for (B–V)j came directly from the Hipparcos catalog (pp 246–252). 5. The derivation of R magnitudes was made based on a linear solution found by Arne Henden.

RVCt=-0..014 --()0 5405*()BV

Once all stars within the (B–V)t range were found, they were put into separate lists of blue and red stars, with an arbitrary standard of 01. £-()BV blue stars j ()BV- ³ 08. redstars j being the dividing points. This facilitated the search to find blue–red pairs by iterat- ing through the red stars and searching for a close blue star. The red and blue stars were considered a valid pair based on the following criteria:

• The separation between the two stars was 2 ≤ X ≤ 10 arcminutes. • The average declination of the star was –30° ≤ Dec ≤ +30°. This helps assure that a pair can be found that goes through a significant change in air mass over a few hours' time from about any latitude. • The (Rbv – Bbv) difference was ≥ 0.8 mag. • The variability and proximity flags were not set or empty.

Table J.1 Layout for Hipparcos blue-red star data Header Description Letter ID corresponding to ID on chart Name ID from Landolt paper RA (2000) J2000.0 Right Ascension (see comments) DC (2000) J2000.0 Declination (see comments) V Johnson V magnitude B-V B-V color index; B = V + (B-V) V-R V-R color index; R = V – (V-R)

Each pair is given in groups of three lines: • The first line gives the average J2000 coordinates of the pair plus the separation in arcminutes. • The second line gives the data for the blue star, which includes the coordinates, HIP number, and B, V, R, (B–V), and (V–R) Johnson-Cousins magnitudes. • The third line gives the same data for the red star. Building the List 379

It may be difficult to use some of these pairs, especially if you have a larger telescope. Remember that very short exposures can be on non-linear portions of the chip response curve, and short exposures are also subject to scintillation noise. Usually, you want to use exposures on the order of ten seconds to avoid that prob- lem. Even with filters, it’s unlikely that you’ll be able to expose that long with stars of V ~ 6.0. If these stars are too bright, try stopping down the telescope with an off-axis mask, or use the stars from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey in Appendix K. The R magnitudes in the SDSS catalog are probably more accurate, so try to use that cata- log when working with R magnitudes.

RA Dec. HIP Sep/B V R (B-V) (V-R) 00:25:59 -21:39:07 8.7 00:25:42 -21:37:53 2027 7.695 7.640 7.574 0.056 0.065 00:26:16 -21:40:21 2079 8.847 7.567 6.867 1.280 0.700 01:15:40 +20:27:30 8.1 01:15:28 +20:24:52 5878 7.071 6.985 6.926 0.086 0.059 01:15:53 +20:30:08 5906 8.257 7.244 6.689 1.013 0.555 02:02:48 -21:56:19 7.4 02:02:35 -21:57:56 9534 6.866 6.972 6.995 -0.106 -0.022 02:03:02 -21:54:42 9577 8.767 7.620 6.984 1.148 0.635 02:16:58 - 6:30:00 9.3 02:16:57 - 6:34:41 10640 7.360 7.304 7.271 0.056 0.033 02:16:58 - 6:25:18 10642 6.465 5.504 4.991 0.962 0.512 02:48:45 +25:07:56 6.6 02:48:45 +25:11:17 13121 5.860 5.894 5.896 -0.033 -0.001 02:48:45 +25:04:36 13120 8.499 7.465 6.923 1.035 0.541 03:54:29 + 9:12:46 8.9 03:54:45 + 9:10:39 18297 7.492 7.424 7.369 0.069 0.054 03:54:14 + 9:14:53 18252 9.722 8.719 8.198 1.004 0.520 03:58:24 -23:52:03 9.9 03:58:34 -23:47:43 18575 7.980 7.919 7.870 0.061 0.049 03:58:15 -23:56:23 18553 10.282 9.111 8.483 1.171 0.628 04:24:33 -21:48:19 8.9 04:24:41 -21:52:21 20596 8.742 8.764 8.757 -0.021 0.006 04:24:25 -21:44:17 20572 10.632 9.690 9.155 0.942 0.535 04:48:42 + 3:37:08 3.8 04:48:39 + 3:38:57 22343 7.267 7.324 7.339 -0.057 -0.014 04:48:44 + 3:35:18 22354 7.239 6.040 5.383 1.200 0.656 05:20:22 - 5:50:03 7.5 05:20:07 - 5:50:46 24891 8.127 8.177 8.166 -0.050 0.011 05:20:37 - 5:49:21 24944 8.948 7.995 7.483 0.953 0.512 05:26:10 -12:53:21 3.3 05:26:16 -12:52:25 25426 9.090 9.071 9.062 0.019 0.009 05:26:04 -12:54:17 25407 8.455 7.150 6.435 1.306 0.714

(continued) 380 Appendix J

(continued)

RA Dec. HIP Sep/B V R (B-V) (V-R) 05:42:41 +18:59:02 6.2 05:42:53 +18:58:49 26925 6.644 6.659 6.663 -0.015 -0.003 05:42:28 +18:59:15 26886 8.673 7.333 6.533 1.340 0.799 05:50:31 + 1:44:21 5.9 05:50:24 + 1:46:43 27574 9.131 9.101 9.136 0.031 -0.035 05:50:38 + 1:41:58 27602 9.036 7.990 7.393 1.047 0.596 05:55:49 +12:58:56 5.8 05:56:00 +12:57:46 28064 8.164 8.165 8.145 0.000 0.019 05:55:39 +13:00:06 28029 8.697 7.692 7.163 1.006 0.528 06:00:29 - 7:31:46 7.2 06:00:27 - 7:35:23 28453 8.277 8.361 8.380 -0.083 -0.019 06:00:31 - 7:28:10 28459 8.677 7.418 6.688 1.260 0.729 06:06:45 -22:07:08 6.4 06:06:34 -22:08:41 28944 7.984 8.033 8.017 -0.048 0.015 06:06:56 -22:05:35 28983 10.140 8.774 8.052 1.367 0.721 06:07:39 + 8:14:43 6.9 06:07:27 + 8:16:14 29027 7.943 7.983 7.993 -0.040 -0.009 06:07:52 + 8:13:13 29063 9.839 8.973 8.483 0.867 0.489 06:21:32 +21:13:14 5.8 06:21:22 +21:11:59 30211 7.678 7.623 7.572 0.056 0.050 06:21:43 +21:14:28 30241 9.938 8.531 7.709 1.408 0.821 06:23:38 - 4:42:29 8.0 06:23:22 - 4:41:14 30387 6.726 6.664 6.600 0.063 0.063 06:23:53 - 4:43:43 30430 8.326 7.320 6.755 1.007 0.564 06:41:14 +24:01:16 7.5 06:41:12 +24:05:03 32004 8.679 8.662 8.640 0.017 0.022 06:41:15 +23:57:30 32010 9.097 8.077 7.542 1.021 0.534 06:42:57 -19:24:50 8.5 06:42:48 -19:21:16 32147 8.975 8.980 8.960 -0.005 0.020 06:43:06 -19:28:24 32179 9.686 8.708 8.194 0.979 0.513 06:48:24 - 4:45:34 6.9 06:48:23 - 4:42:07 32630 7.725 7.645 7.581 0.081 0.063 06:48:25 - 4:49:01 32633 9.371 8.386 7.824 0.986 0.561 07:05:35 +11:15:45 7.8 07:05:48 +11:13:26 34231 7.710 7.720 7.691 -0.010 0.029 07:05:22 +11:18:04 34189 9.790 8.864 8.395 0.927 0.468 07:06:19 + 6:07:49 7.0 07:06:33 + 6:08:27 34292 8.244 8.250 8.227 -0.006 0.023 07:06:05 + 6:07:11 34260 9.124 8.105 7.552 1.019 0.553 07:25:36 + 4:30:14 8.1 07:25:28 + 4:33:43 36031 8.614 8.530 8.467 0.084 0.063 07:25:45 + 4:26:46 36049 8.244 7.140 6.518 1.104 0.622 07:28:35 -24:09:19 8.2 07:28:19 -24:10:10 36300 8.391 8.449 8.456 -0.058 -0.006 07:28:51 -24:08:28 36347 11.113 9.974 9.549 1.140 0.424 07:43:34 - 4:41:39 2.0 07:43:32 - 4:40:50 37647 7.054 7.138 7.172 -0.084 -0.033

(continued) Building the List 381

(continued)

RA Dec. HIP Sep/B V R (B-V) (V-R) 07:43:37 - 4:42:28 37655 7.832 6.912 6.409 0.920 0.503 07:51:46 -18:19:25 4.1 07:51:45 -18:21:27 38379 7.617 7.621 7.590 -0.003 0.030 07:51:47 -18:17:23 38383 9.594 8.559 8.001 1.035 0.558 08:00:42 +12:39:36 3.8 08:00:49 +12:40:42 39183 6.727 6.793 6.794 -0.065 -0.001 08:00:36 +12:38:30 39164 7.686 6.615 6.028 1.071 0.587 08:13:28 -22:22:09 8.2 08:13:13 -22:23:51 40248 9.099 9.069 8.991 0.030 0.078 08:13:43 -22:20:27 40295 9.906 8.635 7.939 1.271 0.696 08:31:21 - 9:23:01 7.9 08:31:13 - 9:26:25 41789 9.211 9.128 9.066 0.083 0.062 08:31:30 - 9:19:38 41814 10.262 9.189 8.554 1.073 0.635 08:40:08 +19:59:22 2.5 08:40:11 +19:58:16 42523 6.610 6.604 6.592 0.006 0.012 08:40:06 +20:00:28 42516 7.363 6.384 5.847 0.980 0.536 08:51:20 +11:46:19 4.9 08:51:11 +11:45:22 43465 9.966 10.036 9.940 -0.070 0.096 08:51:29 +11:47:16 43491 11.047 9.698 8.933 1.350 0.764 09:01:36 -14:27:29 4.2 09:01:33 -14:29:28 44320 8.354 8.332 8.295 0.022 0.037 09:01:39 -14:25:31 44328 10.413 9.431 8.872 0.982 0.559 09:42:38 -14:03:10 9.1 09:42:33 -13:58:44 47616 7.863 7.856 7.829 0.007 0.027 09:42:43 -14:07:37 47634 9.855 8.788 8.221 1.067 0.567 10:01:29 -15:26:22 4.1 10:01:22 -15:27:14 49110 7.980 7.962 7.939 0.019 0.022 10:01:37 -15:25:29 49127 9.669 8.653 8.191 1.016 0.462 12:48:02 +13:29:18 9.6 12:48:14 +13:33:11 62478 6.491 6.476 6.457 0.015 0.019 12:47:51 +13:25:26 62442 9.042 8.053 7.515 0.990 0.537 12:47:53 -24:56:00 9.8 12:47:53 -24:51:06 62448 6.370 6.428 6.433 -0.058 -0.004 12:47:53 -25:00:55 62447 7.850 6.806 6.244 1.045 0.561 15:06:16 +28:59:30 6.0 15:06:28 +28:59:02 73931 9.089 9.226 9.243 -0.136 -0.017 15:06:04 +28:59:58 73887 10.314 9.407 8.909 0.908 0.497 15:38:45 -19:45:24 7.9 15:39:00 -19:43:57 76633 7.685 7.639 7.598 0.047 0.040 15:38:30 -19:46:52 76589 10.201 8.931 8.261 1.270 0.670 16:22:01 + 0:31:50 6.8 16:22:12 + 0:29:53 80184 7.794 7.698 7.627 0.097 0.070 16:21:50 + 0:33:46 80163 9.424 8.360 7.776 1.065 0.583 16:46:42 + 2:15:58 7.1 16:46:46 + 2:12:34 82133 8.789 8.869 8.861 -0.079 0.007 16:46:37 + 2:19:23 82126 8.874 7.900 7.407 0.975 0.492 17:03:48 +13:35:11 5.1

(continued) 382 Appendix J

(continued)

RA Dec. HIP Sep/B V R (B-V) (V-R) 17:03:39 +13:36:19 83478 5.924 5.915 5.902 0.010 0.012 17:03:58 +13:34:03 83504 7.105 6.056 5.495 1.050 0.560 17:46:32 + 6:10:41 7.1 17:46:36 + 6:07:14 86993 7.727 7.753 7.747 -0.026 0.006 17:46:28 + 6:14:08 86977 8.937 7.904 7.335 1.034 0.568 18:44:32 +26:12:53 9.1 18:44:50 +26:11:55 91977 7.976 7.926 7.877 0.051 0.048 18:44:14 +26:13:51 91914 9.223 8.198 7.651 1.025 0.547 18:53:45 +15:15:45 5.8 18:53:57 +15:15:35 92741 8.612 8.515 8.499 0.097 0.016 18:53:33 +15:15:56 92718 10.894 9.567 8.866 1.328 0.700 19:01:10 +26:25:42 7.9 19:00:56 +26:27:39 93357 8.145 8.128 8.118 0.017 0.010 19:01:24 +26:23:44 93407 9.021 7.881 7.259 1.140 0.622 19:40:43 +23:43:28 2.1 19:40:39 +23:43:04 96801 6.632 6.642 6.643 -0.009 -0.001 19:40:47 +23:43:52 96818 9.145 8.208 7.692 0.937 0.516 19:43:55 - 1:58:57 5.4 19:44:04 - 2:00:22 97107 8.497 8.442 8.393 0.056 0.048 19:43:46 - 1:57:32 97082 9.469 8.363 7.739 1.107 0.623 19:59:29 + 4:00:08 9.3 19:59:10 + 3:59:33 98374 9.205 9.153 9.132 0.052 0.021 19:59:47 + 4:00:43 98417 9.668 8.550 7.889 1.118 0.661 20:11:49 +26:51:09 5.2 20:11:50 +26:53:45 99520 7.201 7.290 7.305 -0.089 -0.014 20:11:47 +26:48:32 99518 6.905 5.509 4.742 1.397 0.766 20:30:29 +27:54:44 9.7 20:30:13 +27:51:58 101152 7.752 7.815 7.808 -0.062 0.006 20:30:45 +27:57:30 101198 9.226 8.093 7.482 1.133 0.611 20:32:32 -28:35:54 5.1 20:32:42 -28:35:43 101367 7.375 7.316 7.272 0.060 0.043 20:32:21 -28:36:06 101340 9.596 8.549 8.025 1.047 0.524 20:36:28 +16:45:50 8.6 20:36:40 +16:42:48 101687 8.421 8.339 8.280 0.083 0.058 20:36:15 +16:48:52 101645 8.013 6.614 5.821 1.400 0.792 20:45:42 +22:58:09 5.9 20:45:45 +22:55:15 102461 7.729 7.704 7.680 0.026 0.023 20:45:40 +23:01:03 102454 8.743 7.756 7.231 0.988 0.524 20:56:31 - 3:37:05 9.4 20:56:18 - 3:33:42 103347 6.503 6.582 6.587 -0.078 -0.004 20:56:44 - 3:40:28 103384 8.336 7.265 6.657 1.071 0.608 21:02:39 +21:44:43 8.7 21:02:48 +21:48:36 103870 7.483 7.532 7.533 -0.048 -0.001 21:02:31 +21:40:51 103843 9.023 7.947 7.327 1.076 0.620 21:31:13 +28:20:38 3.4 21:31:17 +28:19:18 106253 9.736 9.746 9.835 -0.010 -0.088

(continued) Reference 383

(continued)

RA Dec. HIP Sep/B V R (B-V) (V-R) 21:31:09 +28:21:58 106241 9.309 8.206 7.618 1.104 0.587 21:59:14 -23:51:42 3.6 21:59:17 -23:50:00 108542 7.060 7.035 6.998 0.026 0.036 21:59:12 -23:53:24 108532 9.551 8.325 7.662 1.227 0.662 22:13:33 +21:05:19 5.8 22:13:40 +21:02:58 109732 8.068 8.076 8.059 -0.007 0.016 22:13:25 +21:07:39 109718 10.588 9.646 9.196 0.942 0.450 22:16:01 +11:46:41 2.1 22:16:00 +11:45:35 109942 7.252 7.302 7.286 -0.049 0.015 22:16:01 +11:47:46 109946 9.459 8.285 7.630 1.174 0.655 22:45:29 + 3:39:37 5.3 22:45:37 + 3:37:52 112376 7.852 7.895 7.902 -0.042 -0.007 22:45:21 + 3:41:23 112347 8.685 7.582 6.969 1.103 0.613 23:35:09 +16:27:05 3.8 23:35:12 +16:25:23 116400 8.943 8.939 8.903 0.004 0.036 23:35:05 +16:28:47 116391 9.131 7.807 7.046 1.325 0.760

Reference

M.A.C. Perryman, (ed.) The Hipparcos and Tycho Catalogs: Introduction and Guide to the Data (Vol 1). ESA Publications, Noordwijk, The Netherlands (1997) Appendix K

SDSS Blue–Red Pairs

The blue–red pairs from the Hipparcos Catalog may be too bright for those using larger scopes and/or the clear filter. Furthermore the derivation of the R magnitudes is not as certain. The following list was created by using the on-line data query utility for the Sloan Digital Sky Survey. The search was limited to ±5° declination and stars with a B magnitude between 10.0 and 14.0 The conversion of the SDSS magnitudes to the Johnson–Cousins system was based on the method by Jester et al (2005) as outlined on the SDSS web site at http://www.sdss.org/dr4/algorithms/sdssUBVRITransform.html On average, the RMS errors are

(B–V) 0.04 (V–R) 0.03 B 0.03 V 0.01 R 0.03

The first line in each set is the average J2000 RA and declination and separation in arcminutes. The second line is the data for the blue star, while the third line gives the data for the red star.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 385 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 386 Appendix K

Table K.1 Layout for SDSS data Header Description RA Average J2000.0 Right Ascension Dec. Average J2000.0 Declination B B magnitude V V magnitude R R magnitude B-V B-V color index V-R V-R color index

RA Dec. Sep/B V R B-V V-R 00:55:21.56 +00:56:12.7 9.2 00:55:04.23 +00:57:44.6 13.869 13.767 12.818 0.103 0.948 00:55:38.90 +00:54:40.9 13.015 12.164 11.917 0.852 0.246 01:06:48.70 +00:46:42.3 9.8 01:06:59.34 +00:50:49.6 13.883 13.799 12.844 0.084 0.955 01:06:38.07 +00:42:35.1 13.042 12.209 12.108 0.833 0.101 02:43:01.84 +00:14:03.6 4.6 02:43:09.85 +00:12:55.9 12.159 11.961 11.957 0.198 0.004 02:42:53.84 +00:15:11.3 13.924 13.085 12.899 0.840 0.186 02:43:07.22 +00:13:01.0 1.3 02:43:09.85 +00:12:55.9 12.159 11.961 11.957 0.198 0.004 02:43:04.60 +00:13:06.0 13.704 12.797 12.562 0.907 0.235 02:43:24.97 +00:13:37.7 7.7 02:43:09.85 +00:12:55.9 12.159 11.961 11.957 0.198 0.004 02:43:40.09 +00:14:19.5 13.457 12.583 12.557 0.874 0.026 02:57:13.73 +01:01:23.9 6.5 02:57:04.98 +00:59:00.1 13.804 13.617 12.689 0.186 0.929 02:57:22.48 +01:03:47.7 13.460 12.585 12.314 0.875 0.271 03:09:06.82 -01:10:52.4 5.6 03:09:13.82 -01:08:41.2 11.993 12.039 11.714 -0.046 0.325 03:08:59.83 -01:13:03.5 12.919 12.101 11.796 0.817 0.305 03:09:33.04 -01:08:09.8 9.7 03:09:13.82 -01:08:41.2 11.993 12.039 11.714 -0.046 0.325 03:09:52.25 -01:07:38.4 12.629 11.813 11.584 0.816 0.229 03:56:13.82 +00:29:50.8 6.1 03:56:09.04 +00:27:02.4 13.368 13.485 13.005 -0.117 0.479 03:56:18.61 +00:32:39.2 13.723 12.724 12.402 0.999 0.321 08:26:32.05 +02:51:16.6 6.7 08:26:29.05 +02:54:31.9 12.856 12.986 12.889 -0.129 0.097 08:26:35.05 +02:48:01.2 13.360 12.535 12.353 0.825 0.181 08:39:56.13 +00:46:15.2 7.6 08:40:07.85 +00:43:51.3 13.391 13.201 12.380 0.190 0.821 08:39:44.40 +00:48:39.2 13.863 12.849 12.544 1.013 0.306 08:40:59.35 +00:49:03.0 3.1 08:41:03.19 +00:50:15.5 13.762 13.803 12.837 -0.041 0.966

(continued) Appendix K 387

(continued)

RA Dec. Sep/B V R B-V V-R 08:40:55.50 +00:47:50.5 13.673 12.839 12.616 0.834 0.223 08:41:02.15 +00:46:11.6 8.1 08:41:03.19 +00:50:15.5 13.762 13.803 12.837 -0.041 0.966 08:41:01.11 +00:42:07.6 13.957 13.089 12.851 0.869 0.237 08:55:24.03 +00:54:31.0 4.6 08:55:21.85 +00:52:17.7 13.751 13.755 12.846 -0.004 0.909 08:55:26.22 +00:56:44.3 13.464 12.314 11.831 1.151 0.482 08:55:37.89 +00:54:27.5 9.1 08:55:21.85 +00:52:17.7 13.751 13.755 12.846 -0.004 0.909 08:55:53.94 +00:56:37.4 13.638 12.832 12.608 0.806 0.224 09:10:26.55 +00:24:53.6 1.5 09:10:26.85 +00:24:08.0 13.847 14.016 13.224 -0.168 0.792 09:10:26.24 +00:25:39.2 13.327 12.473 12.250 0.854 0.223 09:16:44.92 +00:18:32.9 8.8 09:16:56.59 +00:21:51.3 13.845 13.693 12.879 0.152 0.813 09:16:33.25 +00:15:14.5 13.454 12.536 12.258 0.917 0.278 09:19:32.68 +00:46:41.7 8.5 09:19:41.49 +00:50:19.7 13.792 13.768 13.736 0.025 0.031 09:19:23.86 +00:43:03.7 13.410 12.374 12.243 1.035 0.132 09:24:16.92 +00:15:16.3 2.5 09:24:12.50 +00:14:39.5 13.531 13.469 12.750 0.062 0.719 09:24:21.35 +00:15:53.1 13.713 12.784 12.590 0.929 0.194 09:27:02.38 +00:25:39.1 9.9 09:27:21.77 +00:24:42.5 13.845 13.891 13.032 -0.046 0.859 09:26:42.99 +00:26:35.7 13.580 12.749 12.510 0.831 0.238 09:27:12.11 +00:25:10.5 4.9 09:27:21.77 +00:24:42.5 13.845 13.891 13.032 -0.046 0.859 09:27:02.45 +00:25:38.6 13.155 12.173 11.807 0.982 0.366 09:27:37.41 +00:21:45.4 9.8 09:27:21.77 +00:24:42.5 13.845 13.891 13.032 -0.046 0.859 09:27:53.04 +00:18:48.4 12.814 11.946 11.572 0.868 0.373 09:39:59.40 +02:44:40.3 4.8 09:40:01.86 +02:46:58.2 12.635 12.459 11.496 0.176 0.963 09:39:56.94 +02:42:22.4 12.959 12.094 11.987 0.865 0.107 09:44:39.73 +00:56:38.8 6.3 09:44:47.79 +00:59:05.9 13.527 13.520 13.105 0.006 0.416 09:44:31.67 +00:54:11.7 13.527 12.512 12.190 1.015 0.322 09:48:49.48 +01:13:46.4 7.2 09:48:35.42 +01:12:57.1 12.775 12.905 12.901 -0.130 0.004 09:49:03.54 +01:14:35.8 13.322 12.489 12.176 0.833 0.313 10:49:56.31 +03:21:19.3 4.8 10:49:55.92 +03:18:54.4 12.961 12.762 11.904 0.199 0.859 10:49:56.70 +03:23:44.2 12.523 11.690 11.378 0.833 0.312 11:27:39.87 +03:24:41.8 8.1 11:27:52.64 +03:27:11.7 12.375 12.356 11.674 0.019 0.682 11:27:27.09 +03:22:11.9 12.378 11.456 11.047 0.922 0.409

(continued) 388 Appendix K

(continued)

RA Dec. Sep/B V R B-V V-R 11:30:07.51 +00:38:04.8 6.3 11:30:15.39 +00:35:37.7 13.728 13.846 13.503 -0.119 0.343 11:29:59.63 +00:40:31.9 13.448 12.588 12.278 0.860 0.310 12:02:50.71 +00:12:08.1 4.4 12:02:50.43 +00:09:55.3 13.976 13.852 13.700 0.125 0.152 12:02:50.98 +00:14:20.9 13.678 12.788 12.472 0.890 0.315 12:39:30.16 -03:00:26.9 7.6 12:39:43.47 -03:02:16.7 12.797 12.697 11.731 0.100 0.965 12:39:16.85 -02:58:37.1 13.369 12.517 12.368 0.851 0.149 12:46:59.35 +00:12:45.1 9.3 12:46:51.49 +00:08:31.6 12.985 12.844 12.175 0.141 0.669 12:47:07.21 +00:16:58.6 13.271 12.095 11.549 1.176 0.546 12:47:02.56 +00:09:56.0 6.2 12:46:51.49 +00:08:31.6 12.985 12.844 12.175 0.141 0.669 12:47:13.62 +00:11:20.4 13.656 12.564 12.206 1.092 0.359 14:29:33.08 +03:01:21.5 3.3 14:29:38.60 +03:02:16.3 13.117 12.963 12.070 0.153 0.893 14:29:27.56 +03:00:26.7 13.498 12.426 12.110 1.072 0.317 14:30:44.55 +00:12:32.9 9.2 14:30:49.39 +00:08:05.8 12.988 12.850 12.087 0.138 0.763 14:30:39.72 +00:17:00.0 13.328 12.419 12.009 0.909 0.410 14:34:00.20 +05:03:02.9 7.7 14:34:04.42 +05:06:43.9 13.189 12.996 12.180 0.193 0.816 14:33:55.99 +04:59:21.9 13.409 12.277 12.004 1.132 0.274 14:52:57.35 +00:12:31.0 9.1 14:52:58.62 +00:07:57.6 13.471 13.357 12.360 0.114 0.997 14:52:56.07 +00:17:04.4 12.696 11.809 11.327 0.887 0.482 14:53:05.59 +00:11:22.3 7.7 14:52:58.62 +00:07:57.6 13.471 13.357 12.360 0.114 0.997 14:53:12.57 +00:14:47.0 13.686 12.494 11.953 1.192 0.541 15:09:33.15 +03:09:06.2 2.2 15:09:35.55 +03:10:01.3 12.686 12.732 11.962 -0.047 0.770 15:09:30.75 +03:08:11.1 13.470 12.332 12.005 1.138 0.327 15:09:46.44 +03:09:41.3 5.5 15:09:35.55 +03:10:01.3 12.686 12.732 11.962 -0.047 0.770 15:09:57.33 +03:09:21.2 12.377 11.545 11.291 0.832 0.254 15:09:47.20 +03:10:35.5 5.9 15:09:35.55 +03:10:01.3 12.686 12.732 11.962 -0.047 0.770 15:09:58.85 +03:11:09.7 13.296 12.259 11.979 1.037 0.279 15:14:49.29 +00:48:40.0 10.0 15:15:03.06 +00:52:16.1 13.579 13.601 12.677 -0.022 0.924 15:14:35.52 +00:45:03.9 13.726 12.860 12.618 0.867 0.242 15:19:43.79 +00:11:37.6 8.5 15:19:56.59 +00:08:48.9 13.127 13.108 12.174 0.019 0.934

(continued) Reference 389

(continued)

RA Dec. Sep/B V R B-V V-R 15:19:31.00 +00:14:26.4 13.231 12.431 12.075 0.800 0.356 15:20:05.87 +00:12:10.0 8.2 15:19:56.59 +00:08:48.9 13.127 13.108 12.174 0.019 0.934 15:20:15.16 +00:15:31.2 12.126 11.033 10.506 1.093 0.528 15:23:46.74 -00:29:45.2 9.4 15:23:55.85 -00:25:39.8 11.294 11.119 11.019 0.176 0.099 15:23:37.63 -00:33:50.6 13.418 12.344 12.071 1.073 0.274 15:38:26.49 +02:29:29.5 8.9 15:38:09.20 +02:28:25.4 12.802 12.603 11.914 0.199 0.689 15:38:43.79 +02:30:33.5 12.599 11.489 11.137 1.110 0.353 20:49:20.93 -05:15:51.9 4.7 20:49:19.44 -05:13:33.2 12.723 12.534 12.511 0.189 0.023 20:49:22.42 -05:18:10.5 13.287 12.285 12.118 1.002 0.167 20:49:27.30 -05:09:42.9 8.6 20:49:19.44 -05:13:33.2 12.723 12.534 12.511 0.189 0.023 20:49:35.17 -05:05:52.5 11.955 11.024 10.535 0.931 0.488 23:24:21.79 +00:06:44.6 1.3 23:24:24.37 +00:06:49.8 13.531 13.356 12.651 0.175 0.705 23:24:19.20 +00:06:39.4 12.833 11.959 11.710 0.874 0.249

Reference

S. Jester, D.P. Schneider, G.T. Richards, R.F. Green, M. Schmidt, P.B. Hall, M.A. Straus, D.E. Vanden Berk, C. Stoughton, J.E. Gunn, J. Brinkmann, S.M. Kent, J.A. Smith, D.L. Tucker, B. Yanny, The SDSS view of the Palomar-Green Bright Quasar Survey. Astron. J. 130, 873 (2005) Bibliography

What’s below is only a partial list. I’ve read many of the books that are listed but certainly not all. It’s unfortunate that some of the better books are out of print and hard to find. Even if you can find them, the cost is sometimes prohibitive. Astronomy books do not sell like the latest Harry Potter novel. With their limited runs, the price must be higher to cover the production costs. Most of the books are available on Amazon.com or BarnesNoble.com.

Asteroids

Asteroids: A History. Curtis Peoples. pp. 280. Smithsonian Institution Press. Asteroids. Gehrels, ed. University of Arizona Press. Out of print. http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/ home.htm Asteroids II. Binzel, ed. University of Arizona Press. http://www.uapress.arizona.edu/home.htm Asteroids III. Bottke et al., ed. pp. 1025. University of Arizona Press. http://www.uapress.arizona. edu/home.htm Asteroids IV. Michel et al., ed. pp. 785. University of Arizona Press. http://www.uapress.arizona. edu/home.htm Asteroids and Dwarf Planets and How to Observe Them. Roger Dymock. pp 248. Springer. Asteroids: Relics of Ancient Time. Michael Shepard. pp. 368. Cambridge University Press. Dictionary of Minor Planet Names, 5th Schmadel, ed. Springer-Verlag. Introduction to Asteroids: The Next Frontier. Clifford Cunningham. Willmann-Bell.­ This is one of the best intermediate level books on asteroids. It is difficult to find a copy. If you see it, get it. http://www.allbookstores.com/ T. Rex and the Crater of Doom. Walter Alvarez. pp. 208. Vintage Books. From the title and cover, you’d think this is yet another “doomsday asteroid” book. In reality, it’s a well-written account on how the theory came to be that an asteroid destroyed the dinosaurs some 65 million years ago.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 391 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 392 Bibliography

Variable Stars

An Introduction to Close Binary Stars. R.W. Hilditch. pp. 392. Cambridge University Press. Binary Stars: A Pictorial Atlas. Dirk Terrell et al. pp. 383. Krieger Publishing Co. Cataclysmic Variable Stars. Brian Warner. pp. 592. Cambridge University Press. Cataclysmic Variable Stars: How and Why They Vary. Coel Hellier. pp 210. Springer-Verlag. Eclipsing Binary Stars: Modeling and Analysis. Josef Kallrath and Eugene F. Milone. pp. 355. Springer-Verlag. Observer’s Guide to Stellar Evolution. Mike Inglis. pp. 236. Springer. Observing Variable Stars. Gerry A. Good. pp. 274. Springer. Observing Variable Stars, Novae and Supernovae. Gerald North. pp. 230. Cambridge University Press. Stellar Evolution. A.J. Meadows. Pergamon Press. 2nd ed. Out of print but used copies can usually be found. Understanding Variable Stars. John R. Percy. pp. 350. Cambridge University Press. Variable Stars. Michel Petit. John Wiley & Sons. Variable Stars. J.S. Glasby. pp. 333. Harvard University Press. Out of print but used copies can be found.

CCD Imaging

CCD Astronomy: Construction and Use of an Astronomical CCD Camera. Christian Buil. Willmann-Bell. It may be a bit dated but Buil is one of the CCD gurus. The New CCD Astronomy: How to Capture the Stars with a CCD Camera in Your Own Backyard. Ron Wodaski. pp. 476. New Astronomy Press. A Practical Guide to CCD Astronomy. Patrick Martinez. pp. 263. Cambridge University Press. Handbook of CCD Astronomy. Steve Howell. pp. 176. Cambridge University Press.

Image Processing

The Handbook of Astronomical Image Processing. Berry, R. and Burnell, J. pp. 650. Willmann-Bell. Practical Algorithms for Image Analysis: Descriptions, Examples, and Code. Seul et al. pp. 295. Cambridge University Press.

Photometry

An Introduction to Astronomical Photometry. Edwin Budding. pp. 272. Cambridge University Press. An Introduction to Astronomical Photometry Using CCDs. W. Romanishin. University of Oklahoma. Available on-line: http://observatory.ou.edu/book4512.html Astronomical Photometry: Text and Handbook for the Advanced Amateur and Professional Astronomer. Henden, A. and Kaitchuck, R. pp. 394. Willmann-Bell. Exoplanet Observing for Amateurs. Bruce L. Gary. pp. 258. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform. Buy it off Amazon.com. Organization Web Sites 393

Handbook of CCD Astronomy. Steve B. Howell. pp. 164. Cambridge University Press. High Speed Astronomical Photometry. Brian Warner. Cambridge University Press. Out of print but used copies usually available. Solar System Photometry Handbook. Russell M. Genet, ed. Willmann-Bell. The Measurement of Starlight: Two Centuries of Astronomical Photometry. J.B. Hearnshaw. pp. 511. Cambridge University Press. You have to be a serious history buff to afford the price of more than $100 but it’s a good read.

Miscellaneous

Binary Maker. Binary star modeling program. David Bradstreet/Contact Software. Dept. of Physical Sciences, Eastern College, St. Davids, PA 19087. http://www.binarymaker.com Star Testing Astronomical Telescopes: A Manual for Optical Evaluation and Adjustment. Harold Richard Suiter. pp. 376. Willmann-Bell.

Organization Web Sites

American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) http://www.aavso.org Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers (ALPO) http://alpo-­astronomy.org/ Association Francais des Observateurs d’Etoiles Variables (AFOEV). http://cdsweb.u-strasbg.fr/ afoev/ Astronomical Society of South Australia https://www.assa.org.au/ British Astronomical Association (BAA) https://www.britastro.org/ Center for Backyard Astrophysics http://cbastro.org/ Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand http://www.rasnz.org.nz/ Minor Planet Mailing List http://groups.yahoo.com/group/mpml/ MinorPlanet.info web site. http://www.minorplanet.info/ Society for Astronomical Sciences. http://www.socastrosci.org Glossary

Absolute Magnitude Star: the magnitude if the star was moved to a distance of 10 parsecs (about 32 light-years) from Earth. Asteroid: the magnitude if the asteroid was simultaneously 1 astronomical unit (AU) from the Earth and Sun and at 0° phase angle (a physical impossibility). The value includes any brightening due to the opposition effect. ADU Analog-to-digital unit. In a CCD camera, this is the unit of value assigned to each pixel’s sum of electrons. A 16-bit ADU system has a range of values of 0–65,535. An 8-bit camera has a range of 0–255. A wider range of values allows a more precise determination of the actual number of electrons stored in a given pixel. Air Mass The length of the path light takes through the Earth’s atmosphere. The value is 1.0 when an object is directly overhead and is 0 when outside the Earth’s atmosphere. It approximately follows sec(z), where z is the angular distance of the object from the zenith, or the zenith distance. Albedo The amount of light an object reflects. Values range from 0% to 100% and are usually listed in the range of 0 to 1.0. Algol-type Binary A semi-detached binary system where the secondary star is a lower-mass subgiant that fills its Roche lobe and the primary is a more massive main-sequence star. Alias In lightcurve analysis, a period that appears to be the true period but is not. An alias period is often found when the data set cannot uniquely determine how many cycles of the lightcurve have occurred over the total time span of the data. In this case, the alias and true periods usually have a common integral or half- integral multiple that coincides with the time between observing sessions.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 395 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 396 Glossary

All-sky Photometry The process whereby the values required to convert instru- mental magnitudes to a standard system are obtained by imaging stars from sev- eral locations about the sky. This method requires that sky conditions be very stable and clear. Altitude The angular distance of an object above the horizon with

0° on the horizon 90° directly overhead

If the altitude is negative, the object is below the horizon Amor Asteroids Asteroids having a perihelion distance of 1.017 < q < 1.3 AU. These orbits do not overlap Earth’s. Apollo Asteroids Asteroids having a semi-major axis > 1.0 AU and perihelion distance q < 1.017 AU. These orbits do overlap Earth’s. Appulse The close approach of one object to another, as seen against the sky. In reality, the objects may be light-years apart. The term is generally applied when planets and asteroids come close to stars or deep-sky objects. An appulse is dif- ferent from a conjunction because it is the time when the two objects are closest, while a conjunction occurs when the two objects have the same Right Ascension. Aspect Angle (also viewing aspect) The angle between the line of sight to the observer and the direction of the spin axis of an asteroid. The phase angle bisec- tor is often used as measure of aspect angle. Asteroid Pair Two asteroids with very similar heliocentric orbits that are believed to have been created by the fission of a single parent body with neither body being gravitationally captured by the other. Astronomical Unit The average distance from the Sun to the Earth, or approxi- mately 92,956,000 miles (149,597,870 km). Aten Asteroids Asteroids with a semi-major axis < 1.0 AU and aphelion distance Q > 0.983 AU. The orbits overlap Earth’s at their aphelion points. Azimuth The angular distance along the horizon, from due north through east, where an arc going through the zenith (overhead point) and the object meets the horizon. Sometimes, the distance is measured westward of the south meridian.

0° North 90° East 180° South 270° West

Bimodal Lightcurve A lightcurve that shows two maximums and two minimums per cycle. Binary Asteroid An asteroid that consists of a parent body and, usually, smaller satellite that orbits about the primary. Glossary 397

Binary Star A system where two stars are gravitationally bound and orbit one another. Binning The process where a region of pixels on a CCD chip is combined during the download process or in software to create a single, larger pixel. For example, 2x2 binning would group a square of four pixels and create a single pixel con- taining the total electron count from the four pixels and with an effective size that is double the actual physical pixel. CCD Charged Coupled Device. Often used to refer to a slice of material contain- ing an array of thin semi-conductors (pixels). The pixels rely on the photoelectric effect to convert photons into electrons and then store the electrons. After an interval of time, the number of electrons in each element is read and stored in a computer. The values are then converted by software to shades of gray or color and displayed on a computer screen. Typical CCD devices have a quantum effi- ciency (QE) of 50–75%, with some approaching 95%. This makes them much more efficient than the human eye, which has a QE of only 1%. Centaurs A group of asteroids circling the Sun between the orbits of Jupiter and Neptune. They are believed to be from the Kuiper Belt and pulled into unstable orbits (106 years). Center of Mass The point in a two (or n-) body system that is the mean position of the mass within the system. Class (Asteroid) See Taxonomic class. Close Binary A binary system where, at some point in its evolution, at least one of the stars reaches its Roche lobe and transfers matter to the other star. Cluster Variable Short-period Cepheid stars usually found in globular clusters. RR Lyrae stars. Color Index The difference between the magnitudes of a given object in two dif- ferent color bands. For example, the (B–V) color index is the value obtained by subtracting the magnitude of the star in the V band from the magnitude in the B band. The color index can be used to estimate the temperature of an object. For stars, this assumes that the interstellar reddening is negligible. Commensurate Orbits Orbits where the period of one is an integral multiple of another. Contact Binary Asteroid: a single asteroid made of two smaller bodies in contact with one another. Possible candidates include 4179 Toutatis and 216 Kleopatra. Binary Star (also overcontact binary): a system where both stars have filled their Roche lobes. The stars are usually in synchronous rotation and have circular orbits. The most common type is the W UMa class. Declination The angular distance of an object north or south of the celestial equa- tor. Positive is north. Detached Binary A binary system where both stars are within their limiting (Roche lobes). Differential Photometry The process of determining the brightness of an object by taking the difference between its measured value and that of a comparison star (or average of several stars). Generally, in CCD imaging, all the comparisons 398 Glossary

and targets are in the same field, thus eliminating, or mostly so, all extinction considerations. The magnitudes are not on a standard system, unless the com- parison star value has been transformed and any color terms that might affect the differential magnitude have been taken into account. Eccentricity The “roundness” of an orbit. Values range from 0.0 (perfect circle) to 0.999999 (highly elliptical). A parabola has an eccentricity of exactly 1.0. A hyperbola has an eccentricity >1.0 One of six elements used to define an orbit uniquely.

22 a = semi-major axis; ea=-ba/ b = semi-minor axis

The semi-major axis is half the length of the long axis of an ellipse while, the semi-minor axis is half the length of the short axis of an ellipse. Ecliptic The plane of the Earth's orbit as projected into the sky. Elongation The Sun–earth–object angle, i.e., the Sun–object angular separation as seen from the Earth. At opposition, this value is near 180°. When the object is in conjunction with the Sun, the value is near 0°. Eos Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 3.02 AU and inclination of 10°. Ephemeris A list of positions giving an object's Right Ascension and Declination and usually other information such as magnitude, Earth and Sun distance, etc. Equipotential Surface (or Equipotential) The surface on which the potential energy is the same everywhere. See the books on binary stars for a detailed discussion. Exoatmospheric Outside the Earth’s atmosphere. In photometry, magnitudes are converted to the value they would have above the Earth’s atmosphere before and transformations are made to a standard system. This is done by subtracting the effects of extinction. Extinction The dimming of light due to its passage through the Earth’s atmo- sphere. This is often measured in magnitudes per unit of air mass. The effects of extinction must be removed before the magnitude of an object can be put on a standard system. Extrinsic Variable A star where the changes in its brightness are due to circum- stances other than changes to the star itself. The most common type of extrinsic variable is the eclipsing binary star, where the light changes are caused by one star moving in front of the other as seen from Earth. Fast Rotator An asteroid with a rotation period of about P < 2.1–2.5 h. A super- fast rotator has a period of about P < 2.1 h. Full-well Depth The maximum number of electrons that a single pixel on a CCD chip can store. Full-width Half-maximum (FWHM) The width of a star profile, in pixels or arcseconds, when the profile is one-half its maximum height. Seeing, a measure- ment of the steadiness of the atmosphere, also uses FWHM and is usually given in arcseconds. Glossary 399

Flora Asteroids Asteroids having orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 2.2 AU and inclination of 5°. Named after the largest member, 8 Flora. Gain The conversion factor, given in units of electrons/ADU (e−/ADU), that relates the ADU value of a pixel on a CCD camera to the actual number of elec- trons stored in the pixel. For example, a common value for gain is 2.3, i.e., 2.3 e−/ADU. If the ADU value is 1000, then 2300 electrons were stored in the pixel. Geocentric Positions as seen from the center of the Earth. Particularly important when an object is close to the Earth. Gravity Darkening The darkening, or brightening, of a region on a star due to a localized increase in the gravitational field. The effects are often seen in binary star lightcurves and are more pronounced in stars with radiative envelopes. Heliocentric Positions are seen from the center of the Sun. Hilda Asteroids A family of asteroids whose orbits have a 2:3 commensurability with Jupiter, i.e., their orbital period is about 8 years. Hirayama Families Asteroids with similar elements, primarily semi-major axis, inclination, and eccentricity. Hungaria Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 1.95 AU and inclination of 23°. Inclination Asteroid: The inclination of an orbit to the ecliptic, the plane of the earth's orbit. Values range from 0° to 180°. One of six elements used to define an orbit uniquely. If i < 90°, the object's motion is prograde, i.e., it moves about the Sun in the same direction as the earth. If 90° < i < 180°, the motion is retrograde. All known asteroid orbits are prograde. Binary stars: The angle between the plane of the sky and the orbital plane of the binary system. If the inclination is 0°, the orbit is seen pole-on. If the inclination is 90°, the orbit is seen edge-on. Intrinsic Variable A star where the changes in brightness are caused by changes to the star itself, as in the case of the Cepheids or Long Period Variables (LPVs), which change size and temperature as they go through their cycles. Instrumental Magnitude The brightness of an object measured directly from a CCD image. It does not account for extinction or use any transformations to convert it to a standard system. Julian Date The number of days since January 1, 4713 B.C. Julian Date is used since it is independent of the calendar in use. Kirkwood Gaps Voids in the asteroid belt where the orbital period for that region is an integral fraction of Jupiter's. Koronis Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 2.88 AU and inclination of 2°. Kuiper Belt Object (KBO) A group of asteroids, and possibly comets, that circle the Sun at the outer reaches of the solar system, i.e., from Jupiter to well beyond Pluto. The primary Kuiper Belts lies beyond Neptune to about 50 AU. Pluto is generally believed to be the first member of this class to be discovered. Latitude The angular distance of a position north or south of an object’s equator or, with an orbit, the angular distance above or below a reference plane, e.g., the ecliptic. 400 Glossary

Lightcurve A plot of the magnitude of an object versus time (raw) or versus a fraction of the period (phased). For a phased lightcurve, the period is the time between successive corresponding points in the curve. The amplitude is the peak to peak difference in magnitude. Lightcurve Inversion The process of generating an asteroid model (shape and spin axis orientation) based on lightcurve data, usually from over a period of sev- eral years. A successful model will generate lightcurves that very closely match the original data. Lightcurve Photometry Photometry performed for the specific purpose of obtaining a lightcurve of a variable object and then analyzing the lightcurve for its period, amplitude, and any other information. Limb Darkening An effect where the edge (limb) of a star looks darker because the line of sight passes through cooler layers than when looking near the center of the star’s disk. The effect is more pronounced in blue light and for cooler stars. It is seen in lightcurves, especially for annular eclipses, where the bottom becomes rounded instead of flat. Linear Regression A mathematical process that finds a line that fits the data points in a set such that the sum of the squares of the distance from each point and the solution curve is a minimum. A perfect fit has a correlation of 1 (or −1). A totally random set of data has a correlation of 0. Longitude The angular distance of a position east or west of the prime meridian. Luminosity The amount of energy put out by a star for a given unit of time. Magnitude A measurement of the brightness of an object. In astronomy, the scale is logarithmic, with a one magnitude difference representing a ratio of brightness of 2.5118 (more exactly, 10–0.4). In the astronomical scale, brighter stars have smaller magnitudes, with the brightest stars having negative magnitudes, e.g., Sirius has a magnitude of about −1.5. Main-belt Asteroid A region lying between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter where the majority of asteroids is found. Main Sequence Based on the Hertzsprung–Russell (H–R) diagram, which plots the temperature of stars versus absolute magnitude. There is a pronounced “band” of stars going from lower right to upper left of this diagram. Stars within this band are members of the main sequence. They are generally characterized by having hydrogen cores that generate energy via nuclear fusion. Mass Transfer The exchange of matter between two stars. Measuring Aperture The area on a CCD image within which the pixel values are analyzed to measure the magnitude of an object. Monomodal Lightcurve A lightcurve that shows only one maximum (or mini- mum) per cycle. Mutual Event An occultation and/or eclipse caused when one of two bodies in a binary asteroid passes in front of the other. Non-principal Axis Rotation (NPAR, tumbling) A condition where an asteroid rotates about its axis of maximum moment of inertia and the axis is also in rota- tion (precession). Glossary 401

Nova (Novae) A star that has a sudden outburst of light, causing it to appear ­thousands if not millions of times brighter than before the event.

Classic A “one-shot” explosion caused by a star undergoing sudden fusion of it hydrogen- rich outer layers, leaving behind a small dense core. Dwarf A binary star where the brightening is somewhat regular and caused by the exchange of matter between a cooler, large secondary and its hot, small companion. The matter from the cool star is formed into an “accretion disc” around the hot star. On occasion, the matter in the disc “ignites,” causing the system to brighten by several magnitudes for a short time. The cycle repeats on the order of tens of days.

Opposition The time when an object's RA is 180° greater (or less) than the Sun's. Opposition Effect The excessive brightening of an object as it nears opposition. Offset (Lightcurve Analysis) The difference between the reference magnitude for one session of data versus another. For example, if one is doing differen- tial photometry on an asteroid and the average magnitude of the comparisons is 14.000 and then 13.000 on another session, the offset for the second session is 1.000 magnitudes and would be added to the differential magnitudes of the sec- ond session so that they could be compared directly to those of the first session. Optical Thickness The effective, as opposed to physical, thickness of a filter. Different materials have different refractive indices and so two filters, while hav- ing the same physical thickness, can change the focal point by different amounts when inserted into the light path. Parallax The effect whereby the position or direction of an object appears to dif- fer when viewed from different positions. Period Spectrum A result of Fourier analysis, the spectrum is a plot of the RMS fit of the data versus the periods that generated the fit values. A minimum in the plot, i.e., when the RMS fit is closest to the actual data, indicates a possible period solution. Phase The fractional portion of a lightcurve, usually given in the range of 0.0-1.0. This is used as an alternative to absolute time and allows data from spans greater than the period to be “folded” into a single curve. Phase Angle (also Solar Phase Angle) The Sun–asteroid–Earth angle, i.e., the angular distance of the Sun and Earth as seen from the asteroid. At opposition for the asteroid, this value is near 0°. Phase Angle Bisector The vector in 3-D space that bisects the asteroid-Earth and asteroid-Sun vectors, usually given in ecliptic longitude and latitude. Also called viewing aspect, it is used to compare the viewing geometry of an asteroid from one time to another. Phase Coefficient (also Phase Slope Parameter) A value used to compute the brightness of an asteroid which takes into account the sudden brightening of an asteroid near opposition. It is designated as G in the H-G system. Phased Plot A plot where the data along the X-axis are given as a fraction of the period of the lightcurve. 402 Glossary

Phocaea Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending towards a semi-major axis of 2.36 AU and inclination of 24°. Plane of the Sky A plane at right angles to the line of sight. Population I Stars Stars that favor the spiral arms of galaxies. They are believed to be younger than those of Population II stars. In general, these stars have higher ratios of metals (elements other than hydrogen and helium) because they are formed from already processed material. Population II Stars Older stars found in the core and halo of a galaxy. Position Angle The angle of a line joining two objects as measured counter-­ clockwise from north to east.

0° North 90° East 180° South 270° West

Preliminary Designation After an asteroid is discovered, it is given a desig- nation until its orbit is determined with sufficient accuracy. After that, it is named by its discoverer or the International Astronomical Union and assigned a ­permanent number. The designation consists of the year of discovery followed by a two-letter code. The first letter tells in which half month of the year the discovery was made, e.g., A is the first half of January, B the second half, and so on. The letters “I” and “Z” are not used. The second letter is the order of discovery within the half month with A being the first, etc. If many discoveries are made, subscript numbers are used. For example, HZ is followed by HA1, HB1, etc. Primary Eclipse The deeper of the two eclipses in a binary star lightcurve, i.e., the one that causes the greatest fading of the entire system. This is usually the hotter star but not necessarily the one with the higher luminosity, since luminos- ity is based on temperature and size. Primary Star The main star in a binary system. The definition varies according to the field of study. For lightcurve work, the primary is the star in a binary system that when covered causes the deepest eclipses. In a Algol-type system, this is usually the smaller star. Generally, it is the hotter star. Prograde Rotation: the motion of an object about its axis of maximum moment of inertia in a counter-clockwise direction when viewed from the object’s “north pole.” Revolution: the motion of an object in its orbit about the Sun in a counter-­ clockwise direction when viewed from the north ecliptic pole. An orbit with an inclination i < 180° with reference to the ecliptic plane is in a prograde orbit. Plutinos Members of the Kuiper Belt (KBOs) that circle at distance of approxi- mately 40 AU. Named after the first member to be discovered: Pluto. Glossary 403

Radial Velocity The velocity of an object along the line of sight. In binary systems this value varies as the stars orbit one another. Radial velocity data is required to develop a complete model of a binary system. Regolith The fragmented, dusty or rocky surface of an asteroid. The depth can vary from a few millimeters to several kilometers. Retrograde The opposite of prograde, i.e., the sense of direction is clockwise instead of counter-clockwise (see prograde). Right Ascension The angular distance of an object measured west to east along the celestial equator between the vernal equinox and its position. Values are in units of time ranging from 00:00 to 23:59:59.9999999… Roche Lobe The maximum volume of space that a star in a binary can attain before mass transfer to the other star occurs. If a star fills or overfills this lobe, there is usually a transfer of matter to the other star, assuming it does not fill its lobe as well. Technically, this term applies only for stars in a circular orbit with synchronous rotation. Rubble Pile For asteroids, a conglomeration of material that is gravitationally bound to form a single body. The size and rotation speed of an asteroid determine whether or not it can have such a structure, i.e., small, fast rotators must be solid (monolithic) or they would fly apart. Semi-detached Binary A binary system where one star fills its limiting lobe while the other star is well separated from that star. The most common example is the Algol class. Semi-major Axis The average distance of an object from the Sun. Also equal to half the length of the long axis of an ellipse. Used in place of daily motion as an element to identify an orbit uniquely. Sky Annulus The area on a CCD image within which the pixel values are ana- lyzed to determine the average sky background. This value is then subtracted from each pixel value within the measuring aperture to obtain the actual signal value for the object. Slow Rotator An asteroid with a rotation period of about P > 24 h. Spectral type The classification of a star based on its temperature. The sequence, going from hottest to coolest, is OBAFGKM. Each type can be divided into ten subtypes, going from 0 to 9. A star that is A0 is hotter than one that is classified A5, which is hotter than an A9 star. Spin Axis The axis of rotation for an asteroid. Spin Barrier The approximate cut-off rotation period, ~2.1 h, between aster- oids that are held together by mutual gravitation (rubble pile) or those that are strength-bound (but not necessarily monolithic). Objects rotating faster than the spin barrier (above it) are the strength-bound objects. The barrier is not a sharp demarcation and is dependent on density and the degree of binding forces. Spousal Permission Units (SPU) Credits issued by one spouse to another so that the recipient may do something in the future, e.g., purchase a telescope, without incurring the wrath of the spouse issuing the credits. There is no actuary table that defines the number of SPUs required to cover the cost any given act. Their value is often volatile and subject to seasonal if not daily fluctuations. Note that 404 Glossary

SPUs do not accrue interest and, indeed, may lose value over time. Therefore, it is usually wise to redeem SPUs as soon as possible after they are issued. Standard Magnitude The magnitude of an object referenced to a standard pho- tometric system’s zero point, e.g., V magnitudes in the Johnson-Cousins system. Standard Stars Stars used to calibrate a photometric system. Strength-bound When referring to an asteroid, it is one held together by cohesive and other forces more than self-gravitation. A monolith is an extreme cases of a strength-bound asteroid. Superoutburst A larger than normal outburst in a cataclysmic variable, but not on the scale of a nova. Taxonomic Class The general compositional classification of an object. For asteroids, this usually refers to one of several classification schemes, the most common two being those by Tholem or SMASS II by Binzel, Bus, and DeMeo. Themis Asteroids Asteroids with orbits tending toward a semi-major axis of 3.13 AU and inclination of 1.5°. Topocentric Positions as seen from a point on the Earth's surface. Important for objects close to Earth. Transforms (Transformation Values) The values required to convert a raw instrumental magnitude to magnitudes based on a standard system, usually the Johnson–Cousins UBVRI or Sloan SDSS SU-SZ. Trojan Asteroids Asteroids traveling in approximately the same orbit as Jupiter but preceding and following it by about 60°, i.e., in the Lagrangian Points where the gravitational effects of Jupiter and the Sun are nearly in equilibrium. Tumbler See Non-principal axis rotation. Vestoids Asteroids believed to have been created following a collision between the large asteroid, 4 Vesta, and another body. They show similar spectral signa- tures as well as albedos. Some have been found to be binary asteroids. White Dwarf A small, hot, and extremely dense star nearing the end of its evolu- tionary cycle. It is often the remains of a main sequence star that reached giant stage and then expelled its outer layers, exposing only the hydrogen-rich core. W UMa binary A close contact (or overcontact) binary star system. The tempera- ture of each star is less than 8000°K, the period of the orbit is less than 0.75 d, the total mass of the system is less than a few solar masses, and the mass ratio is well under 1.0. The stars are both members of the main sequence and have convective atmospheres. YORP Cycle The time it takes an asteroid to spin up (due to YORP) to where it sheds mass due to centrifugal forces, spin back down to a vey slow rotation state, and then spin back up to a point of fission. YORP Effect The gradual increase or decrease in the rotation rate of an asteroid caused by thermal emissions. The asteroid is heated on its morning side by direct sunlight. The heat build-up is released on the afternoon side, giving a slight push to the asteroid’s rotation. Depending on whether the asteroid rotates in normal or retrograde motion, the asteroid slowly speeds up or slows down. The effect is most pronounced on smaller and irregular bodies. Spherical bodies are not affected or only very slightly. Glossary 405

YORP comes from Yarkovsky, O’Keefe, Radzievskii, and Paddick, the authors of the paper that first explored the possibilities of sunlight altering not only spin rates but spin axis orientations. Zenith Distance The angular distance of an object from the zenith, i.e., the point directly overhead. The value is 0° when the object is at the zenith. The value is 90° when the object is exactly on the horizon. Zero Point Photometry (Reductions): The constant value that is part of the trans- formation equation that converts a raw instrumental magnitude to a magnitude on a standard system. Once the instrumental magnitude has been corrected for extinction and color dependency, this value is applied to put the final magnitude on the standard system. The zero point value can change from night to night, being affected by changes in the equipment, observing conditions, etc. Lightcurve Analysis: The value on an arbitrary or standardized magnitude sys- tem against which all differential magnitudes are referenced. For example, the average value of the comparison stars for the first set of observations of a target might be 14.000. This is taken as the reference or zero point value. If, on another session, the average is 13.000, then all differential magnitudes for that second session must be increased by 1.000 magnitudes so that those differential values can be com- pared directly to the differential values in the first session. The offset is 1.000 magnitudes. The zero point is 14.000. Index

A spin barrier , 8 Air Mass strength-bound , 9 defi ned , 68 tumbling , 9 , 22 Alphabetized Acronym List (AAL) , 194 Astronomical League , 242 American Association of Variable Star Observers (AAVSO) , 174 , 239 Aperture photometry , 62 B measuring aperture , 62 Bias framea sky annulus , 64 zero-length , 130 Association of Lunar and Planetary Observers , Gaussian curve , 130 242 Asteroid Lightcurve Data Exchange Format (ALCDEF) , 236 C Asteroids CCD camera considerations , 46 binary , 14–16 analog-digital-unit (ADU) , 39 Centaurs , 21 binning , 43 estimating diameters ratio , 193 blooming , 44 H-G parameters , 16–18 dark current , 40 Hildas , 21 fi eld-of-view (FOV) , 154 Hungarias , 9 fi lter wheels , 155 Jupiter Trojans , 21 focal reducers , 154 lightcurve inversion , 10 front vs. back illumination , 45 non-principal axis rotation (NPAR) , 9 full well depth , 41 observational biases, removing , 18–22 linearity , 41 , 43 opposition effect , 16 operation , 38 radar , 18 pixel size vs. seeing , 153 rotational smearing , 176 quantum effi ciency , 45 rubble pile , 9 RBI (see Residual Bulk Image (RBI) ) selecting targets , 171–174 read noise , 40 shape modeling , 216 temperature control , 154

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 407 B.D. Warner, A Practical Guide to Lightcurve Photometry and Analysis, The Patrick Moore Practical Astronomy Series, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-32750-1 408 Index

Center for Backyard Astrophysics (CBA) , 174 correct exposure , 135 CMOS Detector , 49 creating , 134 dome fl ats , 136 fi lters , 135 D light panels and boxes , 137 Dark frame , 131 twilight fl ats , 138 bias frame , 132 Full-width, half-maximum (FWHM) , 58 , 67 scaled darks , 132 Data review checking comp stars , 186 G good vs. bad data points , 188 Glasby, J.S. , 23 handling outliers , 187 Differential photometry color index , 92 H fi rst order extinction , 90 Hanus, J. , 11 formula , 88 Henden, A. , 81 second order extinction , 89 APASS , 81 DSLR photometry , 49 secondary standard fi elds , 82 drizzling , 50 Howell, S. , 60 , 133 dynamic range , 50 ISO setting , 49 multi-color , 51 I raw images , 50 Information Bulletin on Variable Stars (IBVS) , Durech, J. , 11 238

E K Eclipsing binary star , 25–30 Kaasalainen, M. , 10 Binary Maker 3 , 221 data requirements , 222 effects L inclination , 226 Lightcurves limb darkening , 229 binary asteroid , 15 mass ratio , 229 dense , 12 primary temperature , 227 determining amplitude , 209 refl ection , 229 dual-period analysis , 15 secondary temperature , 228 large amplitude misinterpretation , 201 lightcurve sparse , 12 algol-like , 25 Lowell observatory , 173 eccentric orbit , 26–27 refl ection effect , 28 time of minimum (TOM) , 29–30 M W UMa system , 26 Magnitude Exoplanets , 32 apparent , 55 Extinction exoatmospheric , 55 fi rst order , 70 fl ux ratio , 54 second order , 70 , 89 instrumental , 54 standard , 22 , 55 , 85 zero point, defi ning , 56 F Minor Planet Bulletin , 235 Flat frame , 133 Minor Planet Mailing List , 242 all-sky fl ats , 139 MinorPlanet.info , 173 Index 409

N merging data , 162 Novae and Supernovae , 34 period analysis , 162 photometric reductions , 162 scintillation , 68 P sessions, defi ned , 181 Period analysis stacked images , 180 barycentric Julian Date (JD) , 195 Pixels changing amplitude , 203 size vs. seeing , 61 determining amplitude , 209 Point spread function , 58 , 67 fi t by exclusion , 213 Publishing data and analysis GUDS , 194 AAVSO International Database , 239 handling changing geometries , 196 ALCDEF , 236 heliocentric Julian Date , 195 IBVS (variable stars) , 238 large amplitude misinterpretation , 201 Journal of the AAVSO (JAAVSO) , 238 light-time correction , 195 Minor Planet Bulletin , 235 maximum amplitude of harmonics , 202 period spectrum , 206 point-by-point corrections , 198 R proper precision , 208 Residual Bulk Image (RBI) , 46 rotational aliases , 211 Romanishin, W. , 60 search step size , 206 Russell, H.N. , 10 split-halves plot , 213 unity distance correction (reduced magnitudes) , 198 S zero point adjustments , 199 Signal-to-Noise (SNR) Phase angle bisector (PAB) acceptable value , 61 defi ned , 11 defi ned , 58 Photometric reductions in magnitudes , 60 Clear to standard magnitude , 90 vs. measuring aperture size , 64 color index , 86 , 92 , 119 Society for Astronomical Sciences , 242 comparison standard magnitudes , 122 Spousal Permission Unit (SPU) , 143 , 145 fi nding transforms , 106 fi rst order extinction , 90 , 109 fundamental formula , 86 T hidden transforms , 115 Telescope automation , 152 modifi ed Hardie method , 110 Telescope considerations second order extinction , 89 , 93 , 113 mount, fork vs. GEM , 146 slope of slopes method , 94 optical design , 144 target standard magnitudes , 124 Telescope perfomance Photometric systems baffl ing , 148 Bessell CCD fi lters , 81 guiding , 151 Johnson-Cousins , 76 optical alignment , 148 Landolt fi elds , 78 permanent setup , 147 Sloan Digital Sky Survey (SDSS) , 79 polar alignment Photometry alternate method , 150 all-sky , 71 (see also Aperture drift method , 149 photometry ) Terrell, D. , 222 differential , 22 , 71 Time DSLR camera , 49 down with DST , 170 handling of moving targets , 161 getting correct , 169 manual vs. automated measuring , 167 Transforms . See Photometric reductions 410 Index

V semi-regular , 32 Variable Stars , 24 W UMa , 24 Algol , 24 beta Lyrae , 24 cataclysmic , 30–31 W Cepheids , 31 Wide-fi eld survey data mining , 34 low amplitude bias , 20 eruptive , 25 Palomar Transient Factory (PTF) , 22–23 extrinsic , 24 (see also Eclipsing binary star) intrinsic , 24 Y long period (LPV) , 31 YORP , 9 naming convention , 23–24 binary asteroid formation , 14 RR Lyrae , 31 calculation , 13 selecting targets , 174