Militancy and Negotiations: A Study of Suspension of Operation in

Ch. Sekholal Kom*

To resolve conflict and avoid the use of force, it is said, one must negotiate - Fred C. Iklé Abstract

One of the most striking features of militancy in Northeast in general and Manipur in particular is how infrequently the two sides (Government and the militants) attempt peaceful negotiation. Very often, the government refuses to grant the militants legitimacy as a bargaining partner. On the other, militants in the region are averse to go into negotiation with the government whom they confront. However, in spite of this phenomenon, confrontations do reach a point at a certain stage where both sides agree to negotiate rather than confront each other. Remarkably, the present tripartite truce popularly known as Suspension of Operation (SoO) between the Government of India and the state government of Manipur on one side and the Kuki militants on the other turns out to be a significant development. The paper discusses how this negotiation can be attributed as a technique of alternative dispute resolution in a multi-ethnic situation particularly in a conflict-ridden state like Manipur.

Right since the dawn various militant ethnic groups. of independence of the Although Naga militancy was the country, Northeast first to make its headway in the India has been witnessing a region, movements by other series of challenges such as ethnicities followed it. Notably, the unceasing demands for autonomy militant activities of the Nagas, the and even outright secessions by Kukis, the Bodos, and the Assamese

*Ch. Sekholal Korn is a Ph. D. student in School of International Studies, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India

Journal of Peace Studies 70 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR etc. have continued for a long time. Over the years, militancy in the region has become the most resorted Of late, the demands for self- means of ethnic assertion and determination in the Northeast, bargaining even for securing where people are increasingly economic and political advantages identifying themselves on the basis from the centre. Although militancy of ethnic alliance, language and or terrorism has been considered to territoriality, have turned the region be the bane of the region, its precise into an inferno. Today, there are connotation still eludes the analysts demands for not less than 20 new worldwide. Generally, militancy is states by different ethnic militants considered as use of violence by a inhabiting the region, which discontented group to achieve its aggravate inter-ethnic relations and desired goal.1 However, it is not the complicate the task of governance. same as an association of armed Over the years, Manipur presents robbers or dacoits; but rather it is born itself as one of the most troubled out of some committed ideologies of states in India, wracked by inter- a particular group, a tribe, a 2 ethnic strife and militarization of community, religious or secular. ethnic groups in the pursuit of different causes. The situation is Inspite of impediments associated further escalated by competing with militancy the signing of tri- claims and clashing ideologies. On partite truce popularly known as the one hand, sections of Meitei youth Suspension of Operation (SoO) demand secession from India, whilst between the Government of India the Nagas and the Kukis demand and the state government of Manipur their respective ethnic homelands to on one side and the Kuki militants be carved out of their areas of under two camps— Kuki National inhabitation. Not only does Manipur Organisation (KNO) and United have the highest number of ethnic People’s Front (UPF) on the other as militias in the country but also it has a process of negotiation is a the highest incidence of inter-ethnic significant development for the state conflicts. These were unknown in of Manipur. Negotiation as a process Manipur in earlier decades, but they of peaceful settlement of disputes is have turned out to be an integral part thus expected to result in concrete in Manipuri politics since the 1980s, settlement of . In making the state one of the most simplest terms, negotiation may be panic-stricken in the region. termed as a discussion between two

Journal of Peace Studies 71 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR or more disputants who are trying to primary method of alternative work out a solution to their problem.3 dispute resolution. Fred C. Ikle It is a process of communication in defines negotiation as ‘a process in which the parties aim to “send a which explicit proposals are put message” to the other side and forward ostensibly for the purpose of influence each other.4 This reaching agreement on an exchange interpersonal or inter-group process or on the realization of a common can occur at a personal level, as well interest where conflicting interests as at a corporate or international are present’. Negotiation is also a (diplomatic) level. method of conflict resolution, and as such, it is used in modeling of Negotiations typically take place decision process. Mutual adjustment because the parties wish to create is one of the key causes of the changes something new that neither could that occur during a negotiation. As attempt on their own, or to resolve a negotiations evolve, each side problem or dispute between them.5 proposes changes to the other party’s The parties acknowledge that there position and makes changes to its is some conflict of interest between own.8 them and think they can use some form of influence to get a better deal, Ethnic Equations in rather than simply taking what the Manipur 6 other side will voluntarily give them. Manipur is inhabited by numerous It is a search for agreement rather ethnic communities and it has been than to fight openly, give in, or break noted as the most notorious spot for 7 off contact. violent conflicts and as a minefield of militant activities. A very large Further, negotiation can be termed proportion of ethnic groups have as a dialogue intended to resolve formed their militant outfits and disputes, to produce an agreement asserting their identities in the state. upon courses of action, to bargain for Manipur presents itself as a classic individual or collective advantage, or case of linguistic and ethno-cultural to craft outcomes to satisfy various diversity. Political mobilization along interests. It is a form of decision- ethnic lines seems to have deepened making with two or more actively the process of ethnic separation and involved agents who cannot make self-identification and much of the decisions independently, and politics in Manipur today thus therefore must make concessions to appears to swivel around the question achieve a compromise. It is the of preserving one’s ethnic identity. Journal of Peace Studies 72 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR

In spite of all its limitations, the social groups in the state; (ii) limited democratic experiment in Manipur social and cultural interaction has come a long way. What we between the different ethnic groups witness at present is perhaps not the despite the physical and linguistic revival of primordial identities of the affinities among them and (iii) past; but it is the construction of heightened importance of historical modern ethnic identities vis-à-vis the and religious differences in political newly created nation-state of India. struggles against the dominance of The Annual Report of the Indian larger and more powerful ethnic Government’s Ministry of Home groups.10 Consequently, the process Affairs in 2007-08 states, “Manipur of ethnic realignment as ‘Kuki’ or continues to be affected by the ‘Naga’ for a collective identity is activities of a large number of gathering momentum. militant/insurgent outfits divided on ethnic lines with competing Today, Manipur is caught in ethnic demands. In Manipur, every ethnic quagmire with three main ethnic group no matter how small, wants to groups namely, the Meiteis, the protect, preserve and cherish its Nagas and the Kukis indulging in a identity at all cost”. Today, every systematic and articulated campaign tribe9 maintains a distinct socio- of ethnic assertion and consolidation political organization working for the in the process of expanding their consolidation of linguistic-cultural respective spheres of influence. uniformity; for example, the Currently, there are more than 40 Long (TNL) was militant groups in Manipur alone formed in 1929, the Komrem Union focusing on their separate ethnic and in 1937, the Zeliangrong Naga Union sub-ethnic identities.11 Different (ZNU) in 1947, theVaiphei National ethnic groups have different Assembly (VNA) in 1947, the aspirations invariably conflicting Pangan Union (PU) in 1947, the Paite with each other. National Council (PNC) in 1949, and the Zomi National Congress and the Comparatively, Manipur appears to Mao Union (MU) in 1971 be an ethnic cauldron that has kept boiling for decades by the The emergence of distinct contradictory processes of ethnicities in Manipur is believed to assimilation and preservation of be a consequence of the following ethnic identity. The most striking factors: (i) distinctive social and feature of the social order of Manipur cultural identities manifested by all is perhaps its heterogeneity. The

Journal of Peace Studies 73 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR situation is further aggravated by the Presently, there are 33 recognized complex demographic settings of tribes of Manipur who are politically Manipur. The hills which form nine- grouped as Kukis or Nagas.12 The tenth of the total geographical area Kukis of Manipur include Aimol, of the state are inhabited by the Gangte, Hmar, Kom, Koireng, Mizo, tribals, both Kuki and Naga, and the Paite, Ralte, Simte, Sukte, Thadou, valley is inhabited by the majority Vaiphei and Zou tribes.13 The Meiteis. By virtue of being the settlement of these groups are spread majority and occupying the most in Churachandpur district, Sadar productive and fertile agricultural Hills area (comprising of three Kuki tracts and also on account of their majority Sub-divisions) of historical association with Manipur’s district, western part of Tamenglong former monarchic state, the Meiteis district, Southern part of Chandel occupy a dominant position in the district, and southeast area of Ukhrul state’s economic, administrative and district. However, the Kukis are political domain. These groups majority only in Churachandpur inhabiting the state exhibit district out of five hill districts in tremendous diversity “in terms of Manipur, although there are Kukis in language and culture”. almost all the districts.14 On the other, Naga tribes are concentrated mainly The issue of ethnicity came to be in the districts of Ukhrul, articulated in the wake of emerging Tamenglong, Senapati and Chandel, conflict between the ethnic groups at while the Kuki-affiliated tribes are various levels due to clash of interests dispersed over the five hill districts, and overlapping demands. The with larger concentrations in conflict of interest generated by a Churachandpur, Senapati and sense of deprivation and negligence Chandel districts. Identity formation motivates the elites of the ethnic by the various communities and communities to bring about tribes harping on exclusivity, emotional integration in their integration and dominance, often respective communities to counter- results in several forms of conflict and balance other dominant ethnic intensified autonomy demands. communities. Thus, this phenomenon resulted in the Of late, Manipur appears to be mobilization and counter- heading for ethnic related violence mobilization of ethnic groups in due to intersecting and competing Manipur. ethnic demands. Militant groups

Journal of Peace Studies 74 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR clash among themselves for control ‘forced’ merger of Manipur and the over the public resources even at the delay in the conferring of full- cost of their own community they fledged statehood to it was greatly claim to be defending. It is also resented by the people of Manipur. reported that conflicting demands of Since then several other outfits, like the militants are behind persistent the People’s Liberation Army (PLA), inter-ethnic conflicts in Manipur. founded on September 25, 1978, Besides this, the great divide People’s Revolutionary Party of resulting in the infamous Kuki-Naga Kangleipak (PREPAK) set up on 9 clashes in the 1990s not only October 1977 and the Kangleipak developed ethnic paranoia but also (KCP) that came intensified ethnic identification and into being in April, 1980 have autonomy movements. In other emerged in the valley areas words, the perceived traditional consisting of four districts of the State. feeling of oneness among the three All these insurgent groups have major communities is slowly been demanding a separate disappearing giving rise to hatred independent Manipur. and mistrust. Thus, it is difficult to foresee the shape of things in this land Similarly, the hilly areas of the State, of jewels. Perhaps, all one can say is comprising five districts, are affected that, more turbulent times are lying by different brands of militancy. The ahead. With so much of hostility and Kukis in the early nineties initiated acrimony, there is hardly any their own brand of militancy for prospect for the various ethnic achieving and bargaining territorial communities to live together in peace. concession to preserve their cultural and ethnic distinctiveness. Moreover, Rise of Militancy in following ethnic clashes between the Manipur Nagas and Kukis in the early 1990s, Manipur was a princely state and a number of Kuki outfits were it was later merged with the Indian formed as a means to counter Naga Union on 15 October 1949. Only after hegemony and assertion. Similarly, a protracted agitation interspersed several other tribes, such as the Paite, with violence, it was declared a Vaiphei, Hmar and Kom have also separate state in 1972. The emergence established their own armed of is formally groups.15 Mention can be made of the traced to the emergence of the United Islamist outfits like the People’s National Liberation Front (UNLF) on United Liberation Front (PULF), 24 November 1964. The alleged which have been formed to protect

Journal of Peace Studies 75 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR the interests of the ‘Pangals’ autonomy but also proliferation of (Manipuri Muslims). militant organisations.

On the other, militancy among Genesis of Kuki Militancy the Nagas was apparent in the early 16 fifties. Initially what appeared to be The Kukis constitute a distinct a demand for autonomy aimed at ethnic group on the basis of common safeguarding Naga ‘way of life’ soon ancestry, shared history of migration snowballed into a people’s revolt led and common cultural practices.19 The by a Naga National Council settlements of the Kukis are also (hereafter NNC). Undoubtedly, noticeable in other Northeast Indian Naga struggle is the oldest armed states of , , ethnic movement of the post- and . In , they independence India, and for almost are found in the , the half a century now, is still battling to Sagaing sub-division and parts of the gain territorial concession against the Arakan tracts. In , they might of Indian State. are found in the Chittagong Hill Though the Indian State has tracts. They are identified as ‘Chins’ shown marked resilience in in Myanmar, ‘Lusei’ or ‘Mizo’ in trying to accommodate the Naga Mizoram and Kukis in Manipur, revolt within the ambit of Indian Assam, , Tripura, and in the Constitution— the creation of the .20 When the State of Nagaland17 and the Government of India Act of 1935 drawing of the in the created two independent nations of democratic process being major India and Burma, the Kabaw Valley success points— yet the main inhabited by these Kuki-Chin tribes issue raised by the Naga struggle were included in Burma. The Indian remains largely unresolved. Independence Act of 1947 simply Today, National Socialist Council confirmed the territorial arrangement of Nagalim-Issac Muivah made by the Act of 1935.21 This led to (hereafter NSCN-IM)18 their ethnic and political spearheads the movement for disintegration.22 collective identity for territorial concession among the Nagas The aspiration of having a separate though with other small factions. political entity on the part of the Today, reinterpretation of Kukis for the protection of their historical validity has not only identity and culture has been explicit given rise to ethnic movement for since the formation of the Kuki

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National Assembly (KNA) on 24 Act of 1971 had proposed for the October 1946 with the primary Creation of Six Autonomous District objective of fostering Kuki ethnic Councils including Sadar Hills in the consciousness and making a single Hill areas of Manipur.29 While the political unit.23 The KNA initially others have been declared as full- raised the usual threat of secession fledged districts, Sadar Hills has been but paradoxically, later changed this ignored despite repeated assurance stand and took a typical integrationist from successive Governments of stand.24 In 1960, the KNA had Manipur till today.30 demanded creation of a separate state for the Kukis within the Indian In the mid 1980s, the Kukis too Union.25 But, the demand of the KNA formed their own militant did not meet any positive response organizations to safeguard their from the Government of India. interests and to preserve their Again, in 1964, the KNA and the identity.31 In fact, as early as October Manipur Mizo Integration Council 1958, the Kuki National Volunteers (MMIC) passed a resolution to (KNV), a militant organization was achieve a single administrative unit formed for the purpose of re-uniting for the ethnic (Kuki-Chin-Mizo) all the Kukis residing in the Indian group.26 Union and its adjoining areas.32 However, the organization fizzled out On 15-18 , a soon. In the early part of 1988, the convention of the various ethnic (KNA) and its (Kuki-Chin-Mizo) groups took place political wing— the Kuki National at Khawnpui at Churachandpur Organisation (KNO) were formed.33 (Manipur) and resolved to secure a It strives for self-determination of the ‘Greater Mizoram’ for the Ethnic which it defines as “the groups. And when militancy broke right of the Kukis to govern their own out to realize this aspiration under the affairs within a defined territorial MNF, the Kukis were part of it.27 The entity (statehood), one in India Kukis too, have demanded creation (Western Zalengam) and another in of Sadar Hills as a full-fledged district Burma (Eastern Zalengam).34 During since 1972.28 But the concept of the same year, the Kuki National Greater Mizoram was pushed to the Front (KNF) was formed. Its main background with the signing of the objective is to secure a separate ‘Kuki Mizo Accord in 1986 by the MNF and state’ within the Indian Union which the Government of India. In fact, the would be comprised of parts of Manipur (Hill Areas) District Council Ukhrul, Tamenglong, the whole of

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Sadar Hills Sub-Division of Senapati, Hmar National Army (HNA) and Chandel and Churachandpur Hmar Revolutionary Front (HRF), districts of Manipur.35 United Socialist Revolutionary Army (USRA), Zomi Revolutionary Front During and after the ‘Kuki-Naga (ZRF) were formed on sub-ethnic ethnic Conflict’ (1992-1997), interests. Besides, there are numerous numerous Kuki militant factional groups such as the KNF organizations were formed. The Kuki (MC), KNF (Z), and KRA (U) etc. Defence Force (KDF) and the Chin- Kuki Resistance Force (CKRF) were In 2000, the Indigenous People’s organized by the Kukis to defend Revolutionary Alliance (IPRA) themselves from the onslaughts of the comprising of the KNA, ZRA, HPC NSCN (IM) though they are inactive and KNF (MC) was formed with the now. In 1992, the Kuki Liberation KNO’s initiative. Its objective was to Army (KLA) was formed with an act as a bulwark against the objective of securing a separate ‘Kuki infiltration of alien militant groups State’ or ‘Kukiland’ too.36 On 15 into their areas.38 But, the IPRA soon December 2000, the Kuki fizzled out. Again, in 2002, the Kuki Revolutionary Army (KRA) and its National Council (KNC) was formed political wing Re-organization and as an umbrella organization of the Confederation of the Kukis (ROCK) KRA, the KNF and the UKLF which were formed. also did not last.

Its primary objective is to re- In 2006, six Kuki militant outfits unification of the ethnically and namely, the KNF, KLA, HPC (D), politically disintegrated Kukis and to KNF(S), ZRA and the UKLF form an independent ‘Kuki State.37 submitted a memorandum to the Again on 29 March 2000, the United Prime Minister of India for Kuki Liberation Front (UKLF) was recognition of its formation to fulfill also formed to uphold the interests of the ethnic aspiration of the Kukis.39 the Kuki community and to fight for Also, the KNO, the political wing of a separate state of the Kukis – the KNA have also made efforts to ‘Kukigam’. In the later half of 2000, bring the various Kuki militant smaller militant groups like the groups under its umbrella. In 2008, United KomRem Revolutionary besides the KNA, eleven Kuki Army (UKRA), the Zou Defence militant groups joined the KNO Volunteers (ZDV), United Old Kuki umbrella. They are KNF (MC), KNF Liberation Army (UOKLA), the (Z), USRA, ZRF, UOKLA, ZDV, HNA,

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UKRA, KLA (Manipur), KLA indeed become a battle ground for (Assam) and KRA (U).40 On 22nd competing ethnic militant groups for August 2008, the KNO comprising of a long time. The presence of one eleven armed groups and the UPF group led to the formation of another, consisting of another seven armed either as a result of internal groups entered into a Tripartite fragmentation or as a counter to the Agreement and signed the other. Even though almost all the Suspension of Operations (SoO). The tribal groups have militant groups three parties included the armed that claim to represent them, broadly, groups that constitute the KNO and militancy in Manipur is primarily the UPF, the Centre and the divided among the three major ethnic Government of Manipur.41 militant groups, i.e., Naga, Meitei and Kuki. Continuous inter-ethnic On the other hand, the hill areas of struggles, local provision of the state, comprising of five districts protection and political extortion has been affected by different brands further trigger the proliferation of militancy. Kuki tribals initiated process. Since these militant groups their own brand of insurgency in the are based on ethnic lines, recruitment early 1990s against what they termed is also largely based on ethnicity. as the oppression by the Naga outfits such as the National Socialist Council As has been said earlier, there are of Nagaland-Isak-Muivah (NSCN- more than twenty Kuki militant IM). Following the ethnic clashes organizations operating in Manipur between the Nagas and Kukis in the which are demanding separate state early 1990s, a number of Kuki outfits or autonomy for better protection and have been formed. But, the demand preservation of their ethnic identity. for a separate state was apparent In the same way, Naga militancy in since 1940s. Manipur supports the demand for a sovereign Nagalim (Greater Proliferation of Militant Nagaland), which includes the Groups in Manipur integration of Naga inhabited areas of Manipur with Nagaland. The With its hill and valley divide in notion of an exclusive territorial Manipur, there is a constant boundary led the Nagas, particularly competition for resources among the NSCN-IM, to drive out the Kukis, different ethnic groups which results a significant ethnic group from Naga in ever increasing split in society majority areas of Manipur, resulting along ethnic lines. The state has in the Naga-Kuki clashes of the1990s.

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This process of ‘ethnic cleansing’, independence and establish which began around 1992, wiped out socialism in Manipur. The People’s many Kuki villages from Naga Liberation Army (PLA) was formed majority areas and eliminated over a by N. Bisheswar Singh on 25 thousand Kukis. As a result of the fear September 1978 to achieve generated by the NSCN-IM, some of independence through armed the smaller Kuki tribes even struggle. The People’s Revolutionary assimilated into the Naga. Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK), led by R.K. Tulachandra in 1977, the The clashes led to consolidation of Kangleipak Communist Party (KCP) the Kukis, who formed Kuki National in 1980 and Kanglei Yawol Kanna Front (KNF) in 1988, the Kuki Lup (KYKL) in 1994 were also Liberation Army (KLA) in 1992, and formed. the Kuki Revolutionary Army (KRA) in 1999. Kuki armed insurgency is the The result of the cumulative effect of Naga (ZRA) and the People’s United insurgency and its integration Liberation Front (PULF) are other discourse. The Kukis not only question ethnic insurgent groups operating in the NSCN-IM’s claim over Naga the valley. Consequently, the inhabited areas of Manipur, but are also entire valley was declared a demanding a separate homeland disturbed area and the Armed Forces called Kukiland comprising the Kuki Special Powers Act (AFSPA) 1958, areas of Senapati and . was imposed in September 1980. Significantly, the Kukis continue to It can be said here that that there is control the commercially important hardly any place for ideology and mass border town of Moreh, despite pressure support for a population of just 24 lakh from Naga and Meitei outfits. with three broad ethnic categories to be represented by more than 40 militant Further, the Meitei insurgency organizations. Today, with hoped to restore Meitei pride and proliferations of different groups and supremacy to pre-British period factions almost as a daily phenomenon levels. The United National within the Meiteis, Kukis and Nagas it Liberation Front (UNLF) which was is difficult to find any particular group formed on November 24, 1964 under from each of these communities, which the leadership of Arambam could be said to be representing the Samarendra Singh strives to achieve interests of the entire community.

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Table 1 Various Kuki Militant groups under Kuki National Organisation (KNO)

Sl. No. Name of the Militants

1. Kuki National Army 2. Kuki National Front (Military Council) 3. Kuki National Front () 4. Kuki Liberation Army (Manipur) 5. Kuki Liberation Army (assam) 6. Kuki Revolutionary Army (Unification) 7. United Old Kuki Liberation Army 8. United Konrem Revolutionary Army 9. United Socialist Revolutionary Army 10 Zomi Revolutionary Front 11. Zou Defence Volunteer (KNO) Table 2

Various Kuki Militant groups under United People’s Front (UPF)

Sl. No. Name of the Militants

1. Convention (Democratic) 2. Kuki Revolutionary Army 3. Kuki Ntaional Front (President) 4. Kuki National Front (Samuel) 5. Kuki Liberation Army (UPF) 6. United Kuki Liberation Front 7. Zomi Revolutionary Army 8. Zou Defence Volunteer (UPF)

Source: The Telegraph - North East, December 20, 2008.

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Prospects of Suspension of Manipur being a party to the SoO, it Operation (SoO) presents itself as a positive initiator to resolve ethnic problems and In spite of such inherent problems demands through dialogue and there is a positive sign of peace and negotiation. This development may progress in the state as Kuki National also be seen as a positive step forward Organisation (KNO) comprising of which will allow ethnic groups to eleven militant groups and the express their grievances and United People’s Front (UPF) demands in a constitutional manner. consisting of another seven militant groups, formally entered into Most importantly, this truce tripartite agreement and signed effectively interlocks competing Suspension of Operation (SoO) on 22 ethnic demands through dialogues August 2008. The three parties that and negotiations. In other words, it is entered into the truce included the 18 an indication of how both the state Kuki militant groups under two and national governments and the camps as KNO and UPF on one side Kukis (KNO and UPF) now seek to and the Government of India and the resort to peaceful means for state Government of Manipur on the settlement of their political claims. other. Most importantly, the truce can serve as a platform for bargaining and It is important to recall here that SoO sorting out intersecting claims and agreement between the Indian army conflict of interests in a non-violent, and various constituents of KNO and consultative and democratic manner. UPF was in force since 1 August 2001. However, with the state Government The truce which was extended till of Manipur not being a party to the 22 August 2010 led to relative calm previous SoO, the prospect of peace in the state and a substantial drop in met with several hurdles. The violence in the state. In fact, according government of Manipur continued to to the South Asia Terrorism Portal deal with KNO and UPF with a heavy (SATP) database there was a hand, which was seen by the KNO dramatic fall in insurgency-related and UPF as a sign of ‘hesitancy’ and fatalities from 416 in 2009 to 134 in ‘half-heartedness’. Thus, it the 2010 and it was held that Manipur previous SoO agreement did not was “likely to shed the dubious succeed. distinction of being the most violent among the troubled States of India’s However, with the government of Northeast”.42

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Further, this truce presents two again. It is pertinent to mention here major developments. Firstly, this that the Kukis’ demands for a initiative shows how both the separate State may still remain an governments want to sort out issue as there are conflicting problems through peaceful interpretation of historical on this dialogues and negotiations rather issue among the Kukis, the Nagas than resorting to violent means. and the Meiteis. Inspite of this, with Secondly, this initiative enabled each group expected to make some various Kuki militants to be grouped concessions during the course of in two camps more or less unifying negotiations, the talks may result in them and making negotiation effectively addressing the present possible by overcoming micro- ethnic cauldron in Manipur. nationalist tendencies that have been However, as no party in negotiation persistent within. For a peaceful can expect all its demands to be settlement and accommodation of fulfilled, both the signatories should ethnic aspirations of the Kukis in the be in a position to grant each region, the government should rather maximum possible concession to than using the present truce to reach a conclusive settlement without consolidate its position and relaunch which the ongoing ethnic and its counter insurgency operations it political imbroglio may not be should take note of the genuine resolved. In fact, the government’s aspirations of the people, evolve a willingness to bring militants to the political mechanism to address their table and particularly with Manipur demands for autonomy and look for Government consenting to embark on agreeable settlement of various the path of truce paves the way for issues under discussion. different Kuki groups (although with common objective) to come together Perhaps, cynics may underrate the and make the talks a success. ongoing truce in view of higher factional tendencies within the Kuki This truce is also an indication of groups, however, the fact that they the Kuki militants’ desire for have consented to come together constitutional settlement of their under two groups as KNO and UPF demand. It reflects how the factions provides an opportunity for collective decided to put aside their internal bargaining. Needless to say if this differences and chose to pursue peace opportunity is squandered and the through uniting different Kuki negotiations fail then the fractious groups, tribes and clans for a nature of Kuki politics and reappear purposive negotiation. Interestingly,

Journal of Peace Studies 83 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR this is the first move that has movements and ethnic aspirations. culminated in bringing the various Even if the truce may not have led to Kuki militant groups under a unified absolute peace in the state, the fact platform for talks despite inter-ethnic that there has been a drop in violence contestations and decade-old leads one to believe that this trend movements for territorial autonomy has to be sustained. Today, with and also inspite of the fact that centre Manipur embarking on the first ever was relatively passive towards the Suspension of Operation agreement Kukis’ demand for quite sometime. with militant groups, it has to prove Unlike the Naga movement, the whether it would choose to be serious Kukis’ demands had all along been in finding a lasting solution despite through peaceful means though not the many odds it is confronted with. as systematic and spontaneous as that With big stakes involved, there is an of the Nagas. Nevertheless, in order immense need for all parties for the process of peace to succeed, involved to tread all tracks and walk the government should be willing to the talk. Henceforth, it will remain to offer negotiation to warring parties be seen if the parties can reach an rather than believing in its military eventual settlement. Here, the advantage and sidelining the militant government of Manipur must believe groups. This move may obliterate the that even if it may take time, this notion that the government often strategy will work. Simultaneously, owes it to its citizens to engage them the process has to be given a certain in talks and act substantively. kick-start, a certain momentum to ensure that the gains made so far are Conclusion not reversed. As the process of negotiation is Most importantly, the government relatively new it will take time before must refrain from terming the any group comes out with any militant groups it is negotiating with concession in favour of the other as criminals, brigands or unworthy parties involved. Nevertheless, it has of the status of a legitimate peace to be acknowledged that this partners to convince itself and these development has positively opened groups that the militants can or the path for political dialogues which should be negotiated with. It should presents a unique opportunity for be noted that negotiation is a negotiators from the government’s technique of alternative dispute side to acquaint themselves with the resolution based on the willingness dynamics of identity-related to compromise on both sides.

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However, none of the negotiating truce should be actualized as a parties can expect to win all it wants. technique of dispute resolution and If all the sides negotiate in good faith, it could provide lessons for other they can always find a fair solution. conflicts in the region. However, In fact, negotiation is a form of unless the central and the state decision-making with two or more governments seriously attempt to actively involved agents who cannot develop appropriate schemes and make decisions independently, and policies, the issue of ethnic therefore must make concessions to contestations in Manipur will achieve a compromise. The ongoing continue to escalate.

References

1. Chandrika Singh, Naga Politics: A Critical Account, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2004. p.190.

2.Kuhoi, K.Zhimomi, Politics and Militancy in Nagaland, Deep and Deep Publications, New Delhi, 2004. p22.

3. “Negotiation,” International Online Training Program on Intractable Conflict, Conflict Research Consortium, University of Colorado, [available at: http://www.colorado.edu/conflict/peace/treatment/negotn.htm]

4. Roger Fisher, “Negotiating Power: Getting and Using Influence,” in Negotiation Theory and Practice, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1991. p.128. 5. Roy J. Lewicki, David M. Saunders and John W. Minton, Negotiation, 3rd Edition, Irwin McGraw-Hill, San Francisco, 1999, p.5. 6.Ibid.

7. E. Wertheim, “Negotiations and Resolving Conflicts: An Overview,” College of Business Administration, Northeastern University, [available at: http://web.cba.neu.edu/~ewertheim/interper/negot3.htm]

Journal of Peace Studies 85 Vol 18, Issue 1&2, January-June, 2011 MILITANCY AND NEGOTIATIONS: A STUDY OF SUSPENSION OF OPERATION IN MANIPUR

8. William Zartman, Conflict and Order: Justice in Negotiation, International Political Science Review, Vol. 18, No. 2, 1997. p.122. 9. The term ‘tribe’ here would mean to denote a more or less homogeneous group of people having a closely-knit way of life who are some-what falling under a close/communicable speech community. 10. U. A. Shimray, ‘Ethnicity and Socio -Political Assertion: The Manipur Experience.’ Economic and Political Weekly, 29 Sept, 2001. p. 3675. 11. Sub-ethnic identity is meant to denote assertion of identity resulting from fragmentation and division within the perceived bigger ethnic identity such as Kuki or Naga or more inclined to be recognised under its respective tribe/clan appellation. 12.Bhagat Oinam, ‘Pattern of Ethnic Conflict in North-East: A Study of Manipur,’ in Economic and Politically Weekly, Vol. 38, No. 21, May 24, 2003. p.2033. 13. Pukhrambam, ‘The People of Manipur,’ Manipur Today, Vol. 7, June 24, 2006. p.23. 14. Lhunkhosei Haokip, The Kukis: A Socio-Cultural Study, Unpublished Thesis, Manipur University, Imphal, 2003. p.23 15. Although culturally and linguistically, Paite, Hmar and Kom are Kukis however, fragmentation and division within Kuki identity has encourage micro-identity formation. 16. Trouble in the Naga Hill district of Assam broke out in the early 1953 when police action was initiated against the Naga National Council. Subsequently, it was followed by militant attack on police outposts and government officials. In 1956 armed forces were moved in. Thereafter, Naga movement took a violent turn. 17. The State of Nagaland was created by the thirteenth amendment of the Constitution of India (Act No. 73 of 1962). 18. Although NNC was the first Naga armed group today the movement is led by NSCN(IM) who is currently in talks with the Government of India. 19. Lal Dena, “The Kuki-Naga Conflict: Juxtaposed in the Colonial Context” in Kailash S.Agarwal (ed.), Dynamics of Identity and Intergroup Relations in North East India, Indian Institute of Advanced Studies, Shimla, 1999. p185.

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20. L.Keivom, “Towards Zo Unification”. The Sangai Express. Imphal, 20th Jan., 2006. 21. Chwnlienthang Changsan, “ The Chin-Kuki Ethnic Dilemma” In Kailash S. Agarwal.(ed.), op.cit.,p185. 22. L. Keivom, op.cit., 23. A.K.Ray. “The Kuki National Assembly: Its Social Base and Working in Manipur” in L.S.Gassah, (ed.), Regional Political Parties in North East India. Omsons Publications, New Delhi, 1985. p197. 24. A.K Ray, “Ethnicity and Policy Alternatives: A North Eastern Experience”, Journal of NEICSSR, Shillong, April, p44. 25. ‘Kuki State’, a memorandum to the Prime Minister of India, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru by the KNA,1960. 26. Seilen Haokip. “What Price, Twenty Years of Peace in Mizoram (1986- 2006): A Kuki Perspective”, Annual Magazine, KSO, Shillong, 2007, p.10. 27. Ibid, p.11. 28. Aheibam Koireng Singh and Maibam Ratan Singh, “The Sadar Hills Dilemma” in Aheibam Koireng Singh, K.Ruhini Kumar Sharma and Amal Sanasam, Problems of Ethnicity and Identity in Contemporary Manipur and Other Essays, Centre for Ethnic and Identity Studies, Imphal, 2008. p.41. 29. Rajendra Kshetri, District Councils in Manipur: Formation and Functioning. Centre for Manipur Studies and Akansha Publishing House, New Delhi, 2006. p.23. 30. See, Aheibam Koireng Singh and Maibam Ratan Singh.,op.cit. 31. P.T. Hitson Jusho, Politics of Ethnicity in North-East India with special reference to Manipur, Regency Publications, New Delhi, 2007. p.76. 32. P.S.Haokip. . Zalengam: The Kuki Nation. KNO Publications, Private Circulations. p.308. 33. Ibid., p.68. 34. Ibid., p.402. 35. Nehkholun Kipgen, “Why not Kukiland for Kukis” Annual Magazine, KSO, Shillong, p.16-21.

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