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Faculty of Social Work University of Manitoba Winnipeg —Nisei—Sansei—Yonsei— Intergenerational Communication of the Internment and the Lived Experience of Twelve Japanese Canadians Born after the Internment by Gaia (Gail) Hashimoto A Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate Studies of The University of Manitoba in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK Faculty of Social Work University of Manitoba Winnipeg Copyright © 2012 Gaia (Gail) Hashimoto Library and Archives Bibliothèque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l'édition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-92362-7 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-92362-7 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant à la Bibliothèque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par télécommunication ou par l'Internet, prêter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des thèses partout dans le loan, distrbute and sell theses monde, à des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, électronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L'auteur conserve la propriété du droit d'auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protege cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author's permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n'y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………….………………………………………………………………………………vi INTRODUCTION ……………………………………………………………………………………………………...1 CHAPTER ONE: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND of JAPANESE CANADIANS ……………...3 Establishing and Developing Community Roots …………………………………………..6 The Shattering of Community …………………………………………………………………….9 The First Uprooting: Internment …………………………………………………...11 The Second Uprooting: Dispersal or Repatriation ………………………..13 Losses Incurred ………………………………………………………………………………15 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW …………………………………………………………………..16 The Japanese Canadian experience of the Internment ……………………………..18 Assimilation and Acculturation ………………………………………………………………….23 Ethnic Identity..…………………………………………………………………………………………...26 Aspects of Trauma ……………………………………………………………………………………..29 Aspects of Historical Trauma .…………………………………………………………………….35 Collective, Community and Cultural trauma ……………………………………………...43 Summary of the Literature Review …………………………………………………………….44 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH DESIGN …………………………………………………………………..45 Methodological Framework ……………………………………………………………………….46 What is Qualitative Research? ………………………………………………………..46 What is Phenomenology? ................................................................................48 ii What is the Role of Theory in Phenomenology? …………………………....51 What is Hermeneutic Phenomenology? ………………………………………....53 What is the Hermeneutic Phenomenological Research Approach?...54 Methods and Procedures …………………………………………………………………………….56 Gathering Information ……………………………………………………………………..56 Participants …………………………………………………………………………..58 Interviews ……………………………………………………………………………..59 Ethical Concerns ………………………………………………………………………………..60 Thematic Analysis …………………………………………………………………………………….......61 CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ……………………………………………………….65 Intergenerational Communication of Internment Experience ……………………...66 Learning about the Internment through Family Discussion ……………..67 Prevailing Themes: Gaman, Enryo, Resilience, Empowerment …………75 Silence, Reticence, Reluctance to Speak, to Ask ……………………76 “No Bitterness, No Anger” …………………………………………………….83 “Blessing in Disguise” ……………………………………………………………88 Racial and Cultural Socialization ……………………………………………………….91 Stories Constructed Relationally ……………………………………………………..105 Language as Barrier to Discussion …………………………………………...........110 Reactions and Responses on Learning about Family Stories ………….112 Generational Shifts in Communication and Identity ……………………….121 Continuing Intergenerational Communication ……………………………….129 iii The Lived Experience: Born After the Internment …………………………………..132 Early Environment Growing Up ……………………………………………………132 Dualities of Perception ………………………………………………………………...137 Aspects of Forced Assimilation ……………………………………………………141 Sense of Loss in Continuity of Culture …………………………………………150 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSIONS …………………………………………………………………………..157 The Internment and Historical Trauma Theory …………………………… 158 Alternative Responses: Internment as Historical Trauma…160 Alternative Outcomes: Internment as Historical Trauma ...165 Summary of the Findings ………………………………………………….168 Contributions to Research Literature ……………………………………………170 Challenges and Limitations of this Study ……………………………………..171 Implications for Future Research ………………………………………………….174 REFERENCES ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….177 APPENDICES Appendix A: Poster for Volunteer Participation in Research Study ………191 Appendix B: Letter of Introduction from Organization ………………………..192 Appendix C: Invitation to Participate ……………………………………………………193 Appendix D: Advertisement in Publication …………………………………………..195 Appendix E: Consent Form for Research Study …………………………………...196 Appendix F: Interview Guide ………………………………………………………………..200 Appendix G : Questionnaire …………………………………………………………………..201 iv Abstract The Internment of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War was a blatant act of racial-based injustice in Canadian history. In this study, I have used the term Internment to encompass all the events that resulted from the abrogation of Japanese Canadian rights of citizenship—mass uprooting from their homes and communities in British Columbia (BC), dispossession, forced relocation to internment camps in interior BC, road camps, and sugar beet farms in Alberta and Manitoba, followed by forced exile from BC to Japan, or forced migration and assimilation across Canada. To explore the intergenerational influence of this historical trauma on those who did not experience it directly, I interviewed twelve Canadians of Japanese heritage whose parent(s) or grandparent(s) experienced a form of Internment. Using a hermeneutic, phenomenological approach, the participants and I explored the lived experience of growing up in the aftermath of the Internment, and intergenerational communication of the internment experience, including what participants would communicate to following generations. The findings revealed alternative responses and outcomes to historical trauma. Threaded throughout these intergenerational stories and responses were prevailing themes reflecting values of gaman and enryo, in addition to resilience and empowerment. v Acknowledgements I would like to acknowledge the goodwill and generosity of spirit of those who provided this project with lift and loft – To all the participants in this study - Alan, Andrea, Crista, E, Greg, June, Keith, Keri, Kiyo, Misa, Patti and Steve (pseudonyms) - for your invaluable contributions which made this research possible. To the Manitoba Japanese Canadian Citizens’ Association for distributing my letters of invitation electronically to their membership, and to the Manitoba Buddhist Temple and Manitoba Japanese Canadian Cultural Centre for allowing me to place posters there. To the members of my thesis committee, Dr. Judy Hughes (Advisor), Dr. Michael Hart and in particular, Dr. Pamela Sugiman, External Member, for your guidance throughout this academic process. I am grateful for being here, in this time and place, because of the perseverance, dignity and grace of my grandparents, and the Issei pioneers who arrived in Canada with a spirit of courage, adventure, and enterprise. They contributed to the growth, wealth and development of Canada, breaking new ground in so many ways, creating goodwill and understanding, and working through racial barriers and discrimination. I am grateful to my parents, and the Issei, Nisei and Sansei who endured the experiences of the Internment, for their inner strength and belief in the future. vi INTRODUCTION Sparks for my research query were ignited at a gathering of the 20th anniversary of Redress, wherein the Canadian government acknowledged its wrongdoing in the expulsion, internment and abrogation of rights of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War. Young Japanese Canadians made oral and visual presentations about their family histories, speaking about how and why their older family members came to Manitoba due to the Internment and presenting family photographs on a large screen. While there were commonalities of history and experience within each story – the pioneers who came to Canada and settled in
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