edited by F.K. Bender and H.A. Raza
by D. Bannert, F. K. Bender, H. Bender, F. Griineberg, A. H. Kazmi, H. A. Raza and F. A. Shams
with contributions on nuclear fuels by F. Barthel and H. Fohse
and on bituminous rocks by H. Porth
With 140 figures and 38 tables in the text and on 10 fold-outs
1995
GEBRUDER BORNTRAEGER • BERLIN • STUTTGART Contents
1. General introduction (HlLAL A. RAZA and FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 1 1.1 Area and population 1 1.2 Physiographic units 3 1.3 Climate and vegetation 5 1.4 History of geological research 9 2. Geological framework 11 2.1 Introduction (FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 11 2.2 Principal geological divisions 16 2.21 The Chagai and Ras Koh area (DIETRICH BANNERT) 18 2.211 The Chagai Hills 19 2.212 The Dalbandin Trough 19 2.213 The Ras Koh Geanticline and Ras Koh-Mirjawa Flysch Belts 20 2.214 The Mashkhel Depression 22 2.22 The Makran-Khojak-Pishin Flysch Zone (HlLAL A. RAZA and DIETRICH BANNERT) 22 2.221 The Makran Flysch Segment 22 2.222 The Khojak Flysch Segment 25 2.223 The Pishin Flysch Segment 25 2.23 The West Pakistan Foldbelt (DIETRICH BANNERT) 26 2.24 Indus Basin (FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 28 2.25 The Tethyan Belt (FAIZ AHMAD SHAMS) 31 2.251 The Lower Himalayas 34 2.252 The Higher Himalayas 43 2.253 The Kohistan Island Arc Complex 45 2.254 The Karakorum Block 56 2.255 The Hindu Kush elements 61 3. Sedimentary sequence (An H. KAZMl) 63 3.1 Precambrian sedimentary rocks 63 3.2 Paleozoic sedimentary rocks 73 3.21 Cambrian 73 3.22 Ordovician - Silurian 76 3.23 Devonian 77 1>.2A Carboniferous - Permian 78 3.3 Mesozoic sedimentary rocks 87 3.31 Triassic 87 VIII Contents
3.32 Jurassic 90 3.33 Cretaceous 94 3.4 Cenozoic sedimentary rocks 101 3.41 Palaeogene 103 3.42 The Palaeogene sequence in the West Pakistan Foldbelt 105 3.43 Neogene 114 3.44 Quaternary 118 4. Igneous and metamorphic rocks (FAIZ AHMAD SHAMS) 125 4.1 Igneous and metamorphic rocks of the Tethyan Belt 125 4.11 Indo-Pakistan Plate 125 4.111 South of the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) Zone 125 4.112 South of the Main Central Thrust (MCT) Zone 127 4.113 West of the River Indus 127 4.114 Alkaline igneous province 128 4.115 Post Hercynian events 130 4.12 Kohistan Island Arc Complex 131 4.2 Karakorum Block 133 4.3 Eastern Hindukush 133 4.4 Elements of the Indian Craton south of the Himalyas 134 4.5 West Pakistan Foldbelt 134 4.6 Chagai-Ras Koh Volcanic Arc 136 4.7 Additional igneous rocks 137 5. Tectonics and structure 138 5.1 Plate boundaries and regional fabric (FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 138 5.2 Tectonic zones 142 5.21 Shield elements and buried ridges (FAIZ AHMAD SHAMS) 143 5.22 Indus Basin (FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 146 5.23 The West Pakistan Foldbelt (DIETRICH BANNERT) 148 5.231 Khuzdar Block 148 5.232 Sulaiman Block 149 5.233 The Bela-Waziristan Ophiolite Zone 156 5.24 The Chagai-Ras Koh Volcanic Arc 157 5.25 The Makran-Khojak-Pishin Flysch Zone 158 6. Palaeogeographic and geodynamic evolution (FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 162 6.1 Late Proterozoic ("Infra-Cambrian") and Phanerozoic 164 6.2 Mesozoic 168 6.3 Cenozoic 174 6.31 Cenozoic of the Indus Basin 174 6.32 Cretaceous and Cenozoic of the Himalayas 176 6.33 Cenozoic of the West Pakistan Foldbelt (DIETRICH BANNERT) ... 178 7. Energy resources 182 7.1 Hydrocarbons (HlLAL A. RAZA and FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 182 7.11 Basin definition 183 7.12 Kohat-Potwar Foredeep 184 7.13 Northern Lower Indus Basin and Sulaiman Foredeep 189 7.14 Central Lower Indus Basin and Kirthar Foredeep 192 Contents IX
7.15 Southern Lower Indus Basin and offshore area 196 7.16 Baluchistan region and offshore area 201 7.2 Bituminous rocks (HANS PORTH) 203 7.3 Coal (An H. KAZMI) 206 7.31 Kohat - Potwar region 208 7.32 Quetta - Harnai - Duki coal region 211 7.33 Lower Sindh coal region 214 7.4 Nuclear fuels (FAIZ AHMAD SHAMS, FRITZ BARTHEL and H. FOHSE) ... 219 7.5 Geothefmal energy resources (An H. KAZMl) 225 7.51 Geopressurised systems 226 7.52 Seismotectonic and suture related systems 231 7.53 Systems related to Neogene-Quaternary volcanism 232 8. Metallic raw materials (FAIZ AHMAD SHAMS) 235 8.1 Metallogeny 239 8.2 Noble metals, niobium, tantalum, tellurium 240 8.3 Platinum group metals 243 8.4 Non-ferrous metals 243 8.5 Ferrous metals 247 8.51 Igneous and contact metasomatic iron 247 8.52 Hydrothermal iron 249 8.53 Sedimentary iron 249 8.6 Light metals 254 8.7 Special metals 255 8.8 Rare Earths 257 9. Non-metallic raw materials (FRIEDRICH K. BENDER) 258 9.1 Industrial minerals 259 9.2 Stones and earths 274 9.3 Salts : 279 9.4 Gemstones (An H. KAZMl) 281 10. Water (HANS BENDER) 291 10.1 Surface water 291 10.11 Snow and ice as water resources 291 10.2 The hydrogeological basins 292 10.21 The Indus Basin 292 10.211 The Punjab 297 10.212 Cholistan (Bahawaepur) 310 10.213 The lower Indus Valley 313 10.214 Tharparkar 315 10.215 Quaternary sub-basins west of the Indus River 316 10.216 Basins of the Indus catchment area in Baluchistan 321 10.217 The Potwar uplands (Rawalpindi) 322 10.22 The Makran Coast catchment area 323 10.221 Porali River basin ' 323 10.222 Hingol River basin 324 10.223 Dasht River basin 324 X Contents
10.23 The Kharan Desert catchment (enclosed drainage basins of Baluchistan) 324 10.231 Hamun-i-Mashkel Basin 324 10.232 Hamun-i-Lora Basin 325 10.3 Groundwater in consolidated rocks 325 10.4 Thermal springs 327 11. Soils (FRANZ H. GRUNEBERG) 329 11.1 Effects of environment on soil formation 329 11.11 Climatic factors and soil development 329 11.12 Geomorphological features and soil development 332 11.13 Lithology and soil formation 334 11.14 Effect of vegetation on soil development 335 11.2 Classification and distribution of soils 336 11.21 Aridisols 338 11.211 Orthids 338 11.212 Argids 341 11.22 Entisols 344 11.221 Aquents 344 11.222 Fluvents 344 11.223 Orthents 344 11.224 Psamments 345 11.23 Inceptisols 345 11.231 Aquepts 347 11.232 Ochrepts 347 11.24 Alfisols 347 11.241 Udalfs 350 11.242 Ustalfs 350 11.25 Mollisols 350 11.251 Borolls 353 11.252 Udolls 353 11.253 Ustolls 353 11.254 Xerolls 353 11.26 Vertisols 355 11.261 Torrerts 355 11.262 Usterts 355 Bibliography 357 Subject Index 411