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Spring 2006 Paleoenvironmental and tectonic reconstruction of the lower Eocene Ghazij Formation and related units, Balochistan, Pakistan: Implication for India - Asia collision Intizar Hussain Khan University of New Hampshire, Durham
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Recommended Citation Khan, Intizar Hussain, "Paleoenvironmental and tectonic reconstruction of the lower Eocene Ghazij Formation and related units, Balochistan, Pakistan: Implication for India -Asia collision" (2006). Doctoral Dissertations. 318. https://scholars.unh.edu/dissertation/318
This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Student Scholarship at University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Doctoral Dissertations by an authorized administrator of University of New Hampshire Scholars' Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. PALEOENVIRONMENTAL AND TECTONIC RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LOWER EOCENE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND RELATED UNITS, BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN; IMPLICATION FOR INDIA-ASIA COLLISION
BY
INTIZAR HUSSAIN KHAN Bachelor of Science University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan, 1974
Master of Science University of Sindh, Jamshoro, Pakistan, 1978
DISSERTATION
Submitted to the University of New Hampshire
in Partial Fulfillment of
the Requirements for the Degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in
Earth Sciences - Geology
May, 2006
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C. .c_____ Dissertation Director. Dr. William C_ Clyde Associate Professor of Geolog) . University of New Hampshire.
Dr. Wallace A. Bothner, Jr. Professor of Geology , University of New Hampshire.
Dr. Philip D. Gingerich Professor of Geological Sciences Director, Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
______Dr. Jo Laird Associate Professor of Geology University of New Hampshire.
.... Dr. ^M a th e w Davis Associate Professor of Hydrogeology, University of New Hampshire
______Date
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. DEDICATION
Dedicated to my mother and wife
iii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am really indebted to Dr. William C. Clyde, my dissertation advisor whose technical
help, guidance and continued assistance in every phase of my work and moral and financial
support made this research possible. My sincere thanks go to Dr. Philip D. Gingerich for
encouraging this research and introduced me to Dr. Clyde. I would like to thank the other
committee members (Dr. Jo Laird, Dr. Wallace A. Bothner, and Dr. J. Matthew Davis) for
providing constant encouragement and guidance throughout my time at UNH. I am indebted for
the support of the faculty and staff of the UNH Earth Sciences department, especially Sue Clark
and Linda Wrighstman for their help and cooperation during my study period at UNH. I also
appreciated the fruitful discussions with Dr. Peter J. Thompson. I also appreciate the help and
cooperation of the USGS personnel, especially Edward Johnson and Peter Warwick.
I am grateful to the Geological Survey of Pakistan for logistic support during
the fieldwork in Pakistan and my extended deputation to UNH for Ph.D. studies. I am
grateful to Mr. Hassan Ghour and Mirza Talib Hussain (Director Generals) as well as
Syed Ghazanfar Abbas, Abdul Latif Khan from the Geological Survey of Pakistan for
encouragement and support for this study. Sincere thanks are due to M. Akram Bhatti,
Raza Shah, Zahid Hussain and staff of the Gelogical Survey of Pakistan who helped me
during my fieldwork especially in the northwestern tribal areas of Pakistan. I am really
thankful to Mashkoor Malik and his parent for taking me into their home during the last
few months of my study at UNH.
This research was supported by the NSF grant EAR 9902905 to William C.
Clyde and by a Dissertation Fellowship grant from the University of New Hampshire.
iv
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE OF CONTENTS
DEDICATION...... iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS...... v
LIST OF TABLES...... xi
LIST OF FIGURES...... xii
ABSTRACT...... xvii
CHAPTER PAGE
I. INTRODUCTION...... 1
Study Objectives and Methodology ...... 8
Facies Analysis ...... 8
Paleocurrent Indicators ...... 9
Provenance Analysis ...... 9
Background...... 10
Regional Geology and Stratigraphy ...... 10
Ghazij Formation ...... 15
Aerial Distribution of the Ghazij Formation ...... 16
Stratigraphic Nomenclature and Previous Studies
of the Ghazij Formation ...... 16
Nomenclature used in this study ...... 21
Paleontologic Studies ...... 22
Geochronology of the Ghazij Formation ...... 23
v
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Age/Biostratigraphy 23
II. FACIES ANALYSIS OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION...... 25
Lower Part of the Ghazij Formation ...... 26
Description and Interpretation of Facies ...... 26
Mudrock Facies (Lower Ghazij) ...... 27
Description ...... 27
Depositional Environments ...... 28
Sandstone Facies I (Lower Ghazij)...... 28
Description ...... 28
Depositional Environments ...... 31
Kach Sequence ...... 31
Description ...... 31
Depositional Environments ...... 32
Limestone and Marl Facies (Lower Ghazij) ...... 33
Description ...... 33
Depositional Environments ...... 33
Middle Part of the Ghazij Formation ...... 33
Description and Interpretation of Facies ...... 33
Mudrock Facies (Middle Ghazij) ...... 34
Description ...... 34
Depositional Environments ...... 35
Sandstone Facies of the Middle Ghazij ...... 35
Sandstone Facies I (Middle Ghazij) ...... 36
Description ...... 36
Depositional Environments ...... 37
vi
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sandstone Facies II (Middle Ghazij) ...... 39
Description ...... 39
Depositional Environments ...... 41
Sandstone Facies III (Middle Ghazij) ...... 43
Description ...... 43
Depositional Environments ...... 43
Carbonate Facies (Middle Ghazij) ...... 45
Limestone Facies I (Middle Ghazij) ...... 45
Description ...... 45
Depositional Environments ...... 47
Limestone Facies II (Middle Ghazij)...... 47
Description ...... 47
Depositional Environments ...... 48
Fossiliferous Marl/Coquina Facies (Middle Ghazij) ...... 48
Description ...... 48
Depositional Environments ...... 49
Coal and Carbonaceous Shale Facies (Middle Ghazij) ...... 49
Description ...... 49
Depositional Environments ...... 50
Lower and Upper Contacts (Middle Ghazij) ...... 50
Upper Part of the Ghazij Formation ...... 51
Description and Interpretation of Facies ...... 51
Mudrock Facies (Upper Ghazij) ...... 51
Description ...... 51
Depositional Environments ...... 53
Coal and Carbonaceous Shale Facies (Upper Ghazij) ...... 54
vii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Description ...... 54
Depositional Environments ...... 55
Sandstone Facies (Upper Ghazij) ...... 55
Description ...... 55
Depositional Environments ...... 56
Conglomerate Facies (Upper Ghazij) ...... 58
Description ...... 58
Depositional Environments ...... 60
Conclusion ...... 61
III. REGIONAL LITHOFACIES CORRELATIONS OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND THEIR TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS...... 63
Kalat Region ...... 63
Contact Relationship ...... 75
Quetta Region ...... 76
UpperContact ...... 83
Shin Ghwazh locality, Sor Range coalfield ...... 84
Urak locality ...... 86
Sharan Tangi, Shahrig PMDC Mines ...... 88
Saghandi mining area, Hamai coalfield ...... 91
Southwest of Hamai, Hamai coalfield ...... 92
Kach Sequence ...... 93
Lower Contact of Kach Sequence ...... 96
Loralai, Dera Ismail Khan and Kohat Regions ...... 99
Discussion and Conclusion ...... 108
viii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IV. PALEOCURRENT INDICATORS FROM THE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND RELATED UNITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA-ASIA COLLISION TECTONICS...... I ll
Previous Work ...... 112
Methods...... 114
Paleocurrent Analysis ...... 116
Preorogenic Paleocurrent Analysis ...... 116
Upper Cretaceous Pab Formation ...... 117
Synorogenic Paleocurrent Analysis ...... 117
Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene Gidar Dhor Formation ...... 120
Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene Kach Sequence ...... 120
Lower Eocene Lower Ghazij Formation ...... 120
Lower Eocene Middle Ghazij Formation ...... 122
Lower Eocene Upper Ghazij Formation ...... 124
Conclusion ...... 126
V. PROVENANCE ANALYSIS OF SANDSTONES FROM THE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND RELATED UNITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA-ASIA COLLISION TECTONICS...... 128
Previous Work ...... 131
Methods ...... 133
Petrographic Results ...... 137
Ghazij Formation ...... 154
Kach Sequence ...... 159
Upper Part of Gidar Dhor Formation ...... 159
Kuldana Formation ...... 160
ix
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sandstone Provenances ...... 160
Conclusion ...... 165
VI. CONCLUSIONS...... 168
Timing of Initial India-Asia Collision ...... 168
Two Distinctive Tectonic Pulses of Initial Collision ...... 169
Time Transgressive India-Asia collision ...... 170
Tectonic Model of Collision ...... 170
Tectonic and Environmental Setting of Fossil Mammals in the Ghazij Formation ...... 171
REFERENCES CITED...... 173
APPENDIX-A ...... 189
x
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF TABLES
1.1. Age estimates table of Ghazij Formation ...... 24
5.1. List of rare rock fragments ...... 140
5.2. SEM Analysis of detrital grains of Ghazij Formation ...... 152
5.3. Table of point count modes of Ghazij Formation and related units ...... 156
xi
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LIST OF FIGURES
1.1. Map showing regional tectonic setting, faults and suture zone between the
Indo-Pakistan subcontinent and the Asian continent ...... 2
1.2. Paleogeographic reconstructions of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent
showing northward drift of plate since Cretaceous time ...... 4
1.3. Map of Pakistan showing major geographic areas, provincial boundaries, main
structural features, outcrop areas of igneous, metamorphic rocks and aeolian
sand deposits ...... 6
1.4. Map showing the Eocene rock deposits, major faults and ophiolite zone/axial
belt of Pakistan ...... 7
1.5. Simplified stratigraphy of both Indus and Balochistan Basins in Pakistan ...... 11
1.6. Map showing shelf carbonate deposits and foreland basin sedimentation on
western margin of the Indian Plate during middle Cretaceous through
Miocene drift ...... 12
1.7. Map showing the basinal configuration of Pakistan ...... 14
1.8. Generalized stratigraphic section of Ghazij Formation ...... 17
1.9. Outcrop map of the Ghazij Formation ...... 18
2.1 Sandstone in upper part of lower Ghazij Formation shows herringbone and planar
cross-stratification in Johan-Manguchar area of Kalat Region ...... 30
2.2 Photograph of Facies I Sandstone Bodies shows very thin to thin and medium
bedded sandstone intercalated with mudrock (Khost coalfield) ...... 38
2.3 Sandstone Facies II Bodies showing stratigraphic position, and coal/
carbonaceous shale outcrop ...... 40
2.4 Photo mosaic showing sheet like sandstone body in eastern part of Duki coalfield... 42
xii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.5 Sandstone Facies III at Khost coalfield area, Quetta region shows basal lag
deposit and mudrock chip cavities ...... 44
2.6 Carbonate Facies I & II at Shahrig Coalfield area represents foraminiferal
limestone (Facies I) in basal part of the middle Ghazij Formation ...... 46
2.7 Photographs showing multicolor-banded, mottled mudrock facies of the
upper Ghazij, Sor Range-Daghari coalfield ...... 52
2.8 Cross stratification in upper Ghazij sandstones of the Mughal Kot area shows
erosional base and small to medium, planar cross stratification and convolute
(CV) bedding structure in basal part ...... 57
2.9 Conglomerate facies of upper Ghazij in Surab area, Kalat region ...... 59
3.1. Geological map of Kalat and adjoing areas ...... 64
3.2. Map showing location of stratigraphic sections and localities of the Kalat region
and adjoining areas ...... 66
3.3. Stratigraphic section showing thick sequence of conglomerate in western part
of Kalat region at Bitagu locality, Marap area ...... 67
3.4. Stratigraphic section showing chaotic assemblage in upper part of
Karkh Formation ...... 69
3.5. Stratigraphic section shows the upper part of Karkh Group in the area south
of Johan and east southeast of Surab near Jahan locality ...... 70
3.6. Photos showing the coaly carbonaceous shale outcrop of the Rodangi Formation... 72
3.7. Speculative basin architecture for deposition of Ghazij facies and depositional
behavior of Cretaceous-Paleocene rocks in Kalat region ...... 73
3.8. Fence diagram showing thick conglomerate units in the western part of
Kalat region ...... 74
3.9. Geologic Map of Quetta Region ...... 77
xiii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.10. Correlation of conglomerate deposits of the Quetta region from Kach and
Kamal Kach, Khost Coalfield areas ...... 78
3.11. Map showing geographic localities and section locations in the Quetta Region 79
3.12. Fence diagram showing thick upper and middle Ghazij facies around Zarghun
Mountains which thin towards the east in Sibi trough and east of Harnai in
Dungan Hills ...... 81
3.13. Detailed section of upper contact of the Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations
at Shin Ghwazh Section locality, Sor Range Coalfield ...... 85
3.14. Correlation of lithofacies between upper Ghazij and Spintangi Formations in
the Quetta region. These facies show a disconformable contact in the area 87
3.15. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations
at SharanTangi PMDC Mine locality, Shahrig coalfield area ...... 89
3.16. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations
at SharanTangi PMDC Mine locality, Shahrig coalfield area ...... 90
3.17. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations
from Saghandi mining area, Harnai coalfield ...... 91
3.18. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations
from Harnai coalfield ...... 92
3.19. Photographs showing contact between limestone of Paleocene Dungan Group
and shales of the early Eocene Kach sequence and lower Ghazij Formation at
Chappar Rift locality ...... 95
3.20. Photograph showing unconformity between Paleocene and early Eocene rocks
of the Quetta and Kalat regions ...... 97
3.21. Geologic Map of Loralai-D.I.Khan-Waziristan ...... 100
3.22. Geologic Map of Kohat ...... 101
xiv
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3.23. Stratigraphic sections showing regional thickening and thinning behavior of
the early Eocene rocks of the Loralai-D.I. Khan region ...... 103
3.24. Channel sandstone bodies in the upper Ghazij at Toi Nala, Mughal Kot area 104
3.25. Fence diagram showing vertical and lateral facies variation and correlation
of early Eocene rocks along southwest to northeast depositional strike of the
western margin of Indian plate ...... 105
4.1. Map showing location of paleocurrent measurements from Ghazij Formation
and related units in the study area ...... 113
4.2. Rose digrams showing paleocurrent directions along western margin of the
Indian Plate from localities in study area ...... 118
4.3. Summary of paleocurrents by formation shows dominant east-southeastward
paleoflow during late Paleocene-early Eocene time ...... 119
4.4. Paleocurrent map of Gidar Dhor and lower Ghazij Formations of the western
margin of the Indian Plate ...... 121
4.5. Paleocurrent map of middle Ghazij Formation shows dominant paleoflow and
sediment transport directions along western margin of the Indian Plate during
early Eocene time ...... 123
4.6. Paleocurrent map of upper Ghazij and Kuldana Formations shows paleoflow and
dominant sediment transport directions along western margin of the Indian Plate... 125
5.1. Diagram illustrates the geometry of two models of the India-Asia collision 130
5.2. Map showing location of sandstone samples collected for petrographic studies
from Kach Sequence, Gidar Dhor, Ghazij, and Kuldana Formations of study area.. 135
5.3. QFL ternary diagram detrital modes of late Paleocene-early Eocene rocks of the
study area...... 138
5.4. Photomicrograph of thin section sample IHK003-14, collected from the lowermost
part of the middle Ghazij Formation ...... 139
xv
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 5.5. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 10 in Kach (Ahmadun) sample IE1K0040-5... 142
5.6. SEM images and O, Na, Al, Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, and K elemental analysis maps of
same grain described in figure 5.5 for area 10 in sample IE1K004-5 ...... 143
5.7. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 22 in Sor Range sample sgpm-7 ...... 144
5.8. SEM-EDX elemental analysis graphs for area 4 in Kach (Ahmadun) sample
IHK0040...... 145
5.9. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 1 and A in Kach (Ahmadun) sample
IHK0040...... 146
5.10. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 21 in Sor Range sample sgpm-7 ...... 147
5.11. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 6 in Sor Range sample sgpm7-4 ...... 148
5.12. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 5 in Kach (Ahmadun) sample
IHK0040...... 149
5.13. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 7 in Sor Range sample sgpm-7 ...... 150
5.14. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area A in Sor Range sample sgpm-7 ...... 151
5.15. Distribution of detrital modes for late Paleocene-early Eocene sandstone
rocks of the study area ...... 162
xvi
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ABSTRACT
PALEOENVIRONMENTAL AND TECTONIC RECONSTRUCTION OF THE LOWER EOCENE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND RELATED UNITS, BALOCHISTAN, PAKISTAN; IMPLICATION FOR INDIA-ASIA COLLISION
BY
INTIZAR HUSSAIN KHAN
University of New Hampshire, May, 2006
Late Paleocene-early Eocene paralic and continental sediments of the Ghazij
Formation and related units exposed along the transpressional suture zone of the western margin
of the Indian plate preserve the oldest syntectonic deposits of initial India-Asia collision. Analysis
of lithofacies, paleoflow directions, and sandstone petrography indicate that the process of
deformation and uplift of the carbonate shelf along the western margin of the Indian continent
was started as early as late Paleocene. This tectonic uplift and deformation is documented by
several independent lines of evidence: (1) the overall shallowing upward synorogenic sequence of
the Ghazij Formation and related units, (2) proximal conglomerate facies (consisting mainly of
limestone clasts) dominate in the west, whereas distal facies of sandstone and shale dominate in
the east, (3) paleocurrent directions indicate southeastward flowing sediment dispersal paths
during late Paleocene-early Eocene time, opposite that found in the late Cretaceous, suggesting a
reversal in the depositional slope of the Cretaceous shelf, (4) the existence of an unconformity at
the base of the upper part of the late Paleocene-early Eocene Gidar Dhor Formation and newly
interpreted Kach Sequence in the Quetta and Kalat regions, and (5) petrographic study of
sandstones indicating a collision suture/fold thrust belt provenance for the Ghazij Formation and
xvii
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. related units. These results corroborate structural and geophysical evidence for a late Paleocene-
early Eocene age for initial India-Asia contact and contradict a late Cretaceous age based on
faunal data and a late early Eocene to middle Eocene age based on sedimentary evidence from the
Himalayan compressional suture zone in the north. The unroofing pattern and uplift geometry of
the western Indian shelf suggests that India first collided in the southern part of the study area
(Kalat-Khuzdar area) during the late Paleocene-early Eocene along a transpressional suture and
proceeded northward in a time-transgressive fashion. Sandstones from the Ghazij Formation and
related units lack continental crystalline material indicating the Afghan-Kabul blocks were
sutured to Asia, not India, at this time. These new geological data also serve to strengthen the
argument that recently discovered Ghazij fossil mammals record syncollisional dispersal into
India.
xvm
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
The collision between the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent and the Asian continent
represents the most recent continent-continent collision in geologic history. This collision has
generated the largest uplifted landmass in the world, the Tibetan Plateau and the Himalayan
mountain belt, and thus provides an excellent record of continent-continent collision tectonics
(Figure 1.1). Many studies have demonstrated significant climatic and biotic consequences of the
Indian-Asian collision on a regional and global scale. Raymo and Ruddiman (1992) argue that the
Himalayan uplift caused significant drawdown in atmospheric concentrations of C 02 leading to
the transition from “greenhouse” conditions in the Eocene to “ice house” conditions in the
Oligocene. Other paleoclimatological studies have indicated the existence of a short-term global
warming event near the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (Zachos et al. 1993, Thomas and Shackleton
1996) that coincides closely with the timing of the collision. Several modem orders of mammals
first appeared on northern continents at or near this global warming event marking the Paleocene-
Eocene boundary (e.g., perissodactyls, artiodactyls, primates; Clyde and Gingerich 1998; Bowen
et al. 2002), and it has been hypothesized that these mammals dispersed from the Indian
subcontinent at the time of initial collision (Krause and Maas 1990).
Much of the sedimentary record of the early stages of this collision has been either
metamorphosed or heavily deformed during subsequent mountain building. This has left us with
very little understanding of the early paleogeography and paleobiogeography of the region
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ASIAN PLATE
Turan
Pantir MKT . Harat Paul? ^ K,un&»*au‘l '& ^ ------Kabul Disputed - . / territory “ LUT-AFGHAN JW 0 BLOCK
IRAN
Omach Fault
ARABIAN ^ PLATE ,-&* INDIAN PLATE
■ s. / Arabian Sea \ / * ' 1 ' OMAN tjf /f!/.fi
INDIAN ■ : OCIiAN
10'
lo (After Topponnieret. al; 1982) Scale: r- ~ 500 Km
EXPLANATION
MKT. Main Karakoram Thrust Fault (Shyok suture zone (SSZ) Suture) MMT. Main Mantle Thrust Fault (Indus Tsangpo Suture (ITS) zone) / MBT. Main Boundary Thurst Fault.
Strik slip Fault (Chaman Fault)
■ City (Quetta)
Figure 1.1. Map showing regional tectonic setting, faults and suture zone between the Indo- Pakistan subcontinent and the Asian continent. The yellow color represents the study area.
2
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. between Indo-Pakistan and southern Asia before complete tectonic closure. Paleogeographic
reconstructions show that the Indian continent has migrated from about 30° S latitude position to
the present position of 30° N (Powell 1979) since late Cretaceous (-80 Ma) time (Figurel ,2A, B).
Most paleogeographic interpretations show that the Indian continent first collided with Asia along
its northwestern comer, (comprising present day North West Frontier Province [NWFP];
Klootwijk et. at. 1981) and then rotated counterclockwise during its final collision along the
present-day Himalayas (Bannert et al., 1992; Yoshida et al. 1997; Fig 1.2C). Estimates for the
timing of initial collision range from late Cretaceous (-67 Ma) to middle Eocene (-42 Ma) based
on different lines of evidence including changes in paleomagnetically calibrated rates of plate
movement (Molnar and Tapponier, 1975; Figure 1.2B), changes in spreading direction in the
Indian Ocean (Patriat and Ashache, 1984), motion-inferring mechanisms such as orientation of
transfer faults and seismicity (Verma, 1992) and the first evidence of faunal interchange (Jaeger
et al. 1989, Rage et al. 1995). Much of the geological and paleontological record that would
provide direct evidence of pre- and early stage collision has been caught in the highly deformed
and metamorphosed suture zone to the north that now comprises the Himalayas. The sedimentary
evidence that does exist is often controversial because of structural complications (Bossart and
Ottiger 1989; Rowley 1996; Najman et al., 2001, 2002) and a lack of contextual information that
could link it to other (e.g., geophysical and paleontological) records of initial collision. Reliable
stratigraphic records of early collision are critical for testing proposed linkages of India-Asian
tectonism to global climatic and biotic change during the early Paleogene (Beck et al. 1998), and
for constraining the structural evolution of the collision zone (Burbank et al. 1996; Johnson
2002). Although the stratigraphic record (e.g. the Siwalik Group and related deposits) of post
collision (Oligocene-Recent) denudation in the Himalayan foreland is very complete and fairly
well studied, it lacks a record of the early stage of collision (late Paleocene- early Eocene).
3
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PALEOGEOGRAPHIC MAP OF INDO-PAKISTAN SUBCONTINENT
so 7000
\\
S Mw&Sl™ r*. ”fi 13«
r\\ v ^ T ' o 3000 i> j*~ k ^ /
1000 - s (Froir( Molnar j ft (From Powell 1 979 i | Tappc^inier, 1975) Dewey et al. 1989) 20 40 60 80 40E 50 70 80 0 Time (million years)
EARLY CRETACEOUS MID- CRETACEOUS LATE CRETACEOUS PALEOCENE O U O O C EN E RECENT (at. 120Ma) (at lOOMa?) (ca. 76Ma) (ca. 55Ma.) (ca. 36Ma) (Quaternary)
PosKkxadvyana breakup Collision between Kohistan phsse-1 granite Kofrtstac Utror volcarosm Chagai volcanism Kohistan arc/back-are basin Kohistan and Karakoram Bibai voleanism Chagai Vblcan Afghan CCW rotation Rajmahai Trap block SSZ suturing MMT autoring Afghan block / 'v * * I PHASE 11 PHASE COLLISION COLLISION
Kohisan < as volcanism Suturing of $SZ Phase-: graanrte \ CW Back ate basin ~smss\ rotatiiMi "KoKisEh "V Kohistan island a r e X . . . . island arc 'WV Ladakh ill Phase Ladakh and are Collision island arc island am Neo-Teihys ocean EXPLANATION Reunion hotspot Hibai volcanism Shyok Suture zone (Mam Karakorum Thurst) iMHAN MMT Main Mantle Thurst (Indus Tsangpo suture zone) RajmahalT CCW Counter clockwise Kerguelen hos**ot ANTARCTICA (From Yoshida et al. 1997)
Figure 1.2. Paleogeographic reconstructions of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent showing northward drift of plate since Cretaceous time. A. Paleomagnetic anomaly map showing positions of the Indian Plate during its northward drift. B. Time distance graph for the northeastern and north-western tips of the Indian plate showing the difference between the two tips and the change in convergence rate indicating initial collision. C. Paleogeographic map of Indian subcontinent showing the terranes in and around the Himalaya-Karakoram collision belt since late Jurassic.
4
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. A less deformed and un-metamorphosed late Paleocene-early Eocene sedimentary
record is preserved along the northwestern margin of the Indian plate in Balochistan province and
North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan (Figure 1.3, 1.4). The late Paleocene-early
Eocene rocks of this region (Ghazij Formation and its equivalent, Figure 1.4) preserve a unique
sedimentologic record of this important geological event and provide a window into the initial
phase of continent-continent collision tectonics. These rocks were deposited in SW-NE trending
basins (e.g. Kohat-Potwar, Sulaiman and Kirthar provinces of Indus basin [Figure 1.4]) adjacent
to the uplifted areas of Indian shelf, which were caused by the initiation of compressional
tectonics in the region during the late Paleocene. The sediments of these basins indicate an abrupt
change from passive margin shelf carbonate to active margin terrestrial foreland basin
sedimentation and thus provide a unique record of the early stages of collision between the Indian
and Asia continents (Khan and Clyde, 2004).
The impact of early phases of collision and collision-related deformation on local
late Paleocene and early Eocene sedimentary basins in northwest Pakistan has not been studied in
detailed. Therefore, rock sequences and their associated facies in these basins have not been
completely understood in their correct context. This has led to significant disagreement and
misunderstanding in interpreting and correlating the rock sequences on a regional scale. Detailed
studies of these sedimentary basins will also help to resolve several other ongoing controversies
associated with initial India-Asia collision tectonics and northwestern stratigraphy of Pakistan.
These controversies include the age, tectonic setting, and geometry of initial collision, as well as
the role of initial collision in mammalian dispersal. This research will also help to develop a
better paleogeographic reconstruction of western margin of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent, the
paleobiogeography of the recently discovered land mammals (Gingerich, et al. 1997) from
Balochistan region, and the impacts of collision and collision related deformation on basin
sedimentation.
5
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
400 Km
MMT Main Karakoram Thrust Fault (SSZ. Suture) Fault Thrust Karakoram Main Suture) (ITS, Fault Mantle Main Fault Boundary Main high Axis ofStructural Town Igneous and Metamorphic Rocks sand Desert Provincial Boundaries, Ophiolites EXPLANATION UlMlB MKT. MMT. MBT. / \ k Klqana ■. CHINA ISLAMABAD ' ? f Granite ...Nagar Purkar Peshttw ^ Laborer X O \ > Kbot \ ^ 70 ' >1; A ophiolile ophiolile \ Waaristwi^*«i^T^^chinar Waaristwi^*«i^T^^chinar j j S I N D II \ te Qucita IV 5\ IV "isH &■ ,-"V v<^Pas«i « Arc « i Wrt'iWn 64 03 Central Mekran j * \ Coastal Makaran Mashkel trough t A r a b i a n Cbaoat %>ka Cbaoat ) Ciwadar a (Modified afterRaza, 2001; Kazmi. el. a t 1997, Banaert, 1992, & Shah, 1977). ‘ MAP OF PAKISTAN IRAN metamorphic rocks and aeolian sand deposits. sand rocks andaeolian metamorphic Figure 1,3. Map of Pakistan showing major geographic areas, provincial boundaries, main structural featues, outcrop areas of igneous and igneous areas of outcrop boundaries, mainfeatues, structural provincial areas, geographic major showing Pakistan ofMap Figure 1,3.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
meters. Contours to .After Ahmad, .After 1982 M.lUX1. < „ r XX" IIISTM* o /Cjfe-p #/« \V%W//Cjfe-p ,r : ^ x //bi£ / t ------j OUTCROP MAP OF EOCENE
------i ROCKS OF PAKISTAN KASHMIR ? »'\ v JAMMU & JAMMU Tcrtitory) (Disputed < Lahore< \ i i » v / / D0-PAKISTAN ISLAMABAD *oS > IN SUBCONTINENT «£*' Kohat - Potwar Province • / Pcshawai \ 11 200 Miles PIAJ6.AU IRAN (?) ✓TV ' f 7 ,NDO- ^ I MnteAnH „..,... ,„.y k + >> k + P'UTI **’ v Formation Formation Fault ASUN Study Area Study x r r »h »h r x r > Eocene Rocks Rocks Eocene Ophiolite zone/ Ophiolite Axial belt Axial ^ARABIAN vim vim \ x E E ti.'R „ ^ ...... ^ „ ,. / \ * , , \s4/' f/Xj \ ) V W |' "pLSf5™ V ^ L ~ S I ^ 26 structural trendofthe axial belt andis restricted tothe westernmargin theof Indian plate. A. Map showing regional geological setting ofIndian Figure Map1.4. showingthe Eocene rock deposits, major faults and ophiolite zone/axial belt ofPakistan. The rock exposure follows the plate, majorplate boundaries, Ophiolite zones and study area. B. Map showing representsthe total outcrop the Ghazij oftheFormation) Eocene rocks exposed ofPakistan in the Indus(golden and colorBalochistan basins centralofPakistan.Pakistan C. Isopach (Sulaiman map andofKirthartotal EoceneProninces deposits of Indusin south- Basin) showingmajor depocenters along the westernmargin ofthe Indian plate
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Study Objectives and Methodology
My dissertation research focuses on reconstructing the paleogeography and tectonic
history of western Pakistan during late Paleocene and early Eocene time as recorded in the Ghazij
Formation and related units. This research will help document the well-exposed record of
syncollisional sedimentation in this unmetamorphosed part of the Himalayan suture and
document the evolution of tectonic and depositional environments during a typical continent-
continent collision. The methods used for this study include facies analysis and correlation for
purpose of reconstructing depositional environments and subsidence history in these basins,
paleocurrent analysis for establishing the dominant regions of source material, and petrographic
analysis of sandstones for purpose of constraining the un-roofing history of source areas.
Facies Analysis
Facies analysis of sedimentary units within the Ghazij and related units (Chapters 2
and 3) will aid in the identification of depositional environments and evaluation of their lateral
geometry and extent. A geographically referenced database of over 100 stratigraphic sections
from throughout the study area is compiled to make regional lithostratigraphic correlations. These
correlations are converted into fence diagrams that provide a three-dimensional picture of facies
distribution across the Ghazij Formation and related units. A depositional and tectonic history is
then inferred from these facies distributions.
8
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Paleocurrent Indicators
Paleocurrent indicators are examined in middle and upper Ghazij sandstone bodies
(Chapter 4) to estimate the dominant flow direction of streams during the period of fluvial and
fluvio-deltaic deposition. This information constrains the location of regional uplifts along the
suture zone, which is critical for assembling an accurate paleogeographic model for the early
stages of collision.
Provenance Analysis
Provenance analysis of sandstone bodies within the lower, middle, and upper Ghazij
(Chapter 5) is performed to constrain the geology of the source area. Two distinct models of
initial collision have been proposed and are tested by evaluating the provenance of sedimentary
materials in the Ghazij Formation. Model 1 predicts the un-roofing of sedimentary cover and
then possibly ophiolite material (polycrystalline quartz, limestone fragments, calcite, mafic
minerals and rock fragments) without any influx of continental crystalline material (potassium
feldspar, intermediate to acidic rock fragments) since the Ghazij would be resulting from intra-
oceanic plate deformation. Model 2 predicts the influx of at least some continental material since
the continents would be suturing together and thus in physical contact at the time of deposition.
To test these alternative models, the modal abundances of quartz (monocrystalline,
polycrystalline), feldspar (K-spar and plagioclase), and lithic fragments (sedimentary [chert,
limestone, clastic], volcanic [mafic, felsic], and metamorphic) are assessed and those data
evaluated in the context of standard provenance ternary diagrams (Dickinson 1988).
9
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Background
Regional Geology and Stratigraphy
The rocks exposed in Pakistan range in age from Precambrian to Recent and are
dominantly sedimentary in origin. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are also common in certain
regions (i.e. north-northwestern parts of Balochistan [Chagai-Ras Koh area], NWFP provinces,
and Northern Areas of Pakistan; Figure 1.3). Most of the sedimentary rocks are of marine origin,
but fluviatile, estuarine, littoral or paludal (swamp) environments are common during the
Cenozoic (Figure 1.5). Aeolian sand is confined to surficial deposits of Pleistocene-Recent age
on the plains of the Thar and Cholistan deserts (Fig 1.3).
The geology of Pakistan is quite complex and displays great lateral variation in
lithology and structure. The nature, distribution, and complexities of the sedimentation are largely
dependent on the position, proximity, and nature of the source areas to certain geotectonic events.
A shallow-marine shelf supporting a carbonate platform existed along a portion of coastal
Gondwana from at least the Permian. After breakup of Gondwanaland during the late Mesozoic,
this environment continued to accumulate carbonate sediments on the passive continental margin
of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent during its northward drift (Figure 1.6). Towards the north lay
the open ocean of the southern Tethys Sea and toward the south lay the non-marine environments
of the sub-continent. The pre- and post-rift Jurassic through Paleocene carbonates dominate the
lower parts of many stratigraphic columns with some limited amount of clastic rocks (Cretaceous
Sember and Pab Fms, Figures 1.5, 1.6). Basaltic pillow lava, tuff and volcanic agglomerate
material (Bela and Bibai Volcanic, HSC, 1960) of early to middle Cretaceous age (Auden 1974)
is present in association with post-rift carbonate rocks that might have been emplaced when the
carbonate platform passed over a hot spot in the mantle as the Indian plate moved northward
10
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BALOCHISTAN BASIN INDUS BASIN LITHOLOGIC OPHIOLITE ZONE/ EPOCH LOG OF THE Makran AXIAL B I 1 1 Krrlhar and Sulaiman Pishin Ranges INDUS BASIN Coastal Central Sulaiman & Kirthar province Quaternary Kamerod/ Dada Conglomerate Pleistocene Kech Bostan
Pliocene Hinglaj — Sibi/Urak Talar Multana Manchar o Group Parkini i y o . Fm 2 (=SmalikGp) M iocene Shaigalu Gaj Fm. ? Panjgur inOhfl? , Hoshab Ofigocene Nari Fm. bv-U j Murgha j Faqirzai tD itt,,.... Wakahi Lst
Late Eocene i Drazinda Fin Fir Koh Fm. Siahan Domanda Fm. i Sh. Nimargh Fm I Habib Raht Fm Middle Eocene Nisia Fm Spintangi Lst Waki Lst Nisia Fm .. Baska Fm. \ Ghazij Drug Tm.______Earlv Eocene 3 g 5 6 \ Group T « r i» \ Shahecd Gbat Fm
Wad Ispikan \ Dungan Gp / Lst \ Dab Pm Paleocene Congl \ Jamburo \ Rakhi Gaj Fm./ a Croup \ Ranikot Group Muslimbag-Zbob- Bela Ophiolites Pab Fm. Late Cretaceous Fort Munro Fm. Parh Moghal kot / Moro Fm. Group Parh Group Path Fm. Early Cretaceous Ophiolitic Grou Fm. Seafloor Sember Fm.
Late Jurassic Chilian Fm.
Loralai Fm, Middle Jurassic Anjira Fm. Spingwar Fm.
Early Jurassic Shrinab Fm. y ii o
Khanozai Group Triassic (Wulgai, Gwal Fms) ? 3 ill! Permian ollstoliths -500 u Permian -1000 Meters (Modified after Raza et al., 2001; Shah, 1999; Fatmi et al, 1986, and HSC.,I960)
Figure 1.5. Simplified stratigraphy of both Indus and Balochistan Basins in Pakistan
11
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CRETACEOUS-MIOCENE SEDIMENTATION ON WESTERN MARGIN OF THE INDIAN PLATE
O ligocene
Upper / Eocene ‘
Paleocene Eocene
Middle Cretaceous
Flysch Folding , 1 imestone —
(after Bannert, 1992; Powell 1979)
Figure 1.6. Map showing shelf carbonate deposits and foreland basin sedimentation on western margin of the Indian Plate during middle Cretaceous through Miocene drift.
12
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (Johnson et al. 1999, Yoshida et al. 1997. Figure 1.2C). McCormick (1985, 1989) referred to
these rocks as within-plate alkali basalts associated with a volcanic island arc. During the
formation of Pakistan’s late Paleocene-early Eocene coal deposits (coal in Bara, Hangu, Ghazij
and Sohnari Formations) the region was approximately at, or slightly north of, the equator
(Powell, 1979; Klootwijk, 1981; Clyde et al. 2003).
Before or just after the beginning of the Eocene, the depositional setting of eastern
Balochistan changed dramatically as a result of tectonism associated with the India-Asia
collision. A topographically positive area consisting of carbonate-platform deposits developed
just northwest of the marine shelf (Johnson et al. 1999). Thus for the first time, a northwestern
source area for clastic sediments was created (Johnson et al. 1999). The tectonically elevated
area, named the “axial belt” by Blunting Survey Corporation (1960), is characterized by
discontinuous ophiolites (Las Bela, Mulsim Bagh, Zhob, Waziristan), associated melanges (HSC
1960; Gansser, 1979; Abbas et al, 1979; De Jong et al 1979), transform faults (Chaman-Omach-
Nal fault systems), and represents the present active northwestern border of the Indian Plate
(Figure 1.4). The elevated topography divided Pakistan into two main sedimentary basin systems,
the Balochistan Basin to the west and the Indus Basin to the east, (former flysch and calcareous
regions of Vredenberg [1909c, p. 190]). The Balochistan basin is marine whereas the Indus basin
is continental in origin (Figure 1.7).
The Indus basin is a generally northeast trending foreland basin with a tectonic
highland to the northwest and an exposed Indian craton to the southeast (Johnson et al. 1999). “The relatively shallow intra-cratonic sea that occupied the basin was somewhat connected with
the open seaway, at least towards the south (Johnson et al. 1999) During early Eocene, the
marginal marine to non-marine Ghazij sediment was deposited on the west side of the basin near
the shoreline and on the coastal plain, and marine deposits were deposited towards the south-
southeast side of the basin (Johnson et al. 1999).
13
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. BASIN ARCHITECTURE OF PAKISTAN
MM M il n k. iiikiT.il.* i! ius! 1 .iuIm SS/ Sum c' VM1 M i l , 11 M .im iIc I „u : 111S Sl.Il rc) VIM M . n 1) Hiiularv h iu lt
kVono di*:n.i nsol — “ — - " RCAMAnADA nv £ Kohat - Por&ar forcdccp l \ the liuii.s <<. f)akichtsian basins Opinditi* t; pirpR ‘N 0 LJ y t r ' "I ota n
\ \ v _ Lahore' S \ £ X X
Sibi Iregh J r p
I R A \
Gwadar
Nagar Paikar
(Modified after Raza, 2001; Kazmi. et. al. 1997, Bannert, 1992; Shall, 1977).
Figure 1.7. Map showing thebasinal configuration of Pakistan. The major basins/terranes are separated by prominent faults and the subsidiary basins are separated by Preeambrian basement highs. The Omach Nal fault and Ghazaband fault separate the Indus basin from the Balochistan basin in the west, while the Main Mantle Thrust (MMT) fault separates the Indian plate from the Kohistan-Ladakh arc in the north. The Karakoram Thrust (MKT) separates the Karakoram terrane from the Kohistan-Ladakh arc. The three subsidiary Indus basins (lower, middle & upper) and the Kashmir basin are separated by Muzaffarabad, Sargohda & Jacobabad basement highs. The Indus basin is comprised of four tectonic zones namely the ophiolite zone, the foldbelt, the foredeep and the platform in west to east direction.
14
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Structurally, the Indus Basin is comparatively simple. The Indian shield forms a
gentle monocline, which is traversed by a number of basement highs (the Sargodha, Jacobabad,
Muzaffrabad and Hyderabad highs, Figure 1.7), extending north-westward for varying distances in
to Himalayan regions. These basement highs divide the Indus Basin into upper, middle and lower
sub-basins from north to south (Figure 1.7) also referred as Kohat-Potwar, Sulaiman and Kirthar
depositional provenances, respectively. The Ghazij Formation occupied the latter two
provenances, which are quite similar in terms of stratigraphy and structure.
The Ghazij Formation
Late Paleocene-early Eocene rocks are widely exposed in the Sulaiman and Kohat-
Potwar Provinces of the Indus basin. These rocks were deposited in tectonically active basins
(upper and middle Indus basin), and exhibit a clear transition from shallow marine facies to
continental fluvial facies. The outcrop area of these rocks mimics the western margin of the
Indian plate suggesting they are closely associated with, and/or modified by, the collision
between Indo-Pakistan and Asia (Figure 1.4).
One of the most important rock units of these tectonically active basins during late
Paleocene-early Eocene period along the western part of the Indian continent is the Ghazij
Formation. The Ghazij Formation and its equivalent rocks are widely exposed in the Sulaiman
and Kohat-Potwar areas of the upper and middle part of Indus basin (Fig 1.4). The early Eocene
Ghazij Formation and its equivalent strata whose sediments were derived from the west may be
the oldest known syntectonic deposits associated with the collision. The sediments older than
Ghazij Formation were mainly transported from the Indian shield from the east (Waheed and
Wells, 1990). Hunting Survey Corporation (HSC, 1960) reported a maximum thickness of
15
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3300m for the Ghazij Formation from Balochistan. The Ghazij Formation consists of shallow
marine shales (approx. 1000 meters thick) that transition into continental fluvial sandstone,
mudstone, coal, conglomerate and paleosol facies (Figure 1.8). It is bounded on the bottom by
shelf carbonate limestones of the Paleocene Dungan Formation (or its equivalent), and bounded
on the top by the early Eocene Drug/Baska Formations or middle Eocene Kirthar/Spintangi
Formations.
Aerial Distribution of the Ghazij Formation
The Ghazij Formation is widely distributed through the western part of Pakistan. It
is exposed in an arcuate belt that follows the structural trend of the axial belt covering an area of
more than a thousand square kilometers of Balochistan and Northwest Frontier Province (NWFP)
of Pakistan (Figure 1.9). Its exposure extends from the vicinity of Jandola-Mir Ali in the north
(about 450 km northeast of Quetta in North Waziristan of NWFP) to the vicinity of Karkh in the
south (about 350 km south of Quetta in the Kirthar range of Kalat District, Balochistan; Figure
1.9). South of Karkh, beds equivalent to Ghazij are integral parts of the Jambro Group. East of the
axial belt, the formation is recognized in the subsurface of the Indus Plain as far east as Mirpur
Mathelo (Figure 1.9). Tertiary rocks in the central and western parts of the axial belt are eroded
away so the Ghazij is not present there.
Stratigraphic Nomenclature and Previous Studies of the Ghazij Formation
Previous research on the Ghazij Formation has a relatively long and complicated history. The
term “Ghazij” was first introduced by R. D. Oldham (1890, part 2, p. 58) for the thick sequence
(600 m) of gray and olive green shales with subsidiary beds of limestone, sandstone, and locally
16
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. GENERALIZED SECTION OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION
Middle Eocene Spintangi/ KirtharfSpintangi limestone- light gray, fossiliferous Kirthar Lst. rabbly limestone
Upper Ghazij- dominant ted mudstone with subordinate beds of sandstone (channel sandstone)
Middle Ghazij- intercalated sandstone, gray mudrock, few beds of coal & fossiliferous marl/limestone, and a bed of conglomerate at top.
I Os 2 W ih jz I C/3 s ' Lower Ghazij- predominantly green-gray shale and mud- II rock with few thin sandstone beds).
Paleocene Dungan limestone- light to medium gray limestone, thin to Dungan Lst medium bedded * £§ s | IS I M
Scale in meters
Figure 1.8. Generalized stratigraphic section of Ghazij Formation, showing the three distinct litho- stratigraphic subunits (lower, middle and upper) of the formation.
17
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. MAP OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION
i ■ i - Baimu
CHINA c'r. s ‘
PROVINCES OF PAKISTAN PLACE NAMES Jandoia L AbiguJ Areas 2 Ab-i- Gum 3. Angira 4. BaMol 5. Baleli 6. Baxmu 7. Bala Dhaka . DeraRughti 9. D m Ghazi SChan Generalized 10. Dera Ismail Khan physiographic 1.1. Drazinda outline o f Axial 12. Daki Belt 13. H a m a ! 14. Jacobobad Jandoia 15. Johan IS.Kach 17. Kaiat 18. Karakh 19. Kingri 20. Khost is 21. Maeh Marap 22. MirpBrMathelo Dera 23. Moghal Kot Ghazi Khan 24. Muslim Bagh SULAIMAN 25. Narmuk 2S. Pir Ismail Ziarat 27. Rakhi Nala 28. Rodangi Nala 29. Sanjawi 39. Sar.u: Ihngi 31. Shahrig 32. Sibi 33. Spmtangi 34. Sui 35. Surab 36. Tang Na Pusht 37. Umai 38. Urak 39. Waksbi 40. Zinda Pir
MupurMathelo
Karakh-jg “
0 1______50i______100i Km
Ghazij Formation Ophiolite Zone/ Conglomerate areas Fault Town Locality Axial Belt
Figure 1.9. Outcrop map of the Ghazij Formation (brown shading). Conglomerate facies are outlined with red line. The major geographic localities that fall in the Ghazij basin as well as in surrounding areas and mentioned in the text are listed and positioned on the map by numbers. Index map shows location of map area and province boundaries of Pakistan
18
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. developed coal, between the Dungan Limestone and the Spintangi Limestone. He named this
sequence “Ghazij shales” after Ghazij Rud, a stream (nala) that runs down from Dungan
Mountains to Spintangi in the valley located about 6 km east-southeast of the Spintangi Railway
Station and ~150 km east of Quetta in the Hamai area (about 30 km east of Hamai). Later in that
same year, Oldham (1890, part 3, p. 95) described and mapped the same shale sequence as the
Ghazij group. He also described and mapped two other groups from the area, the Spintangi group
and the Dungan group, and listed these groups in the index of the map. Farther, he defined in
detail the contact relationships of the Ghazij group with the underlying and overlying rocks. The
lower contact of the Ghazij group was placed on top of a pseudo-conglomerate bed of the Dungan
Limestone in the Dungan hills, Des valley and Mazar Drik areas. The upper contact was placed
with the overlaying Spintangi Limestone. He reported coal near Duki and other coal occurrences
in the area.
Griesbach (1881) first described the coal bearing strata (Ghazij shales of Oldham) of
Balochistan from the Mach coalfield and placed the sequence in the Ranikot group. He measured
two sections through the coal-bearing zone that is exposed along both banks of the Bolan River
and described the coal from this area. Blanford (1882) also reported coal from the Ghazij
Formation in the Sharig area and provided chemical analyses of the Mach and Sharig coal.
Vredenburg (1909) identified the upper part of the Ghazij shales in the Kirthar Range as “lower
Kirthar shales” and the lower part as “Ghazij beds”. He also reported coal in the Ghazij Shales
from the Johan area (half way between Johan and Ziarat in Sarawan nala). Subsequently,
Crookshank (1949) described and reported further occurrences of coal from this area.
Eames (1952a) and Nagappa (1959) introduced detailed nomenclature for the lower
Eocene rocks of the Sulaiman Range and limited the term Ghazij Shales by subdividing
lithofacies into “Shale with Albaster, Rubbly Limestone, Green and Nodular Shales, Ghazij
19
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. shales, Rakhi Gaj Shale, Zinda Pir Limestone”. Williams (1959) was the first to elevate the status
of Ghazij Shales to Ghazij Formation and designated Spintangi as the type section.
The Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) preferred the term “Ghazij Shales” for the
strata between Spintangi Limestone and Dungan Limestone. They described the lithofacies and
invertebrate paleontology in detail and mapped the Balochistan and Sindh areas (Kirthar Range)
at a scale of 1 inch to 4-Miles (1:253440).
Hemphill and Kidwai (1973) mapped the Dera Ismail Khan and Bannu areas, and
Meissner et al. (1974, 1975) mapped the Kohat and Parachinar areas (NWFP province) on
1:250,000 scales. Shah (1977) and Iqbal and Shah (1980) retained the name of Williams’ Ghazij
Formation. Shah (1990) divided the Ghazij Formation into Shaheed Ghat Formation (Jamiluddin
et al. unpublished) and the Toi Formation (Hussain, 1977, verbal communication with Shah) and
designated the name Ghazij Group. This group includes two more formations of the Sulaiman
province, the Drug Formation (Jamiluddin unpublished) and the Baska Formation of Hemphill
and Kidwai (1973).
The Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) mapped the coal bearing areas of the
Ghazij Formation in detail on 1:50,000 scale, and the coalfields on 1:25,000 and 1:12,000 scales.
GSP and the United State Geological Survey (USGS) carried out studies on coal and the coal
geology under collaborative projects in the 1960’s, 1970’s and 1980's and published several
reports and maps (Khan N.M., 1950; Landis, 1971, 1994; Khan et al., 1972; Ahmed et al., 1986;
Khan, et al., 1986; Ahmed and Kazim, 1987; Shah, 1977, 1990; Kazim et. al., 1991; Warwick et
al., 1993, 1994c, 1998; Johnson et al, 1994abde). These studies covered the economic aspects
(coal deposits), as well as the stratigraphy and lithologic details of the formation. Johnson et al.
(1999) made preliminary studies of depositional environments in the Ghazij Formation and
Ghaznavi (1988, 1990) carried out detailed work on the coal petrography as a part of his Ph.D.
20
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. studies. Ahmed et al. (1985) studied the clay minerals of the Ghazij Formation in the Chappar
Rift area. Clyde et al. (2003) carried out paleomagnetic studies of the Ghazij Formation.
Kazi (1968) described sedimentology of the Ghazij Formation from the Hamai area
and some sedimentologic work was reported by Farshori and Ahmed (1969). Kassi (1986, 1987)
carried out work on sandstone petrography and provenance studies. Kazmi (1962) described the
stratigraphy and petrography of sandstones of the Ghazij Fm. from Zardlu area.
Despite all of this research on the basic stratigraphy and coal geology of the Ghazij
Formation, very limited work has been accomplished in terms of basin analysis and
paleogeographic reconstruction, which is the aim of the present study.
Nomenclature used in this study - In this dissertation, I retain the long-established
strati graphic nomenclature of the Ghazij Formation (Williams, 1959; Shah 1977; Iqbal and Shah
1980; and Ghazij Shales of the Hunting Survey Corporation, 1960) by restricting this term to the
stratigraphic interval between Dungan and Spintangi Limestones in the Quetta region. South of
Quetta in the Kalat region, this interval includes the Marap Conglomerate and the uppermost part
of the Gidar Dhor Formation (HSC, 1960). In the north-northeast area of Loralai-Kingri this
interval includes the sequence between the Dungan Formation, or its equivalent, and the Drug
Formation. North of Loralai-Kingri in the Dera Ismail Khan (D.I. Khan)-North Waziristan region
it includes the interval between the Dungan and Baska Formations. The vertical and lateral
lithofacies variations within the Ghazij Formation are part of a single long genetic shallowing-
upward marine to continental (regressive) sequence. This shallowing upward sequence represents
three depositional environments: shallow marine, paralic and continental environments. Each
environment is represented by a distinct lithofacies that progrades into the next in the sequence.
Shah (1990) divided these lithofacies into two formations - the lower shallow marine (shale)
21
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. facies as Shaheed Ghat Formation and the upper paralic (sandstone, shale) and continental (red
mudrock) facies as the Toi Formation. The contact between these two formations is arbitrarily
placed and thus varies with localities so it is not used here. Furthermore, the upper two formations
(Drug and Baska Formations) of the Ghazij group of Shah (1990) were deposited in a
transgressive depositional system different from the Ghazij that represents a shallow marine to
restricted shallow marine carbonate and evaporite environment. The carbonate facies of Drug and
Baska are more similar in terms of litholofacies and deposition to the overlying carbonate rocks
of the Spintangi/Kirthar Limestone. Therefore, genetically Drug and Baska rocks share more
characteristics with upper Spintangi/Kirthar than the Ghazij (Shaheed Ghat and Toi Formations)
and thus it is better to group them with the Spintangi Limestone under the Spintangi Group
(Oldham, 1890) instead of keeping them as a part of Ghazij Group.
Paleontologic Studies
There has also been a great deal of paleontological work on the Ghazij Formation.
Blanford (1890, 1892), Pilgrim (1912) and Nuttall (1925) examined lower Eocene larger
foraminifers. Haque (1959a) described smaller foraminifers and Cox (1931) described an Eocene
molluscan fauna from the Quetta area. The lower Eocene small molluscan fauna, small
nummulites and bryozoa from the Rakhi Gaj and Zinda Pir were described by Eames (1951,
1952). Afzal (1996) reported foraminifera from Rakhi nala. Fritz and Khan (1966) reported
planktonic foraminifera from lower Ghazij of the Sor Range and HSC (1960) reported shallow
benthic foraminifera from the lower and middle Ghazij Formation in different parts of
Balochistan. Gibson et al. (1992, 1994) reported late Paleocene foraminifers a few meters above
the Dungan Formation at Chapper Rift. However, in another set of samples collected by Johnson
et al. at the same locality but a little farther up from Gibson’s sample location, Gibson identified
22
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. early Eocene foraminifers. Gingerich et al. (1997, 1998, 1999, 2001) reported recently discovered
land mammals from the Ghazij Formation.
Geochronology of the Ghazij Formation
Age/Biostratigraphv - There has been no radiometric work reported on the Ghazij
Formation and only preliminary magnetostratigraphic work has been completed (Clyde et al.,
2003). Existing age estimates are thus entirely based on previous paleontological work.
Investigations of invertebrate and microfossil assemblages of marine units within and above the
Ghazij Formation constrain its age to be latest Paleocene to early Eocene (Table 1, Gingerich et
al., 1997). Early study of the marine invertebrate fossils of the lower and middle Ghazij
Formation identified these units as predominantly early Eocene in age (Nuttall 1925; Cox 1931;
Williams 1959; HSC 1960). However, more recent investigations into the foraminiferal and
nannoplankton biostratigraphy of the lower to middle Ghazij Formation (Afzal 1996) and
overlying Spintangi Formation and Kirthar Group provide the most precise information for
correlating the Ghazij Formation to the global time scale. Table 1 shows the biostratigraphic
results of various microfossil studies and suggests a latest Paleocene to early Eocene age for the
Ghazij Formation. Recently discovered mammal fossils from the middle and upper Ghazij facies
are also most likely early Eocene in age.
23
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Reference Zone AnDroximate Age Range (Ma)
Khan and Fritz966 P6A-P7 56-52 Samanta 1972 P8 51 Weiss 1993 P6B-P7 55-52 Afzal 1996 P7-P9 52-50 Haq 1967, 1972 P-12 53-51
Table 1- Age estimates of the lower Ghazij Formation based on micro-paleontological correlations to the time scale of Berggren et al., 1995 (after Gingerich et al., 1997). Zone refer to the biostratigraphic zones of planktonic foraminifera.
The Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) collected the oldest fossils in the Ghazij
Formation from a few feet above the basal unconformity near Umai and Zawar kanr villages in
the Kach area. These faunas suggest a Paleocene age for the lowest Ghazij Formation in this area,
equivalent to the Upper Ranikot of Sindh. This is farther supported by Gibson (1992) who
reported both Paleocene and Eocene fossils within ~50 m interval above the Dungan Formation at
Chapper Rift in the Khost area. These results imply that the Paleocene-Eocene boundary must be
contained within the lower Ghazij Formation at some localities. However, the upper strata of the
Dungan Group (Siazgi limestone and Sanjawi limestone) of HSC (1960) in the Loralai and Duki
areas contain fossils of early Eocene age. In view of these facts, the lower members of the Ghazij
in some places must correlate with parts of the Dungan Group in others, so both formations must
be diachronous. The contact of Ghazij with the Spintangi limestone also seems to be time-
transgressive in a direction away from the Axial Belt. This is strongly indicated by the thinning of
Ghazij towards the Marri Bughti Hills and the reciprocal thickening of the Spintangi (HSC 1960).
24
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER II
FACIES ANALYSIS OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION
The Ghazij Formation is a mixed heterogeneous sequence of shallow marine and
continental clastic deposits, dominantly consisting of mudstone/shale, with common sandstones,
occasional thin beds of coal and carbonaceous shale, limestone/marl and conglomerate. The litho-
stratigraphic relationship of these facies indicates a shallowing up sequence from shallow marine
(lower mud rocks), to paralic (sandstone, mudrock and coal), to terrestrial (upper red mudrock
and channel sandstone) conditions. The lithofacies characteristics of these three stages of the
shallowing-up sequence are very distinct from each other and recognizable throughout the
Sulaiman province of the Indus Basin (Figure 1.8).
This chapter represents a facies analysis (based on field observation) of sedimentary
units within the Ghazij Formation. The analysis will aid in the identification of depositional
environments within the Ghazi basin and will help in identifying the major controlling factors on
basin sedimentation. For instance, are the facies changes in the Ghazij mostly a result of sea level
changes or a result of changes in sediment supply caused by tectonic activities along the basin
margin?
On the basis of lithology, the Ghazij Formation can be divided into three parts,
1. the lower part (Lower Ghazij Formation),
2. the middle part (Middle Ghazij Formation),
25
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 3. and the upper part (Upper Ghazij Formation).
The Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) recognized these three subdivisions as
zones. Shah (1990) named the lower part as Shaheed Ghat Formation and the middle and upper
parts as the Toi Formation (Figure 1.8). The lower part (-1000 meters thick) consists of greenish-
gray mudrock with uncommon sandstones. The middle part (30-700 meters thick) consists of gray
mudrocks with subordinate sandstone along with local coal and carbonaceous shale beds.
Limestone and marl beds are also present at places in the middle part. The upper part (-140-1372
meters thick) consists of variegated mudrocks with subordinate sandstone bodies and local
conglomerate at the base, which can be enormously thick in some areas. Below is a detailed
description of each part of the Ghazij Formation and their associated facies.
Lower Part of The Ghazij Formation
Description and Interpretation of Facies
The lower part of the Ghazij Formation is the thickest subdivision of the formation
and generally consists of a thick sequence of mudrocks with few sandstone beds and very thin to
medium beds of limestone/marl (0.20-0.50 m) that are common in the eastern exposures of the
lower Ghazij. The lower part of Ghazij Formation is more than 1000 m thick in the Sor Range
area (Johnson et. al., 1999), about 900 m at Pir Ismail Ziarat, about 1000 m at Duki (Khan et. al.,
1986), about 1071 m at Rakhi Nala and about 900 m at Moghal Kot. Throughout most of its area,
the lower Ghazij mudrocks occupy alluvium filled valleys and are thus poorly exposed. The
lower Ghazij weathers easily and forms rounded hills of low relief. The lower part is particularly
susceptible to regional compressional tectonics and as a result, bedding parallel faults are very
26
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. common and often difficult to detect. These faults make the thickness of the lower Ghazij
ambiguous in places. The upper contact of the lower Ghazij is transitional with the overlying
middle part of the Ghazij Formation. The contact is placed at the base of the first thick (e.g. > ~1
m) sandstone body (Figurel.8).
Mudrock Facies (Lower Ghazij)
Description - The mudrock in the lower Ghazij consists dominantly of medium to
light greenish-gray calcareous mudstone and shale. The mudstone is generally silty, nodular,
devoid of lamina and most common in the western part of the basin near the axial belt (Figure
1.9). The silt content in the mudstone is higher towards the top and often present as irregular thin
lamina within the mudstone or as discontinuous thin current ripple laminations. The fissile to
laminated shale facies of the mudrock is more common towards the central part of the basin in the
east. The mudrocks are generally sheared, fractured, swelled and sticky when wet. The fractured
surfaces, bedding planes, and joint surfaces are often stained dark gray, probably by films of
carbonaceous material. Fossil foraminifera and bivalves are relatively common in lower Ghazij
deposits toward the center of the basin in the eastern part of the field area. Bivalve shell
fragments, organic matter, and plant fragments are relatively common higher in the sequence
along the western exposures near the axial belt. Bioturbation is generally uncommon and rarely
present in the mudrock.
X-ray analysis of mudrock samples from the Chapper Rift area (16 km northwest of
Khost) shows that the clay in these rocks consist of -50-60 percent illite, ~26 percent mixed layer
clays, and -14 percent magnesium rich chlorite (Ahmed et al., 1985). Another study of the
mudrock to characterize hydrocarbon content and source rock potential in the Sor Range and Pir
27
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ismail Ziarat areas indicates that the lower part of the formation is not a very likely source rock
for hydrocarbons (Johnson et al., 1999).
Depositional Environments - The mudrock facies of the lower Ghazij Formation
are interpreted to have been deposited in shallow marine to prodelta depositional environments
(delta front slope of Reineck and Singh, 1973. pp. 273). The foraminifer-rich fissile shales
represent off-shore to shallow water marine environments (Coleman, 1982; p. 33). This
environment mostly exists within the eastern exposures that occupy the areas east of Johan, east
and southeast of Mach, and south of Duki, Barkhan, and Rakhi Nala (Figure 1.9). The nodular
and silty mudstone facies is interpreted to represent a prodelta environment on the basis of its
muddy characteristics (mud/clay, silty and sandy mud, Reineck and Singh, 1973. p. 273;
Coleman, 1982) and the presence of small bivalves, gastropods, occasional foraminifera and
scattered carbonaceous/organic matter (particularly in the upper part). The lack of clay laminae
in the mudrocks and the presence of lenticular silt and thin cross-lamination of sand reflects a
combination of waves and sediment-laden current incursion from deltaic distributaries with
deposition of sediment from suspension (Elliott, 1986, in Reading, p. 128). This environment is
most common in the western part of the basin along the axial belt (Figure 1.9).
Sandstone Facies I (Lower Ghazij)
Description - Sandstones are relatively rare in the lower part of the Ghazij
Formation and are highly calcareous in nature. The fresh surfaces of sandstone bodies are light
gray and the weathered surfaces are light brown, orangish brown, and grayish-green to green in
some areas. Most sandstones are single bedded tabular bodies that are less than 0.60 m thick;
28
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. however, broad lenticular sandstone bodies less than 3.00 m thick are present in upper part. The
sandstones dominantly consist of sub-angular to sub-rounded grains of carbonate rock fragments.
Mafic rock fragments are common (30-35%) in the basal sandy part, particularly in the Zardalu-
Khost-Shahrigh valley and Kach area. The sand bodies are mostly fine to very fine-grained. In
general, the grain size is evenly distributed with a slight coarsening upward trend. Mudrock chips
and carbonaceous material are also common. Bedding is mostly thin to medium (3-30 cm. thick),
but medium to thick (30-100 cm. thick) bedding is also present in some areas. The thin-bedded
(3-10 cm. thick) sandstone bodies are usually laminated and often top and bottom contacts are
sharp. Sole marks are common at the base of the sandstone bodies. The larger sandstone bodies
have sharp bases that commonly exhibit slight erosional relief. The upper contacts are sharp and
less frequently gradational. Small-scale low angle planar cross-stratification is common; whereas
trough cross-stratification is uncommon and herringbone cross-stratification is rare (Figure 2.1).
Ripple marks are common on the top surfaces of the sandstone bodies. Fossil foraminifers are
generally common and abundant basinward in the eastern part of the field area. Vertical and
horizontal fossil burrows and plant debris in sandstones are commonly present in the upper part
of the lower Ghazij in the western part of field area. Whole leaf or stem impressions are rare but
have been recorded from the upper part of the lower Ghazij in the Kach and Pir Ismail Ziarat
coalfield areas.
29
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2,1, Sandstone in upper part of lower Ghazij Formation shows herringbone and planar cross-stratification in Johan-Manguehar area of Kalat Region. Photograph A shows outcrop view of the sandstone body. Photograph B shows close up view of the herringbone and planar cross-stratification present in upper part of the sandstone body.
30
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Depositional Environments - The sandstone facies of the lower Ghazij is
interpreted to represent distal bars, deposited in the shallow and deep-water areas of the delta
front platform (also known as the prodelta slope, or delta front slope, Reincek and Singh, 1973. p.
266; Coleman, 1982, p. 35;). These distal bars typically form during high-energy pulses of
sediment input to the system (either controlled tectonically or due to high flooding). The sand
bypasses the main delta and deposits in shallow marine water over prodelta facies. This
environment represents the seaward sloping margin of the advancing fluvial-dominated delta
sequence as evidenced by the variety of sedimentary structures associated with current and wave
processes such as small-scale cross laminae, herringbone cross-stratification, current ripples,
small-scale scour and fill structures, and occasional bioturbation as well as its association with
prodeltaic mudrocks. The same type of distal bar environments are reported from the modem
Mississipi delta (Coleman, 1982; Elliott, 1986, pp 125; Wright, 1977).
Kach Sequence
Description - In some places of the Quetta region, an intercalated sequence of
sandstone and mudrock containing a few beds of thin coal/carbonaceous shale (-0.30 m) capped
by conglomerate or pebbly sandstone lies in the basal part of the lower Ghazij (see Chapter 3 for
stratigraphic significance of this unit, and Figure 3.10). This lower sandy zone is quite similar
lithologically to the middle Ghazij and is named here as the “Kach Sequence Hunting Survey
Corporation (1960) mapped this sequence as part of the Ghazij Formation in the Quetta region
(Kach, Umai, Zawar Kanr and Khost-Shahrig areas). However, in the axial belt of the Kalat
region (Gidar-Surab areas) it is mapped as the upper part of Gidar Dhor Formation, which
consists dominantly of pebble size clasts of conglomerate with sandstone and gray to brownish
red shale at the base. The conglomerate pebbles of both the Kach Sequence and the Gidar Dhor
31
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Formation (Quetta and Kalat regions) are different in composition (abundant mafic clasts)
compared to the conglomerate in the upper Ghazij (abundant limestone clasts). The Kach type
sandy lithologic sequence is also recognized at the base of the lower Ghazij southeast of
Mangucher town near Phad-e-Maran locality where it is exposed just above the fault zone (lower
Ghazij faulted with Jurassic limestone; Figure 3.1, 3.2). At this locality, it consists of fine to
medium-grained thick sandstone bodies. The basal sandstone bed of this unit contains
fossiliferous lag deposits with abundant bivalve fragments. To the north-northwest of Mangochur,
a carbonaceous shale horizon of the Rodangi Formation (HSC, 1960) probably corresponds to
carbonaceous shales of the Kach Sequence of Quetta region. The same stratigraphic level of this
lower sandy zone is also recognized as far north as North Waziristan, along the Mir Ali-Thal
road. It becomes very thin here (a few thin sandstone beds with rare carbonaceous shales) and is
mapped as part of the Patala Formation by Meissner et al. (1975). This sandy sequence pinches
out to the east of the Axial Belt.
Depositional Environments - This lower sandy zone facies (Kach Sequence) of the
lower Ghazij represents evidence of an early fluvial delta that was formed on the western margin
of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent during the early Eocene. The major part of this delta has been
eroded away by the process of later tectonism. Residual parts of this delta are still preserved in
the fault bounded sequences in Quetta (Kach, Umai, Zawar Kanr and Khost-Shahrig areas) and
Kalat regions (Gidar Dhor, Rodangi, Marap [lower Marap conglomerate] and Phad-e-Maran).
These sequences form part of the oldest delta of the western margin of this continent. Sand bodies
of the sequence represent lower delta plane to shoreface environments and the conglomerate
facies represent the fan delta environment. Similar depositional environments are recorded later
in the middle Ghazij where deltaic environments of the upper and middle Ghazij grade eastward
into shallow marine environments away from the axial belt.
32
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Limestone and Marl Facies (Lower Ghazij)
Description - Limestone and marl are commonly present as subordinate facies in the
lower Ghazij, especially in the eastern parts of its exposure (e.g. Sibi trough Figures 1.7, 3.11;
south of Duki, Kohlu-Barkhan, Rakhi Nala and Zinda Pir anticline areas, Figure 3.21). The
limestone and marl beds are light gray to off-white in color and rich with foraminifers, bivalves,
and shell fragments. Bioturbation is common in places. In general, the beds are thin to medium
thick (0.20-0.50 m) and show internal wavy bedding. The lower and upper contacts of the
limestone beds are usually sharp with highly fossiliferous shales. Towards the west near the axial
belt, limestone facies are uncommon in the lower Ghazij.
Depositional Environments - An abundant foraminiferal fauna indicates that the
limestone and marl facies of the lower Ghazij were deposited beyond the prodelta limit in open
shallow marine environments (Coleman, 1982). The undulating bedding indicates that carbonate
facies were deposited in shallow seawater conditions within the wave zone environment.
Middle Part of The Ghazij Formation
Description and Interpretation of Facies
The middle part of Ghazij is the coal-bearing part of the formation and consists of
mudrock with subordinate tabular to lenticular sandstone bodies. Thin beds of marl/limestone,
coquina, and carbonaceous shale are also common. It weathers light gray to light greenish gray in
color. Beds of hard sandstone are prevalent in the middle part and typically form the main
33
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. outcrops of the Ghazij. The thickness of middle Ghazij is variable. It is thinnest (16 m) at the
north end of the Sor Range coalfield (Johnson et al., 1999), and it is thickest (>1000 m) in the
Duki coalfield (Khan, 1986). It is 291 m thick at Pir Ismail Ziarat (Johnson et al., 1999), about
544 m thick at Mach, about 484 m thick at Kingri, and 707 m thick at Moghal Kot.
Significant fossils have been discovered in the middle Ghazij. A palm stem 0.15 m
in diameter was collected west of the town of Nakus from the basal sandy limestone beds of the
coal zone. Other tree stems about 0.50 m long and 0.20 m in diameter were collected from the
coal zone in the Shahrig and Pir Ismail Ziarat coalfield areas. Fossil mammals reported from the
middle Ghazij coal beds of Sor Range, Mach and Shahrig coalfields are the oldest Cenozoic
mammals on the Indian subcontinent (Gingerich et al. 1997, 1999, 2001).
Mudrock Facies (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Medium to light gray calcareous, nodular silty mudstone is the
dominant lithology in the middle Ghazij. Fissile, splintery calcareous shale and claystone is less
common. Non-calcareous shale and claystone is uncommon and only found directly under coal
beds. Weathering colors are light to medium gray or greenish gray, and to light yellowish gray, or
with a light brownish tinge. The mudrock intervals range in thickness from less than a meter to
more than 50 meters and are quite silty. Swelling and sticking are common characteristics of the
mudstone in the lower and middle parts of the Ghazij Formation suggesting significant amounts
of expandable clays (e.g. smectite). Secondary gypsum is common in the coal zone, and small
limestone concretions are occasionally present in places. Carbonaceous shale and disseminated
organic matter and thin isolated layers are also common in the mudstone. Palm leaf impressions
and fossil root traces are common in mudrock especially just below the coal. Fossils are relatively
34
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. common in this facies and include small bivalves, oysters (in the form of small oyster bank
deposits), large clams, high-spired gastropods, ostracodes (Johnson et al., 1999) and sometimes
forams. In Mach, Duki, Chamalang and east of Kingri, fossil material forms coquina or fossil
hash layers locally.
Depositional Environments - The mudrock facies of middle Ghazij represent
complex depositional environments that range from marginal marine to delta front platform
mudrock in the lower part and estuarine to interdistributary bay mud environments in the upper
part. These mudrock facies are especially apparent in Shahrig, Mach, and Duki and contain an
abundance of carbonaceous mud horizons with numerous fossil hash layers, calcarenite, and
muddy marl. Lentilcular, thin to medium bedded (0.10-0.25m) oyster beds (referred to as small
oyster reefs by Coleman, 1982. p. 46) in the mudrocks at places are interpreted to represent small-
scale beach environments. These small beaches can be found in the interdistributary bays formed
by prograding delta lobes. These delta lobes enclose narrow embayments that remain connected
to the open ocean. The embayments have shallow brackish water marine environments, which are
quite similar to the delta platform environment (Reineck and Singh, 1973) in often preserving a
foraminifera fauna and marly limestones.
Sandstone Facies of the Middle Ghazij
Sandstones are frequently present in the middle part of the Ghazij Formation. They
are mostly fine to medium grained and show fining-up sequences with the exception of a few
sand bodies in the very basal part of the middle Ghazij that show coarsening-up sequences. Small
to medium size trough and tabular cross bedding is very common. Most individual cross bed sets
35
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. range in thickness from a few centimeters to more than 0.50 m. The sandstones are calcareous
and often contain fossil plant debris and shell fragments. Some beds are highly fossiliferous and
could be referred to as coquina. These fossiliferous beds are particularly common in the Mach,
Hamai, Duki, Bala Dhaka-Chamalang coalfields and south of Kingri area. Fresh surfaces of the
sandstone are light gray in color, and weathered surfaces are most commonly light yellowish gray
to brownish gray. A few sandstone bodies of greenish color are also present in the area of Khost-
Zardalu, Kach, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Mach coalfields.
Three primary types of sand bodies are recognized from the middle part of the
Ghazij Formation on the basis of their geometry, internal structures, and bedding characteristics.
These sand bodies are referred to here as sandstone facies I, II, and III and are described in detail
below.
Sandstone Facies I (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Sandstone Facies I is generally most commonly found at the base of
the middle Ghazij. These sand bodies are mostly fine grained and coarsen upward to medium
grained in the western part of the Ghazij basin, whereas they are very fine-to-fine grained in the
eastern part and often grade to sandy limestone that forms the top of foraminifera-rich limestone
farther basinward to the east (e.g. south of Duki and Hamai coalfields, east and southeast of
Kingri and Chamalang, and east of Mach and Johan areas). Facies I becomes highly calcareous in
these areas. The bed thickness of sand bodies varies from thin (10 cm) to thick (>0.30m), but very
thick (>lm) beds are also present in some parts of the study area. In general, this sandstone facies
exhibits an upward increase in bed thickness and is intercalated with mudrock. The mudrock
interbeds tend to decrease in thickness upward in the section. In general, Facies I sandstone
36
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. bodies tend to become thin and decrease in thickness toward the east (seaward) along with
decreasing grain size and sedimentary structures. The lower contact of Sandstone Facies I with
mudrock is gradational to sharp while the upper contact is generally sharp (Figure 2.2).
A typical Sandstone Facies 1 succession begins with mudrocks and interbedded very
fine-to-fine grained sandstone beds of a few centimeters to tens of centimeter thick (Figure 2.2A).
The sandstones often contain planar laminations or ripple cross laminations; tabular to wedge
shape cross-stratification is also common at places. The very small- to small-scale planar cross
stratifications (few centimeters to 10 cm) are generally associated with lower thin beds of the
sandstone bodies. Upward, the sandstone beds become thick and commonly contain low-angle,
planar cross-stratification (Figure 2.2B). The top of some Facies I Sandstone bodies are ripple
laminated and contain fossil root traces with rare wood logs (Shahrig-Hamai and Pir Ismail Ziarat
coalfields) whereas the bottom is weakly bioturbated. Small bivalves and shell fragments are also
common. All Sandstone Facies I bodies are laterally extensive.
Depositional Environments - Sandstone Facies I is interpreted to represent delta
front distributary mouth bars within prodelta/shoreface environments (e.g. Mississipi delta,
Colman, 1982, p. 35-38; Bhattacharya, 1992, [in Walker, 1992, pp. 161-162]). These
environments are most common in the western part of the field area (near the axial belt) and
grade eastward towards the central part of the basin into nearshore to offshore carbonate
environments. This interpretation is supported by its lateral geometry, cross-stratification in the
lower part, planar lamination or tabular to wedge shape cross-stratification and ripple cross
lamination in the upper part, coarsening upward grain size, weakly bioturbated base, small
37
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.2. Facies I Sandstone Bodies. Photograph A shows very thin to thin and medium bedded sandstone intercalated with mudrock (Khost coalfield). Photograph B shows a medium bedded sandstone with sharp contacts at top and bottom, mudrock partings decrease upwards (Sinjdi Coalfield).
38
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. bivalves and shell fragments, rare occurrences of the wood logs, sharp to gradational contacts,
overall eastward decreasing trend in bed thickness and grain size, gradually basinward grading
into corbonate facies.
In delta front environments like that represented by the middle Ghazij, coarse
sediments tend to be deposited in distributary channels, whilst finer sediment is transported
farther into the basin and deposited in deeper water offshore environments. Sediment deposition
therefore constructs a seaward dipping profile, which slopes gently and gets progressively finer
into the basin. This is represented here by the eastward prograding characteristics of Sandstone
Facies I. The delta front and distributary channel mouth bars prograde offshore in response to
continued sediment supply so that former offshore areas are eventually overlain by the shoreline.
This produces a relatively coarsening upwards sequence which reflects infilling of the receiving
basin (Elliott in Reading, 1986, p. 127; Coleman, 1982, p. 46-47) and records the transition from
prodelta mudrocks upwards into sands of the upper bar front and bar crest of the delta front
environment (Elliott in Reading 1986; [original ref. Fisk et al., 1954; Fisk 1955, 1961; Coleman
and Wright, 1975; Coleman, 1982]). The modem examples of these sequences are well
documented from the Mississippi delta (Fisk, 1955)
Sandstone Facies II (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Sandstone Facies II of the middle Ghazij is present within a mudrock
sequence stratigraphically above Sandstone Facies I. These sandstone bodies are common in the
lower part of the coal-bearing zone of the middle Ghazij Formation and range in thickness from
0.25 m to 15 m in thickness. Coal/carbonaceous shale lies either on top of, or a few meters above,
these sandstone bodies (Figure 2.3). The grain size is mostly uniform, but it ranges from fine to
39
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2,3. Sandstone Facies II Bodies. Photograph A shows general view of the Shin Ghawazh section, Sor Range coalfield showing stratigraphic position of facies I, II and III sandstone bodies. Photograph B chows coal/ carbonaceous shale outcrop just on top of sandstone facies II body at Sor Range coalfield and also shows sharp contact relationship with underlying and overlying rocks. Dr. Clyde is collecting mudrock samples in picture below the sandstone for paleomagnetie studies.
40
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. medium grained and coarsens somewhat upward. The lower and upper contact are generally
sharp.
Small-scale, low angle, planar cross-stratification commonly exists in the lower part
and medium scale in the upper part, whereas trough cross-stratification is less commonly present
in this facies. The top of some sand bodies is often ripple laminated. Vertical and horizontal fossil
burrows that resemble Ophiomorpha and Thalassinoides (Johnson et. al, 1999) are also present in
places. Fossil bivalves, oyster shell fragments, mudrock chips, plant debris, organic matter and
carbonaceous shale laminae in places are common in the upper part of this facies. All Sandstone
Facies II bodies are laterally extensive.
Sandstone Facies II differs from Sandstone Facies I in its contact relationship with
underlying rock (e.g. it has especially sharp contacts), its sedimentary structures (e.g. it has larger
scale cross-stratification), and its carbonaceous content (e.g. it has more carbonaceous material).
Depositional Environments - Planar cross-stratification, burrows (e.g.
Ophiomorpha), local concentration of bivalves and oyster shells, plant debris, carbonaceous
laminations, and mudrock chips suggest that Sandstone Facies II was deposited in a brackish
water body which in some manner was connected with the sea. This Sandstone Facies II is
interpreted to represent an upper part of delta front setting and may represent delta front
distributary mouth bars, channel splays, or estuarine channels as indicated by the presence of thin
carbonaceous shales within sand bodies. The sheet-like lateral extent of these sandstone bodies
may have been formed in the bay fill environments by the lateral reworking of distributary
channels as the delta front advanced into the bay. This type of sandstone facies is common in the
eastern part of the Duki syncline (Figure 2.4).
41
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
-300m DUKI COALFIELD Figure 2.4. Photo mosaic showing sheet like sandstone body in eastern part of Duki coalfield that may have been formed by been have formed may of 2.4.Duki coalfield that environments. part Figure eastern body mosaic in near-shore Photo showing into sheet like sandstone advanced front delta lines) the as (dashed channels ofdistributary reworking lateral the
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sandstone Facies III (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Sandstone Facies III is present in the upper part of the middle Ghazij
Formation. These sandstone bodies range in thickness from 0.40 m to 13 m and are either
laterally continuous sandstone sheets or discontinuous lenticular bodies with scoured bases
containing lag deposits and mud chips (Figure 2.5). The bed thickness ranges from thin to
medium (0.10-0.30 m) and thick (>0.30 m). The grain size of these sandstone bodies ranges from
fine to medium and most show fining up cycles. Small to medium scale trough cross-stratification
is common in the upper part whereas small to medium scale planar cross-stratification along with
mudrock chips is common in the lower part. Tabular cross-stratification is also present in
Sandstone Facies III bodies. Internally, most of these sandstone bodies display numerous internal
erosional surfaces, fossiliferous lag deposits, and fossil plant fragments. Fossil root traces and
plant debris are also common. The lower contact is typically sharp and displays erosional relief,
whereas the upper contact is sharp or graditional.
Depositional Environments - Sandstone Facies III is interpreted to have been
deposited under fluvial dominated conditions as evidenced by the erosional bases containing
concretional lag deposits and mudrock chips from underlying rocks. Wood impressions, trough
cross-stratification, internal erosional surfaces, mudrock partings, ripple laminations, upward
decreasing bed thickness, and a fining upward pattern in grain size are interpreted as delta front
distributary channel and splay environments. The laterally extensive sandstone bodies represent
sheet-flood deposits, whereas the lenticular tabular sand bodies are interpreted as channel fill
deposits. Some sandstone bodies are thinner and discontinuous and may represent crevasse-splay
deposits.
43
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.5. Sandstone Facies III at Khost coalfield area, Quetta region. Photograph A shows basal lag deposit of facies III sand bodies containing mudrock chip cavities. Photograph B shows outcrop of sandstone facies III bodies. The lower part of the sandstone contains planar to foreset cross-stratification while upper part contains trough cross-stratification. These sandstones also contain lenticular thin layers of fossiliferous lag deposits along scour surfaces. The entire sanstone body is about -15 m thick.
44
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Carbonate Facies (Middle Ghazij)
The carbonate facies of the middle Ghazij consist of limestone, marl, and coquina
beds. A significant amount of limestone is present in the middle Ghazij especially in those areas
that preserve the back and forth transition from delta front to near shore marine environments
(e.g. Chamalang, Duki, Hamai, Mach and Johan areas). The limestone represents interfingering
marine tongues into the deltaic environments. In general, limestone bodies are commonly present
in the lower part of the middle Ghazij and form the base of the prograding deltaic sequence (e.g.
Shahrig-Hamai, south of Duki). Beyond the limit of prograding deltaic facies, these limestone
bodies become a part of the marine sequence of Ghazij Formation. Thin to medium (0.1-0.30 m)
with occasionally thick (0.30 - 0.50 m) beds of the carbonate facies are generally present in the
coal zone, especially within the coal where they form very thin to thin coquina layers. The
carbonate facies, recognized by varying abundance of fossil content and mud concentrations are
described below.
Limestone Facies I (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Limestone Facies 1 is present mostly in the basal part of the middle
Ghazij formation. This limestone facies ranges in thickness from a few centimeters to 3 meters. It
is laterally extensive in places, especially in Hamai, south of Duki and Chamalang-Bala Dhaka
coalfield areas. Farther east from these areas, it becomes thick and part of an offshore carbonate
facies of the formation. The limestone is light gray in color, thin to medium bedded, and packed
with foraminifera (-60%). Small bivalve shell fragments and gastropods are also present. Fossil
burrows (vertical and horizontal) are locally rare to abundant. Internal bedding is obscure due to
high fossil concentration but generally shows flaser to wavy bedding (Figure 2.6).
45
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.6. Carbonate Facies I & II at Shahrig Coalfield area. A represents foraminiferal limestone (Facies I) in basal part of the middle Ghazij. Photograph B shows Facies II limestone with undulatory to wavy base (pillow like structure) and fossiliferous at the top. Both facies I and II have sharp top and bottom contacts with mudrock.-
46
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The lower contact with underlying shale is typically sharp. The upper contact varies from sharp to
less gradational with mudrock and highly calcareous sandstone or sandy limestone. In some
places the upper part becomes sandy.
Depositional Environments - The abundance of foraminifera, common gastropod
and bivalve shells, as well as wavy to laminated bedding indicates Facies I Limestone represents
a carbonate bank deposited in the shallow marine shelf environment that prograded eastward into
shelf environments.
Limestone Facies II (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Limestone Facies II of the Middle Ghazij is commonly present as a
single bed within the mudrock of the coal zone. The thickness of the bed ranges from a few
centimeters to 0.50 m. and is laterally extensive within the coalfield areas. Limestone Facies II
weathers to orangish gray to orangish brown and generally falls into the category of marl or
calcarenite. The base of limestone is generally undulatory and sometimes shows pillow like
structure (Figure 2.6B) where the top is wavy and has a sharp contact with overlying mudrock.
Internally, this facies is thin to medium bedded and contains mudrock or carbonaceous partings.
Small bivalves, high-spiraled gastropods, large clams, shell fragments, and foraminera are
abundant. The fossil concentration in these limestone beds reaches the level of coquina in places.
Oysters are also occasionally present. Johnson et al. (1999) reported abundant ostracodes in the
limestone. Iqbal (1969) identified five species of corals from a limestone bed near Sinjdi, Sor
Range coalfield area and speculated that they probably lived in warm clear marine water of the
sublittoral zone between 46 m to 61 m depth. This limestone facies is typically found in the coal
zone. Locally this facies develops lenticular brecciated/desiccated concretional limestone beds
47
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (15 to 75 cm) especially in Mach and Hamai coalfields areas. The brecciated/desiccated cracks
are filled with calcite and isolated gypsum crystals. These beds are commonly unfossiliferous but
do contain bivalve shell fragments in places.
Depositional Environments - Thin carbonaceous partings/ organic matter, small
bivalves, high-spired gastropods, large clams, shell fragments, abundant foraminifera, shallow
marine ostracodes as identified by Brouwers, 1992 (oral communication reported by Johnson et
al. 1999), and corals all indicate a shallow, warm, and clear water environment (Iqbal, 1969) such
as a coastal lagoon environment. The organic/carbonaceous parting within limestone may
represent the subtidal portion of the lagoons as this part generally contains sea grasses,
foraminifera, and bivalves (Evans, 1970), whereas gastropods are found commonly in brackish
waters toward the landward side of the lagoon (Scheriber, 1986). The brecciated/desiccated
concretional limestone bed (especially in Mach coalfield area) presumably records the presence
of saltpans or brine pools that tend to occur close to shore. The brecciated/desiccated cracks and
internal growth of gypsum crystals indicates arid conditions suggesting the depositional
environment might periodically fluctuate to a sabkha.
Fossiliferous Marl/Coquina Facies (Middle Ghazij)
Description - This carbonate facies is most commonly found in the coal zone and
especially as partings within the coal bed (most common in coal beds of the Mach, Hamai and
Duki coalfields). This carbonate facies is very thin to thin bedded, pink colored, and forms
fossliferous marl, marly mud, or coquina layers. The presence of these beds are extremely
variable even within an individual coal bed. The bed thickness ranges from 1 cm to 30 cm. It
48
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. consists mostly of bivalve and shell fragments that are partially abraded to hash. Ostracodes have
also been reported from these beds (Johnson et. al., 1999). These beds are locally extensive and
vary in fossil concentration from place to place.
Depositional Environments - This facies is interpreted as a coastal plain
lagoon/estuarine deposit on the basis of locally developed lenticular and discontinuous bedding
characteristics, local abundance of fossil concentration and their association to the coal. The
localized concentration of brackish water fossils and their intercalation in coal shows an existence
of ponds or small lagoons close to the shoreline.
Coal and Carbonaceous Shale Facies (Middle Ghazij)
Description - Numerous coal and carbonaceous shale beds ranging from 0.10 m to
2.50 m are present in the middle part of the Ghazij Formation. The thickest coal zone in the
Ghazij Formation is reported from the Duki coalfield (Khan et. al. 1986). The other localities
where coal is being mined extensively are Sor Range, Pir Ismail Ziarat, Mach, Khost, Shahrig and
Hamai coalfields. In general, the coal lies within mudrock, but in some places it is found within
sandstone. A non-calcareous clay layer that is a few centimeters thick is commonly present at the
base of the coal bed. Pyrite is common in the coal seams and present as coatings or as concretions
ranging up to several millimeters in diameter. The Ghazij coal is high in sulfur and ash content.
The heating values of the coal range from 7000 to 13000 BTU. Overall, the coal of Ghazij falls
into sub-bituminous to bituminous rank. The coal beds often contain coquina layers ranging from
a few millimeters to centimeters thick or fossiliferous marl beds (2 cm to 20 cm thick) as partings
in the coal seam. The oldest Tertiary land mammal fossils of the Indian sub-continent were
49
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. discovered from the coal bed of the Sor Range, Mach, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Shahrig coalfields
(Gingerich et al., 1997, 1999,2001).
Depositional Environments - The high sulfur content and brackish fauna of
fossiliferous muddy marl layers within the coal indicates a marine influenced peat deposit. The
floral assemblage found underneath and above the coal in Sor Range, Daghari and Pir Ismail
Ziarat represent palm dominated peat forming environments that are associated with shorelines
indicating a brackish to marine depositional environment (Peter Wilf and Scott Wing, 2000,
personal communication). Petrified palm stems (~20 cm in diameter) found just above the
shallow marine foraminifera-rich marly limestone, and at the base of the prograding deltaic
sequence of the middle Ghazij in the Nakus area (Shahrig-Hamai coalfield) also indicate palm
dominated floral vegetation along the shoreline. Similar types of palm-dominated swamps are
common along the shores of south Asia today (e.g. Indonesia). Carbonates coquina, foraminifera,
gastropods, ostracodes, small bivalves and worms are commonly found in ponds and lagoons
behind wave-exposed shorelines, particularly in deltaic environments (Hallam, 1981, p. 33; Pratt,
199).
Lower and Upper Contacts (Middle Ghazij)
The lower contact of the middle Ghazij is transitional with the underlying mudrock
of the lower Ghazij. The contact is placed at the base of lowest significant sandstone body. The
upper contact of the middle Ghazij is unconformable in areas where the overlaying conglomerate
facies of the upper Ghazij is present and sharp to gradational where sandstone or variegated
mudrock facies is present.
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Upper Part of The Ghazij Formation
Description and Interpretation of Facies
The upper Ghazij is dominantly composed of variegated mudrocks (paleosols) and
less common channel sandstone bodies. Carbonaceous shales, thin coal seams, and marl beds are
rarely present in its very basal part, especially in the Mach, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Chamalang-Bala
Dhaka coalfield areas. Locally deposited limestone- chert pebble conglomerates (a few meters to
hundreds of meters thick) form the base of the upper part of Ghazij in certain areas (Sor Range,
Shahrig-Hamai, and Kalat areas; Figure 2.3A). The average thickness of the upper part of the
Ghazij ranges between 350 m to 500 m. Its minimum thickness of 140 m is measured from the
Shahrig coalfield area, and the maximum thickness of 1372 m is measured at Toi Nala, Mughal
Kot area, NWFP province. A large collection of recently discovered early Eocene land mammal
fossils belongs to this part of the Ghazij Formation. Fresh water gastropods and plant leaf
impressions have also been found in the upper Ghazij.
Mudrock Facies (Upper Ghazij)
Description - The upper Ghazij exposures consist mostly of multicolor-banded units
that are 1-2 m thick and commonly mottled, calcareous, and silty or sandy (Figure 2.7).
Generally, the color of mudrock ranges from red, maroon/purple, light brown yellowish gray and
gray. The gray colored mudrock is commonly intercalated within the lower part. Light gray
silty/sandy mudrock facies is present as a common subordinate bed in the upper part of the upper
Ghazij and often grades laterally to siltstone or very fine-grained sandstone. In general, the often
51
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.7. Photographs showing multicolor-banded, mottled mudrock facies of the upper Ghazij, Sor Range-Daghari coalfield area interpreted to be paleosols. A is the multicolor layers (1-2 m thick) which range from red, maroon, purple, light brown yellowish gray to gray and are commonly mottled, calcareous, and silty or sandy. Photograph B shows mottled mudrock of the upper Ghazij. Dark spots are amber inclusions.
52
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. grades laterally to siltstone or very fine-grained sandstone. In general, the mudrocks are nodular,
blocky, and composed of mostly detrital illite clay (Gen Whitney, USGS, oral communication
reported by Johnson et al., 1999). The nodular surfaces are often stained dark gray, probably by
films of carbonaceous matter, and commonly mottled to yellow-brown, light purple or light gray
color. The mudrock sequence in the upper Ghazij ranges from a few meters to more than 50 m in
thickness and is comprised of red, purple, yellowish brown to yellowish gray mudstone/claystone
units that often contain off-white and yellowish brown popcom-like calcareous concretion
horizons (<0.5 cm diameter and 0.15 m-0.90 m thick zones). Many of the land mammal fossils
were recovered from these concretion layers. Fresh water gastropods, shell debris, fossil burrows
and root traces are locally common.
Very thin to thin lenticular coal, fossil plant debris, and root traces are common in
certain horizons in the lower part of the upper Ghazij, especially in Mach and Pir Ismail Ziarat.
Scott Wing and Peter Wilf (Smithsonian Institute and Pennsylvania State University, USA)
collected fossil plants (282 specimens from 13 localities) from upper and middle parts of the
Ghazij and reported ~15 floral species (written communication June, 2000) from the Sor Range-
Daghari, Pir Ismail Ziarat coalfields and Kach area. The most common and dominant floral taxa
found in these areas are a monocot “Palm” from the middle Ghazij and a floating aquatic fern
called “Salvinia ” from the upper Ghazij.
Depositional Environments - Red coloration in sedimentary rocks like the
mudrocks of the upper Ghazij has been ascribed to post-burial modification of iron-bearing
minerals (Walker, 1967) or to the diagenetic transformation of goethite to hematite over time
during pedogenesis (Blodgett, 1988; Retallack. 1991). Goethite without any hematite usually
produces hues between yellow to brown (7.5YR and 10YR). Red reflects the presence of
53
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. hematite, which usually coexists with goethite and produces hues between 5 YR and 1 OR. Color in
soils and sedimentary rocks correlate strongly with the kinds of iron oxides present in these rocks
(Torrent et al., 1980; Schwertmann, 1993). The pedogenic reddening is most typical in
Mediterranean-type climates where there is a wet and dry season during the year (Duchaufour,
1982).
The colors in the upper Ghazij mudrock facies are judged to be pedogenic rather
than burial diagenetic in origin. The banded coloration along with calcareous concretion horizons
suggests the sequence is dominated by multiple paleosol horizons similar to the Willwood
Formation in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming (Kraus et al., 1997). The red matrix and mottles in
Willwood paleosols contain hematite and goethite, and the yellow-brown matrix and mottles
contain only goethite. The upper Ghazij paleosols have similar coloration and mottling.
Furthermore, paleosol interpretation for these red beds is supported by the presence of rootlets,
calcareous concretions that formed during soil respiration, and the association of land mammal
fossils within concretional paleosol horizons. The red mudrock facies in the upper Ghazij are thus
interpreted as delta plain overbank paleosol deposits. The silty/sandy gray mudrocks that grade
laterally to siltstone and fine sandstone could represent overbank (avulsion) sand deposits that
fine away from the main channel to sandy and silty mud (Miall, 1996 p.320; Kraus, 1993, 1996,
1997, 1988).
Coal and Carbonaceous Shale Facies (Upper Ghazij)
Description - Coal and carbonaceous shale is very rare in the upper Ghazij.
Flowever in the Mach, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Chamalang coalfields, thin gray sequences of
mudrock in the basal part of the upper Ghazij contain a few thin lenticular beds of
54
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. coal/carbonaceous shale (few cm to 0.50 m) with subordinate very thin coquina layers. Also, thin
discontinuous carbonaceous shale layers (less than 15 cm thick) in the red mudrocks are present
in the lower half of the upper Ghazij and are commonly bounded by yellowish gray-light brown
and red layers. The coal and carbonaceous beds of the upper Ghazij have very localized
(carbonaceous shale in red sequence) to limited lateral extent (coal/carbonaceous bed in gray
color sequence) within the coalfield areas. The gray mudrock sequences containing the thin coal
seams in the basal part of upper Ghazij represent an interfingering of the middle Ghazij facies.
The coal in this sequence has very low BTU (~ 6000) values and is most commonly ranked as
lignite to low grade sub-bituminous.
Depositional Environments - This thin coal that is interfingerd with the gray
mudrock sequence was likely deposited under the same conditions as described for the coal
environments in the middle Ghazij. Thin discontinuous localized carbonaceous shale layers in the
red mudrock sequence are interpreted to represent overbank/flood plain swamps.
Sandstone Facies (Upper Ghazij Formation)
Description - The sandstones in the upper part of the Ghazij are either lenticular
or laterally continuous sheet-like bodies. They often contain lag deposits at their base and are
typically bounded within, light brownish red, light brown or light yellowish brown mudrocks.
The sandstones are usually calcareous, medium to fine-grained (coarse to very coarse-grained
varieties are also present) and show a fining-up pattern in grain size. Most sandstone bodies are
between 1 to 7 m thick. In the uppermost part of the Ghazij at Sor Range, Kingri and Mughal Kot
sandstone thickness is as much as 17 m, 19 m and 32 m respectively. In these cases, the
sandstones are multistory and separated by mudrock partings. The overall grain size and bed
55
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. thickness of sandstone bodies decrease upward whereas mudrock partings increase up section.
Mudrock chips are commonly observed in the lower part of sandstone bodies, especially within
lag deposits and along the planes of cross-stratification. Small scale, low-angle, tabular cross
stratification and small to medium scale trough cross-stratification with internal erosional
surfaces and ripple laminations are common in the upper part of the sandstone bodies. Very low
angle paper thin cross-stratification is also common, especially in the Kingri and Mughal Kot
areas. The sandstone bodies contain horizontal and vertical fossil burrows in places. The infilled
burrows resemble Ophiomorpha. The lower and upper contacts are sharp and display erosional
relief at their base (Figure 2.8).
Depositional Environments - The sandstone facies in the upper Ghazij are
interpreted to represent channel and floodplain sand bodies deposited within a deltaic
environment. This interpretation is supported by the following observations: trough cross-
stratification with internal erosional surfaces, small to medium-scale low angle, tabular and planar
cross-stratification in the finer-grained sand deposits, very low angle paper-thin cross
stratification in places, ripple lamination in the upper part, bases with erosional relief containing
concretional lag and rip-up clasts of the underlying mudrock, wood impressions in basal part,
sharp top and bottom contacts with underlying and overlying mudrocks, infilled vertical and
horizontal fossil burrows, mud rock partings within sand bodies often containing organic matter,
upward decreasing bed thickness and fining upward pattern in grain size. These characteristics are
all typical features of high energy fluvial channel deposits that often have avulsive tendencies
(Galloway and Hobday, 1983; Mial, 1992, 1996; Bhattachaiya and Walker, 1992; Hallam, 1981).
The laterally continuous sandstone bodies of upper Ghazij are interpreted as multistory channel
sand bodies formed due to the amalgamation of channel sands whereas the lenticular/tabular sand
bodies as channel fill deposits, and the thin to very thin and discontinuous sand bodies as
56
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2.8. Cross stratification is one of the characteristics of upper Ghazij sandstones of Mughal Kot area. Photograph A shows erosional base and small to medium scale cross stratification. Photograph B shows planar cross stratification and convolute (CV) bedding structure in basal part. Arrow shows pen as scale (14 cm long).
57
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. crevasse-splay deposits of the delta plain environment. The sandstone bodies in the basal
part of upper Ghazij resemble the Sandstone Facies III bodies described in the middle
Ghazij.
Conglomerate Facies (Upper Ghazij)
Conglomerate forms the base of the upper Ghazij Formation and is considered part
of upper Ghazij in the Quetta region. South of Quetta, in the Kalat region, the conglomerate
facies becomes very thick and is mapped as a separate unit called the Marap Conglomerate (HSC,
1960), representing the whole upper Ghazij in Harboi Hills, Surab, and Marap valley (Figure 1.9).
The conglomerate facies is measured to be -2300 m (which may include tectonic thickness) at
Bitagu in the Marap valley, -400 m at Harboi Hills, 12 m at Sor Range, and 4 m thick at Shahrig.
Description - In general, the conglomerate facies is clast supported and dominantly
consists of poorly sorted, well-rounded limestone pebbles (<1.6 cm), cobbles (1.6-25 cm) and
uncommon boulders (25-40 cm). Chert pebbles are also common and range to cobble size in
places, especially in the Kalat region (Figure 2.9). The conglomerate clast size decreases towards
the east as observed east of Harboi at Gazk where the corresponding stratigraphic horizon is
represented by a few coarse-grained sandstone beds. The down slope transition from
conglomerate to coarse-grained sandstone facies is covered under Spintangi/Kirthar limestone in
the Kalat plateau. The decreasing trend of clast size is also observed toward the northeast at
Shaikhri, Johan area and in southern Surab area as well. Overall, this observed lateral facies
change reflects a fan-like geometry. Calcareous matter serves as cement whereas poorly sorted
58
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 2,9. Conglomerate facies of upper Ghazij in Surab area, Kalat region. Photograph A shows thick conglomerate deposits in the area. Photograph B shows sandstone lense within the conglomerate at Surab locality (sandstone bed is —0.25 m thick).
59
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sub-angular to sub-rounded medium to veiy coarse-grained sand serves as matrix. The faunal
characteristics and lithological properties of the conglomerate clasts indicate that they were
derived from underlying Paleocene-Jurassic strata. Generally, the conglomerate beds are
massive, laterally extensive sheets, and contain uncommon lenticular lenses of medium to coarse
grained, cross-bedded sandstone (up to 0.80 m thick) and red mudrock, particularly in the upper
and lower part in the Kalat region. Normal grading and clast imbrications are also observed in
places (e.g. Johan) in this area. The thickness of individual conglomerate beds range from ~1 m
to more than 25 m with erosional bases and sharp tops. Overall, the conglomerate facies shows
fining-upward characteristics but internally, in some places, vertical sequences are comprised of
coarsening-up cycles followed by fining-up cycles, especially in the eastern part. These cycles
vary in thickness from place-to-place and are hard to trace laterally since they are often covered
by scree. Internal scour surfaces are also present in thick beds of the conglomerate facies. The
upper contact is either with red or gray mudrocks or with fining upward sandstone bodies. In the
Quetta region, medium to coarse-grained fining-up lenticular sandstone bodies (channel
sandstone) locally form the top of the conglomerate whereas mudrocks of the middle Ghazij form
the base everywhere.
Depositional Environments - The conglomerate facies has many characteristics
that are typical of an alluvial fan delta deposit including: relatively poor sorting, locally derived
well-rounded pebbles and cobbles, clast imbrications, decreasing clast size in radial geometry,
coarsening-up and fining-up cycles, scoured bedding surfaces, and planar cross laminated
lanticular sandstone lenses (channel bars; Walker, 1967; Reineck and Singh, 1973, p.258;
Galloway and Hobday, 1983, p.42; Ethridge, 1985; Mial, 1996).
60
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The cyclic pattern of conglomerate clast deposition and overall vertical and lateral
clast size distribution of the conglomerate facies in the Ghazij reflects an allogenic (extra-basinal)
control such as basin margin fault reactivation or flood events (Heward, 1978; Miall, 1992;
Gloppen and Steel, 1981; Galloway and Hobday, 1983). The small-scale upward coarsening
sequences represent local fan progradation. These are generally followed by upward fining
sequences that represent gradually waning flow energy and finer sediment deposition as the
source area lowered or retreated (Galloway and Hobday, 1983). This coarsening then fining
pattern will only be produced where sufficient time elapses between tectonic pulses. Successive
upward coarsening cycles would suggest relatively frequent faulting possibly in small increments,
whereas thick gross upward fining succession like that in the Ghazij suggest major tectonic pulses
with significant intervening periods of tectonic inactivity. Tectonically controlled alluvial fans
are common along strike-slip margins (Galloway and Hobday, 1983) where localized wrench and
scissor faults create the uplift and adjacent subsidence necessary to produce thick but
geographically isolated alluvial fans. The Ghazij was likely deposited in this kind of tectonic
setting as India initially contacted Asia along a transpressional boundary.
Conclusion
The facies analysis and interpretation of depositional environments for the Ghazij
Formation indicates an overall coarsening up sequence that represents shallow marine to
terrestrial environments. The lower Ghazij shale and limestone facies were deposited in shallow
marine conditions that existed mostly in the eastern part of the study area. These facies coarsen
upwards to the west to mudstone and silty mud with beds of fine to very fine-grained sandstone.
The mudrock facies are interpreted as prodelta deposits and the sandstone facies as delta front
61
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. bars in the lower Ghazij. The middle Ghazij represents a farther shallowing-up sequence that was
deposited in coastal plain, delta front, and coastal lagoon environmental conditions as indicated
by the presence of coal with high sulfur content, fining upwards cross-bedded sandstone bodies
with scoured bases and ripple laminated tops, coquina fossil hash layers, bivalve and oyster
shells, and fossil burrows. The upper Ghazij is dominantly characterized by red mudstone
(paleosols), channel sandstone bodies, and conglomerate deposits. The Upper Ghazij deposits are
interpreted to be delta plain environments, where channels avulse frequently during the flood
seasons and deposit fine-grained sand and suspended fine-grained sediments on the flood plains.
Later, these deposits experienced pedogenic processes and formed multicolored paleosol
horizons. The conglomerate facies of the upper Ghazij represents alluvial fan environments that
formed along the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent during its initial collision
with Asia. The transpressional tectonic deformation in the region produced local sources of
sediment that were delivered to the adjacent Ghazij basin forming startigraphic records of the
early phases of this important collision.
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Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER III
REGIONAL LITHOFACIES CORRELATIONS OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND THEIR TECTONIC IMPLICATIONS
The main three parts of the Ghazij Formation (lower, middle and upper, Figurel.8)
represent three major lithofacies packages that can be correlated on a regional scale. These
lithofacies packages represent dominant prodelta (lower), delta (middle) and continental
environments (upper) of the Ghazij basin and have often been mapped as separate members.
These packages are greatly variable in vertical and lateral arrangement within the study area and
form an important record of extra basinal (i.e. tectonic) controls on sediment deposition. This
chapter presents local and regional correlation of these tectono-stratigraphic packages in order to
understand the deformational pattern of the emergent Indian shelf, and its effects on basin
sedimentation during initial stages of India-Asia collision. The following description of these
tectono-stratigraphic packages is organized by region, from south to north.
Kalat Region
The Ghazij Formation in Kalat region (Figure 3.1) is comprised of conglomerate and
red mudrock facies, middle Ghazij sandstone facies II and III, thin carbonaceous shale,
uncommon very thin coal, as well as mudrock and limestone facies I and II of the lower Ghazij.
The conglomerate is the most dominant and significant lithofacies of the Ghazij Formation in this
63
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. JSOe-
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S
29 00'
war {After Hunting Survey 1 Recent/Sub Eocene Jurassic Recent Deposits Ghazij Fin Rocks Oligo-Mioccne Paleocene Bela Ignious Rocks Dungan Group Rocks Eocene Spintangi/ Cretaceous Fault Kirthar Formation Rocks Scale 10 20 30 40 Km i.. I .. • I ....,„) Figure 3.1. Geological map of Kalat and adjoining areas
64
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. region and is known here as Marap Conglomerate (HSC, 1960). South of the Kalat region, similar
types of conglomerate facies are reported from the axial belt of the Khuzdar area and are
described as the Gawanick Conglomerate (-1300 m thick) in the stratigraphic sections of the oil
companies and are probably equivalent to the Marap Conglomerate. The Marap Conglomerate is
very thick in the western part of the axial belt along the suture zone (Marap area), and attains a
maximum thickness of 3920 m (Bitagu locality, Figure 3.2) including 962 meters of partially
covered yellowish gray to brownish gray mudrock in the middle with subordinate conglomerate
beds (~15 m thick) and coarse grained sandstone (Figure 3.3). These mudrock facies of the
conglomerate stratigraphically correspond in the east to the lower Ghazij and divide the
conglomerate sequence into lower and upper parts in the Marap area. The upper conglomerate
facies is 2308 m thick and represents both the middle and upper parts of the Ghazij Formation.
The lower conglomerate facies is 650 m thick and corresponds statigraphically to the
conglomerate facies in the upper part of the Gidar Dhor Formation, and to the Kach sequence in
Kach area, Quetta region. In the southern part of the Marap valley, both the lower conglomerate
and the mudrock interval that divides the conglomerate into lower and upper are missing. Flere,
the upper conglomerate facies unconformably rests directly on Cretaceous/Jurassic rocks so the
two lower facies of the conglomerate are either not preserved in this area due to erosion or there
is a faulted contact.
In general the base of the lower conglomerate in this region contains a sequence of
reddish brown shale that contains in places intercalated beds of sandstone. This red shale zone is
sporadically present in places along the entire axial belt as far north as North Waziristan (Figure
1.9). This interval is typically mapped as part of upper most strata of the Paleocene rocks along
the axial belt (HSC, 1960; Meissner et. al. 1975) and thins out toward the east. At Pir Hazar
locality, Marap Valley area (Figure 3.2), this zone is -75 m thick and forms the base of Marap
conglomerate although it was mapped as part of the Parh group by the Hunting Survey (HSC,
65
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. MACH MASTUNG
Bibi Nani Ablgul
NUSHKI Gokurt
Manguchar ^JOHAN
Sanni
11 i KALAT Bitagu /V • V ) Pir Hazar Gandava SURAB Dhori jahan 3ff {After Hunting Survey I960) Scale 10 20 30 40 Km a Town Fault Loetion o f stratigraphic sections Figure 3.2. Map showing location of stratigraphic sections and localities of the Kalat region and adjoining areas. 66 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION OF MARAP CONGLOMERATE AT BITAGU LOCALATY, MARAP AREA Eocene Eocene Nimargh limestone 4000 ' Covered tQ 3000 a Upper Marap conglomerate, dominantly consists o f pebble to cobble size clasts o U o f limestone and chert, thick bedded. CSCL U O m 04 P- D 2000 o* ■ Covered, Shale with subordinate conglomerate, shales are light yellowish gray brownish gray and calcareous m OS3 cj J3 H rj* O 09u o g 1000 J2 «> 43M gO £«U Covered CE59"S ^ fl3 *3 Lower conglomerate, intercalated light brownish gray to red mudrock in basal S i part thick bedded g ei> £ g o (U o o c a JO uH o o o 2 c Gidar Dhor Formation; red to brownish red and grayish shale with occasional o | s t u 22 sanstone beds *3 3 rf 1 o £ Figure 3.3. Stratigraphic section showing thick sequence of conglomerate in western part of Kalat region at Bitagu locality, Marap area. 67 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 1960). Here it rests unconformably over a deeply weathered, highly bioturbated, friable, quartz rich (70-75%) shoreface sandstone (-2.50 m thick) that probably correlates to the Cretaceous Pab sandstone. South-southwest of Surab, in the Shahdadzai locality, this interval forms the base of Gidar Dhor conglomerate. In the east-northeastern part of Kalat plateau these red shales are associated with slumped blocks of limestone and sandstone (basinal slumps during earliest part of Eocene time) in the basal part of the lower Ghazij (east southeast of Johan and Manguchar) or upper part of Karkh Group. Towards the east in the Johan valley, Mach and Bibi Nani (Moro River) areas, the lower conglomerate corresponds to the stratigraphic interval between the uppermost part of the Karkh group of Paleocene-early Eocene age (HSC, 1960), and the basal part of the conformably overlying early Eocene lower Ghazij. This interval comprises thin to medium bedded limestone, shale and beds of pseudo-limestone conglomerate in the basal part and chaotic strata (indicating slumping phenomena in basin) in the upper part (Figures 3.4, 3.5). The upper part near Johan, Phad Maran, is comprised of shale, very fine grained beds of sandstone containing a chaotic sequence of intimately intermixed, heterogeneous material from mudrock to massive blocks of limestone (block size ranges 6x12 m to 15x30 m) lacking true bedding but intercalated between normally bedded gray green shale and crumbly sandstone. British Petroleum Co. measured this chaotic interval to be >30 m at Karghani Nai, and >60 m at Shaijini Jhal and named it as the Karghani formation. Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) provisionally correlated the Karkh Group and the lower part of Ghazij shale with the late Paleocene-early Eocene Rodangi Formation of the axial belt exposed -50 km northwest of Johan area and about 100 km to the north of the Marap locality (Figure 3.2). The lower part of the Rodangi Formation mainly consists of limestone that represents a progressive shallowing-up sequence (sub-lithographic, regular bedded to 68 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION OF THE UPPER PART OF KARKH GROUP EAST OF JOHAN AREA O I| ■*0O.o G &> I o "§ Lower Ghazij Shale; greenish gray, calcareous, occasional thin "wj O sandstone beck n s pa O I JU Chaotic assemblage; comprised of pseudo limestone conglomerate, shale and sandstone blocks. Limestone perdominantly composed o l of sub-rounded fossiliferous (abundant nummulites and other s a i microforms) autociast pebbles and cobbles. Shales are fissile, Qh S2 © -C *> 1 d * © o o 2-» S3 ft, D UPLIFT IN WEST (UPLIFT OF WESTERN MARGIN OF INDIAN PLATE) S3 Dominantly shale with occasional zones of interbedded limestones beds (030 m thick), limestone composed of pseudo conglomerate stratigraphically lower in the section — 15 - 10 - 0 5 - 00 Meters Scale (Modified from Abbas, et al., 1981, unpublished measured section located at, Lat. 29 38’ N Long. 67 17 E) Fig. 3.4. Stratigraphic section showing chaotic assemblage in upper part of Karkh Formation, deposited by the gravity slumping phenomena indicating that the western margin of the Indian continent was unstable and tectonically involved in collisional activities during late Paleocene- early Eocene time. This is interpreted to represent an early phase of collision tectonic between India-Asia and could be correlate with the obduction of ophiolites in the Bela area to the south and Muslim Bagh area to the north. 69 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. STRATIGRAPHIC SECTION OF THE UPPER PART OF KARKH GROUP EAST SOUTHEAST OF SURAB AT JAHAN, KALAT Lower Gha/ij Covered shale Fm Shale, greenish gray to gray Limestone, red mottled, abandent microfossil, thin beded, intercalated with shale Pseudo Limestone Conglomerate, polymierite pebble, cobble, algal biomicrite or biosparite, forms common in matrix Q, fi I Same as above -10 Covered, probably shale 00 Meters Vertical Scale Limestone, dark gray, very coarse to coarse granule size brown /! limestone clasts / i / f Covered shale Sandstone, brownish gray, fine to medium grained, quartz rich, /W containing glauconite grains, calcareous 1 1 (Modified from Abbas, et at, 1981, unpublished measured section located at Lat 67 00' N Long, 28 04' E) Figure 3.5. Stratigraphic section shows the upper pari o f Karkh Group in the area south of Johan and east southeast of Surab near Jahan locality. 70 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. foraminifera wavy bedded limestone) while the upper part shows further shallowing-up into marginal paralic to deltaic shale/mudrock facies containing a few coarse to very coarse-grained thick sandstone bodies (deltaic) toward the top and limestone with shale and rare carbonaceous shale (paralic) toward the base (Figure 3.6A,B). It seems, this deltaic/paralic upper part of the Rodangi Formation (carbonaceous shale, thick yellowish mudrocks and coarse-grained sandstone) represents the distal facies of the lower fan conglomerate of the Marap sequence to the north. The limestone and shale of the upper part of the Karkh group (Figure 3.7) in the east near Johan and Mach areas likely represent the basinal marine facies of the Marap sequence. The conglomerate in the Kalat plateau area (Flarboi Hills) is mostly covered under the Spintangi limestone and represents the stratigraphic equivalent facies of the upper conglomerate facies at Bitagu locality, Marap area. The best exposures here in Kalat plateau area are found in the Harboi Hills and south of Surab. The conglomerate thickness measured from Kalat Plateau area is 90 m at Shaikheri near Johan, 432 m at Harboi Hills, 315 m in south- southeast area of Surab, and 625 m in south-southwest of Surab. This conglomerate facies pinches out east under cover of the Spintangi limestone in the Kalat plateau area, towards north- northeast in Manguchar and Johan areas, and towards south-southeast of Surab area. The upper conglomerate facies interfinger vertically and laterally into the middle and upper parts of the Ghazij facies (Figure 3.8). As with the lower conglomerate sequence, this upper conglomerate facies reflects the geometiy of a deltaic fan deposit. The thickness variation of the conglomerate along depositional strike and dip suggests the presence of internal local sub-divisions of the fan that were likely controlled by tectonics processes that influenced basin subsidence and/or sediment supply. In summary then, the overall conglomerate sequence in the Kalat region grades into sandstone, shale and limestone facies to the east, north-northeast and south-southeast of the Kalat 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 3.6. Photos showing the coaly carbonaceous shale outcrop of the Rodangi Formation which is exposed along a nala and is highly tectonized. Arrows show the carbonaceous shale beds. 72 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. RTCOS AECNi EOCENE PALEOCENEi CRETACEOUS SE (SibiArea) TangNaPusht Marine Dungan Group Sibi Group (early Oligocene Pliocene) .... * ‘ ” * : ” ‘ * 5 ' ... •* .Spmtangi/Karthar Fm i ) ) ^ ■■ oC^ PaffiFm ~ * * * • •"> •"> • * * * ~ II' II' : - ;: ■: k Pro-Delta _ Bolon Pass DEPOSITION IN KALAT REGION Baamal Part „?.v.v 22-. Gotti Fm. c^Q. .... ''"X- ''"X- .... v v , , v' \ S.' "V. N'v, CRETACEOUS-EOCENE S k k Kalat-Johan ,V N & f c . / i v v S UPPER DELTA (Deposition ofthe Gha/y hm ) upper Older Dhor txmgl., txmgl., Dhor Older upper LOW ER D E L T A ^ . V s . - Rodangi coaly curb, stole curb, coaly Rodangi seqimee) Kach the and (Deposition of the ofthe (Deposition v s \ X Olistostrome y-'o Nimargh Limestone (early tomiddle Eocene) SPECULATIVE MODEL OF | | DominantShale Unconformity / - rfo,,-0 ' vyy vyy “ “ * * Axial Belt (MarapArea) Hr ------Congi<|mcratc - - s Marap I Marap s ' BfsMill f'ongl°n:lerate BfsMill jzx” Limestone I !\v I X \" .' Sandstone and Shale NW delta. The lower Marap conglomerate, Gider Dhor conglomerate, and upper part of Rodangi Formation that contains contains coaly shalesthat carbonaceous of Formation Rodangi part upper conglomerate, and Dhor conglomerate, Gider The delta. lower Marap deposits. odelta the upper f part are conglomerate Marap of the upper lowerdelta part deposits, and are while Ghazij middle upper Ghazij, Figure 3.7.Figure depositionfor of Speculative faciesbasin architecture Ghazij depositional of and behavior Cretaceous-Paleocene rocks in Kalat region. The late Paleocene-early Eocene rocks of regionwerethe deposited in two here upper as deltaiclowerdelta basins and whichnamed are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. : k £ oa rtoa JU < cl JU HU; $ S 9-* ■ff-S I3 z ■ff-S NALA I) RGAND RGAND I) rorrtiiition . JO I1 .W ‘ ‘ " i§:: K Si* Locationof scetkoss % i.!l.\/ 68 |P |||||| Ghazij FormeUoos PAKISTAN 0 50 100 150 Km i ; % { \L.\ N N Giuo ' 1 ; ' Durgaod N tli i i \ / (Johan) ' MILLS 11. WHO! WHO! 11. /KAUT» * 'A i i / r i Y t 66 •'Sftrawai/'R. 67 g a s ? / ? j OF REGION OF KALAT THE Bhaga (MarapArea) Shahdadzai (SurabArea) •28 •29 - 0 - 1 0 0 0 CORRELATION OF LATE PALEOCENE-EARLY EOCENE ROCKS EOCENE PALEOCENE-EARLY LATE OF CORRELATION L 2 0 0 0 3 £ e < < < u a » 5 g > SHAHZAD2A1 (MARAP) S' BIIAGU S I S’S 6-a S1 l l o llic ••it 7 - eastward into shales of lower Ghazij and together represent basinal facies equivalents to the upper conglomerate. These, conglomerate units represent units conglomerate These, conglomerate. upperto the equivalents facies basinal represent together and Ghazij lower of shales into eastward Fig. 3.8. Fence diagram showing thick conglomerate units in the western part of Kalat region which pinch basinward toward the east and are mapped as as are mapped eastand the toward basinward pinch which region Kalatpartof western the unitsin conglomerate thick showing diagram Fence Fig. 3.8. grade Ghazij upper and middle The theconglomerate. lower to equivalents basinal facies represent (HSC, group 1960) Dungan and partofKarkh upper part of the Upper Gidar Dhor Formation, Marap Conglomerate and the Ghazij Formation along the western margin of the Indian plate in this region. The The region. this in plate Indian the ofmargin western the along Formation the Ghazij and Conglomerate Marap Formation, Dhor GidarUpper the part of region. the Asiain and India between tectonics phases ofcollision earlythe of sequences tectono stratigraphic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. plateau. These facies have been mapped as different formations (Gidar Dhor and Rodangi Formations in the axial belt, Karkh and Ghazij Formations east of the axial belt) but represent parts of a deltaic fan complex and continental shelf margin that records late Paleocene-early Eocene tectonism along the northwest margin of the Indian subcontinent. Contact Relationship The lower contact of Marap Conglomerate is conformable with the Gidar Dhor Formation and unconformable with the rocks of Cretaceous and Jurassic in the axial belt in the Kalat region. An unconformable contact is observed about 75 m below Marap conglomerate in the axial belt at Pir Hazar locality, Marap area. The interval between this unconformity and the base of Marap Conglomerate represents the Gidar Dhor Formation (similar to the base of Gidar Dhor conglomerate south at Shahdadzai) although it was mapped as Parh Group by the Hunting Survey Corporation (1960). The unconformity at this locality is represented by a zone of deeply weathered, highly bioturbated, friable, quartz rich (70-75%) shoreface sandstone (-2.50 m thick, probably equivalent to Cretaceous Pab sandstone?) that contains bioturbated sandy clay at its top. The base of the sandstone and the sequence below the unconformity bed is covered and difficult to determine whether the unconformity is between the Cretaceous rocks and Gidar Dhor Formation or within the Paleocene Gidar Dhor Formation itself. However, it indicates that the western margin of the Indian continent, which was part of a carbonate shelf prior to deposition of the Gidar Dhor conglomerate, was considerably uplifted during late Cretaceous-Paleocene time by initial compressional tectonics between India-Asia continents. Bannert et al., (1992) interpreted this as the first deformation of the Indian continental shelf as evidenced by the presence of greenish blue and dark mageta mudstone with red radiolarian chert, green chert, and dikes of diabase and dolerite (a typical melange type mudstone sequence) on top of Cretaceous 75 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Parh limestone and below the Gidar Dhor Formation. Eastward in Kalat plateau, the conglomerate represents an intermingling relationship with lower, middle and upper parts of the Ghazij Formation (Figure 3.8). The upper contact is conformable with Nimargh Formation (HSC, 1960) and faulted/unconfomable with the Wakabi Formation in the axial belt whereas it is sharp and disconformable with Spintangi limestone in Kalat-Surab area. It is conformable and appears to be gradational with Spintangi limestone to the east of Kalat plateau in Sibi trough. Quetta Region The Ghazij Formation in the Quetta region (Figure 3.9) contains economically exploitable coal deposits and is comprised of mudrocks, sandstone and carbonate facies of the lower, middle and upper Ghazij. The two pulses of conglomeratic deposits are also recognized in this region although they are much thinner and more localized than in the Kalat region. The upper one is at the base of the upper Ghazij, which is commonly known as “Ghazij conglomerate “ and the lower one is at the base of the lower Ghazij (as part of Kach sequence), which is here called the “Kach conglomerate,, (Figure 3.10). Outcrop exposures of the Ghazij conglomerate have limited lateral extent and are confined geographically as isolated bodies in the Sor Range-Daghari and Shahrig-Hamai coalfields and along the western limb of the Waro Jhal syncline in the area south of Mach (west-southwest of Bibi Nani Figure 3.11). These geographically isolated conglomerate bodies represent localized conglomerate fan deposits, which range from 4 m to 25 m in thickness and form the base of the upper Ghazij in these areas. The conglomerate at Sor Range thins southeasterly and grades into coarse to very coarse grained sandstone towards Less Daghari coalfield whereas the conglomerate at Shahrig-Hamai area thins south-southwesterly in the Sibi trough and the conglomerate at Waro Jhal syncline thins toward the east and grades to sandstone on the eastern limb of the syncline. The Kach Conglomerate (conglomerate at base of 76 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Rocks Muslim Bagh Ophiolites Town Synclinee Recent/Sub RecentDeposits Oligo-Miocene Rocks Eocene Spintangi/ Eocene Paleocene Rocks Fault Dungan Group Cretaceous Jurassic Anticline Kirtbar Formation Ghazij Fm LEGEND HariMi ( im ii.m m a p i l . Scale o f Muslim 1 0 25 Km QUETTAREGION (Afterlimiting Survey Corporation, 1960) g e o l o g i c bin rough I * 67 3(r m -JLt I 1 \ Kucntugli Figure 3.9. Geological mapand geographic localities ofthe Quetta Region ( ! 'J I".U 1 QIY 30 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. KACH SEQUENCE WEST EAST ZAWARKANR KHOSTAREA (KACH AREA) S i: >-Z! „ — i-JSS: 11 N s t f U : » a Swtns. < O i o-a Si Si ; i-i O ,, Kach \ Conglomerate Ghazij Conglomerate T3 Si SO \ KACH-AHMADUN Faulted contact with \ Cretaceous rocks Kach Conglomerate 300 SL 200 Kach Conglomerate -100 - 0 meters PALEOCENE BreweryLimestone Dunpn Group (HSC, 1960)\ Paleocena' Cretaceous? Figure 3.10. Correlation of conglomerate deposits of the Quetta region from Kach and Kamal Kach, Khost Coalfield areas. These thin conglomerates are part of die upper Ghazij formation and are generally known as Ghazij conglomerate in the area, but part of the newly interpreted Kach sequence known here as Kach conglomerate. Formerly, the Kach Sequence was considered as fault repeated middle Ghazij in this area. The Kach conglomerate is interpreted here as a distal facies of the same system that deposited the lower conglomerate facies of the Kalat region 78 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. poue wt pr sin fte oyih onr Frhrrpouto poiie ihu pr ission. perm without prohibited reproduction Further owner. copyright the of ission perm with eproduced R QUETTA REGION *■*5 W D m a 5 1 1? H s $ x •- xx 5/5 Js >i < .1 •H c •a a ^ X^ fsj SS 1 §•5 *55g w p s 79 * ; vi r**; a - l f T3 J;> t/5 <2 «•> iS CN \ Figure. 3.11. Map showing geographic localities and section locations in the Quetta Region lower Ghazij) and its distal pebbly sandstone facies are located in the Kach and Khost-Shahrig areas. Lithologically, the interval that contains the Kach Conglomerate is quite similar to the middle Ghazij, although it is highly deformed in the Kach area. Towards the east, pebbly sandstone forms the top of the Kach sequence in Khost and Shahrig areas. The lower, middle and upper lithofacies packages of the Ghazij Formation and their associated sandstone facies show variable thicknesses along the Zarghun Mountains. In general, all of these lithofacies packages thin basinward toward the east and southeast in Sibi trough (Figure 3.12). The lower Ghazij mudrocks in the western part of the region are commonly comprised of mudstone and rare beds of sandstone that pass eastward to shale facies and thin fossiliferous limestone in the Sibi trough area. In Khost and Shahrig areas, the sandstone bodies of the lower Ghazij are commonly characterized by greenish weathering and contain lenticular yellowish colored sandy limestone beds in places. These sandstone bodies of the lower Ghazij appear greener than the sandstones in the lower Ghazij to the southwest-west at Pir Ismail Ziarat and Sor Range areas. The average thickness of lower Ghazij in this region is about 900 m but varies from 600 m to 1100 m. The middle Ghazij is quite thin in the westernmost part of this region along the northern plunge of the Sor Range syncline near Quetta where its minimum thickness is 16 m (Johnson et. al, 1999). It attains a maximum thickness of about 500 m to the southeast of Sor Range at Pir Ismail Ziarat and Mach coalfields. The presence of such a thin middle Ghazij in the Sor Range compared to its average regional thickness is probably due to the presence of conglomerate facies at the base of the upper Ghazij that may have removed a considerable amount of middle Ghazij from this area. The sandstone bodies range from 2 m to 6 m in thickness at the Sor Range and thicken towards the south end of the syncline where they become finer grained and exhibit smaller scale sedimentary structures. The sandstone bodies at Pir Ismail Ziarat are generally 1-15 m thick, whereas in the south at Mach, sandstone bodies are generally 80 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. flfiU KOCENB MIDDLE Limcsrtcfoe - 1 000 iA . 32 § < Cd Cd 3 S .s M wj o i vOwiks Aat«lirs& of sectionsof Cndarr " * • Ghaudi FomsnlHWS Ghaudi Khost & Kscb-Aliiimikin ifawerKaar XfaJgtPiaAi Pir lastedPir t e l /Oofc lisbi^Nani (Al&ch) (Al&ch) lisbi^Nani ■■■•* : ■■■•* -W -'-: / ,/ • v • • : \ a / ■ v ■ • / ,-■■■ r. Brewery Limeston DEPOSITIONAL FACIES BEHAVIOR OF THE GHAZIJ FORMATION IN THE QUETTA REGION THEIN QUETTA THE GHAZIJ FORMATION OF BEHAVIOR FACIES DEPOSITIONAL 'W a Sffil-aJ Basil Figure 3.12. Fence diagram showing thick upper and middle Ghazij facies around Zarghun Mountains which thin towards the east towards in which Sibithin trough Mountains Figure 3.12. Zarghun facies middle Ghazij and showingaround upper Fencethick diagram and east of Hamai in Dungan Hills. The upper and middle Ghazij merges into undifferentiated Drug/Baska and Lower Ghazij Formations. The Formations. Ghazij Lower and Drug/Baska merges into undifferentiated middle Ghazij east and Hills. of and Hamai in Dungan upper The pinches Sequence Kach withinalso Mountains. coalfieldand the follows trend alongthinning Zarghun areas the same eastward 00 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. less than a meter to 3 m thick and are highly calcareous with abundant bivalve shell fragments. North-northeast of Pir Ismail Ziarat in the area of Khost and Shahrig, the middle Ghazij in this area is comparatively thin but contains the thickest sandstone bodies (20 m) of the region, especially at Khost (sandstone facies II and III). These sandstone bodies generally contain lag, rip-up clasts of mud along cross-stratification and internal erosional surfaces that indicate a high- energy fluvial environment of deposition. This depositional condition progressively passes into low energy environments towards the west-southwest in Pir Ismail Ziarat, Mach and southeast in Hamai areas, where sandstone bodies are less than a meter thick and become limy in nature. The middle Ghazij is -200 m thick in Khost and -333 m in Shahrig. The overall distribution pattern of thickness of the middle Ghazij Formation and its sandstone facies suggests that the Ghazij delta was accumulating at its fastest rate in this region somewhere between the Khost and the Pir Ismail Ziarat areas. The axis of this depocenter apparently looks to be close to Pir Ismail Ziarat and extends southward to the Mach area as indicated by the maximum thickness of middle Ghazij deposits. The lithofacies of these areas represent coastal conditions of sediment deposition (sandstone facies I and II; limestone facies I, II, and III), which transition into shallow marine deposits toward the southeast in the Sibi trough area (Figure 3.11). The sandstone facies on both sides of the depocenter (i. e. Sor Range and Khost-Shahrig) differ little in their composition as indicated by the greenish weathering sandstone bodies in Khost-Shahrig, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Mach coalfields. These green sandstone bodies are mostly present in the upper part of the coal zone and contain minor amounts of mafic igneous matter (Kazmi, 1962; Johnson et. al. 1999). The same type of igneous matter is also noticed higher in the section in Ghazij conglomerate at Shahrig as part of its matrix. However, the conglomerate at Sor Range generally did not show any noticeable amount of this material. The deposition of the Ghazij conglomerate and sandstone facies of the Sor Range and Shahrig-Hamai area may be a result of the same tectonic deformation phase but might be separated from each 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. other by some sort of topograghic high that divides the depositional system in to sub-lobes which are very poorly connected back at the source area. The upper Ghazij of the Quetta region shows a variety of paleosol characteristics and contact relationships with the overlying Spintangi limestone along the Zarghun Mountains (Figure 3.9). Thick deposits of the upper Ghazij (more than 800 m) are present in Pir Ismail Ziarat and thin towards the south and southeast in Mach and Hamai areas. In general, the upper Ghazij follows the same thickening and thinning pattern as for the middle Ghazi in this region (Figure 3.12). The red paleosol facies of the upper Ghazij at Shahrig is comparatively more mature than at Sor Range, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Mach area. It is brick red in color and exhibits an unconformable contact with the overlying Spintangi Limestone at Shahrig whereas in the Sor Range it is in contact with a gray mudrock interval (32 m thick) that lies below the Spintangi limestone. Earlier workers mapped this interval as part of the Upper Ghazij (Reinemund et al., no date on published map) and assigned a middle Eocene age to the upper shale sequence (Haque, 1959). The contact between the upper red mudrocks (upper Ghazij) and the gray shale interval that contains lateritic or other paleosol type lithofacies at its base just below Spintangi limestone represents a slight disconformity that reflects base sea level change (transgression) in the region towards the end of Ghazij time. Upper Contact The upper contact of the Ghazij Formation outside the Axial Belt in the Sibi trough area is conformable and transitional with overlying Spintangi/Kirthar or Drug/Baska Formations; however, the contact is locally unconformable or disconformable along the axial belt wherever a lateritic bed (HSC, 1960) is present. The lateritic or paleosol type lithofacies is observed at the 83 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. top of the upper Ghazij at Shin Ghwazh locality, Sor Range coalfield, between the Hanna and Urak area, near Shahrig at Shahrig PMDC Mines, and in the area south of Hamai. This indicates a break (disconformity) in sediment deposition in the region along the axial belt. The lithologic details and facies correlation of this interval are described below. Shin Ghwazh locality, Sor Range coalfield - A 32 m thick stratigraphic interval between the upper Ghazij and Spintangi Limestone at Shin Ghwazh locality, Sor Range Coalfield (Figures 3.9, 3.11) comprises yellowish gray to greenish gray shale containing a thin sequence of carbonate facies (10 m) of orangish brown to red silty marl and light yellowish gray to pinkish white limestone at the base. This interval was interpreted as a zone of interfingering facies of the upper Ghazij and Spintangi Formation by Johnson et. al. (1999). The upper brick red part of silty marl of the basal carbonate facies is probably what was referred to as lateritic beds by the Hunting Survey Corporation (1960; Figure 3.13). The lithologic characteristics of basal pinkish white to snow white, granular (sugary/porcelain type) textured limestone beds (3.60 m) very much resemble the gypsiferous limestone beds of the Baska Formation of Kingri and Barkhan areas. Furthermore, the light orangish brown, thin to very thin bedded part of the limestone (2.30 m) that grades upward into orangish brown to brick red silty, marl facies (top 4.60 m) represents the typical lithologic characteristics of the Habib Rahi Formation of the Kirthar group (Figure 3.13). The brick red silty mud/marl facies (laterite bed of HSC, 1960) represents a hiatus or very shallow water conditions during this transitional period. The yellowish to greenish gray shales on top of this facies are interpreted to be equivalent to the shales of middle Eocene Domanda Formation. Haque (1959) reported a middle Eocene age from this shale sequence along the northern plunge of the Sor 84 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SHIN GHWAZH SECTION, SOR RANGE COALFIELD »Q O55 g X /■"v e-« fi! tu ^ O j 35 a - a a U S Q s j ■ | limestone , thin to medium bedded nodular and fossiliferous . a b 3 K Ck» Q . O . GO O 30 Covered (11.00 m). Domanda shale, greenish gray, calcareous. 25 □ I ST -a 8 1 §o g 8 £ m o 20 SHALE (10.70 m). Yellowish greenish gray to gray, silty, £» =o £L calcareous, very thin bedded, appears to contain foraminifers ST 1 s & O and interpreted as d o m a n d a f o r m a t i o n Q 15 ■■ ' os Of Os 10 SANDY MARL AND MUDSTONE (4.6 m, lateritic bed o f HSC, 1960). Brick red, weathers to orangish brown, silty, calcareous, wfiT63 G> ^ very thin bedded, and intercalated with mudrock partings (upper e>a oo part o f Habib Rahi Formation) 8 8 wo 22 LIMESTONE (2.30 m). Light orangish brown, silty, very thin ^ U "2 v* 05 to thin bedded, fissile in upper most part, these lithologic *5? 32 characteristics resemble the habib rahi form ation LIMESTONE (3.60 m). Light yellowish gray, and pinkish white, fresh surfaces white to snow white, thin to medium bedded; lithologic characteristics resemble the limestone o f the b a s k a •s 00 FORMATION $ M eters o ' Covered (31 ro), upper most part o f upper Ghazij Formation OS& o w C *C w O .2 J s T3 S § 1 13s <2 i Figure 3.13. Detailed section of upper contact of the Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations at Shin Ghwazh Section locality, Sor Range Coalfield. Thin lithologies of the Drug, Habib Rahi and Domanda Formations are present that are mostly covered by the slope scree in die rest of the coalfield area. Haque's (1959) paleontological sampling horizon from this area is also shown. 85 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Range syncline, which confirms this interpretation. Formerly, this shale interval was mapped and considered part of the upper Ghazij (Reinemund et al., no date on published map). The cliff forming Spintangi limestone (HSC, 1960; Shah, 1999) at Sor Range is interpreted to be equivalent to the middle Eocene Pir Koh limestone facies of the Kirthar group. Hence, the greenish gray shale on top of Spintangi limestone (exposed in the core along the northern plunge of Sor Range syncline) likely represents the shale facies of the Drazinda Formation. Consequently, it looks like at least this part of the Sor Range syncline preserves a complete but thin sequence that is equivalent to the entire middle Eocene Kirthar group of the Sulaiman province. The missing portion of the Baska sequence either represents a disconformity on top of upper Ghazij or the mudrock facies of the uppermost part of upper Ghazij are time transgressive with the Baska Formation. This correlation provides a clear and logical explanation of Haque’s (1959) middle Eocene age assigned to the Ghazij Formation from the Sor Range area. His samples came from facies that correlate to the Kirthar group rather than the Ghazij (Figure 3.14). U rak locality - A similar type of contact and lithologies as at Shin Ghwazh locality are observed about 11 km to the north of Shin Ghwazh, and -3.5 km to the east of Hanna Lake between Hanna Lake and Urak area (Figure 3.9). The rock exposures at this locality are associated with the eastern limb of the Obashtakai anticline that runs parallel to the Sor Range syncline and shears part of its eastern structure as a western limb of an anticline (Figures 3.9, 3.11). Here the Baska Formation is missing and Habib Rahi-type limestone rests directly on top of red and gray colored mudrocks of the upper Ghazij. The lower part (2 m) of the Habib Rahi Formation comprises thin-bedded light brownish gray to light gray limestone and the upper very thin-bedded (3.00 m), pale yellowish orange (10YR8/6) to grayish orange (10YR7/4) limestone. Fossil burrows are commonly present at the base of the lower thin-bedded limestone unit. The yellowish gray shales of the Domanda Formation (-20 m thick) are sporadically exposed between 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Limestone Scale HARNAI (Hamai coalfield) Meters Baska Fm. Baska Spintangi Fm Spintangi Upper Ghazij Upper LOCATION MAP OF SECTIONS j HARNAI (SaghandiMining area) CM ca I &M & Spintangi Fm SOR RANGE (Shin Ghwazah) a> Os * 12 Fig. 3.14. Correlation oflithofacies beetewenupper Ghazij anda disconformable Spintangi Formations contact in thein the Quettaarea. region. These facies show Datum Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the Spintangi limestone and the Habib Rahi limestone and are highly fossiliferous near the base of Spintangi limestone. Sharan Tangi, Shahrig PMDC Mines - The upper Ghazij and Spintangi contact is observed in the Shahrig area at Sharan Tangi, PMDC Mines (Figure 3.11, 3.15). The contact here is also unconformable (Johnson et. al., 1999) and contains a very thin-bedded foraminifera rich marl/limestone (0.90 m) at the base, which is overlain by red mudrock (8.55 m), and a silty to very fine-grained, mottled (grayish to red and maroon tinged) sandy paleosol horizon (1.25 m). The paleosol bed seems to be rooted and bioturbated. A non-calcareous, dark gray, carbonaceous clay (0.55 m) with uncommon coal flakes is present just on top of the paleosol horizon. Dark gray-to-gray and yellow shales (2.00 m) that contain lenses of nodular limestone and range from 0.10mto0.15min thickness form the top of this sequence (Figure 3.15). The top of this dark gray shale unit is overlain by a spectacular layer of Spintangi limestone containing abundant horizontal burrows at its base (Figure 3.16). The Ghazij-Spintangi contact is placed above the paleosol horizon by Johnson et. al. (1999). The thin foraminifera rich marl/limestone (0.90 m) at the base of the sequence is interpreted here as a tongue of Drug limestone. The sequence above the foraminifera marl/limestone and below the paleosol horizon is either part of the Drug Formation, as is the case at Kingri where thin foraminifera limestone interfinger with red mudrocks of the upper Ghazij, or part of the Baska Formation, as is the case near Mughal Kot where the lower part of Baska is intercalated with foraminifera marl/limestone and multi-colored mudrocks. The Drug and Baska rocks are well developed in the east and southeast of the Shahrig- Hamai coalfield area. Therefore, it is likely that both formations are represented here as thin interfingering facies. 88 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SHARAN TANGI PMDC MINES, SHAHRIG COALFIELD Oligoesme Nari Fm. and! Red shale and sandstone. Sibi Group 35 O: c aj *o.2 LIMESTONE (10.33m), nodular, fossiliferous, highly bioturbuted mi I | 30 (burrows) at base. 1 .2 i t/io. a*o SHALE (1.00m), dark gray with yellowish marly shale at top, and contains nodular limestone lenses in upper part Habib 25 SILTSTONE (0.40m), gray to dark gray Rahi ? SHALE (0.60m),dark gray with yellowish. CARBONNACEOUS SHALE/ SLAY, (.55m), dark gray, «8 laminated,non calcareous > PALEOSOL (1.25m), mottled gray, red, maroon and purple; o 20 heavily bioturbated and rotted I/i oc M U D R O C K (8.55 m), red maroon, silty calcareous, laminated in lower part and blocky in upper part. £ Zi *3 s § 15 © A LIMESTONEI (0.90( m), yellowish pay,to pale greenish gray, a grog thin bedded with shale partings. ! Fm. FOSSILIFEROUS SHALE (1.60 m), medium gray,calcareous, fissile and silty, fossils, bivales and Oyster shale, basal 0.20m is 10 highly fossiliferous to coqunia. M i r t i MUDROCK (1 LOO m), brick red, maroon to dark maroon, calcareous and silty. 05 00 SANDSTONE (2,3 m), reddish gray, medium to coarse grained Meters grain size fining upward, cross bedded (large), Fig. 3.15. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations at SharanTangi PMDC Mine locality, Shahrig coalfield area shows thin bedded foraminifera rich marl/ limestone and a bed of paleosol which marks an unconformable contact between the upper Ghazij and the Spintangi limestone. The base of cliff forming Spintagi limestone is marked by abundant spectacular horizontal burrows at this locality 89 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 3.16, Photographs showupper contact ofthe Ghazij withbed (arrow)Spintangi andlimestone about2mthick at Sharan zoneTangi,PMDC ofdark Mines,Shahriggray shale thatcoalfield. containsA,- common paleosolThis carbonaceous zone is capped matterby beda in upperofyellowish part, and verysandy thin limestonebeds of whichlimestone. lies below thelimestone. steeply The dipping base of (75-80the main degree limestone in isSSW heavilydirection) bioturbated main Spintangi withhorizontal burrows. B- thinbeds of foraminifera richmarl/ limestone (arrow) limestone. Hammerphotographsin is forscale. that intercalate withbrick red shale. This zone liesbelow thepaleosol bed. C- close upview ofheavilyburrowed base ofthe main Spintangi Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SAGHANDI MINES, SHAHRIG-HARNAI COALFIELD Oligocene Red shale and sandstone. Nari Ftn. and Sibi Group g LIMESTONE (22.71m), nodular, very thin to thin and medium tsD O t> 05 SANDSTONE (3.00 m), very pale purple (maroon) to light pale red purple; very fine grained quartz 6o% Covered mudrock o f upper Ghazij 00 - Meters Figure 3.17. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations from Saghandi mining area, Hamai coalfield. This section contains a gypsiferous bed near the contact with Spintangi Formation. Saghandi mining area, Harnai coalfield - The upper Ghazij and Spintangi limestone contact at Saghandi mining area of the Hamai coalfield (—10 km east of Sharan Tangi along southern limb of Hamai syncline which is also known as Gochina syncline), is comprised of a 0.30 m thick bed of gypsiferous shale that lies 2.6 m below the Spintangi limestone (Fig 3.17) and represents the stratigraphic level of the paleosol bed at Sharan Tangi, PMDC Mines (Figure 3.13). The red mudrocks of the upper Ghazij lie just below this bed. The lower half of this 91 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 2.6 m thick interval (between the gypsiferous bed and the Spintangi limestone) is comprised of thin layers of red, maroon, yellowish and light grayish shale. The gray layers are more frequently present towards the top and intercalated with very thin marl/limestone beds. Southwest of Hamai, Harnai coalfield - The contact between the upper Ghazij and Spintangi Formation appears differently on the north limb of Hamai syncline at 1.5 km west of Hamai (Figure 3.11). Here it is comprised of a bed of coquina shale (2.5 m), a silty to very fine grained sandy zone (1.25 m) of yellow to yellowish gray with maroon tinge and capped by a 0.20 m thick quartz and chert rich limonitic grit that appears to be pedogenically altered. The sequence above this bed is partly covered and consists of shale and marls that are overlain by the Spintangi limestone (Figure 3.18). SOUTHWEST OF HARNAI, HARNAI COALFIELD AREA I2MESTONE nodular, very thin to thin and medium bedded, fossil foraminifera common Covered SANDSTONE (0,50 m), very light grayish white, with maroon, non calc, quartz 90-95%, friable, GYPSUM (0.25 m), fibrious with red/maroonish shale partings SANDSTONE (1.25 m), yellowish to yellowish gray and maroon/ purple with lateritic appearance, very fine grained, top 0.20 m grity COQUINA & FOSSILIFEROUS MUDROCK, coquina at top and bottom (0.40 m), mostly shell fragments and fossil hush MUDROCK (3.00 m), yellowish gray, with maroon and red color layers, gypsum veins rare Covered mudrock Meters ? 'y /%/ Figure 3.18. Detailed section of upper contact between Ghazij and the Spintangi Formations from Hamai coalfield. This section contains a lateritic sandstone bed near the contact with Spintangi Formation, 92 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Kach Sequence The Kach area (Figures 3.9, 3.11) contains a sedimentary sequence that is very similar to the middle Ghazij but lies stratigraphically below the lower Ghazij. This sequence rests unconformably on the Paleocene Brewery limestone at Umai (HSC, 1960). It consists of shale, sandstone, coaly carbonaceous shale, which locally grades to thin coal seams and contains coquina/fossil hash partings, and conglomerate or pebbly conglomeratic sandstone beds (Figure 3.10). The Hunting Survey Corporation, (1960) and the Geological Survey of Pakistan (unpublished) mapped these rocks as part of Ghazij in Kach and Khost-Shahrig-Hamai areas. On a regional scale, these rocks correspond stratigraphically to the Gidar Dhor conglomerate facies, lower Marap conglomerate facies of the Marap area and the upper carbonaceous shale bearing part of Rodangi Formation of Kalat region. The rocks of Kach are highly deformed by regional compressional tectonics, especially in the Umai-Zawar Kanr area where late Paleocene-early Eocene shales of the Kach sequence are repeated a number of times with the harder beds of sandstone and conglomerate. This tectonically thickened shale sequence gives an impression of the lower Ghazij Formation and, the sandstone, carbonaceous shale, and conglomerate beds of the middle Ghazij Formation, thus it looks superficially like a highly deformed Ghazij sequence. However, the Kach sequence is capped by a unique conglomeratic deposit that is distinct in composition (abundant mafic material) and clast size from the conglomerate of the middle Ghazij Formation (abundant limestone pebble). The contact between the Kach sequence and the lower part of the Ghazij Formation is here placed on top of this conglomerate. Stratigraphic sections of the Kach sequence are reconstructed and measured from highly tectonized areas at Zawar Kanr and Umai localities. 93 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) assigned a late Paleocene age to the basal beds of the Kach sequence at Umai and Zawar Kanr localities, whereas the upper part of the sequence ranges into the early Eocene and is transitional upward into classic Ghazij lithologies. At Umai, the lower beds of the Kach sequence contain a variety of rocks including pseudo conglomerate, sandstone, lateritic ochre, and limestone containing Paleocene foraminifers (HSC, 1960). The Kach sequence is interpreted as a littoral clastic facies (shale, sandstone, conglomerate and coal/carbonaceous shale), which is time equivalent to the basinal carbonate Sanjawi limestone facies of the Dungan group (Sanjawi limestone is mostly early Eocene in age except the basal part that ranges into the Paleocene; HSC, 1960). The lithofacies of the Kach sequence and the upper member of Dungan group (Sanjawi limestone) represent two extreme ends of the depositional spectrum of a basin (near shore/basin margin and deeper water basinal deposit transgressive, respectively). The laterally adjacent Khadro, Dab, and Rakhi Gaj Formations dominantly consist of shale with beds of limestone and represent the correlative shallow marine transitional facies of the above two units. The transition from carbonate facies to clastic facies is seen at Chapper Rift where more than 75 meters of shale with subordinate thin limestone in the basal part grades upward from the carbonate facies of Brewery limestone to the clastic facies (shale, sandstone and coal) of the Kach sequence and lower Ghazij shale (Figure 3.19B). Hunting Survey Corporation mapped the entire sequence on top of Brewery limestone as part of the Ghazij Formation. Gibson (1992) assigned a late Paleocene age to the basal part of the sequence at Chapper Rift. The sandstone facies of the Kach sequence at the base of the lower Ghazij represents part of an early fluvial delta that formed on the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent during late Paleocene-early Eocene time. The major part of this delta has been eroded away by the process of later tectonism but the leftover residual parts of this delta are still preserved in the 94 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fig, 3.19. Photographs showing contact between limestone of Paleocene Dungan Group and shales of the early Eocene Kach sequence and lower Ghazij Formation at Chappar Rift locality. A. General view of the Chappar Rift locality. B. Close-up outcrop view of the transition sequence above Brewery limestone of Dungan Group (right side of road) at Chappar Rift, Khost valley. Raza Shah (GSP geologist) is looking towards Kach Sequence in the photograph. The thick bedded limstone in the sequence may repressent a slump block. 95 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fault bounded sequences in Quetta region at Kach and Khost area and in Kalat regions at Rodangi, Gidar Dhor and Marap areas (lower Marap conglomerate) of the axial belt. These sequences are recognized as part of the oldest delta of the western margin of this continent. Sandstone bodies of the sequence represent lower delta plain to shoreface/shallow marine environments and the conglomerate facies represent the fan delta environments. The same depositional environments are recorded later on in the middle Ghazij where deltaic environments once again grade to shallow marine conditions eastward away from the axial belt. Lower Contact of Kach Sequence The Lower Ghazij directly overlies the Dungan Group (HSC, 1960) or its stratigraphic equivalent. The contact is generally abrupt but conformable (HSC, 1960). However at some places within the axial belt, the Ghazij rests on older strata with an apparent angular unconformity. Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) reported an unconformity west of Umai village in the Kach area. Here, the uppermost bed of the Paleocene Brewery limestone (lower member of Dungan Group of HSC, 1960) is heavily burrowed and has an apparent angular unconformity up to 90 degree with overlaying Ghazij beds (HSC, 1960; Figure 3.20A,B,C). The late Paleocene-early Eocene Sanjawi Limestone (upper member of Dungan group of HSC, 1960) is missing from this area. The unconformity zone lies just above a pseudo conglomerate (0.20 m), and consists of lateritic ocher and limestone containing Paleocene foraminifera. Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) assigned a Paleocene age to the basal beds of the Ghazij Formation (i. e. Kach Sequence of this stydy) at this locality. Also, Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) reported the same unconformity from Quetta valley, northeast (6 km) of Baleli Railway Station. The Ghazij unconformably lies here on the lower strata of the Parh Group. During this study, the lateral 96 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PALEOCENE-EOCENE UNCONFORMITY OF THE QUETT AND KALAT REGIONS Queta Region Kalat Region M r , 4* Fig. 3.20. Photograph showing unconformity between Paleocene and early Eocene rocks of the Quetta and Kalat regions. A Unconformity between Paleocene Brewery limestone (Dungan Group HSC. 1960) and early Eocene Kach Sequence at Umai, Kach, Quetta region. Hammer in the picture is placed on the top of unconformity zone. B, Pseudo conglomerate in the Umai unconformity zone. C, Heavly burrowed unconformable limestone surface at Umai, D&E, photographs showing unconformity of the Kalat region at Pir Hazar locality. Photograph-D, shows bioturbated sandy top and photograph-E, heavly bioturbated and deeply weathered sandstone that represents unconformable contact with Gidar Dhor Formation at Pir Hazar locality 97 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. extent of the unconformity zone at Umai was observed south of Quetta in Kalat region at Pir Hazar locality, Marap Velley. The unconformity at this locality is represented by a zone of deeply weathered, highly bioturbated, friable, quartz rich sandstone (-2.50 m) that contains bioturbated sandy clay at its top (Figure 3.20D,E). These new observations suggest that the pseudo-conglomerate at the base of the Umai unconformity is present on a regional scale. This conglomerate bed is reported from the Dungan hills by Oldham (1890) and observed in the Mach area at the base of the lower Ghazij, where it is more than a meter thick and very localized in its lateral extent. It is present as isolated limestone slumped blocks in the Johan area at about the same stratigraphic level as in Mach. Also, it is observed in the Waziristan area at the base of a thin variegated shale and sandstone sequence (along Mir Ali-Thal road) where it is mapped as Patala Formation by Meissner et al. (1974 and 1975). The regional presence of the pseudo-conglomerate bed along the axial belt represents the first pulse of collision tectonics between the India and Asia continents and may serve as a time line for regional chronostratigraphic purposes. On the basis of above-observed facts, the angular unconformity between the Dungan Group (HSC, 1960) and the lower part of Ghazij (HSC, 1960) no longer exists at Umai and Quetta valley. It does exist as a disconformity between late Paleocene-early Eocene Kach Sequence (equivalent to Sanjawi limestone of Dungan Group; HSC, 1960) and Paleocene Brewery limestone in Kach and Cretaceous Parh group in the Quetta valley areas. The parallel tensional fractures, vertical to bedding, in a tightly folded plunging Brewery limestone gives a false impression of the bedding at Umai. These tensional fractures are interpreted by the Hunting Survey Corporation (1960) and Blanford (1883) as bedding planes and thus they reported unconformable contact up to 90 degree from this area. The lower contact of Ghazij with the Kach sequence and the Dungan group is considered transitional in areas east of the axial belt, whereas it is sharp in areas to the west, and unconformable within some parts of the axial belt. The same 9 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. unconformity at Pir Hazar locality in the Marap valley area is present between the Gidar Dhor Formation and underlying Cretaceous rocks. The quartz-rich micaceous type sandstone of the Pir Hazar unconformity is interpreted to be the topmost Cretaceous sequence that either represents the Pab/Mughal Kot Formation or its equivalents in the axial belt. The same sandstone and unconformity was observed at Brewery Gorge west of Quetta by Allemann (1979) between the Paleocene Brewery limestone and underlying Cretaceous rocks. Loralai, Dera Ismail Khan and Kohat Regions The Ghazij Formation at Duki, Chamalang, Kingri, Mughal Kot and Drazinda areas of the Loralai and Dera Ismail Khan (D. I. Khan) Regions of Balochistan and NWFP provinces (Figures 3.21, 3.22) is comprised of mudrocks, sandstone and carbonate facies of the lower, middle and upper members. Exploitable coal deposits of the Ghazij Formation are found only in Duki and Chamalang areas of the Balochistan province and represent the northeastern most coal environments in the formation. The coal beds are generally lenticular in nature and thin northward in the Kingri area where they grade to coaly carbonaceous shale. The Kingri area contains two such horizons one in the middle Ghazij and the second in the Dab Formation (Paleocene-Eocene age), which lies below the lower Ghazij. The coaly carbonaceous horizon in the middle Ghazij represents the northern extension of the Chamalang coal beds whereas the coaly carbonaceous horizon in the Dab Formation is likely equivalent to the carbonaceous zone of the Rodangi Formation of the Kalat region and the Kach sequence of Quetta region. The Ghazij Conglomerate facies is not present in Loralai and D. I. Khan regions although a few thin (less than 20 cm) lenticular pebbly deposits within sandstone are rarely present in upper beds of the upper Ghazij and reported as conglomerate from Mughal Kot area in measured stratigraphic sections (Hemphill and Kidwai, 1973). 99 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. B/ tkJi-D jliJ P iu li GEOLOGICAL MAP OF f IUNM< NE PART OK BALOCHISTAN AND SOL 1 HF.RN P \R I OF NWH>, PARISIAN MAINWAU tank * - 3 Kach 1)1 RA ISM Ml KHAN ll T. I0.il/Jl 31 r~ * (iH \ / l KHAN | j | O yo-Mioccne Ohgo-Miocenc Rocks J Eocene Rocks : jp ip s s * Paleocene Rocks Cretaceous Rocxs ' or-^awm Jurassic Rocks Ophiolites SUI/ (From Geotogkat Map of Pakistan, OSP, 1991) Scale 50 100 150 Km -J______L_ -J Figure 3.21. General geological map of the Muslimbagh, Loralai and Zhob areas of northeastern Balochistan and Mughal Kot, Dera Ismail Khan, Waziristan areas of the south southwestern part of North West Frontier Province (NWFP) of Pakistan 100 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. GEOLOGICAL MAP OF N WFP REGIONS AND MV.I PART OF THE NORTHERN AREAS, PAKISTAN Landi KLotaF PESHAWAR ISLAMABAD Gwtogfcai Map of MiU fl. <3SP, 1§9J) LEGEND Recent/hub N iV \" 5 !ti:( kA Origo-Miocene Miocene Rocks Eocene - Paleocene (Siwahk. Group) Rocks Cretaceous J urassic Rocks Precarabrian and Paleozoic Rocks Rocks (Sedimentary, I / Fault MMT. Main Manile Thrust MBT. Main boundary 'fhrust Scale 50 100 150 Km _J______L_ I Fig, 3.22. Generalized geological map o f North Waziristan, Banmi, Kohat, Islamabad and northern part of Pakistan 101 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The Upper Ghazij Formation is very thick in the Kingri (780 m) and Mughal Kot areas (1372 m., Fig 3.23) and contains abundant multistory sandstone bodies (up to 12 m thick). The upper Ghazij in the Kingri area is dominantly characterized by channel and sheet-like sandstone bodies intercalated with 5-10 m thick red mudrock intervals. These sandstone bodies often contain thick lag deposits (0.50-3.00 m) at their base. Recently discovered mammal fossils in the area were collected from these sandstone bodies (Gingrich et. al. 2001) located in the lower half and near the top of the upper Ghazij Formation. Most mammal fauna of the Kingri area is relatively younger in age than the Quetta region. The Upper Ghazij Fotmation at Mughal Kot and Drazinda area of D.I. Khan region contains thick red mudrock intervals and lesser amounts of sandstone bodies (Figure 3.23). Most sandstone bodies of the upper Ghazij Formation at Mughal Kot are thick and tabular channels (Figure 3.24), whereas, north of Mughal Kot in Drazinda area (west-northwest of Domanda and Drazinda) the sandstone bodies have more sheet-like geometry, are relatively thin, highly calcareous, bioturbated and contain small-scale cross-stratification. These sandstone bodies are generally intercalated with less mature variegated red mudrock intervals that are thinly inter-layered with red to reddish brown, maroon, purple and yellowish brown to yellowish gray color that reflect the different degree of hydromorphy or waterlogging. The upper Ghazij mudrock at Mughal Kot area is brick red in color and more mature than the Drazinda area. These red mudrocks of the Drazinda area thin gradually northeastward toward Waziristan (Nili Kach and Jandola areas) and east of the axial belt. In these areas, the red mudrock and sandstone facies of the upper Ghazij merge vertically into red purple and dark maroon mudrocks of the Baska Formation and laterally interfmger and grade eastward to green 102 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ssw NNE MUGHAL KOT (Toi Nala) KtMGRJ Middle! Habib Eocene! Rahi Fm Baska Fm Meters Figure 3.23. Stratigraphic sections showing regional thickening and thinning behavior of the early Eocene rocks of the region. Also shown is the lateral variation of lithofacies of Ghazij Formation in the region. 103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 3.24. Channel sandstone bodies in the upper Ghazij at Toi Nala, Mughal Kot area. 104 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. .w . *. L Islamabad ... NORTHEAST # ------ ■ " n ~ n “ “ islamobisd (MsrAti) ------.... fcuewcw 'WnsFfstiuOphishies ** Mughal | / Mughal Sowdwesf efiaodola Sowdwesf ..“ V 0 50 106 '■ '■ 1. V [M s 'X :i j .*'* 9, : / / I $ \ (i (NiUKach) f H't.vmtmm. it it Z g t - i o j L P j 'r % , t h . ! mudrock Continental mudrock Gypsum Wa/imtan ; Sjrdston« one Via m m■ ■ r ■ n I melange ophiolite L ' ||5jLjUjj _ i.-mestone . p a (Keto-I^otwar) l-ormati ? 8 8 » ? 10 the region the Track of Saxulsorar Pactea Saxulsorar of Track 400 soo Waairtstan Horizontal Distance toKilometers I'ANUBA (SiilsimanRange) Kirthar I-ir BA.NKA f SOUTHWEST depositional strike ofthe western margin ofIndian plate. Thered continental mudrocks and sandstone facies ofdie upper Ghazij show northward progressiveshallowing-up sequence thatpasses verticallyinto Baskafacies of Formation,the lower and Kuldanagrades Formation laterally north-northheastward(northwestern part ofKohat-Banda to(Kohat-Potwar Gurguri Daudsandstoneand IslamabadShah areas) areas).The and Mami northwardKhel Clay shallowing-up oftheupper verticalKuldana facies Formationpattern ofthese formations show gradual upliftofinitialnorthward collision of tectonics between IndiaAsia and duringthe late the Paleocen-earlysandstone facies Eonceneacross time.the B. SulaimanMap andshowing Kohat-Potwartime trangressiveregions. C, track of Map showing location ofsections ofthe fence diagram. Fig. 3.25. Fence diagram showing vertical and lateral facies variation and correlation ofearly Eocene rocks along southwest to northeast north-western marginof the Indian plate during late earlyEocene time. This is interpratedhere to bethe results ofnothwardtime transgresssion Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. marine shales of the lower Ghazij (Figure 3.25). The Baska and the middle and upper Ghazij Formation lose their identities in Waziristan somewhere between Jandola and Mir Ali/Shinki Post (Figure 21). Here it all becomes part of green marine shales of the lower Ghazij except in the upper-most part that contains rarely exposed very thin red shale and conglomeratic sandstone at Mir Ali/Shinki Post and areas in the south. North-northeast of Mir Ali towards Thai and Kohat-Banda Daud Shah areas, the lower Ghazij Formation is mapped as Panoba shale (Meissner el. al., 1975). A veiy thin zone of red shales (<1- 4 m thick) at Mir Ali and Shinki Post areas lies a few meters below the Kohat Formation (equivalent to Spintangi/Kirthar Formation) in the Panoba shale and represents the same stratigraphic level as the Baska Formation toward the south in D. F Khan region and the Mami Khel Clay facies of the upper Kuldana Formation toward the north in the Kohat region (Lodhi Khel and Banda Daud Shah area). The Mir Ali area represents the distal and basinal part of these two formations whereas the Waziristan ophiolite section is the proximal western facies of these formations (Figure 3.25). The intermediate lithologic part of the sequence that links the Waziristan ophiolite sections with the Baska and Kuldana Formations has been eroded away by later tectonism in the Kurram-Waziristan part of the axial belt. However, intertonguing proximal to distal lithologies are preserved in faulted sequence near Mir Ali, North Waziristan (Figure 3.21). A stratigraphic sequence shown in the fence diagram (Figure 3.25) is reconstructed from the tectonized area of Mir Ali. This sequence is comprised of a thin conglomerate bed (0.45 m thick) at the base, which lies -84 m below the Kohat Limestone, and a thick sequence of greenish gray shale that contains light purple, light yellowish to grayish purple shale zone (~ 4 m thick) in the upper middle part and about a meter thick red shale near the top. A carbonaceous shale bed <0.45 m thick is also observed in this area but its stratigraphic position is not clear because the area is highly tectonically disturbed. In the north, this carbonaceous shale is observed in a similar setting near Ludhi Khel (Kachai) locality at about 6 m below the conglomerate and sandstone zone (6 m 106 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. thick). The conglomerate and sandstone zone at Ludhi Khel is likely equivalent to the lower Kuldana Gurguri sandstone facies of Wells (1988) and Chashmai formation of Abbasi, et al. (1994) of the Banda Daud Shah area. Both Mir Ali and Ludhi Khel Conglomerate lie stratigraphically on top of the Panoba shale and are comprised of the same type of clasts (dominant chert, limestone with abundant igneous clasts), indicating a common source for both conglomerates. The Mir Ali conglomerate stratigraphically corresponds either to the basal sandstones of the Baska Formation or slightly above this horizon in Nili Kach and Mughal Kot areas in the south and seems equvilant to conglomeratic sandstone facies (Gurguri Sandstone) of the lower Kuldana Formation at Lodhi Khel, Chasmai, Gurguri, and Mardan Khel in the Kohat area. The green and red shale horizon at Mir Ali on top of the conglomerate corresponds stratigraphically to the upper gypsum and limestone part of the Baska Formation of D.I. Khan region in the south and to red mudrock facies of the Mami Khel clays of upper Kuldana Formation in Banda Daud Shah-Kohat areas in the north. A similar Kuldana type lithologic section (220 m thick) has been described by Khan, (1999) as Ghazij Formation from the Waziristan ophiolitic melange area in the west of Mir Ali. This sequence rests unconformably over Waziristan ophiolites and is capped by the Kirthar Formation (Figure 3.25 section 6). The sandstone zones that form the top of the upper Ghazij at Mughal Kot, Kingri and Gandhera contain the youngest Ghazij mammal fauna (including Brontotheres, Primates and Artiodactyls; Gingerich et al., 2001) and are likely older than the Mir Ali pebbly conglomerate and the Gurguri sandstone facies of the Kuldana Formation in the north. This is supported by the presence of Diacodexis in both the upper Ghazij and lower Kuldana (Gurguri sandstone) faunas (Thewissen et al., 2001). The top sandstone beds of the upper Ghazij at Mughal Kot and Drazinda seem to have been deposited under the same collisional phase of tectonic deformation that uplifted Waziristan and the west-northwestern part of the Kohat area of the Indian plate during the late early Eocene. Prior to the late early Eocene, the Kohat area seems to be a part of the Indian shelf as indicated by limestone and marine shale deposits in the area (Shekhan Limetone and Panoba 107 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. shale deposits). These deposits constitute the lower age limit of the Kuldana Formation (late early Eocene, Gingerich, 2003). The Kohat part of the Indian shelf then uplifted, forming continental environments during late early and early middle Eocene time (deposition of Kuldana Formation). The shallowing-up lithologic sequence in the area represents the youngest continental deposits in the region that are associated with initial India-Asia collision. The coarser syntectonic sediment (conglomerate and coarse sandstone facies of the Gurguri sandstone) was deposited in front of the collision belt along the west-northwestern part whereas fine sand and clay sediments (Mami Khel facies) were deposited basin-ward towards the east (Banda Daud Shah areas). The above interpreted lithologic correlation indicates that the mammal fauna of Kuldana Formation in the north is relatively younger than the upper Ghazij mammal fauna to the south. Discussion and Conclusion In the axial belt and just east of the axial belt, the distribution of vertical facies of Ghazij Formation and its correlative units show a progressive shallowing upward sequence. The Kalat region in the south of the study area exhibits a transition from a Paleocene carbonate shelf limestone (Karkh and Dungan Group, HSC, 1960) to a shallow marine shale and sandstone facies (Gidar Dhor Fm.) to a thick late Paleocene-early Eocene conglomerate fan facies (Gidar Dhor and Marap Conglomerate). Near Quetta in the central part of the study area, a Paleocene carbonate shelf limestone (Brewery Limestone of Dugan Group; HSC, 1960) transitions to an early Eocene shallow marine shale facies that progrades into paralic (sandstone, shale, coal) and continental (red mudrocks and conglomerate) facies (Kach Sequence and Ghazij Fm.). Northeast of Quetta in the NWFP region, late Paleocene-early Eocene shallow marine shale, marl, and sandy limestone facies (Patala, Ponoba and Shekhan Fms.) transition to evaporite facies (Bahadur Khel Salt and Jata Gypsum) and late early Eocene continental red mudrocks and sandstone facies (Kuldana 108 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Fm.). These stratigraphic records show that the main marine to continental facies transition associated with initial India-Asia collision is time transgressive from southwest to northeast (Figure 3.25). This facies transition occurs in the late Paleocene in the area south of Quetta (Kalat region, Balochistan), near the Paleocene-Eocene boundary in the area around Quetta, and in the late early Eocene in the area northeast of Quetta (Kohat region, NWFP). In axial belt areas, these transitions are abrupt and are represented by unconformities (e.g. basal unconformities at Pir Hazar and Umai). Within this overall shallowing up sequence, the Ghazij Formation and its correlative units in the region exhibit two syntectonic conglomeratic zones that represent the depositional response to separate pulses of India-Asia tectonism. The first pulse occurred during the late Paleocene to earliest part of the early Eocene. The proximal facies of this pulse are represented by the upper part of Gidar Dhor in the Kalat region to the south. The intermediate facies are represented by the Kach Sequence in the Quetta region and the carbonaceous zone of the Rodangi Formations in Kalat region. The distal facies of this initial pulse are represented by the Patala Formation (Meissner et al., 1974) in North Waziristan to the north along the axial belt, the upper Karkh Group (HSC, 1960), and the lower part of the lower Ghazij Formation to the east of the axial belt. This lower conglomerate zone represents the oldest known sedimentary response to initial continent-continent collision between India and Asian continents and could correlate to the obduction of the ophiolites in the Bela area to the south and Muslim Bagh, Zhob and Waziristan in the north. The second pulse occurred later in the early Eocene and is represented by the upper Marap conglomerate in the Kalat region to the south, the middle Ghazij conglomerate in the Quetta region along the axial belt, and the red mudrock facies of the upper Ghazij to the east of the axial belt. These conglomeratic facies grade laterally into sandstone, shale and limestone facies to the east, north-northeast and south-southeast of the Kalat plateau, Mach, Sor Range and Shahrig-Hamai areas. 109 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Under this depositional model, the Kuldana Formation of the Kohat region is interpreted as a part of the northward prograding shallowing-up facies associated with the last pulse of initial continent-continent collision prior to the main Himalayan mountain building orogenies. In this way, the Kuldana represents a genetic extension of the uppermost Ghazij Formation (Figure 3.25) although it is temporally equivalent with the late-early Eocene to middle- early Eocene Drug and Baska Formations. This time-transgressive, northward prograding shallowing-up sequence provides evidence that the Indian continent first collided along the western margin of the Indian plate in the Kalat Region during the late Paleocene and later progressed northward toward North Waziristan during late-early Eocene. This contradicts previous interpretations that the Indian continent first collided along its northwestern margin (near North Waziristan, Powell, 1979) with Asia and supports a strongly time-transgressive collision (contra Najman et al., 2005). 110 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTERIV PALEOCURRENT INDICATORS FROM THE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND RELATED UNITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA-ASIA COLLISION TECTONICS Many sedimentary structures can be used to deduce the direction of paleocurrents. The currents are controlled by regional paleoslope, subsidence patterns, the geometry and trend of local landscape and their presevation is infuenced by the processes and conditions of sediment deposition. In general, sedimentary structures develop through physical and or chemical processes before, during and after deposition and are generally categorized in to four major categories, erosional, depositional, post depositional and biogenic. The first two categories are especially useful in determining the paleocurrent flow orientation. These include basal bedforms such as tool marks, flute casts, groove casts, scour marks and scoured surfaces, channels, bedding, cross-stratification, ripples, and slope-related deformation features such as slump folds or convolution (Prentice, 1960; Williams, 1960; Bouma, 1962; Walker, 1967; Dzulynski and Smith, 1963; Reineck and Singh, 1973; Potter and Pettijohn, 1977; Harms et al., 1982; Tucker, 1994; Boggs, 2001;). Amongst all of these paleocurrent indicators, cross-stratification is the most common and often best preserved in sedimentary rocks and is very useful for interpreting the orientation of paleocurrent flow directions. However in some cases, it is difficult to ascertain the flow directions especially when the structures are poorly preserved and exposed. The outcrops of sandstone bodies in the Ghazij Formation and adjacent units preserving abundant cross-stratification are used for estimating the dominant flow direction of 111 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. streams during this period of fluvial and fluvio-deltaic deposition (Potter and Pettijohn 1977; Decelles et al. 1983; Wells 1988; Waheed and Wells, 1990). This information constrains the location of regional uplifts along the suture zone, and thus is critical for assembling a paleogeographic model for the early stages of collision deformation along the western margin of the Indian plate. Paleocurrent information also helps delineate the major source areas that provided siliciclastic sediments to the Ghazij basin and account for the different facies along the western margin. Paleocurrent data from sandstone bodies of the upper Cretaceous Pab Formation, upper Paleocene-lower Eocene Gidar Dhor and Kach Sequence, and lower Eocene Ghazij Formation (Figure 1.5) were collected in order to establish flow direction during pre-tectonic (pre India-Asia collision tectonics) and early syntectonics (prior to main Himalayan mountain building tectonics; Figure 4.1). These paleocurrent data indicate that pretectonic paleoflow was mainly towards the west and northwest during Cretaceous time whereas during the late Paleocene-early Eocene syntectonic period, it was reversed and the paleoflow direction was dominantly towards the east and southeast (Figure 4.2, 4.3). The details of paleocurrents and interpreted paleoflow directions are described in chronological order later in the chapter. Previous Work Paleocurrent analysis of the Ghazij Formation was initially reported by Kazi (1968) from Hamai coalfield area who described a southeast paleoflow direction for the middle part of 112 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LOCATION MAP OF PALEOCURRENT MEASURMENTS PESHAWAR 34 >x Ludi Khel ^ ^K O H A T s, ' V . Mardan - . • # Nan Pacos Bahdur Khel Kuldana and Panoba Formations Ghazij Formation Ophiolites Fault NilH Kach 32 ■ Town OERA ISMAIL KHAN • Paleocurrent **** Locations and Localities LORALAI Q UETTA Ktiost tfcraai tl • Isaml isrusHia Harboi ILlla V 68 70 72 Scale 0 100 200 300 Kilometer s_ I i Figure 4.1. Map showing location of paleocurrent measurements from Ghazij Formation and related units in the study area. Details of paleocurrents for localities are listed in Appendix A. 113 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. the formation and south-southeast paleoflow for the upper part of the formation. Kassi and others (1987) studied orientation of sole marks on the bottoms of Ghazij sandstones from Kach area, Ziarat District and reported southwest paleoflow with lesser extent toward the southeast. Also Kakar and others (1997) reported similar results on the basis of 16 trough cross-bed measurements and sole mark observations from the Sor Range area. Ghaznavi (1990) studied the Ghazij Formation in Khost-Shahrig-Flamai coalfield and reported mostly south and southeast paleoflow in the area. None of these workers mentioned any methodology in their reports. Waheed and Wells (1990) studied paleoflow indicators in detail from Cretaceous to Pliocene rocks in the Sulaiman Range and reported the paleoflow towards the north at Ragha Sar and towards the southeast at Zam post in the area west of Dera Ismail Khan for the early Eocene time. They attributed this disparity to different depositional positions on two separate delta lobes. These workers described their methodology in detail. Johnson et al. (1999) reported east-northeast paleoflow from the middle part of the Ghazij Formation in Pir Ismail Ziarat coalfield. Wells (1984) reported east-southeast paleoflow from the Kuldana Formation in Kohat-Banda Daud Shah areas, NWFP province. Some of the results reported in this chapter were included in Clyde et al. (2003). Methods Paleocurrent data of the Cretaceous Pab Formation and the late Paleocene and early Eocene rocks of the upper Gidar Dhor Formation, Kach Sequence, lower, middle and upper parts of the Ghazij Formation were colleted in four field seasons from 2000 to 2003. Trough cross beds and tabular cross beds are the most common sedimentary structures that preserve paleocurrent information in the Ghazij sandstones and are used here for the purpose of estimation of flow 114 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. directions (Potter and Pettijohn 1977, Decelles et al. 1983, Wells 1988, Waheed and Wells 1990). “Tabular cross-beddingconsists of cross-bedded units that are broad in lateral dimension with respect to set thickness and have essentially planar bounding surfaces. The foreset laminae of tabular cross-beds are also commonly planar, but curved laminae that have a tangential relationship to the basal surface also occur...Individual beds range in thickness from a few tens of centimeters to a meter or more... Trough cross-beddingconsists of cross-bedded units in which one or both bounding surfaces are curved. The units are trough-shaped sets consisting of an elongate scour filled with curved foreset laminae that commonly have a tangential relationship to the base of the set...and range in thickness to a few tens of centimeters and in width from less than 1 m to more than 4 m (Boggs, 2001, Figure 4.15. p.101). The two categories of cross-beds are not always easily distinguishable because tangential foresets can be associated with either category. The paleocurrent measurements were collected from the sandstone outcrops that preserve three-dimensional exposures in order to constrain the direction of maximum dip for foresets and troughs as precisely as possible. At least three separate measurements of current direction were collected at each sandstone outcrop/site. Those sites where apparent dip of foresets was the only information available, two apparent dips were measured in order to define the inclined plane by stereographic projection. At places where the trough axis could not be measured directly, it was constrained by measuring the trough limbs (Decelles et al., 1983). Most Ghazij outcrops in the region are structurally inclined as well, so stereographic projection was used to perform simple horizontal axis tectonic corrections. It is also possible that the region has undergone some amount of vertical axis rotation, which may also affect cross-bed measurements. About 750 paleocurrent measurements of foresets and trough cross beds from sandstones were recorded (Appendix A) over an area that extended from Kalat in the south to Mughal Kot (Figure 1.9) in the north. Brunton compass was used to measure paleocurrent 115 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. orientations from sandstone outcrops. Field data of the paleocurrents from inclined beds was then reorientated back to the original depositional plane along a horizontal fold axis. Trigonomoetric manipulations were done by using a Wulf stereonet (procedure outlined by Potter and Petttijohn, 1977; Rowland, 1986), the computer-based trigonometric program “GeoCalculator 4.5" (Holcombe Rod, website, http://www.earth.uq.edu.au/~rodh/softtwarel. and a modified Excel version of the Fortran IV program by Wells (1988). The corrected measurements were then used to prepare rose diagrams by using the computer program “Rockworks99 ”, which also calculates the vector mean paleoflow direction, standard deviation, and 95% confidence interval of the mean (Appendix A). Vector mean values of the paleocurrents were then incorporated into the “Arc View GIS 3.2” program to prepare paleocurrent maps of the study area. All original paleocurrent field data can be found in Appendix A. Paleocurrent Analysis Preorogenic Paleocurrent Analysis (Upper Cretaceous) Cretaceous sedimentary rocks in the study area represent pre-collision deposits of the western margin of the Indian plate. These rocks are interpreted to have been deposited on the westward sloping shelf of the Indian plate (Sultan, 1997) and were part of the leading edge of the western margin of the Indian plate during its northward flight after separating from Australia. The Cretaceous rocks dominantly consist of shelf carbonate deposits. However, shallow marine to near-shore (Mughal Kot Fm.) and shoreface to channel deposits (Pab Fm) are present in the upper Cretaceous and contain abundant pre-orogenic paleoflow sedimentary structures. The pre- 116 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. orogenic paleocurrent data presented here were collected from upper Cretaceous Pab Formation from the Kinrgi area (Loralai region). Upper Cretaceous Pab Formation - The Pab Formation consists entirely of thick light gray quartzose sandstone with minor dark shales. It is best exposed in the Loralai and D.I. Khan regions of the study area and interpreted as shoreface to shallow-marine sand. The Pab Formation is generally absent from the Quetta and Kalat regions, however a few sandstones are present on top of the Parh Formation and may represent the stratigraphic equivalent to the Pab or Mughal Kot Formations. A total 50 foreset paleocurrent measurements were recorded from the Pab sandstone at Hingulun Nala (Loralai region) and stratigraphically equivalent sandstones from Bitagu (Kalat region). The paleocurrent rose diagram shows a dispersed but unimodal current pattern. The mean of the foreset values indicates dominant flow was toward the northwest at 313 degrees (±17 degrees 95% confidence interval) during upper Cretaceous time in the Kingri area. Flowever at the Bitagu locality in the Kalat region, the mean current direction lies farther towards the west at 293 degrees (Figures 4.2, 4.3). These results are consistent with previous research from the Pab Formation in Rakhi Nala (Waheed and Wells, 1990), the eastern Sulaiman Range (Pryor et al., 1979), and the Kirthar Range (White, 1981). Svnorogenic Paleocurrent Analysis (late Paleocene-early Eocene! Synorogenic paleocurrent flow directions were collected from the upper Paleocene and lower Eocene rocks of the Gidar Dhor Formation, Kach Sequence and lower, middle and upper parts of the Ghazij Formation. The paleoflow results from these formations are described below. 117 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PALEOCURRENT DETAILS OF REGIONAL LOCALITIES IN STUDY AREA AREA/ FORESET TROUGH FORESET LOCALATIES Tga Tgm | Tgl & Tgd Tgu Tgm j Tgl & Tgd Kpb Surab ; n=5 \ n=5 Marap area ^ 1 Harboi (Kalat) 3 I Hills ! Johan \ L w , n~4 Sor Range n=2'j and Kach (Kach Sequence) {Kach Sequence) Pir Ismail -SL Ziarat " \ n=le> Macb \ Bi bi Nani n® 1 (Mach) n~l 4 »*34 n®5 Khost % (K a il Sequence) n~34 Shahrig n*28 \ LXiki Sadozai K illi, • u / ^ Hingulun S ( M i ) cr*kn>\*7 Nala (Kingri) n- Kingri n~ 3 n -4 n-17 %n-45 INDEX n~? i-Tgn. Upper Ghazij Fm. Mughal Early Eocene < Tgm. Middle Ghazij Fm. '■Tgl. Lower Ghazij Fm. Kot Late paleocene f _ p to early Eocene 1 S Gidar Dhor Fm Cretaceous { Kpb. PabFtn n= no of obsevations Figure 4.2, Rose digrams showing paleocurrent directions along western margin of the Indian Plate from localities in study area. The foreset and trough cross beds of the Gidar Dhor and Ghazij Formations dominantly show east-southeastward paleoflow during late Paleocene-early Eocene time whereas foresets of the Cretaceous Pab Formation show west-northwestward paleoflow prior to initiation of India-Asia collision tectonics. 118 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SUMMARY OF CRETACEOUS-EARLY EOCENE PALEOCURRENTS FROM WESTERN MARGIN OF INDIAN PLATE AGE FORMATION ALL ALL FORESETS TROUGHS •a 2 SYNOROGENIC •-1 s n=21* PALEOCURRENTS Kuldana \ v m = 1 2 4 . 6 7 M ^ Formation - x ^ - 0 = 2 1 . 0 5 All Late Pateocene-eariy 5 UfWt/mac=LX4?Pc rAroresvio w tfair | a (* vector means of 150 measurements) ...Mm . Upper a = 2 2 6 n = 9 4 Ghazij v m = 1 6 3 .9 1 v m - 2 7 1 . 0 c i “ 1 6 . 5 6 c i=12.71 '5 o§ 8 pa Middle n = 2 1 6 i s = 4 2 n = 5 4 0 v m = 1 6 2 . 5 2 v m = 8 3 . 8 Ghazij v m - 1 6 5 . 9 7 0 = 1 1 . 6 5 T r 0 = 1 6 . 6 8 0 - 8 . 6 1 O n = 53 n = 3 Lower ™ = 204.52 vm =312.35 Ghazij 0 = 22.29 0 = 9 1 .4 1 PRE-OROGENIC PALEOCURRENTS (Duldm a) \ {Dukia A« Upper iccous Foresees n = 1 3 Kach VM= 160.19 v m = 7 3 , 0 >* Sequence A \ a = 1 9 . 4 3 1 V 0 = 1 : 5 .8 4 MU > Upper j> = 3 4 n = 8 Gidar Dhor \ v m = 1 4 1 . 6 8 v m = 8 8 . 4 8 n = 50 0 = 3 7 . 8 3 c i = 3 8 . 0 5 v m = 310.04 0 = 15,21 LEGEND S3 O a -5 8 i Pab/Gidar vm - 292.96 8 8 Dhor? a 1 4 .3 1 Paleocurrent rose diagram il-i p Valley) ------Vector mean direction of paleocurrent 3 n = Number of observations 0 n = 4 S Pab v m = 3 1 2 . 9 9 VM = Vector mean azimuth 1 c i = 1 7 .1 1 t Formation u (Kingri) CI - 95% confidence interval of mean Figure 4.3. Summary of paleocurrents by formation shows dominant east-southeastward paleoflow during late Paleoeene-early Eocene time. Prior to the Paleocene, the dominant paleoflow of sediments was to the west and northwest. This indicates a change in dispersal path of sediments and suggests a slope reversal of the Cretaceous shelf of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent during late Paleocene-early Eocene time. 119 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene Gidar Dhor Formation - The Gidar Dhor Formation is mapped only in the axial belt of Kalat region by Hunting Survey Corporation (1960). The uppermost part of the formation dominantly consists of conglomerate at Gidar and Marap areas in the west and green mudrock (with occasional red and maroon shale bands) with sandstone beds in Surab and Johan areas in the east. The lower contact of the formation seems unconformable with upper Cretaceous rocks (Pab Fm/Parh group HSC, 1960) in the axial belt area. A total of 42 foreset and trough paleocurrents were recorded in the Kalat region from this formation (Figure 4.2; Appendix A). The paleocurrent measurements indicate a moderately dispersed southeastward paleoflow varying towards the northeast and southwest. The vector mean of foresets show dominant southeastward paleoflow toward 141 degrees (±38 degree 95% confidence interval, Figure 4.3) whereas the troughs indicate paleocurrents toward the east at 71 degrees in Surab area and 50 degrees at Splangi in the Johan area. These paleocurrent measurements were taken from only five localities that represent different stratigraphic levels suggesting that flow was variable through time. However, the dominant paleoflow remains in the southeastward direction throughout this time in the region (Figure 4.4). Upper Paleocene-Lower Eocene Kach Sequence - Exposures of the Kach Sequence are very limited and are confined to the Kach and Khost-Shahrig areas, Quetta region. Due to its limited exposure, only 14 foreset and trough paleocurrent measurements were recorded in the sequence at Zawar Knar locality of Kach area and the foothills of the Koh-e-Khalifat, Khost area (Figure 4.2; Appendix A). Paleocurrents here show unimodal southeasterly flow (mean = 160 degrees) with minor variation towards the southwest (Figure 4.2, 4.4). Lower Eocene Lower Ghazij Formation - Paleocurrent data from the lower part of the Ghazij Formation were collected from Loralai region. A total of 56 foreset and trough paleocurrent measurements were recorded from sandstone bodies present in the basal part of the 120 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PALEOCURRENT MAP OF GIDAR DHOR AND LOWER GHAZIJ Peshawar 34 ■ FORMATIONS OF THE WESTERN MARGIN OF THE INDIAN PLATE Kohat Kuldana Formation Panoba Formation Ghazij Formation Ophiolites Fauit ^ -*-»• Foreset Paleocurrents Dera Ismail Khan -+-*• Trough Paleocurrents ■ Town r". oMPf f i aEh Loralai PALEOCURRENT ROSE DIAGRAMES ixK'AiiriKs lonKSpr tro u gh 1. Surab area (Kslat) Nushki "I? 2. Johan (Kalat) 3. Kach (Quetta) i (Kob-e-Khakfet)■ u i (Quetta) "A *7 : / ; n~46 ■•^IXtkA (Lorahtf) U Khuzdar w I 6. Dukiarea (Takri, Loralai) 7. Kiogri \ Bela Ss„ ophiolites (Loralai) 70 n Scale 0 100 200 300 Kilometer L_ - . 1 ...... 1... Figure 4,4. Paleocurrent map of Gidar Dhor and lower Ghazij Formations of the western margin of the Indian Plate shows dominant east-southeastward paleoflow during late Paleocene-early Eocene time. Prior to Paleocene time, the dominant paleoflow of sediments was to the west and northwest. 121 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. upper half of lower Ghazij Formation in the Duki and Kingri areas (Figure 4.2; Appendix A). Paleocurrents here show unimodal highly dispersed southwestward paleoflow varying to the southeast. The mean of the foreset values shows dominant paleoflow at 204 degrees towards the southwest, whereas trough values indicate a northwest-southeast axis of transport (132-312 degrees; Figure 4.3). These measurements are from 12 different sites and indicate that the principle flow directions of the rivers were toward the south and southwest in this area (Figure 4.4). This differs from the Kach Sequence of the Quetta region by about 45 degrees in flow direction. This disparity might be due to vertical axis rotation of the rocks nearby Quetta syntax. Lower Eocene Middle Ghazii Formation - Paleocurrent data from the middle part of the Ghazij Formation were collected at various localities of the Kalat, Quetta, and Loralai regions. A total of 258 foreset and trough paleocurrents were recorded from this part of the Ghazij Formation (Appendix A). The paleocurrents show dominant south-southeastward flow with variation towards the east-northeast and south-southwest (Figure 4.2, 4.3). The mean foreset value indicates a dominant southeastwards paleoflow at 163 degrees (±12 degrees 95% confidence interval, Figure 4.2). The mean trough value indicates eastward paleoflow at 84 degrees (±17degrees 95% confidence interval, Figure 4.2). Overall, in the area south of the Quetta syntaxis, the vector mean paleoflow directions of both Kalat and Quetta regions indicate a very consistent southeastward paleoflow direction with local variations toward the northeast, east and southeast. Paleocurrents from the Loralai region to the northeast of Quetta syntaxis show dominant southwest paleoflow (Figure 4.5). The slight change of paleoflow direction in this area might be due to vertical axis rotations associated with the Quetta syntaxis. The highly dispersed but unimodal current directions of the middle Ghazij may represent a braided/distributary flow pattern of a deltaic environment with local and regional differences in the flow directions. 122 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PALEOCURRENT MAP OF Peshawar MIDDLE GHAZIJ FORMATION, ■ WESTERN MARGIN OF INDIAN PLATE Kohat Kuidana Formation Panoba Formation Ghazij Formation Ophiolites Fault Foreset Paleocnrrents Dera kmail Khan Trough Paleocurrents ■ Town PALEOCURRENT ROSE DIAGRAMES LOCALITIES rOSUSET i TROUGH I. Surab area (Kalat) Loralai 2. Harboi Hills (Kalat) 3. Johaa (Kalat) N n sh k i 4. Macb(Quetta) 6, Pir Ismail Ziarat (Quetta) 7. Kfaost (QjeHa) ^(QuSl^. Shahn Khuzdar 9.Duki (Loralai) (Gharwas Thana) 10. Sadazsi Kill! Dufdarea (Loralai) / 31. Kingri (Loralai) Scale 100 200 300 Kilometer _ 1_ s__ Figure 4.5. Paleocurrent map of middle Ghazij Formation shows dominant paleoflow and sediment transport directions along western margin of the Indian Plate during early Eocene time. The foreset and trough paleocurrents indicate southeast paleoflow. 123 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Lower Eocene Upper Ghazij Formation - Paleocurrent data from the upper part of the Ghazij Formation were also collected at various localities of the Kalat, Quetta, Loralai and Dera Ismail Khan regions. About 320 foreset and trough paleocurrents were recorded from this part of the formation (Appendix A) and show the same south southeastward flow pattern as the middle part of the Ghazij Formation (Fig 4.2, 4.3). The directional variance of the upper Ghazij decreases slightly as compared to the middle Ghazij and may signify the onset of a more meandering stream system compared to the braided system of the middle Ghazij. The mean azimuth of foreset current directions is 164 degrees (±17 degrees 95% confidence interval, Figure 4.3). The mean azimuth of trough values indicates eastward paleoflow at 94 degrees (±13 degrees 95% confidence interval, Figure 4.3). South of Quetta syntaxis, the paleoflow directions from the Kalat and Quetta regions are once again very consistent indicating southeastward paleoflow at 138 degrees (±21 degrees 95% confidence interval). Paleocurrents from the upper Ghazij in the area to the northeast of Quetta syntaxis from the Loralai region show a dominant southwest paleoflow trend and are consistant with the middle part of the Ghazij Formation (Figure 4.6). In this area, the moderately dispersed unimodal upper Ghazij paleocurrents show a mean flow of 192 degrees toward the southwest (±20 degrees, 95% confidence interval; Figure 4.2). This differs from the data from the Mughal Kot area of the D.I. Khan region farther to the northeast, which show dominant paleoflow towards the southeast (mean = 97 degrees ±41 degrees 95% confidence interval; Figure 4.2, 4.6). 124 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PALEOCURRENT MAP OF Peshawar 34 UPPER GHAZIJ FORMATION, WESTERN MARGIN OF INDIAN PLATE Kohat Kuldana Formation Panoba Formation Ghazij Formation Ophiolites Fault Foreset Paleocurrents 32 Dera Ismail Khan Town PALEOCURRENT AGRAMES MM \IIII1S ESET THOUGH 1. Surab area Muslim Bagh L o r a ia i (Kalat) ophiolites m s:V"t ▼ <■' 2. Bibi Nani 30 7 (Mach) 3. Fir Ismail Ziarat (Quetta) 4. Sor Range, (Qoetia) 5.Khost (Quetta) 6. Shahrig (Quetta) 28 / (Lo^lai) Khuzdar J 8. Mughal Kot (D.I. Khan) 9. Kohat area ( + (Kuid&na fm.) __ ... ____ ^ 66 68 70 72 Scale 0 100 200 300 Kilometer !_____ i____ I______I______I Figure 4.6, Paleocurrent map of upper Ghazij and Kuldana Formations shows paleoflow and dominant sediment transport directions along western margin of the Indian Plate during early and late early Eocene time. The foreset and trough paleocurrents indicate dominantly east- southeastward paleoflow. 125 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Conclusion The paleocurrents of the Cretaceous Pab Formation predominantly show westward flow directions, which indicate an Indian cratonic source in the east (Sultan, 1997). Moreover, the Cretaceous strata in general pass westward into finer and deeper water facies of shale and limestone (Mughal Kot, Moro and Fort Munro Formations; HSC, 1960; Waheed and Wells, 1990) which indicates the existence of a west-facing open marine shelf along the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent at this time. Late Paleocene-early Eocene paleocurrents of the Gidar Dhor, Kach Sequence, Ghazij and Kuldana Formations show dominant east-southeast paleoflow towards the craton. This indicates a reversal of sediment dispersal paths and suggests a slope reversal of the Cretaceous shelf. This reversal is also seen in the late Paleocene-early Eocene sandstone and shale of the Gidar Dhor Formation, Kach Sequence and the Ghazij Formation that pass eastward into shale and carbonates facies. All of these changes are most easily explained by uplift of the former shelf margin, which would also help to explain the restricted environments of deposition that prevailed later in the Eocene (Baska gypsum and Bahuder Khel salt etc.). The late Paleocene and early Eocene uplift was probably not tremendous or widespread as compared to the uplift of the Himalayas during the Miocene. This might be due to oblique collision of the western margin of the Indian plate along a transpressional plate boundary between the Indian Plate and the Afghanistan and Kabul blocks of the southern Eurasian Plate (Bannert, 1992). As a result of this collision, the former shelf of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent became deformed. A series of discontinuous highlands are suggested along the western margin based on the distribution of clastic sediments in the Gidar Dhor Formation, Marap Conglomerate and Ghazij Formation. These sediments were derived from the highlands and deposited in newly formed adjacent basins to the east. The dominant east and southeastward paleoslope of the highlands as well as the oblique collisional boundary may have been produced 126 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. as a result of northward prograding oblique convergence. It is also possible that the series of uplifted highlands were produced by obduction along an irregular continental margin. 127 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER V PROVENANCE ANALYSIS OF SANDSTONES FROM THE GHAZIJ FORMATION AND RELATED UNITS: IMPLICATIONS FOR INDIA-ASIA COLLISION TECTONICS The goal of provenance studies is to determine the composition of the source area from which clastic deposits were derived and to characterize where rocks have been removed by erosion and deposited in adjacent basins. Provenance information of this type can be used to help reconstruct original basin configuration, regional paleogeography, paleotectonic setting, and the uplift history of source areas (Heller and Frost, 1988; Dickinson, 1988; Boggs, 2001). By evaluating provenance changes through time, it is also possible to characterize local and regional crustal evolution of source areas (Heller and Frost, 1988). The provenance interpretation of the Ghazij Formation, Gidar Dhor Formation, Kach sequence, and Kuldana Formation presented here is based on the analysis of detrital constituents of sandstones. This information is used in conjunction with evidence presented in previous chapters to reconstruct the paleogeography and paleotectonics of the Ghazij Basin and to constrain the uplift history of adjacent source regions. Furthermore, provenance studies of these sandstones will help better understand the collision and pre-collision tectonic setting of the western Himalayan suture zone and geographic affinities of recently discovered mammals from the Ghazij Formation. Two distinct models of initial India-Asia collision will be tested by evaluating the provenance of sedimentary materials in the Ghazij Formation. Model 1 predicts the unroofing of 128 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sedimentaiy cover and possibly ophiolitic material (polycrystalline quartz, limestone fragments, calcite, sedimentary rock fragments and mafic minerals) in the study area without any influx of continental crystalline material (potassium feldspar, intermediate to felsic rock fragments) since the Ghazij would be a result of intra plate deformation (Bannert et al., 1992). Model 2 predicts the influx of at least some continental material because the continents would be suturing together, and thus in physical contact, at the time of deposition (Beck et al. 1995). The first model assumes two separate collisions, one of the Kabul block with Asia at about the same time that ophiolite material obducted onto India due to intraplate deformation, and the second when India and associated obducted oceanic crust finally sutured with the Afghan-Kabul parts of Eurasia (Bannert et al., 1992; Figure 5.1). The second model assumes there was a single collision between India and Asia. The final suturing took place between them in one rather than two separate collisions. The Kabul and Khost-Waziristan sutures, which represent two separate collisions in model one, are interpreted as one suture but structurally repeated in model two (Beck et al. 1995). This argument is based on a reinterpretation of some of the igneous complexes as being arc related instead of being ophiolite, as previously proposed in model one, as well as some new biostratigraphic data from relevant thrust sheets. In model two, the Kabul block is actually the northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent and the arc-trench related materials (mafic arc volcanics, as well as accretionary prism and trench related sediments) were thrust over the Indian continental rise, slope and shelf deposits during at least two phases of thrusting, each recognized by an unconformity. Both models agree that there is evidence of significant tectonic activity along the northwestern comer of the Indian subcontinent during the late Paleocene and early Eocene but differ mostly in the timing of the final collision of India with Asia. To test these alternative models and more fully describe the unroofing history of the study area, the modal abundances of quartz (monocrystalline, polycrystalline), feldspar (potassium and plagioclase), and lithic 129 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. MODEL 2. (Beck, 1995 ) PLATE INDIAN MODEL I, (Bannert, 1992) INDIAN PLATE Study area ASI \ \ll>L !■ and Afghanand Blocks ofthe southern Eurasianplate (Bannert, northwest 1992). Modelcomer 2 shows ofthe thatIndian Kabul continent blockwhichwas part collided ofthe with IndianAfghan craton Block ofand representsthe southern Eurasian plate. Figure 5.1. Diagram illustrates the geometry oftwo models ofthe India-Asia collision. Model shows1 Indianplate was first collided with Kabul Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. fragments (sedimentary [chert, limestone, clastic], volcanic [mafic, felsic], and metamorphic) are assessed and evaluated in the context of standard provenance ternary diagrams (Dickinson 1988). Previous Work Kazi (1968) studied 10 sandstone samples from the middle and upper parts of the Ghazij Formation in Hamai coalfield area and reported quartz as the most dominant detrital constituent in these sandstones, making up about 60% and 55% of detrital grains in the middle and upper parts of the formation respectively. The next most abundant component reported was rock fragments (15-30%), composed mainly of extrusive igneous rocks. Calcite as cement and clay as matrix constituted only up to 20% and 9% respectively. He also described common vesicular structures that were filled with zeolite and calcite. Kazmi (1962) studied the Ghazij Formation from the Zardalu area of the Khost coalfield and reported rock fragments largely derived from basic and ultrabasic intrusive rocks that contain serpentine (chrysotile, antigorite), orthopyroxene (highly altered iddingsite), plagioclase feldspar, and intermediate opaque matter. Kassi (1986) studied thin sections of 4 sandstone samples from Daghari, two from Murree Brewery near Quetta, two from Kach, and one from Bibi Nani areas of the Quetta region. According to the present study, the sandstone samples collected from Kach and Murree Brewery belong to the Kach sequence, which is the stratigraphic equivalent to the upper part of the Gidar Dhor Formation of the Kalat area. Kassi (1986) counted 500 framework grains and reported quartz as a detrital constituent ranging from 0.4-14%, feldspar from 0-2.6%, limestone fragments from 12-98%, chert from 3-60%, calcite as cement from 7-35% and clay as matrix less than 4%. He also noticed high igneous content in Murree Brewery and Kach thin sections but high limestone and chert content in the Daghari and Bibi Nani thin sections. He interpreted igneous matter as basic volcanic rock fragments, which also contain some diorite and felsic fragments and 131 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. a few metamorphic fragments. Heavy mineral identification included chrome spinel and a few tourmaline and apatite grains. The source for these igneous fragments was interpreted as the Cretaceous Bela Volcanic Group whereas the limestone fragments were interpreted to be derived from carbonates from the Cretaceous Parh and Paleocene Dungan Groups. He also classified sandstones as a calclithite (lithic arenite). Kakar and Kassi (1997) randomly collected 17 sandstone samples from the Sor Range area near Quetta for provenance and depositional environment studies of the Ghazij Formation and reported quartz as the most common mineral, limestone as the dominant rock fragment (estimated 60-95%), and plagioclase feldspar as minor (1-3%) and subordinate to quartz grains. They also identified igneous fragments, which include basic volcanic (spilitic) and intermediate (dacitic?) types. The sources of these rock fragments were interpreted as volcanic including hypabyssal rocks. In addition to the sandstone studies, they studied clasts of Ghazij conglomerate from the Sor Range area and reported basic volcanic fragments in the conglomerate, which probably derived from the Bibai Formation. Johnson et al. (1999) studied 31 thin sections of sandstone samples for petrographic and provenance analysis of the Ghazij Formation and collected sandstone samples from Kingri (three samples), Duki (two samples), Pir Ismail Ziarat (four samples), Sor Range (one sample), Mach (four samples), and Johan (three samples). They identified and counted at least 300 framework grains and reported 51-98% limestone rock fragments from Pir Ismail Ziarat, Sor Range, Mach, and Johan and 69-88% quartz from Duki and Kingri. They also reported an average of 40% lithic rock fragments from two green sandstone samples of the Pir Ismail Ziarat area. Johnson et al. (1999) carried out X-ray diffraction studies on heavy minerals, which were recovered from the same samples that were used for microscopic studies, and reported apatite, barite, calcite, chlorite, dolomite, ilmenite, magnetite, amphibole?, olivine?, pyroxene, spinel group (especially chromite), quartz and zircon. Chromite grains were reported from samples collected in Pir Ismail Ziarat, Sor Range and Mach areas, and interpreted as originating from 132 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. nearby ophiolites and the Bela volcanic group. Johnson et al. (1999) studied conglomerate clasts from the Sor Range and Harboi Hill areas and reported underlying limestone units as the source for most of the conglomerate clasts. They suggested the source for quartz rich areas (Duki and Kingri) might be the Cretaceous Pab Formation. Methods Determining the source areas of sandstone suites typically involves documenting sedimentary trends across time and space within a sedimentary basin. Traditional methods for this type of study include measuring changes in paleocurrent directions, facies patterns, grain-size, and sandstone composition (Miall, 1984). Traditional techniques for provenance analysis work best in simple settings where it is easy to discriminate between distinct source areas, however they may prove inadequate in more complex tectonic settings, like displaced terrains, where the basin may be far removed from its source (Heller and Frost, 1988). In these situations, other techniques may also be necessary to identify source area, such as heavy mineral studies that describe accessory minerals derived from parent rocks (Van Andel, 1959). Another approach to identify source area involves analyzing the bulk chemical composition of sediments, including the trace elements (Bhatia, 1983; Hiscott, 1984; Roser and Korsch, 1986). This approach provides useful results; especially when original mineralogy is destroyed by alteration processes like weathering, diagenesis, or later metamorphism and recrystallization (Van de Kamp and Leake 1985). If original mineralogy is preserved, however, point counting provides as much, or more, information than is interpretable from geochemistry alone because whole-rock chemical composition is dependent on both primary and secondary mineralogy (Heller and Frost, 1988). In this chapter, point counts and SEM analysis are used for provenance analysis to identify the type 133 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. of parent rock that eroded in the source areas that supplied sediments to the Ghazij basin during late Paleocene and early Eocene time. Sandstone samples for provenance analysis of the Ghazij Formation and related rock units including Gidar Dhor, Kuldana Formations and Kach Sequence were collected during fieldwork carried out between 2000 and 2003 as part of GSP-UM&UNH (University of Michigan, and University of New Hampshire) joint research project. Data collected earlier under a GSP-USGS collaborative project from 1990 to 1992 were also re-examined and included for farther analysis. About 196 sandstone samples were collected in the study area along the western margin of the Indian plate. A total of 84 representative sandstone samples were selected for microscopic studies and three for scanning electron microscope X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX). Collected sandstone samples cover an area of the western margin of the Indian plate that extends from Kalat in the south to Kohat in the north (Figure 5.2). Standard thin section and polished thin section slides (27 x 46 mm) of selected sandstone samples were prepared by the professional company Spectrum Petrographic from Winston, Oregon, USA fhttp://www.Petrographv.com). All thin sections were stained for K-feldspar and calcite. Thin sections, which were prepared earlier under the GSP-USGS collaborative project, were also stained for the same minerals as well as for iron. After staining, the calcite appears red, potassium feldspar appears yellow, and iron appears blue. All thin sections of sandstones were examined under an Olympus BH-2 research microscope using standard petrographic techniques. Each grain encountered under the cross hairs of the microscope was identified, counted and recorded using the Prior Automatic Electronic Point Counter (Model “F”). A total of 450 framework grains on each thin section slide were counted and recorded by entering the counted data in the electronic point counter database, which allows recording of up to 12 different grain entries in the system and calculates modal 134 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. LOCATION MAP OF SANDSTONE SAMPLES PESHAWAR 34 Ludi Khci K O flA T ♦ ♦ Nan Panes Kuldana Formation Babdur Khel MIT AU Panoba Formation Ghazij Formation. Ophiolites — — Fault NtlltKach 32 ■ Town D ERA ISM AIL KH AN • Sample Locations ^ and Localities ug h al K ot LORALAI WfefTA ' Klnat " ' ■ «% _ » . * Shatrnr ■■■• #.** SprRafige Duki 30 Pir Ismail Ziarat Mach NlJSHKI Johan Harboi Hiils * 28 K H LZ D A R V 68 70 72 Scale 100 200 300 Kilometer _ i __ i l Figure, 5.2. Map showing location of sandstone samples collected for petrographic studies from Kach Sequence, Gidar Dhor, Ghazij, and Kuldana Formations of study area. Sampling details for localities are listed in Table 5.3. 135 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. percentages for the counted grains. The point counter is easily attachable to the microscope stage, which moves automatically to another grain by a pre-adjustable interval. The detrital grains on each thin section slide were identified using standard petrographic techniques (e.g., Nesse, 2004). Grains that were altered but still identifiable were counted as the original grain. This was common for plagioclase feldspar, which is often partially altered to clay. In these rocks it was often difficult to distinguish between chert, especially the radiolarian type, and devitrified glass rock fragments containing spheroids that like zeolite or chalcedony. SEM analysis on these grains helped by evaluating whether the spherical part is dominated by Si (chert) or whether it also contains Al, Mg, K, Ca, and Fe (glass). Some of the detrital lithic rock fragments and problematic cherty type grains that were difficult to identify using standard petrographic techniques were also observed under the scanning electron microscope (SEM) at the Instrumentation Center, University of New Hampshire. Specially polished thin section slides were used for SEM study. The slides were first coated with a fine-grain conductive layer of carbon using the Hummer V Sputter Coater, which is a vacuum specimen preparation station for scanning electron microscopy applications. The carbon-coated sample was then left for about 24 hours to dry. After carbon coating, the thin sections were observed with an AMRAY 3300 FE scanning electron microscope (SEM). The AMRAY-3300 FE has high resolution, a multi-purpose specimen chamber, a motorized and automated specimen stage, along with a Windows® 1998 based computer user interface. Stage automation is standard with a computer control of X, Y, Z, Tilt and eucentric rotation. SEM images of each sample were taken at various magnifications and recorded on a CD. Other procedure parameters are as follows: 20kV, 20mm = Z, Cl = -30, no tilt. Energy dispersive analysis of x-rays (EDX) for elemental analysis was done on several areas of each sample with a PGT detector (PGT is a lithium-drifted silicon Si [Li] X ray detector) and PGT IMIX (Integrated Microanalyzer for Images and X rays) software. The Auto ID (automatic element identification) 136 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. program automatically strips overlapped peaks, evaluates relative intensities, and searches for additional lines to confirm the final element identification. The element list is saved, along with the operating parameters, as part of the spectrum documentation. Also it displays multiple spectra either separately or together for comparison. Spot analysis with PGT is done at specific points selected directly from a digital micrograph. For purpose of provenance analysis, the 450 framework detrital grains that were identified and counted in detail on each thin section slide were grouped and categorized into the following standard groups: quartz (polycrystalline, monocrystalline), feldspar (plagioclase, orthoclase) and lithic rock fragments (igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic). The acquired results were plotted on standard QFL provenance ternary diagrams as outlined by Dickinson (1988). Point-count data were grouped according to region and formation to assess spatial and temporal variation. Petrographic Results Petrographic study of sandstones reveals that limestone rock fragments are the dominant compositional constituents in the southern part of the field area (Kalat and Quetta regions; Figure 5.3A) and quartz is dominant in the northern part of the field area (Loralai and D.I. Khan regions). Among the various types of rock fragments, limestone and chert are the most abundant. Volcanic and other igneous rock fragments are typically minor constituents but are abundant and dominant locally at certain stratigraphic levels in Quetta and the Kalat regions (Figure 5.3B, Table 5.3). Cement is coarsely crystalline calcite, and some of this is ferron calcite (Figure 5.4). The minor compositional constituents identified under microscope and SEM-XRD studies of the sandstones are shown in Table 5.1. 137 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Q 100 NORTHERN PART 90 OF STUDY AREA 20 • Waziristan-Kohat 30 x Loralai-D.I. Khan 70 SOUTHERN PART 50 OF STUDY AREA 50 60 • Khost-Shahrig 40 D Kach O Quetta + Kalat m 100 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 L (Ls + Lv) Q uartz+C hert B Q = total quartz F = feldspar L = lithic rock fragments (Ls+Lv) Ls = sedimentary and metasedimentary lithic rock fragments except chert Lv = volcanogenic, metavolcanogenic, hypabyssal and igneous lithic rock fraompntc 100 Igneous Rock 100 90 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Carbonate Rock Fragments Fragments Figure. 5.3. Distributions of detrital modes of sandstone rocks in the study area are plotted on standard ternary diagrams. A. Modal quartz, feldspar and rock fragment (QFL) for late Paleocene- early Eocene sandstones rocks of the study area. B. Detrital mode of rock fragments in sandstones by region in study area. (See table 5.3 for details) 138 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. c . Field o f view = ~ 0.85 mm Scale. (0.27 mm) Figure, 5.4. Photomicrograph of thin section sample IHK003-14, collected from the lowermost part of the middle Ghazij Formation exposed south of the Khost Railway Station (Khost coalfield) showing typical spheroidal alteration in interpreted volcanic (glass?) rock fragment (Grain 1). Also shown are plagioclase feldspar (Grain 2), altered feldspar grains (Grain 2a), other altered igneous rock fragments (Grain 3), recrystallized calcite (Grain 4), and stained red limestone rock fragments (Grain 5). This thin section sample contains 26% igneous rock fragments and 51% limestone and calcite. Photo A, crossed polarized light; B, plane polarized light. 139 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Table. 5.1. List of rare rock fragments and minerals identified in thin section samples of sandstone ______Amphibole? Chlorite Glauconite Rhyolite Apatite Dacite. Ilmenite/Limonite Serpentin e Aragonite Epidote Muscovite Sphene Biotite Feldspar Olivine Zeolite Chalcedony Ferron calcite Palagonite Zircon Chert (sedimentary) Glass Pyroxene (Augite) In general, grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded, fine to medium grain size (ranging in size from 0.1 mm to 0.9 mm) and are moderately to well sorted. The detrital carbonate grains are mostly of cryptocrystalline limestone, microcrystalline limestone and sometimes contain outlines of foraminifers, and gastropod/bivalve shell fragments, whereas quartz in the northern part is commonly monocrystalline and shows undulatory extinction. Polycrystalline quartz grains are uncommon and only rarely show flattened fabric. Such fabric is defined as regime III, formed under high temperatures (450-550C; Casas, 2003, Ph.D. Thesis, UNH; original references, Hirth and Tullis, 1993; Blenkinsop, 2000; Stipp et al., 2002), however, most polycrystalline quartz falls under regime II (350-400 C). The quartz from regime III indicates that at least some Ghazij parent rocks were highly tectonized and deformed. Plagioclase feldspar grains display albite twinning and are the most common types of feldspar in these sandstones (Figure 5.4). Feldspar grains are either partially or fully altered to other minerals (clay, calcite, white mica). In some thin sections they display simple twinning and exhibit birefringence that makes them difficult to identify. Feldspar grains that are present within lithic rock fragments often exhibit a microlath texture. Sanidine feldspar might be present in some samples according to preliminary XRD results. Some detrital feldspar grains look like K-spar but are hard to identify due to weathering. Overall, feldspar represents a very minor component of the composition in these sandstones. To explain the abundance of calcite cement in these sandstones, Johnson et al., (1999) suggested that calcium-rich feldspar varieties might have been altered completely to calcite or they could have gone into solution and simply left the system. However, the EDX analysis of plagioclase in the 140 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. interpreted basalt fragments (Figures 5.5, 5.6) shows little if any calcium. Grain 1 of Figure 5.5 is separated into a core and rim that are distinct both in reflected light (Figure 5.5D) and cross polarized light (Figure 5.5). The core is bright in SEM (Figure 5.5E: a3) and has an atomic ratio of (Fe, Mg) s o Ah 2 Si3 8. The darker area (Figure 5.5E, a2) represents the rim and has an atomic ratio of Nao .9 Al] 4 Si77 (Figure 5.5A, C, D). This grain is interpreted as a basalt rock fragment in which the rim represents plagioclase feldspar and the core represents orthopyroxene. The SEM images and detailed Na, Al, Si, Mg and K elemental analysis map of this rock fragment is shown in Figure 5.6. The minor amounts of plagioclase feldspar in sandstones of study area might have come from the same source as the basaltic rock fragments. Most isotropic rock fragments contain spheroids filled with minerals that display zeolite/chalcedonic radiating crystals under the microscope and it is often difficult to distinguish between chert (Figure 5.7E, grain 1 and 2 and Figure 5.8E), especially the radiolarian type (Figure 5.9, grain 4, Photos G and H) and devitrified glass (Figure 5.10C, D, and Figure 5.11). The isotropic grains that contain zeolite or chalcedony spheroids generally have no angular or sharp grain boundaries and do not exhibit conchoidal fracture (Figure 5.10C, D, and Figure 5.11). Spheroids in these grains are composed primarly of silicon and oxygen whereas the isotropic parts contain some Al, Mg, K, Ca, and Fe, (Figure 5.8A) and are interpreted as volcanic/igneous rock fragments. Some of them may be devitrified glass or tuffaceous fragments in which the vesicular structures have filled with zeolite or chalcedony material or igneous rock fragments that contain fine-grained crystalized quartz. Alternatively, the polycrystalline grains (cross polarized light, Figures 5.7E; 5.8E and 5.9G) with sharp, angular to conchoidal or sub angular to sub rounded grain edges (Figures 5.7F; 5.8F and 5.9H, reflected light); composed primerly of silica and oxygen (Figures 5.7A; 5.8A and 5.9C) are interpreted as sedimentary chert fragments (grain 1 in both Figures 5.7 and 5.8). 141 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. — ™"— — IHK0040-5a2 Atom proportion Spot EDX on dark gray in area 10, Si 0.769 (SEM photo E) Al 0.142 I Na 0.GS9 1 ** II a .l 1 ,0 2 .0 3.0 4.8 S.0 6.0 7 .8 7.1 I}ik0040 5a2.250X, Spot EDX on dark grey in area 10 IHK0040-5a3 Alom proportion Spot EDX on white in area 10, Si 0.379 (SEM photo E) Al 0.123 Mg 0.2S5 Fe 0.212 Imr UckOiUn '.al £S£K. WA oo sfcite i.n Arm IS 100 pim Figure 5.5. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 10 in Kach (Ahmadun) sample IHK0040-5. Area 10 contains Si, Al, Na, Mg, and Fe elements. Grain 1 is separated into cores and rims that are distinct in both reflected light (D) and cross polarized light (C). Cores are bright and rims are dark in SEM photo (E, a3 & a2). The dark material represents (A) plagioclase feldspar (Na, Al, Si) and (B) orthopyroxene (Fe, Mg, Al, Si) respectively. Grain is interpreted as a basalt rock fragment. 142 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Figure 5.6. SEM images and O, Na, Al, Si, Fe, Mg, Ca, and K elemental analysis maps of same grain described in figure 5.5 for area 10 in sample IHK004-5. Area 10 contains Na, Al, Si, Fe, and Mg. This grain is a basalt rock fragment. 143 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sgpm 7-1 Atom proportion Box EDX on grain 1 in area 22, (SEM photo G) Si 1,000 Jw9 ' sgp»?Jl 3BBX. S raM m ytairt 1 in Area 22 » 23k* Si" ...... B 1 sgpm 7-2 Atom proportion ; I Box EDX on grain 2 in area 22, Si 0.968 I I (SEM photo G) Al 0.013 ! ivfe 0.005 j Fe 0.006 | a, 0.005 f Na 0.001 | K 0.001 f CCA Fe Ha Eg JJJjK K Ca n> 3.1 1.0 2.8 3.8 4.8 &.0 6.8 7.6] keY ■ * sa*7JS 136*. He* USK tm grain 2 in Aren 22 A 28k? sgpm 7-2a Spot EDX on light part o f grain 2a in area 22, (SEM photo G) &.S 1.0 2-0 3.6 4,0 ! key III * 346Bt, Sjpot an i» gram 3« in tern 22 D “sgpm 7-25” sgpm-7-2a, sgpm-7-2b, Spot EDX on dark part o f grain 2b (Area 22) (Area 22) in area 22, (SEM photo G) Atom proportion Atom proportion Si 0.936 Si 0.966 Al 0.025 Al 0.017 Mfe 0.019 Mg 0.006 Fe 0.014 Fe 0.008 Gt 0.003 a 0.001 wJSl* K 0.003 Ns 0.001 K 0,001 * * sgp?_2b 14&Q&. spot on litfbt in grain 2S» in Area 22 Figure 5.7. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 22 in Sor Range sample sgpm-7. Grain 1 is sub-rounded with arcuate boundaries (reflected light photo F), polycrystalline (cross-polarized photo E), and is composed primarily of Si and O ( A). It is interpreted as a chert rock fragment. Grain 2 is polycrystalline, contains minor amounts of Al, Mg, Fe, Ca, and K (C and D). This grain is interpreted as a lithic rock fragment (siltstone?). 144 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IHK0040-1 Atom proportion Box EDX on grain-1 in area 4, <§72 Al 0.007 (SEM photo G) Mg 0.003 Fe 0.003 a o.oi5 tifcWMtjf, 44X, ECX on grain In area 4 B “ IHK0040-2 Atom proportion Box EDX on grain-2 in area 4, Si 0.667 (SEM photo H) Ai 0.141 Mg 0,047 Fe 0,057 a 0.007 Na 0.081 °i aJu1 Ca fe 0,1 1,8 2.0 3.8 4,0 5.0 6.8 7,8 7.! * - A m keT ikk834&2 288X, B*x IBX« iOe*w2» A*ta 4 fflK0040-2a Spot EDX on dark part o f grain-2 in area 4, (SEM photo G) Atom proportion St 0.734 Ai 0*146 Mg 0.010 Fe 0.003 Ck 0.009 m 0.097 B,| 1.8 2.8 3.0 4.8 5.0 £.0 7.8 7.* SuST B M m B 'J a 3SSTX Q)X ■ai»k£nin2i»arta 4 lHK0040-2b D Spot EDX on ligh t part o f grain-2 '"38* ♦TS'STS in area 4, (SEM photo H) Atom proportion Si 0.361 Al 0.153 Mg 0,221 Fe 0.265 B,1 1.S 2.8 3,0 4.8 5-0 4.0 7,0 ?. n M M R J k 50BX, % *tH X S gJrttr»i« 2 !■ Are»4 Figure 5.8. SEM-EDX elemental analysis graphs for area 4 in Kach (Ahmadun) sample IHK0040. Area 4 contains Si, Al, Mg, Na and Fe elements. Grain 1 is angular (cross polarized light photo E, reflected light photo F) and composed primarily of Si and O with minor Ca. Grain 2 (photos E,F & H) is polycrystalline and is composed of Si, Al, Mg, Na, Ca and Fe (B,C, & D). Grain 1 is interpreted as a chert rock fragment and Grain 2 is interpreted as a feldspathic chlorite mafic rock fragment. 145 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. !HK0040-3a Atom proportion Box EDX on dark grain 3a in area !, Si 0.957 (SEM photo F) A) 0.021 Mg 0.007 Fe 0.005 Ca 0.005 Mt 0.003 K 0.002 —<— 4.8 7.0 7.L IhkOQ4Q_3a, SDOX, Box EPX on dark grain in area 1. IHK004(Ma Atom proportion Box EDX in area A, (SEM photo I) Si 0.943 A! 0.019 0.017 Fe 0.021 T- 3.8 4.0 s.o 7.8 ?.! fce¥ * *"4 , 1? ■ * tfcldX!MIL4aft £88DC« EBJC L ight a re a i n A rea A Si. IHK0040-4b |ai « h proportion 1 Box EDX in area A, (SEM photo I) i Si 0.992 | | Al 0.007 I | Fe 0.001 ' 1 . i I 1.1 l.tt 2.0 3.0 t.D 1.0 £.8 7,8 7J HI * lfrklM)48_4b 3 8 8 K . B o x HSC on circle in Area A i :• ? .-* w Figure 5.9. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 1 and A in Kach (Ahmadun) sample IHK0040. Areas 1 and A contain Si, Al, and Mg, elements. Grain 3a is primarily composed of Si with minor Al, Mg, Na, K, Ca, and Fe (A). Grain 4 (photo G) is primarily composed o f Si (C) with minor amount of Al, Mg, and Fe (B). Grain 3a is interpreted as a lithic fragment and 4b is either a radiolarian chert fragment? or altered glass/ ditrital lithic fragment. 146 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sgpm.7-3 Atom proportion; Box EDX on area 21 Si 0.610 j (SEM photo E) Al 0.015 j 0.004 0.002 0.365 o.o i,o 2 .8 4 .0 s.e 442X, Box an Area 21 ------BT------sgpm.7-3a Atom proportion Spot EDX on light part within Si 0.934 box A, area 21(SEM photo E) A i 0.030 1 Mi 0.013 I Fe 0.013 1 & 0.004 j 1 K 0.006 I i J K to re 0.1 1.6 2.0 3.9 4.8 S.G 7 .0! Iter ■ * 5qpp.7_3a 5.180X, Spot on light Area 21 Figure 5.10. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 21 in Sor Range sample sgpm-7. Grain 3 contains Si, Al, Mg, Ca K and Fe elements (A&B). The area is shown in cross-polarized light (C) reflected light (D) and with the SEM (E). Grain is interpreted as devitrified volcanic glass (igneous rock fragment). 147 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. S i A sgp-m.7-4a Atom proportion I Box EDX on middle part in area 6 St 0,778 | (SEM photo E) A l 0.153 i 0.024 1 Fe 0.025 Ca 0.012 1 0 K 0.008 I c A A S re 9.1 i ,s 2.9 3.6 (.6 5.6 6,0 7.8i ks¥ 8 * Xtjpri7_4a 1,22331, box caa middle A Area 6 sgpm.7-4b Box EDX on dark part in area 6 (SEM photo E) 1.0 5,0 m circle S Area 6 Figure 5.11. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 6 in Sor Range sample sgpm7~4. Core of Grain 4 (photo C, cross polarized light, and D reflected light) is primarily composed of Si, Al, Mg, K, Ca, S and Fe, (A). Whereas polycrystalline rim of the Grain 4 is composed of Si with very minor content of Al (B). Core of Grain 4 is interpreted as a volcanic rock fragment of dacite composition. 148 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. IHK0040-6a sAtom proportion Box EDX on grain 6a in area 5, I Si 0.347 (SEM photo F) i AI a 165 ; Mfe 0.193 is 9: S.8 9*9048 6*, 25SX, Bax i* area 5 IM IHK0040-6b jiAfom proportion Box EDX on grain 6b in area 5, I Si 0.876 (SEM photo F) I A l 0,060 11 0.002 Mg 0.026 Fe 0.015 Na 0.014 K 0.007 *1 1.8 JkMMiJ*, MX B»* EDX im JHKQ04Q-6C Atom proportion Box EDX on grain 6c in area 5, Si 0.883 (SEM photo F) A l 0.046 Ti 0.015 m 0.018 Fe 0,028 Ca 0.003 X 0.008 i.i i.a 5,0 6.8 7,0 bammm* m x s»x m x s. Figure. 5.12. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 5 in Kach (Ahmadun) sample IHK0040. Area 5 contains Si, Al, Na, Mg, K, Cl, Ca, Ti, and Fe elements. Grain 6 a is yellowish in reflected light (photo E), shows birefringence (D), and is primarily composed of Si, Al, Mg, Fe, Cl, and oxygen (A) in an atomic proportion that suggests chlorite (altered mafic grain). Grain 6 b is primarily composed of Si, Al, Mg, Na, K, and Fe (B) and is interpreted as igneous lithic fragment. The highly reflective grain 6 c (SEM photo F) composed of Si, Al, Mg, K, Ti, and Fe might represents iron oxide matrix or possibly sphene? 149 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. sgpm.7-5a \1om proportion. Box EDX on dark gray in area 7, Si 0.512 (SEM photo F) Al 0.127 Mg 0.161 Fe 0.180 Ca 0.020 Ca JL. Ml * l,S£63t, box m dark grey & in Area 7 sgpm7-5b Si 0.435 j Box EDX on light part in area 7, Al 0.107 : (SEM photo F) Mg 0.124 | Fe 0.286 | a 0.046 | K 0.001 | Aca L. * «gm7_5b 3.S80K, box on craek B in Area 7 sgpm7-5a&b combined 5a&b EDX, area 7, (SEM photo F) • SGPM-7,1560X, Box on dark grey "A" in Area A. ■ SGPM-7, WSOX. Box on ctack 'V in Area A. Figure. 5.13. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area 7 in Sor Range sample sgpm-7. Area 7 contains Si, Al, Mg, Fe, Cl, Ca, K, and Fe elements. Grain 5 shows anomalous birefringence (Photo D) and is composed of zones that are dark in SEM image (Photo F), separated by zones that are bright in SEM image. The former areas have atomic ratio consistent with aluminous orthopyroxene (A). The latter are more Fe, Mg rich and Si, Al poor. The bulk composition of this grain represents either an igneous volcanic fragment or it is a pyroxene grain that has partially altered to serpentine or chlorite. 150 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. SG.PM.7-6a Atom proportion Box EDX on light gray part A in area C Si 0647 | (SEM photo B) Al 0.088 J Mg 0.043 ; Fe 0.162 | Ca 0.016 I K. 0.045 I 0,1 1 .0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6 .0 7 .0 7.! keV Ml * s^Hi7_6a 3,5802, l»x A in Area 0 Figure 5.14. SEM-EDX elemental analysis for area A in Sor Range sample sgpm-7. Grain A is primarily composed of Si, Al, Mg, Fe, K, Ca and Fe elements. The grain is interpreted as an amphibole, 151 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. - 16.36 - - - ■ sgpm-7-5b- 7) (Area 0.2 tiik0040'6a 4.73 1.29 2.27 16.38 19.56 - - 6.39 3.68 5.02 . sgpm-7-5a 7 7) (Area 23.4 14.96 - - (Area 10)(Area : 5) (Area 9,44 7. 9.02 ------14.79 ------8.64 (Area 6) (Area 50.95 ihk0040-5a.3 1.61 - 0.73 -- 0.05 - sgpm-?-4a sgpm-7-4b 9.56 0.55 11.18 7.09 - iHk0040-4t> : iHk0040-4t> A) (Area 10) (Area 1.43 0.06 0.65 0.55 . 46.92 25.23 0.14 0.2 sgprh-7-3 (Aleai A) :' : :' A) (Aleai 3.94 30,06 37.05 13.29 26.63 9.86 0.68 --..- (Area 21)(Area 21) (Area 6) (Area sgpm-7-3a 1 - 39,55 0.43 0.27 0.66 - (Area A) (Area 0.55 2,75 ^0.5 8.28 r0.21 0.21 0.56 1.58 ------1.42 0.16 0.63 1.04 0.23 --.-- - -- 0.56 40.1 (Area A) (Area 35.88 1.37 0.15 0.82 0.05 0.05 (Area 22)(Area 48.0322) (Area 0.24 47.34 36.77 sgpm,7r2b :sgpm^-a 0.23 0.15 0.21 TAfiia; lily:;:?;TAfiia; 32.19 mkoQ4a-8a mkoQ4a-8a u , 3 iiik004(3-4a Wk0O46-4a4 ihk0040-4a2 : ------0.35 ------0.21 0.1 0.35 42.53 2.180.73 1.66 1.21 2,3 2.17 9.35 sgpm-7-2a mKM4&2ij' gr.2b) 4, (Area 7.3 1.23 10.01 sgpm-7-6a - - > stoichiometry by Oxygensarralyzatl C), (Area - -- 3.85 - - sgpm-7-1 4.96 0.28 6.1 0.2 0.18 16.81 0.32 0.71 (Area 22) (Area 22) (Area ihk0040-2a 2a) gr. 4. (Area 22.88 11.52 I- 1.3 5.56 - - - 0.13 sgpm-7-7a 2! (Area -- 0.67 2.79 0.49 ihk0040-6c 3.97 0.79 (Area 5): (Area 27.76 50.34 3.36 8.09 8.71 lhI<0Cfct Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The spheriodal-altered glass was easy to identify in those areas of the thin section where the grain was only partially altered (Figure 5.4, grain 1) but difficult when the spherical part was fully altered and exhibited extinction like chalcedony. Some isotropic grains that are sub rounded, polycrystalline (Figures 5.7E grain 2 and 5.9D grain 3a), composed primarly of Si, with varying mafic content, Al, Mg, K, Ca, and Fe, (Figure 5.7C, D, and Figure 5.9A, B; Figure 5.12E grain-b; Table. 5.2) are interpreted as detrital lithic (siltstone) rock fragments. Those lithic rock fragments that appear as yellowish brown, brown or greenish in plane polarized light are interpreted as alteration products of volcanic glass (e.g. palagonite or perlite). Some of these grains contain rutile inclusions in their core and are rimmed by chlorite alteration (greenish color). The outer part of the chloritic rim also shows some serpentinized alteration. Most mafic rock fragments and ferromagnesian minerals (e.g. pyroxene, olivine) are altered to chlorite or serpentine and show anomolus birefringence as in Figures. 5.11, 5.12A, 5.13). The green grain that appears to be yellowish in reflected light and shows anomalous birefringence is composed primarly of Si, Al, Mg, Fe, and oxygen (Figure 5.12A) in an atomic proportion that suggests chlorite. Another green grain that shows anomalous birefringence is composed of zones that are dark and light in the SEM image (Figure 5.13F) separated by zones that are bright in the SEM image. The former area has atomic variation consistant with aluminous orthopyroxene (Figur 5.13A). The later area is more Fe, Mg rich and Si, Al, poor and supports its interpretation as a mafic grain. The box EDX composition of this grain represents either a igneous fragment (rhyolite?) or it is a pyroxene grain that has partially altered to serpentine/chlorite. The green grain in Figure 5.14 is primarly composed of Si, Al, K, Fe, Mg, and Ca, and might represent amphibole. 153 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ghazij Formation Petrographic studies of Ghazij sandstones reveal that rock fragments and quartz grains, including chert, are dominant constituents whereas igneous rock fragments are subordinate constituents (Figure 5.3). Rock fragment grains are made up of 9-90% detrital limestone and are dominant in the southern part of the study area (Quetta and Kalat regions, Figure 5.3). Quartz grains are dominant in the north of the study area and contribute up to 85% of the total composition of Ghazij sandstones in the Loralai and D.I. Khan regions (including parts of North Waziristan Figure 5.3). These two distinct compositional domains of the study area are divided by the Quetta syntaxial bend, which separates the southern limestone- and rock fragment-dominated sandstones from the northern quartz-dominated sandstones of the Loralai and D.I. Khan regions (Figure 5.1). The Hamai area represents a sort of transition between the two distinct compositional domains. Details of Ghazij sandstone constituents are presented in Table 5.3. Thin sections of sandstone samples representing the lower part of the Ghazij Formation were studied from Pir Ismail Ziarat, Duki, Kingri and Mughal Kot areas of the Quetta, Loralai and D.I. Khan regions. Studies of Pir Ismail Ziarat (PIZ) sandstone samples show limestone rock fragments make up to 54% of the grains whereas igneous rock fragments represent 8%, feldspar represents 2%, quartz and chert represent 6%, and calcite cement/matrix represents 30%. Samples collected from the Duki and Kingri areas show higher content of quartz up to 80%, igneous rock fragments from 0.6-13% and calcite up to 16%. Only one sample was studied from the Mughal Kot area, and it shows 45%, quartz, 25% igneous rock fragments, 6% feldspar, 4% calcite cement and 19% fine-grained clay as matrix (Table. 5.3). 154 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. The middle part of the Ghazij Formation was studied from Harboi Hills and Johan areas of the Kalat region; Mach, Sor Range, Pir Ismail Ziarat, Khost and Shahrig areas of the Quetta region; and Duki, Kingri, Mughal Kot, Drazinda and the Nilli Kach area of the Loralai and D.I. Khan regions. Five thin sections from the Kalat region indicate that limestone rock fragments are the most dominant constituents in these sandstones and make up to 65% of the total grains, whereas igneous fragments contribute only up to 4%, feldspar up to 2%, quartz including chert up to 9%, and calcite as cement/matrix an average of 31%. Seventeen thin sections from the Quetta region also show an overall dominance of limestone rock fragments, however, certain stratigraphic horizons in the middle part of Ghazij Formation contain significantly higher percentages (up to 47%) of igneous rock fragments especially in Pir Ismail Ziarat and Khost- Shahrig areas. In general, thin section studies from these areas indicate a stratigraphic upward increasing trend in igneous content. The basal sandstone beds of these areas contain igneous material ranging from 6-28% whereas the upper beds contain much higher contents up to 47% (Table. 5.3). This is especially true near the top of the middle Ghazij that corresponds stratigraphically to a conglomerate horizon in other areas. Earlier SEM studies of samples collected from Pir Ismail Ziarat, Sor Range and Mach areas under the USGS-GSP project confirmed the presence of chromite as well as pyroxene and olivine grains in the sandstones of these areas (Johnson et al. 1999). However, the overall composition of Quetta middle Ghazij sandstones is quite variable with the abundance of limestone rock fragments ranging from 6-53%, igneous rock fragments ranging from 2-47%, feldspar from 0.2-6%, quartz and chert from 3-17%, and calcite as cement from 8-45%. Fourteen thin sections from quartz dominated areas of the Loralai and D.I. Khan regions were studied and show quartz grains as much as 85% in these sandstones, although the average range falls between 45-70%, whereas limestone rock fragments constitute a range between 0-29%, igneous fragments from 1-19%, feldspar from 0-7%, chert from 0-5% and calcite as cement/matrix from 1-41% (Table. 5.3). 155 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. TABLE. 5.3. TABLE OF POINT COUNT MODES OF 1HL OH \/I1 SANDSTONES AND RELATED UNITS, PAKISTAN Area/ Sample!/ Northing Easting Fro Feldspar Quartz Rock Fragment % Lst+ Matrix/Cement Opaque Localities *£> % Lat. Frag Chert Igneous Total Cakitc Caicite Uthic Kohat-Banda Daud Shah KULDANA FORMATTION Mir Ail (M. Wazirisian) IHK001-23 32.9643 70.3305 Kuldana 1.7 19.8 58.9 0.2 2.0 61.1 75.2 17.3 0.0 0.0 Bahdur Khei Sait Mine IHK0O1-28A 33.1720 70.9397 Kuldana 0.4 37 1 38.0 1.3 17.1 56 3 43.3 5.3 0 n g Mami Khei IHK0O1-2SB 33.3621 71.1986 Kuldana 1.8 0.6 39.1 1.3 21.3 61 7 74.5 35.5 0.0 0.0 Mami Khei IHK001-30 33.3623 71.1987 Kuldana 0.0 166 79.8 0.6 2.9 83 2 79.8 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mardan Khei IHK001-32 33.3469 70.9895 Kuldana 0.0 7.7 88.7 2.2 1 1 920 88.7 0.0 0.0 0.0 Nari Panos IHK001-34 33.1688 71.1573 Kuldana 0.2 566 12.9 1.1 75 21.5 34.2 21.3 0 0 0.0 Ludhi Khe! IHK001-35B 33.5896 71.1836 Kuldana 02 16.4 37.3 24.3 62 67.8 52.6 15.3 0.0 0.0 Average 0.6 22.1 50.6 4.4 8 3 *63.4 64.2 13.5 0 0 0.1 Loralai-Dera Ismail Khan UPPER GHAZIJ FORMATTION Kingri 9SUTL 30 4310 89.7857 Tgu 0.0 16.6 0.0 0.7 0.0 0.7 67.0 67.0 0.0 Kingri 98UTS 30.4310 69.7857 Tgu 0.2 74.2 1.1 0.9 0.0 2.0 24.6 23.5 0.0 Kingri PM-92-2 30.4310 69.7857 Tgu 0.2 75.1 0.0 1.8 0.4 2.2 22.2 22.2 0.0 Kingri PM-92-4 30.4310 69.7857 Tgu 0.2 54.4 0.0 0.9 0.2 T1 44.2 44.2 0.0 0.0 Average 0.2 55.1 0.3 1.0 0.2 1.5 139.5 39.2 3.9 G.Q Quetta PM DC Shahrig Sharig-1 30.1277 67.7634 Tgu 4.S 6.4 10.0 4.8 24.6 39.4 59.3 49.3 0.0 0.0 Khosl JHK003-18 30.2130 67.6261 Tgu 1.3 6.4 37.3 35.7 73.0 56.4 19.1 0.0 0.0 P!Z. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) PIZ-PM-6 30.0612 67.4303 Tgu 5.5 1.7 24.2 2.8 45.8 72.8 46.4 22.2 00 0 2 PiZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) PIZ-PM-4 30.0612 67.4303 Tgu 4.6 4.7 63.2 1.9 1 3 71.4 79.0 10.8 0.0 8.2 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) PIZ-PM-t 30.0612 67.4303 Tgu 3.3 2.8 78.4 2.5 0.6 81.5 90.8 12.4 0.0 0.2 PiZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-UG-90 30.0612 67.4303 Tgu 0.8 5.7 58.9 2.6 7.8 69.3 82.1 23.2 0.0 0,6 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-PM-10 30 1 745 67.1946 Tgu 2.8 5.6 60.1 1.0 3.3 64.4 85.6 25.5 00 0.4 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-PM-9 30,1721 67.1937 Tgu 0.4 5.3 73.3 2.2 3.7 7S.2 88.2 14.9 00 0.0 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-PM-7 30.1721 67.1937 Tgu 3.1 6.2 63.7 4.0 6.2 73.8 79.9 16.2 0.0 0.4 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-14-91 30,1727 67.19498 Tgu J.5 3.3 84.0 6.4 1.3 91.7 87.0 ,3.0 0.0 0.2 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-10-91 30.17213 67.1938 Tgu 0.3 3.9 88.9 4.6 0.4 93.9 89.5 0.6 0.0 0.4 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-8-91 30.17213 67.1938 Tgu 1.3 13.7 65.6 4.8 82.3 69.0 2.4 0.0 0.0 Mach (Mughal Mines) M-T1-91 29,8583 67.307 Tgu 0.0 13.5 32.2 11.0 7.5 50.7 67.7 0.0 0.0 Mach (Mughal Mines) M-6-91 29.8583 67.307 Tgu 0.9 JO.O 46.0 9.3 9.5 64.8 69.9 24.0 0.0 0.2 Average 2.2 6.5 56.5 4.6 10.9 72.0 75.0 18.5 0.0 0.8 Johan (Sarawan Nala) SR-9-91 29.2887 66.8824 Tgu 0.0 0.4 54.7 2.6 0.2 57.5 96.8 42.1 0.0 0.0 Shaikhri IHK-005 29.2158 66.8219 Tgu 0.0 2.4 65.5 10.5 2.0 78.0 84.8 19.3 0.0 0.0 Harboi Hiils IHK.004 29.0289 66.7496 Tgu 0.2 2.0 62.6 4.1 2.6 69.4 90.8 282 0.0 0.0 Surab (microwave station) IHK-0023 28.4173 66.2793 Tgu 0.0 71 64.t> 10.2 8.0 82.7 74,6 10.0 0.0 0.0 | i Average O.t 3.0 61.9 6.9 3.2 71.9 86.7 24.9 0.0 0.0 Loralai-Dera Ismail Khan MIDDLE GHAZIJ FORMATTION (Tgm) NlHi Kach (Tank area) IHK001-14 32.1350 70.0091 Tgm 2.2 35.7 15.7 2.6 151 33.4 43.9 28.2 0.0 0.2 Darazinda, Luma area IHK001-12 31.7316 70.0606 Tgm 0 0 49.3 21.3 2.2 0 9 24.4 47.5 26.2 0.0 0.0 Mughal Kot IHK001 -08 31.4965 70.1169 Tgm 0.2 76.4 0.0 15 1.8 3.3 18.0 18.0 0.0 0.0 Mughal Kot IHK001-06 31.4672 70.1065 Tgm 5.1 52.6 20.9 0.8 18.9 40.6 20.9 0.0 1.5 0.0 Mughal Kot IHK001-01 31.4617 70.1071 Tytn C.5 85.1 0.0 0.0 9.7 S.7 4.4 4.4 0.0 0.0 Mughal Kot IHK0037 31.4599 70.0955 Tgm 0.2 6S.2 h~- 0.2 11.3 12.8 188 17.5 0.0 0.0 Mughal Kot IHK0035 31.4531 70.0887 Tgm 0.2 67.1 ■ 0.2 4.2 44 0.7 0.7 27.5 0 0 Kingri Sst. Kingri 30.4500 63.7450 Tgm 1.1 74.9 0.6 1.8 2.8 2- 6 21.2 0.0 0.0 Kingri MS-98-1 30.4500 63.7450 Tgm 0.4 55.1 2.6 2.9 10.1 38.8 34.2 0.0 0.0 Kingri PM-92-1 30.4400 63.7400 Tgm 0.0 00. 2 ° 2.6 2.2 7.7 29.9 27.1 0.0 0.0 Duki IHK003-5B 30.1367 68.5059 Tgm 6.6 85.3 0.0 0.0 7.5 7.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.4 Duki IHK003-11 30.1385 68.6580 Tgm 2.4 53.5 0.0 0.4 1.5 1.9 41.5 41.5 0.0 04 Duki PM-92-5 30.1456 68.50903 Tgm 9.0 44.0 28.6 3.5 5.5 37 7 37 7 91 GO 0.0 Duki PM-92-6 30.1456 68.50903 Tgm 4.4 48.8 28 9 5.0 3.3 137.2 38.2 I9 3 0.0 0.0 4 vernge 2.3 61.7 8.9 1.6 6.2 16.7 25.9 17.0 2.1 0.1 Quetta Shahrig PMDC Mines 1HK003-21 30.1327 67.7653 Tgm 5.1 7.9 25.7 1.3 27.9 55.0 57.5 31.8 0.0 0.0 Khost IHK003-17 30,2151 67.5764 Tgm 4.6 7.4 6.0 4.7 42.8 53.5 40.2 34.2 0.0 0.0 Khost IHK003-14 30.2167 67.5771 Tgm 6.4 14.0 5.7 2.6 26.2 34.5 50.9 45.1 0.0 0.0 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-40-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgm 0.2 2.7 70.0 2.2 5.5 77.7 89.0 19.1 0.0 0.0 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-3S-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgm 5.7 0.8 25.3 1.7 46.9 73.9 44.6 19.3 0.0 0.0 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-26-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgm 2.4 1 26 21.5 0.7 43.0 65.2 51.2 29.7 0.0 0.0 PiZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-24-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgm 0.4 57 50.0 5.7 4.6 603 82 4 32.4 0.0 0.9 PiZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-16-90 30.0528 67 42183 Tgm [2.1 42 43.3 4.0 6.9 54.2 82.8 39.5 j0.0 0.0 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-14-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgm [1.1 6 6 53.1 1.7 4.0 58.8 859 £2 9 0.0 0.2 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-12-90 30.0528 67 42183 Tgm 1.5 6.4 47.5 5.9 7.1 60.5 78 8 31.3 0.0 0.0 PiZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-11-90 3G.C528 67.42183 Tgm 0.4 69 54.6 1.1 17.8 73.5 73.7 19 1 0.0 0.0 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-10-90 30.0528 6742183 Tgm 1.3 9.1 39 8 0.4 15.3 55.5 732 33.4 0.0 0.4 Sor Range (Shin Ghawaza) SG-PM-3-91 30.17213 67.1938 Tgm 3.1 6.2 74.4 5.3 3.1 82.7 82.2 7.8 0.0 0.2 Sor Range, Sinjdi area Sinjdi-PM-1 30.12172 67.24565 Tgm 2.0 5.5 70.9 3.0 5.1 79.0 84.2 133 0.0 0.2 Mach. (Gishiari Mines) GN-2-91 29.8583 87.307 Tgm 0.6 2.9 48.4 3.3 2.5 54.4 90.4 42.0 0.0 0.0 Mach. (Gishlari Mines) GN-3-S1 29 8583 87.307 Tgm 0.0 4.6 42.2 7.1 2.2 51.4 85.9 43.7 0.0 0.0 Mach. (Gishtari Mines) GN-11-91 29.8583 67.307 Tgm 0.2 3.5 45.1 2.2 4.6 51.9 89.3 44.2 0.0 o.o Average 2.2 5.7 42.6 3.1 15.6 61.3 73.1 30.5 0.0 0.1 156 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Area/ Sample# Northing Easting Frri Feldspar Q uartz Rock Fragment % Lst+ Matrix/Cement Opaque Localities . % ; Lst-Fntg fchert {igneous h'otii! {Liihic Johan {Sarawan Naia) SR-5-91 29,2887 66.8824 Tgm 0.2 1.3 47.3 5.0 4.4 56.8 88.9 41.5 0.0 0.0 Johan (Sarawan Naia) SR-6-91 29.2887 66.8824 Tgm 1.8 53.3 7.3 4.4 65.0 86.4 33.1 0.0 0.0 Johan (Sarawan Naia) SR-2-91 29.2887 66.8824 Tgm 0.2 3.1 49.5 5.9 4.4 59.8 86,1 36.6 0.0 0.0 Harboi Hills IHK-Q02 29.0239 66.7526 Tgm 1.1 1.3 62.9 6.2 3.3 72.4 87.7 24.9 o.o 0.0 Harbor Hitts 1HK-003 29.0250 66.7523 Tgm 2.0 0.4 65.3 7.9 4.0 77.1 85.4 20.2 0.0 0.0 Average 0.7 1.6 55.7 6.5 4.1 '66.2 86.9 31.3 0.0 0.0 Loraiai-Dera Ismail Khan LOWER GHAZIJ FORMATTION (Tgl) Mughal Kot 1HK0032 31.4762 70.0861 Tgi 6.2 44.7 0.0 1.2 25.1 26.3 4.2 4.2 18.6 0.0 Kingri SG-98-1 30.4367 69.7745 Tgl 0.2 81.3 0.2 1.1 0.6 1.9 16.6 16.4 0.0 0.0 Duki IHK003-02 30.1263 68.4851 Tgl 0.2 70.0 0.0 0.6 12.8 13.5 16.0 16.0 0.0 0.0 Average 2.2 65.3 0.1 1.0 12.8 13.9 12.3 12.2 6.2 0.0 Quetta PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-8-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgl 2.0 2.4 56.0 1.5 6.6 64.1 87.0 31.1 0.0 0.2 P!Z. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-5-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgl 1.5 {2.0 51.5 2.0 6.6 60.2 84.9 33.3 0.0 2.9 PIZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-3-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgl 2.0 151 56.8 4.8 7.1 68.7 81.0 24.2 0.0 0.0 PiZ. (Ibrahim Marri Mines) A-1-90 30.0528 67.42183 Tgl 2.4 I2.4 49.5 2.2 9.7 61.4 83,0 33.5 0,0 0.4 Average 2.0 i 3.0 53.5 2.6 7.5 63.6 84.0 30.5 0.0 0.9 KACH SEQUENCE (Tks) Shahrig (PMDC Mines) IHK003-31 30.1941 67.7320 TKs 2.2 7.8 17.2 2.6 48.6 68 A 38.6 21.4 0.2 .O.O Kadi Kaeh-1 30.4347 67,2975 TKs 10.9 8.6 15.3 7.3 44.0 66.6 26.6 11.3 0.0 2.4 Kadi Kach-3 30.4347 67.2975 TKs 8.2 5.8 10.4 1.3 61.0 72.7 23.3 12.9 0.0 0.4 Kach (Ahmadun) IHK-0040 30,4653 67.3474 TKS 7.8 4.8 7.1 7.5 44.3 58.8 35.2 28.2 *0.0 0.0 Kach (Umai) IHK003-34 30-4571 67.1972 TKs 1.5 32.2 26.6 1.1 25.1 52Z 39.9 13.3 0.2 0.0 Kach (2awar Knar) IHK-0052 30.4346 67.1880 TKs B.O 2.4 21.7 3:7 50.4 75.8 35.0 13.3 0.0 0.2 Kach (Zawar Knar) IHK-0053 30.4334 67.1883 TKs 4.6 4.9 16.4 6.6 50.9 73.9 31.7 15.3 0.0 1.2 Average 6.2 9.5 16.4 4.3 46.3 67.0 32.9 16.5 0.1 0.6 Kalata GIDAR DHOR FORMATION (Tgrl) Johan (Splangi) IHK-Q03G 29.4623 66.9472 Tgd 1.5 6.0 61.5 3.7 6.6 71.9 81.9 20.4 0.0 0.0 Johan (PhadMaran) IHK-0010 29.3439 66.7197 Tgd [85.3 14.2 0.4 14.6 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Surab (microwave station) IHK-0019 28.4158 66.3126 Tgd 0.4 0.4 77.0 3.3 6.2 86.5 89.2 12.2 0.0 0.0 Average 0.6 30.6 46.2 4.4 57.7 57.0 10.9 0.0 0.0 m l Tgu = Upper Ghazij Formation Tgm = Middle Ghazij Formation Tgl = Lower Ghazij Formation Tks = Kach Sequence Tgd - Gidar Dhor Formation PiZ = Pir Ismail Ziarat 157 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Twenty-two thin sections of the upper part of Ghazij Formation were studied from Kalat, Quetta, Loralai and D.I. Khan regions and show almost the same compositional trend as the middle part of the formation. The Kalat area contains dominant limestone rock fragments up to 65%, igneous rock fragments from 0-8%, feldspar from 0-0.2%, quartz and chert from 3-17%, and calcite as cement/matrix from 10-42%. Upper Ghazij sandstones from the Quetta region are dominated by limestone rock fragments and once again a higher percentage of igneous fragments compared to other areas. Limestone rock fragments constitute up to 89% here but generally range between 45-75%, igneous rock fragments range from 3-46%, feldspar from 1-5%, quartz and chert from 6-24%, and calcite as cement/matrix from 10-49%. Thin sections of the upper part of the Ghazij Formation in Loralai and D.I. Khan region were only studied from the Kingri area, and these show quartz content ranging between 54 and 75%, limestone rock fragments from 0-1%, igneous rock fragments from 0-0.4%, feldspar from 0-2%, and calcite as cement/matrix from 22- 67% (Table. 5.3). The higher igneous content in Ghazij sandstones is generally observed in those areas which are closest to the axial belt. Igneous content gradually decreases away from the axial belt towards the east as evidenced by the sandstone samples collected from green colored sandstone bodies from the middle Ghazij in Pir Ismail Ziarat, Khost and Mach and Hamai which all represent the same stratigraphic level but are located progressively away from the axial belt. These sandstone bodies tend to be thicker in the west towards Khost-Shahrig and Pir Ismail Ziarat and thin towards the east in Hamai and Mach where they represent more distal facies. 158 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Kach Sequence The Kach sequence contains abundant detrital igneous rock fragments whereas limestone grains represent only a minor constituent in these sandstones. The study of seven thin sections from Zawar Knar, Umai and Ahmadun localities of the Kach and Shahrig valley areas shows that igneous rock fragments represent between 25-61% of the total, feldspar represents from 2-11%, quartz and chert from 6-33%, limestone rock fragments from 7-27%, and calcite as cement/matrix from 11-28% (Table. 5.3). Some of the other identifiable minerals in these sandstones include chlorite, kaolinite, white mica, rutile, palagonite, pyroxene, ferron calcite, and some spheroidal alteration that resembles chert. Upper Part of Gidar Dhor Formation Three thin sections of the upper part of Gidar Dhor Formation were studied from Splangi, Phad-e-Maran localities of the Johan and Surab areas of Kalat region. Samples from Splangi and Surab areas contain a high percentage of limestone rock fragments which make up to 77% of the total, whereas feldspar represents 0.4-1.5%, quartz and chert 3-10%, and calcite as cement/matrix from 12-20%. Samples collected from the Phad-e-Maran area show a high percentage of quartz up to 85%, chert up to 14% and igneous rock fragments only 0.4% (Table. 5.3). 159 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Kuldana Formation Seven representative sandstone samples of the Kuldana Formation were collected for thin section studies from the Mir Ali area of North Waziristan, Bahdur Khel salt mine, Mami Khel, Mardan Khel, Nari Panos and Ludi Khel localities of the Banda Daud Shah and Kohat areas of the NWFP province. Microscope studies show that limestone rock fragments are dominant and make up to 88% of sandstone constituents. However, the general range of limestone rock fragments is between 37 and 60%, feldspar from 0-1.8%, chert from 0.2-2% (except a Ludhi Khel sample that contains chert up to 24%). Quartz in general ranges between 7% and 37% but a sample from the Nari Panos area shows up to 57%. Presence of igneous rock fragments in the Kuldana Formation normally ranges between 2-8%, however a maximum of up to 27% is recorded from the Mami Khel locality of the Banda Daud Shah area (Table. 5.3). Calcite cement/matrix represents up to 35%. Sandstone Provenances The point count modal results presented above were used to interpret the provenance of the Ghazij Formation and related units. The acquired modal data are plotted on standard ternary diagrams along with overlays of Dickinson’s (1988) provenance classification (Figure 5.15). The QFL (Quartz, Feldspar, Lithic fragment) ternary diagram shows mostly a recycled orogen provenance for the Ghazij, Kuldana, upper part of the Gider Dhor Formations and the Kach Sequence according to Dickinson’s (1988) classification (Figure 5.15A). Rock fragments of the sandstones were also grouped into three main categories; quartz including chert grains (Q), igneous rock fragments (Lv) and sedimentary rock fragments (Ls [Dickinson 1988]) to examine 160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. local and regional changes of crustal evolution through time (Figure 5.15B). When modal data are grouped by formation and plotted on the QLvLs diagram (Figure 5.15C), detrital sediments of late Paleocene-early Eocene rocks of upper part of Gidar Dhor Formation and the Kach sequence show derivation dominantly from volcanic rock-bearing source areas. Detrital sandstone grains in the early Eocene lower Ghazij Formation were dominantly derived from limestone-bearing source rocks. Middle and upper Ghazij Formation detrital grains were dominantly derived from limestone units but also contain some deep crustal material, as indicated by the local presence of chromite and mafic grains. This indicates that the western margin of the Indian plate was undergoing continuous uplift and erosion through the late Paleocene to early middle Eocene time. The point count data of detrital sandstone grains are grouped by region/area and plotted on a QLvLs diagram along with an overlay of Dickinson (1988) provenance classification (Figure 5.15B). Detrital grains in the sandstones indicate a tectonized and deformed source area typical of fold-thrust belts in a collisional suture zone. There is also a very apparent geographic trend in the data. Sandstones from the southern part of the field area (Quetta, Kalat) are dominated by sedimentary rock fragments (mostly limestone grains). Sandstones from the Kach and related areas contain abundant volcanic material. Sandstones from northern part of the field area (Loralai region) are dominated by quartz. This strong spatial variation in sandstone composition suggests the existence of isolated watersheds that drained local sediment sources without significant mixing by large through-going fluvial systems. The high percentage of limestone grains in the Ghazij Formation sandstones from the area surrounding and south of Quetta indicates that the local source area was extensively underlain by limestone. There are thousands of meters of Triassic to late Paleocene carbonates directly below the Ghazij Formation that are extensively exposed as part of the axial belt. These rocks include the Dungan, Parh, Goru, Mughal Kot, Fort Munro, Chiltan, and Sherinab Formations. 161 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PROVENANCE ANALAYSIS OF SANDSTONE ROCKS OF THE WESTERN MARGIN OF JNDO-PAKISTAN SUBCONTINENT NORTHERN PART SOUTHERN PART OF STUDY AREA OF STUDY AREA x Loralai-D.I. Khan + Kalat • Waziristan-Kohat ° Quetta D Kach * Khost-Shahrig OROGEN PROVENANCES (Dickinson, 1988) CONTINENTAL (Dickinson, 1988) (Mixed) COMPLEX THRUST BELT P > V (Dickinson, 1988) (Dickinsoa 1988) Plutonic to Volcanic V > P Sources <- (Dickinson, 1988) Mixed Orogenic SOURCES 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 (Dickinson, Lt 1988) (Ls + Lv) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Lv EARLY EOCENE ° Kuldana Fm. Q = total quartz ° Upper Ghazij Fm. F = feldspar ** Middle Ghazij Fm. * Lower Ghazij Fm. Lt = total lithic rock fragments (Ls+Lv) Ls = sedimentary and metasedimentary LATE PALEOCENE-EARLY lithic rock fragments except chert EOCENE Lv = volcanogenic, metavolcanogenic, ° Gidar Dhor Fm. and hypabyssal and igneous lithic rock Kach Sequence fragments (Dickinson 1988) 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Figure 5.15. Distribution of detrital modes for late Paleocene-early Eocene sandstone rocks of the study area are plotted on standard ternary diagrams with overlays of provenance classification of Dickinson (1988). Results show that the Ghazij is dominated by recycled orogen, collision suture and fold thrust belt sources. A shows standard modal composition of quartz, feldspar and rock fragments (QFL) for sandstone rocks. B shows detrital modes separated by geography and their probable provenances. C shows abundance of rock fragment types in the formations of study area. 162 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sedimentary and igneous rocks (e.g. Pab, Sember, Bibai Formation, Bela Volcanics, and local ophiolites) are also present in relatively minor amounts in the uppermost part of the Cretaceous stratigraphic column (Fig 1.5). Cloudy cryptocrystalline limestone grains are interpreted to have been derived predominantly from the Paleocene Dungan limestone (light gray and brownish gray), Jurassic Chiltan limestone (dark gray, oolitic), and Triassic Shrinab limestone. Cryptocrystalline limestone and chert grains are interpreted to have been derived from Cretaceous Parh Group, a porcellaneous limestone that contains lenses of light gray, blackish gray, red jasper or bedded radiolarian chert (HSC, 1960 and Shah. 1977). Limestone of the Jurassic Chiltan Formation sometimes contains chert nodules as well, so this unit may also contribute a minor amount of chert to the Ghazij sandstones. In general then, the Ghazij in the southern part of the field area is dominated by limestone fragments from the directly underlying Mesozoic and Paleocene formations. This suggests that the Ghazij here records the very earliest stages of unroofing associated with early Paleogene uplift along the western margin of the Indian subcontinent. The high percentage of quartz grains in the Loralai, and D.I. Khan regions is interpreted to be derived from the quartz sandstones of the Pab Formation. There is no other source rock known to have been present in the west that could provide enough quartz to the Ghazij basin during late Paleocene-early Eocene time. The only other possible source that could provide this quantity of quartz to the Ghazij basin at this time is the Precambrian felsic crystalline rocks which are present to the east of the Ghazij basin towards the Indian craton. However, the interpreted paleocurrent directions from the Ghazij Formation do not support any easterly source area at this time (see chapter 4). The Pab sandstone, about 465 meters thick in this area (HSC, 1960), is interpreted to be derived from the Precambrian felsic crystalline rocks during upper Cretaceous time (Sultan, 1997). A Pab source for these Ghazij sandstones is also supported by the rare presence of reworked detrital tourmaline grains in the Ghazij samples from this area, which is 163 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. considered one of the diagnostic compositional characteristics of the Pab. The Ghazij sandstones from the Loralai and D. I. Khan regions thus show a similar pattern to Ghazij sandstones from south of Quetta in being dominated by grains from immediately underlying sedimentary units (in this case the Cretaceous Pab Formation). This reinforces the interpretation that the Ghazij records initial stages of unroofing associated with the India-Asia collision. The igneous rock fragments that dominate the Kach Sequence and are locally abundant in the Ghazij and upper Gidar Dhor Formations are interpreted to have been derived from the upper Cretaceous Bibai Formation, the Bela volcanic group, and the ophiolites that are intermittently exposed within the axial belt (near Waziristan, Zhob, Loralai, Muslim Bagh, Quetta, Khuzdar, and Bela areas). The Bibai and Bela volcanic rock suites are proposed to be associated with hotspot activity and are recognized as alkali basalts (Me Cormick, 1989, 1991; Ahmed, 1991; Sawada et al., 1992; Siddiqui, 1999). They are dominated by amygdaloidal pillow basalts and basaltic volcaniclastic rocks. The igneous grains in the Kach Sequence and Ghazij rocks of the Quetta region are mostly altered volcanic rock fragments composed of basalt and volcanic glass and are thus likely to be derived from the Bibai and Bela volcanic suites. Less commonly present are mafic/ultramafic grains that are likely derived from ophiolitic rocks that are currently exposed in the northwestern part of the region. The source of green sandstones in the middle part of the Ghazij at Khost-Shahrigh, Pir Ismail Ziarat and Mach areas are probably from the extrusive rocks of the Bibai Formation. The green color of the sandstones in these areas might be due to alteration of the volcaniclastics into chloritic clay minerals. These green sandstones are known to increase in thickness towards the west in the Kach area pointing towards a source area of the exposed Bibai. Rare chromite grains in the Quetta region sandstone samples were interpreted by Johnson et al. (1999) to be derived from the ophiolitic complexes emplaced sporadically on the western margin of the Indian continent. The ophiolite complexes are presently exposed north of 164 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Quetta near Muslim Bagh, the Zhob area of Loralai region, the Waziristan area in the north, and the Bela area in the south (Figure 5.1). Rocks contained in these ophiolitic complexes include dunite, gabbro, harzburgite, peridoite, pyroxenite, basic volcanic rocks (pillow lava), red siliceous limestone and red and green radiolarian chert (Dejohn and Farah, 1976; Ahmad and Abbas, 1979; Gansser, 1979). The associated tectonic melanges in these complexes include garnet amphibolite, green schist, serpentine, and autochthonous platform carbonates (Ahmad and Abbas, 1979). In general, these complexes show evidence of erosion and laterization (Rossman et. al., 1971; Allemann, 1979; Powell, 1979), however the thin section studies of the Ghazij presented here reveal that detrital grains of ophiolite rocks in Ghazij sandstones and related units are very rare to absent. An alternative source of chromite and mafic grains might be from sills and dikes present within Triassic carbonate rocks as part of mantle plume activity during the earliest rifting of northwestern margin of Indian plate from the Afro-Arabian plate (Siddiqui et al. 1996, 1999). Conclusion The compositions of Ghazij sandstones in the study area show a clear geographic pattern. Sandstones from the southern part of study area (Kalat and Quetta regions) indicate extensive limestone in the source area. Sandstones in the northern part of study area (Loralai region, D.I. Khan region, and part of the Waziristan region) are rich in quartz grains, indicating a quartz rich source. Some sandstone in the Kach sequence and Quetta region show abundant volcanic grains indicating a significant igneous source. In each case, Ghazij clasts can be traced to local underlying units of Mesozoic or early Cenozoic age indicating that the Ghazij represents the initial stages of uplift and unroofing along the western margin of the Indian subcontinent. This further supports the interpretation from facies analysis (Chapter 3) and current direction analysis 165 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. (Chapter 4) that the Ghazij and related units represent the sedimentary response to initial India- Asia collision. The overall erosion and unroofing pattern across the field area shows that initial uplift in this region was time-transgressive. Source rocks of the Kalat area were the most deeply eroded and involved detrital limestone grains from Jurassic rocks. Source rocks in the Quetta area are dominantly represented by Cretaceous rock units (mostly Parh, Bibai Fms,) and source rocks in the Loralai and D.I. Khan areas are dominantly represented by the upper Cretaceous Pab Formation. This erosional pattern indicates that uplift and erosion of Indian shelf rocks first started in the south along the transpressional margin of the Indian plate as a result of initial collision tectonics between the India and sutured Asia-Afghan/Kabul blocks during the late Paleocene-early Eocene. The deposition of the late early to middle Eocene Kuldana Formation in the north indicates that uplift of the western margin subsequently proceeded northward towards the Kohat area. This further supports a time-transgressive interpretation for initial collision from the facies analysis outlined in Chapter 3. Thin section studies show sandstone rocks of the study area are dominantly composed of limestone rock fragments, quartz grains and minor amounts of igneous material. SEM study indicates the presence of chromite and some mafic grains in the areas surrounding Quetta (Johnson et. al. 1999). These grains were previously interpreted to have been derived from ophiolite rocks that are currently exposed northeast of Quetta. However, chromite grains in these sandstones are extremely rare indicating that the ophiolite suites were poorly connected to Ghazij drainages or were not fully unroofed on the Indian continent side of the suture at this time. It is also possible that the chromite grains came from local Triassic rift-related intrusive rocks. Ghazij sandstones from the nearby Quetta region are dominated by detrital light gray limestone grains interpreted to be derived from Parh Group, indicating predominant erosion of Cretaceous rocks at this time. It is therefore likely that the main source rock for the igneous matter in Kach and 166 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Quetta region sandstones is the Cretaceous Bibai volcanic rocks that lie just on top of the Parh limestone. The vast majority of Ghazij sand could therefore have been sourced from the Mesozoic and early Cenozoic sedimentary and igneous rocks that lie directly stratigraphically below the Ghazij. This supports the interpretation that the Ghazij and related units signal the earliest stage of erosional unroofing along the western margin of the Indo-Pakistan subcontinent. Two general models for the paleogeographic evolution of the Baluchistan region during the time of collision have emerged over the last several years. Model 1 predicts the unroofing of sedimentary cover and possibly ophiolite material (polycrystalline quartz, limestone fragments, calcite, sedimentary rock fragments and mafic minerals) without any influx of continental crystalline material (potassium feldspar, intermediate to acidic rock fragments) since the Ghazij would be a result of intra plate deformation (Bannert et al., 1992). Model 2 predicts the influx of at least some continental material since the continents would be suturing together, and thus in physical contact, at the time of deposition (Beck et al. 1995). The petrographic studies outlined here reveal that the sandstones deposited along the western margin of India during late Paleocene and early Eocene time were derived predominantly from underlying Mesozoic and early Cenozoic rocks. A very minor input from obducted oceanic crust material may also be present but there is a clear absence of any continental crystalline material (potassium feldspar, intermediate to acidic rock fragments) suggesting that the Ghazij and related units were deposited along the western margin of the Indian continent as a result of intra plate deformation. This is consistent with the geographic model of India-Asia collision as outlined by Bannert et al. (1992; Model 1). 167 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. CHAPTER VI CONCLUSIONS Timing of Initial India-Asia Collision. This study of the Ghazij Formation and related units indicates significant and clear tectonism along the western margin of the Indo- Pakistan subcontinent during the late Paleocene to early Eocene. Analysis of lithofacies, paleoflow directions, sandstone petrography, and provenance indicate that the process of deformation and uplift of carbonate shelf along the western margin of the Indian continent was started as early as late Paleocene time. This tectonic uplift along the western margin of the Indian continent is documented by several independent lines of evidence: (1) The Ghazij Formation and related units contain synorogenic sediments in an overall shallowing upward sequence that are interpreted to be part of the earliest deltas formed on the western carbonate margin of the Indian continent (Chapter 2). (2) Proximal conglomerate facies of the shallowing-up sequence dominate in the west and mainly consist of limestone clasts, whereas distal facies of sandstone and shale dominate in the east. This depositional geometry shows that detrital clasts fine toward the east indicating a reversal in the depositional slope of the Cretaceous shelf (Chapter 3). (3) Paleocurrent directions support southeastward flowing sediment dispersal paths during late Paleocene-early Eocene time, opposite that found in the late Cretaceous (Chapter 4). (4) An unconformity exists on top of the Paleocene Dungan Group (HSC, 1960; Alleman, 1979) and at the base of upper part of the late Paleocene-early Eocene Gidar Dhor Formation in the Quetta and Kalat regions (see Chapters 3 and 4). (4) Petrographic information indicates a collision suture/fold thrust belt provenance for the Ghazij Formation and related units (Chapter 5). This phase of deformation along the western margin of the Indian continent is interpreted to represent 168 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. initial India-Asia continent-continent collision. These results corroborate structural and geophysical evidence for a late Paleocene-early Eocene age for initial India-Asia contact (e.g. Patriat and Achache 1984, Beck 1995) and contradict a late Cretaceous age based on faunal data (Jaeger et al. 1989, Rage et al. 1995) and a late early Eocene to middle Eocene age based on sedimentary evidence from the Himalayas (Najman et al., 2000, 2001, 2005; Rowley, 1996, 1998). Two distinctive tectonic pulses of initial collision between India and Asia are documented in the Ghazij Formation and related units in the Kalat and Quetta regions. In these areas there are two synorogenic conglomerate zones that represent the depositional responses to two separate pulses of collision tectonics. The first pulse is associated with the initial phase of uplift along the western margin during the late Paleocene and is recorded in the upper part of Gidar Dhor Formation, lower member of Marap conglomerate, Rodangi Formation in the Kalat region and Kach Sequence in the Quetta region (Chapter 2 and 3). The second tectonic pulse is -1200 meters stratigraphically above the first pulse and is documented by the middle part of the early Eocene Ghazij Formation and the upper Marap conglomerate in the Quetta and Kalat regions. The first pulse is interpreted to represent the beginning of continent-continent contact between India and the Asia-sutured Afghan block and likely caused the obduction of ophiolilites onto the Indian continent. The second tectonic pulse is interpreted as a period of intense deformation and high uplift along the western margin causing partial unroofing of ophiolites towards the Indian continent as well as deposition of the paralic and terrestrial fluviatile facies of the middle and upper Ghazij. 169 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Time Transgressive India-Asia collision - The study of regional lithofacies of the Ghazij Formation and related units (Chapter 3) indicate that collision between India and Asia was time-transgressive. This is evidenced by the earliest terrestrial synorogenic sediments (e.g. conglomerates) being late Paleocene-earliest Eocene in age in the southern Kalat and Quetta regions but late early Eocene in age in the northern D.I. Khan and Kohat areas (Chapter 3). These stratigraphic records show that the main marine to continental facies transition in western Pakistan related to initial India-Asia collision tectonics are significantly time-transgressive (older in the southwest and younger in the northeast). This supports the conclusions of Rowley (1996) who reviewed stratigraphic data from the Himalayas and reported that the initial age of collision in the Hazara-Zanskar area to the north of Kohat was 50.7 Ma (late Ypresian) and that the collision became younger towards the east. The results presented here indicate that initial India- Asia collision first began in the southwest Kalat-Khuzdar area near the late Paleocene-early Eocene boundary (-55 Ma) and proceeded northward along a transpressional margin in late early Eocene time as recorded in the north by the Kuldana Formation (terrestrial red mud rock deposits) and sediments from the Hazara-Zanskar areas (Rowely 1998, 1996). The Kuldana Formation nicely fits between the southwestern transpressional collision suture and the main northern compressional collision sutures and thus represents a depositional transition between the two suture zones. These results also suggest that the collision began along the transpressional western margin of the Indian plate instead of along its compressional northwestern comer as previously proposed (Powell 1979; Klootwijk et. al., 1981; Gaetani et al., 1991; Garzanti, et al., 1996). Tectonic Model of Collision - Two general models for the paleogeographic evolution of the Baluchistan region agree that there is evidence of significant tectonic activity along the northwestern comer of the Indian subcontinent during the late Paleocene and early 170 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Eocene. The traditional model (Model 1) links the tectonic changes along the Indian northwest margin to obduction of oceanic crust and sedimentary cover due to intraplate deformation caused by convergent stresses (e.g. Bannert et al., 1992). Model 2 (Beck et al. 1995) proposed the Paleocene-Eocene tectonism was related to final suturing of Indo-Pakistan with Asia rather than an intraplate obduction of oceanic crustal materials (see chapter 5 for details of the models). Petrographic studies of the Ghazij Formation and related units reveal that the sandstone constituents were predominantly derived from underlying Mesozoic and early Cenozoic carbonate rocks, which were part of the former Indian carbonate shelf. The general absence of continental crystalline material suggests that the Ghazij and related units were deposited along the western margin of the Indian continent as a result of intra-oceanic plate deformation which supports the Bannert et al. (1992) model of India-Asia collision (Model 1). Yoshida et al. (1997) presented an updated palegeographic map (Figure 1.2) of the India-Asia collision based on new paleomagnetic data collected from Himalaya-Karakoram collision belt of Pakistan. The model of collision interpreted here from the Ghazij Formation and related units fits quite well in this paleogeographic map although initial collision would occur along the transpressional boundary between the western margin of the Indian continent and the eastern margin of the Afghan block instead of along a compressional boundary between India and an island arc in the north. According to this paleogeographic map, the upper Gidar Dhor, Rodangi and Kach Sequence facies of the first tectonic pulse were deposited just on or a little below the equator and the facies of the second pulse were deposited slightly above the equator, which is farther corroborated by paleomagnetic data presented in Clyde et al. (2003). Tectonic and Environmental Setting of Fossil Mammals in the Ghazij Formation - Fossil mammals have been recovered from the middle and upper parts of the Ghazij Formation and were described in detail by Gingerich et al. (1997, 1998, 1999, 2001), and 171 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Ginsburg et al. (1999). The environmental and tectonic reconstruction of the middle and upper Ghazij reported here indicate that these mammals existed in paralic, palm dominated swamps (Middle Ghazij) and distributary deltaic and fluvial environments (Upper Ghazij) in an early formed foreland basin associated with initial India-Asia collision. Clyde et al. (2003) documented a faunal pattern of decreasing endemism through time in the Ghazij Formation. 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Mesozoic mantle plume activities in the Neo-Tethys Ocean and its relationship with the break-up of Gondwanaland: Evidence from intra-plate volcanism in the Muslim Bagh area. Proceedings of the Geoscience Colloquium, Geoscience Lab, GSP, vol. 16, p. 95-114. Srivastava, R. and Kumar, K. 1996. Taphonomy and paleoenvironment o f the middle Eocene rodent localities of the northwestern Himalaya, India. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, vol. 122, p. 185-211. Stipp, M., Stuitz, H., Heilbronner, R., and Schmid, S. M. 2002. The eastern Tonale fault zone, a natural laboratory for crystal plastic deformation of quartz over a temperature range from 250-700 C. Jomal of Structural Geology, vol. 24, p. 1861-1884. Sultan, M. 1997. The stratigraphy, petrology and provenance of the upper Cretaceous-Paleocene formations of the middle Indus Basin, Pakistan. UMI Dissertation Services, Michigan, University of South Carolina. Tapponnier, P., Peltzer, G., Dain, A. Y., Armijo, R., and Cobbold, P. 1982. Propagating extrusion tectonics in Asia: new insights from simple expriments with plasticine. Geology, vol. 10, p. 611- 616. Tauxe, L. and Badgley, C. 1988. Stratigraphy and remanence acquisition o f a paleomagnetic reversal in alluvial Siwalik rocks of Pakistan. Sedimentology, vol. 35, p. 697-715. Tauxe, L. and Badgley, C. 1984. Transition stratigraphy and problem of remanence lock-in times in the Siwalik red beds. Geophysical Research Letters, vol. 11(6), p. 611-613. Tauxe, L., Constable, C., Stokking, L., and Badgley, C. 1990. Use of anisotropy to determine the origin of characteristic remanence in the Siwalik red beds of northern Pakistan. Journal of Geophysical Research, vol. 95(B4), p. 4391-4404. Thewissen, J. G. M. 1990. Comments and Reply on "Paleontological view o f the ages of the Deccan Traps, the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, and the India-Asia collision". Geology, vol. 18, p. 185- 186. Thewissen, J. G. M., Gingerich, P. D., and Russel, D. E. 1987. Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla (Mammalia) from the early-middle Eocene Kuldana Formation o f Kohat (Pakistan). Contributions from the Museum of Paleontology, University of Michigan, vol. 27, p. 247-274. Thewissen, J. G. M., Hussain, S. T., and Arif, M. 1994. Fossil evidence for the origin of aquatic locomotion in Archaeocete whales. Science, vol. 263, p. 210-212. Thewissen, J. G. M. and McKenna, M. C. 1992. Paleobiogeography o f Indo-Pakistan: A response to Briggs, Patterson, and Owen. Systematic Biology, vol. 41, p. 248-251. Thewisssen, J. G. M., Williams, E. M., and Hussain, S. T. 2001. Eocene mammal faunas from northern Pakistan. Journal o f Vertebrate Paleontology, vol. 21, p. 347-366. 185 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Thomas, E. and Shackleton, N. J. 1996. The Paleocene-Eocene benthic foraminiferal extinction and stable isotope anomalies. In Knox, R W O'B, Corfield, R M, and Dunay, R E. (eds.), Correlation of the early Paleogene in northwest Europe, p. 401-441. Geological Society [London] Special Publication 101. Torrent, J. S., Schwertmann, U, Schulze, D G. 1980. Iron oxide mineralogy of some soils of two river terrace sequences in Spain. Geoderma, vol. 23, p. 191-208. Tucker, M. E. 1994. Sedimentary structures and geometery o f sedimentary deposits. In The field Description of Sedimentary Rocks, p. 9-112. John Wiley and Sons, West Sussex, England. Van Andel, T. H. 1959. Reflection of the interpretation o f heavy minerals analyes. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, vol. 29, p. 153-163. Van De Kamp, P. C. and Leake, B. E. 1985. Petrography and geochemistry o f feldspathic and mafic sediments o f the northeastern pacific margin. Transactions of Royal Society Edinburgh, vol. 76, p. 411-449. Verma, R. K. 1992. Seismicity and nature o f faulting associated with some major lineaments across the Himalaya and southern part of Tibet. 29th International Geological Congress Abstracts, vol.29, pp. 77. Verma, R. K. and Ghosh, S. 1992. Seismotectonic and nature o f plate monement in Hindukusk region. In Ahmed, R. and Sheikh, A. M. (eds.), Proceedings o f the First South Asia Geological Congress. Islamabad, Pakistan. Vredenburg, E. W. 1909. Report on the Geology of Sarewan, Jhalawan, Mekran and the State of Las Bela, considered principally from the point of veiw o f economic development. Records of the Geological Surevey of India, vol 38, p. 189-215. Waheed, A. and Wells, N. A. 1990. Changes in paleocurrents during the development o f an obliquely convergent plate boundary (Sulaiman fold-belt, southwestern Himalayas, west-central Pakistan). Sedimentary Geology, vol. 67, p. 237-261. Walker, R. G. and James, N. P. 1992. Facies Models; Response to sea level change, p. 1-454. 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Marine and continental sedimentation in the early Cenozoic Kohat Basin and adjacent northwestern Indo-Pakistan. Ph.D. Dissertation, University o f Michigan. 186 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Wells, N. A. 1988. Working with Paleocurrents . Journal o f Geological Education, vol. 35, p. 39-43. White, H. J. Petrography and provenence of Tethyan shoreline sandstones, southern Pab Range, Pakistan. Geological Society of America, vol. 13, p. 322. Williams, E. 1960. Intrastratal flow and convolute folding. Geological Magazine, vol. 97, p. 208-214. Williams, M. D. 1959. Stratigraphy of the lower Indus Basin, West Pakistan. Proceedings of the Fifth World Petroleum Congress, New York Section 1, Paper 19, vol. p. 377-390. Willis, B. J. and Behrensmeyer, A. K. 1995. Fluvial systems in the Siwalik Miocene and Wyoming Paleogene. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, vol. 115, p. 13-35. Wright, L. D. 1977. 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PALEOCURRENTS DATA Fore se ts T ro u g h s TectonicaPy Are a/ Localities Location Formation X -Bed S u rab F o re s e t W. Micro. St. Sec. 28 23.546 66 14.393 Tgd F o reset 10 57 0 75155.00 W. Micro. St. Sec: 28 23.546 66 14.393 Tgd Foreset 20 77 0 75 86.62 W. Micro. St. S ec. 28 23.546 66 14.393 Tgd Foreset 24 85 0 75 69.52 W. Micro. St. S ec. 28 23.546 66 14.393 Tgd Foreset 25 84 0 75 72.53 W. Micro. S t Sec. 28 23.546 66 14.393 Tgd Foreset 28 78 0 75 87.17 W. Micro. St. Sec. 28 23.581 66 14.418 Tgd Foreset 355 65 348 74 133.09 W. Micro. St. Sec. 28 23.581 66 14.418 Tgd Foreset 353 67 348 74 134.85 W. Micro. St. Sec. 28 23.581 66 14.418 Tgd F o reset 347 52 34874 170.10 E. Microwave S t 28 24.953 66 18.760 Tgd Foreset 8 64 12 62 310.38 E. Microwave S t 28 24.953 66 18.760 Tgd Foreset 355 71 12 62 308.37 Tgd E. Microwave St. 29 24.914 67 18.572 Tgd (Congl.) Pebble Fibric 125.00 E. Microwave S t 28 24.836 66 18.577 Tgd (Congl.) P ebble Fibric 385 39 100.00 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd F oreset 292 42 47 42 310 55 170.31 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd F o reset 285 45 50 45 310 55 184.69 E. M icrowave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd F oreset 283 49 54 49 310 55 196.12 E. M icrowave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 284 52 57 52 310 55 204.15 E. M icrowave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 274 47 52 47 310 55 192.97 E. Microwave St, 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 294 39 44 39 310 55 160.92 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 294 39 44 39 310 55 160.92 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 295 40 45 40 310 55 161.51 E. M icrowave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 308 35 40 35 310 55 133.35 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd Foreset 296 39 44 39 310 55 158.00 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd F oreset 305 41 46 41 310 55 143.22 E. Microwave St. 28 24.708 66 18.656 Tgd F oreset 298 40 45 40 310 55 156.60 SW. Microwave St. 28 23.062 66 16.981 Tgd F o reset 251 46 240 51 4.82 SW. Microwave S t - " Tgd Foreset 248 42 240 51 29.88 SW. Microwave St. " " Tgd Foreset 232 44 240 51 97.47 SW . M icrowave St. " " Tgd Foreset 226 38 240 51 92.21 SW . M icrowave St. "" Tgd Foreset 222 64 240 51 185.38 SW . M icrowave S t "" Tgd Foreset 244 55 240 51 279.83 SW. Microwave S t 28 23.062 66 16.981 Tgd Foreset 267 52 240 51 335.84 SW. Microwave St. - Tgd F oreset 258 57 24051 313.11 SW. Microwave St. - Tgd F o reset 260 62 240 51 302.49 SW. Microwave St. * Tgd Tabular 265 57 240 51 321.17 S u ra b Tgd T ro u g h E. M icrowave St. : 28 24.953 66 18.760 Tgd Trough 20 79 350 65 12 62 W. Micro. St. Sec. 28 23.724 66 14.381 Tgd Trough 19 26 55 22 350 40 W. Micro. St. Sec. 28 23.724 66 14.381 Tgd Trough 68 38 26 41 350 40 •/ W. Micro. St. S ec. 28 23.581 6614.418 Tgd Trough 346 64 360 69 355 75 Jo h a n Johan. Splangi 29 20.618 66 55.445 Tgd Trough 298 21 358 27 317 47 131 Johan. Splangi 29 20.618 66 55.445 Tgd Trough 320 32258 26 317 47 246 Johan. Splangi 29 20.618 66 55.445 Tgd Trough 268 03348 44 317 47 177 Johan. Splangi ' 2920.618 66 55.445 Tgd Trough 220 2136331 317 47 240 Q u etta Kach Village 30 26.019 6 7 1 7 .6 7 6 Tgd Trough 165 50 176 11 172 22 KACH SEQUENCE Q u etta Zawar Knar Sec. 30 25.946 67 11.295 Kach Seq. Foreset 135 84 115 76 184.87 197.00 Zawar Knar Sec. 30 25.946 6 7 1 1 2 9 5 Kach S eq. Foreset 145 76 115 76 208.71 Kach Village 30 26.019 67 17.676 Kach Seq. Foreset 160 38 172 22 146.06 151.36 Kach Village 30 26.019 67 17.676 Kach Seq. Foreset 166 40 172 22 159.61 K ach Village 30 26.019 67 17.676 Kach Seq. F oreset 155 30 17222 121.13 Kach Village 30 26.019 6 7 1 7 .6 7 6 Kach Seq. Foreset 168 45 172 22 164.78 ■ h ' : p . Kach ViRage 3026.019 6717.676 Kach Seq. F oreset 168 43 17222 164.41 189 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Duki Jar M anda 30 07.580 68 29.108 Tgi Trough 30 25 348 31 5 19 25 25 J a r M anda 30 08.104 68 30.018 Tgl Trough . 310 38 20 34 0 35 173 341.50 J a r Manda 30 08.104 6 8 30.018 Tgi Trough 25 56 320 34 0 35 330 \ Lji • • MIDDLE GIIAZIJ FORMATION (Tgm) Kalat, Surab E. Microwave St. 28 25.299 6619.617 Tgm Foreset 30 42 6 42 104.98 128.38 E. Microwave St. 28 25.299 6619.617 Tgm F oreset 32 39 6 42 115.86 E. Microwave St. 28 25.299 6619.617 Tgm F oreset 43 28 6 42 143.85 E. Microwave St. 28 25.299 6619.617 Tgm Foreset 50 36 6 42 125.09 E; Microwave St. 28 25.299 6 6 1 9 .6 1 7 Tgm Foreset 22 33 6 42 144.90 P h a d M aran Shaikri '■ 29 12.950 66 49.314 Tgm Foreset 235 37 275 38 166.64 151.65 Shaikri Tgm Foreset 267 32 275 38 129.18 Shaikri Tgm Foreset 235 40 275 38 173.56 Shaikri Tgm Foreset 260 38 275 38 179.08 f p Shaikri Tgm F oreset 274 37 275 38 125.94 Shaikri ■ - Tgm Tabular 135 275 38 135.00 Hori>i H ils (S ec.) 29 01.502 66 45.137 Tgm F oreset 345 285 25 83.65 83.65 S o r R ange ShinGhawazh 30 10.459 6711.675 Tgm Foreset 210 34 218 30 167.89 159.89 Shin Ghawazh: (ref. SRPM0019 sample) Tgm Foreset 208 35 223 32 146.54 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.469 6711.675 Tgm Foreset 200 59 216 51 152.59 w Shin Ghawazh 30 10.469 6711.675 Tgm Foreset 192 58 216 51 138.38 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.469 6711.675 Tgm Foreset 212 60 216 51 194.72 L e s s O aghari Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.335 67 15.343 Tgm Foreset 259 35 257 45 70.43 108.65 Plant Foss. Loc. \ 30 03.335 67 15.343 Tgm Foreset 256 43 257 45 95.80 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.335 67 15.343 Tgm Foreset 235 39 257 45 136.85 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.335 6715.343 Tgm Foreset 250 38 257 45 107.95 w Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.335 67 15.343 Tgm Foreset 245 40 257 45 131.00 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.335 67 15.343 Tgm F oreset 288 44 257 45 M a c lt' National Mine ■ 29 54.546 6718.175 Tgm Foreset 95 33 74 31 162.86 167.52 N ational Mine 29 54.546 6718.175 Tgm Foreset 82 26 74 31 220.11 National Mine 29 54.546 67 18.175 Tgm Foreset 96 32 74 31 168.50 National Mine 29 54.546 6718.175 Tgm Foreset 98 30 74 31 179.00 ■ . National Mine 29 54.546 67 18.175 Tgm Foreset 94 35 74 31 152.45 N ational Mine 29 54.546 6718.175 Tgm Foreset 92 29 74 31 184.24 National Mine 29 54.546 67 18.175 Tgm Foreset 90 37 74 31 136.99 N ational Mine 29 54.546 67 18.175 Tgm F oreset 110 28 74 31 189.09 National Mjne 29 54.546 67 18.175 Tgm F oreset 88 31 74 31 170.01 N ational Mine 29 54.546 67 18.175 Tgm F oreset 85 35 74 31 134.98 National Mine: 29 54.546 6718.175 Tgm Ripple - 74 31 150.00 ^ "" National Mine 29 55.586 6717.739 Tgm Foreset 85 28 60 17 113.14 109.45 National Mine 29 55.586 6717.739 Tgm Foreset 81 27 60 17 108.33 . - .. -.. .. National Mine 29 55.586 6717.739 Tgm Foreset 78 38 60 17 90.00 ...... N ational Mine 29 55.586 6717.739 Tgm Foreset 95 40 60 17 112.83 N ational Mine 29 55.586 67 17.739 Tgm Foreset 100 36 60 17 122.81 K h o st S. RaihvaySL 3013.103 67 34.718 Tgm Foreset 246 17 250 15 83.07 131.18 «... S. Raikvay S t 30 13.103 67 34.718 Tgm Foreset 223 20 250 15 135.90 *e ■ ■ ^ ...... S . R aitoay St. 3013.103 67 34.718 Tgm Foreset 205 25 250 15 148.20 S, Railway St. 3013.103 67 34.718 Tgm Foreset 216 24 250 15 152.59 190 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. S. Raikvay St. 30 1 3.003 67 34.634 Tgm Foreset 200 52 202 59 34.69 20.65 S . Railway S t. 30 13.003 67 34.634 Tgm Foreset 205 44 2025914.02 S . Railway St. 30 13.003 67 34.634 Tgm Foreset 203 42 202 59 19.71 S. Railway S t. 30 13.003 67 34.634 Tgm Foreset 215 50 202 59 336.02 S. Railway St. 30 13.003 67 34.634 Tgm Tabular? 195 69 202 59 168.22 S. Railway St. 30 13.003 67 34.634 Tgm Tabular? 190 40 202 59 43.88 S. Railway St. 30 13.003 67 34.634 Tgm Tabular? 205 53 202590.31 S. Railway St. 30 12.974 67 34.605 Tgm Foreset 215 52 225 38 194.52 170.65 S. Railway SL 30 12.974 67 34.605 Tgm Foreset 210 35 225 38 110.47 S. Railway St. 30 12.974 67 34.605 Tgm Foreset 208 73 22538 197.65 S. Railway S t. 30 12.926 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 225 54 21053 299.76 211.91 S . Railway S t. 30 12.926 67 34.582 Tgm F o reset 225 65 21053 261.09 S . Railway S t. 30 12.926 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 230 55 21053 298.94 S. Railway St. 30 1 2 .9 2 6 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 207 69 210 53 199.92 S. Railway St. 30 12.926 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 188 61 210 53 137.11 S . Railway S t. 3012.926 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 182 64 21053 136.81 S . Railway St. 3012.926 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 194 68 210 53 162.87 S . Railway S t. 30 1 2 .9 2 6 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 202 53 21053 117.59 S . Railway S t. 30 1 2 .9 2 6 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 222 70 21053 244.90 S. Railway St. 30 1 2 .9 2 6 67 34.582 Tgm F oreset 220 65 21053 248.25 S . Railway S t. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm F oreset 180 52 194 54 89.68 102.41 S. Railway St. 3012.906 67 34.585 Tgm Foreset 175 45 194 54 66.12 S. Railway S t 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm F oreset 185 54 19454 101.35 S . Railway S t. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm F oreset 183 39 1935534.24 S. Railway S t 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm F oreset 188 63 19454 162.76 S. Railway St. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm F oreset 192 60 194 54 177.83 S ; Railway S t. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm Foreset 193 43 194 54 17.57 S . Railway St. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm Foreset 192 56 194 54 154.10 S. Railway St. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm F oreset 193 53 194 54 52.50 S. Railway S t. 30 12.906 67 34.585 Tgm Foreset 172 55 194 54 100.72 SE. Railway St. 3012.287 67 35.905 Tgm Foreset 225 62 190 62 288.42 S E Railway St. 30 12.287 67 35.905 Tgm Foreset 195 66 190 62 239.45 SE. Railway St. 3012.263 67 35.912 Tgm Foreset 156 48 185 60 59.76 48.27 SE. Railway $t. 30 12.263 67 35.912 Tgm F oreset 175 43 185 60 26.70 SE. Railway S t 30 12.263 67 35.912 Tgm Foreset 155 50 185 60 64.57 SE. Railway St. 30 12.263 67 35.912 Tgm Foreset 167 52 185 60 61.95 SE. Railway St. 30 12.263 67 35.912 Tgm F oreset 170 40 18560 30.24 SE. Railway St. 30 1 2 2 6 3 6 7 35.912 Tgm Foreset 178 42 185 60 19.67 SE. Railway S t. ; 30 12.263 67 35.912 Tgm F oreset 165 39 185 60 34.70 S E . Railway St. 30 1 2 2 6 3 6 7 35.912 Tgm F oreset 170 56 18560 73.65 SE. Railway St. 3012.263 67 35.912 Tgm F oreset 178 46 185 60 24.72 SE. Railway St. 30 12.263 67 35.912 Tgm F oreset 150 60 18560 86.04 S hahrig PMDC Mines 30 07.964 67 45.920 Tgm Foreset 227 58 215 73 1.29 15.61 PMPC Mines 30 07.964 67 45.920 Tgm Foreset 215 47 215 73 35.00 PMDC Mines 30 07.964 67 45.920 Tgm F oreset 205 51 215 73 54.64 PMDC Mines 30 07.964 67 45.920 Tgm F oreset 240 64 215 73 330.48 PMDC Mines 30 07.920 67 45.908 Tgm F oreset 209 87 208 78 214.36 179.73 PMDC Mines. 30 07.920 67 45.908 Tgm F oreset 202 82 208 78 151.54 PMDC Mines 30 07.920 67 45.908 Tgm F o reset 210 86 208 78 222.06 PMDC Mines 30 07.920 67 45.908 Tgm F oreset 202 81 208 78 144.38 PMDC Mines 30 07.920 67 45.908 Tgm F oreset 204 83 208 78 169.37 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 70 48 60 54 190.74 170.54 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm F oreset 75 47 60 54 185.80 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm F oreset 70 56 60 54 139.19 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm F oreset 76 47 60 54 184.50 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 70 57 60 54 132.88 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 84 46 60 54 180.99 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 84 47 60 54 178.13 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 70 63 60 54 106.18 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 60 37 60 54 240.00 PMDC Mines 30 08.846 67 45.146 Tgm Foreset 81 51 60 54 166.53 191 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PMDC Mines 30 1 0 .0 9 8 6 7 42.932 Tgm F oreset 208 72 201 69 267.75 147.51 PMDC Mines 3010.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 213 4 201 69 20.08 PMDC Mines 3010.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 188 76 201 69 138.36 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm F oreset 196 89 20169 186.65 PMDC Mines 30 1 0 .0 9 8 6 7 42.932 Tgm Foreset 185 74 201 69 126.57 PMDC Mines 3 010.098 6 7 42.932 Tgm Foreset 195 88 201 69 183.11 PMDC Mines 30 1 0 .0 9 8 6 7 42.932 Tgm Foreset 186 86 201 69 158.34 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 185 87 20169 158.00 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 196 77 201 69 169.36 PMDC Mines 30 1 0 .0 9 8 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 185 84 201 69 152.79 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 183 75 201 69 127.35 PMDC Mines 3010.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 186 85 201 69 156.62 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 182 72 201 69 117.22 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm F oreset 191 72 201 69 126.94 PMDC Mines 30 10.098 67 42.932 Tgm Foreset 182 71 201 69 114.06 D uki J a r M anda 30 08.199 68 30.352 Tgm Foreset 30 46 5 35 70.96 74.96 J a r M anda 30 08.199 68 30.352 Tgm Foreset 30 32 117.55 J a r Manda 30 08.199 68 30.352 Tgm Foreset ?33 45 77.32 J a r M anda 30 08.199 68 30.352 Tgm Foreset ?32 43 80.81 Jar Manda 30 08.199 68 30.352 Tgm F oreset ? 10 44 26.43 J a r Manda 30 08.416 68 30.396 Tgm Foreset 42 28 5 35 130.20 89.93 J a r M anda 30 08.416 68 30.396 Tgm Foreset 30 35 105.29 J a r M anda 30 08.416 68 30.396 Tgm Foreset 28 48 63.70 J a r Manda 30 08.416 68 30.396 Tgm Foreset 25 47 60.52 J a r M anda 30 08.416 68 30.396 Tgm Foreset 27 37 95.25 J a r Manda 30 08.416 68 30.396 Tgm Foreset 3 35 274.18 J a r M anda 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 15 35 2 40 129.34 165.98 J a r Manda 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 15 29 2 40 153.44 J a r M anda 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 6 35 2 40 157.61 Jar Manda 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 25 40 2 40 100.86 J a r Manda 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 355 30 2 40201.05 Jar Manda : 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 354 22 2 40 191.49 J a r M anda 30 08.646 68 30.493 Tgm Foreset 308 27 2 40 226.92 J a r Manda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 340 36 2 50 221.26 239.94 J a r Manda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 358 59 2 50 340.92 J a r Manda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 345 43 2 50 236.73 J a r M anda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 355 45 2 50 225.58 J a r Manda 30 08.736 $ 8 30.542 Tgm Foreset 346 42 2 50 231.80 Jar Manda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm F oreset 358 49 2 50252.51 J a r M anda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm F oreset 356 48 2 50246.22 JarManda 3008.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 355 40 2 50205.91 J a r Manda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 352 46 2 50 240.42 234.04 Ja rM a n d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 347 50 2 50 267.16 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 338 42 2 50 239.06 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 349 54 2 50 289.23 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 348 53 2 50 282.87 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 347 53 2 50 281.57 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 345 41 2 50 229.65 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 350 39 2 50 215.24 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 332 23 2 50 203.83 JarManda 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 20 46 2 50 114.57 JarM an d a 30 08.736 6 8 30.542 Tgm Foreset 10 48 2 50 112.93 JarM an d a 30 08.736 68 30.542 Tgm Foreset 23 56 2 5078.90 J a r M anda 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 22 31 15 46 181.50 161.83 JarManda 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 30 38 15 46 148.98 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 40 25 15 46 170.16 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 50 39 15 46 134.10 J a r M anda 30 08.858 6 8 30.597 Tgm Foreset 30 25 15 46 178.46 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 35 27 15 46 170.74 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 27 25 15 46 181.46 J a r M anda 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 56 27 15 46 157.96 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 42 21 15 46 175.11 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 47 37 15 46 139.59 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 48 30 15 46 155.61 JarM an d a 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 49 26 15 46 163.12 J a r M anda 30 08.858 68 30.597 Tgm Foreset 62 33 15 46 145.92 192 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. G harw as T hana 30 07.947 68 38.665 Tgm Foreset 240 11 0 24 198.76 G harw as T hana 30 07.947 68 38.665 Tgm F oreset 291 23 0 24235.95 Gharwas Thana 30 07.947 68 38.665 Tgm Foreset 290 25 0 24 239.22 Gharwas Thana 30 07.947 68 38.665 Tgm F oreset 331 26 0 24 265.88 Gharwas Thana 30 07.947 68 38.665 Tgm F oreset 325 31 0 24 277.10 Gharwas Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm Foreset 241 16 20 17 220.64 245.07 Gharwas Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm Foreset 275 18 20 17 240.09 G harw as Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm F oreset 280 28 20 17 253.98 Gharwas Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm Foreset 292 28 20 17 262.67 Gharwas Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm Foreset 287 20 20 17 249.49 G harw as T hana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm F oreset 5 11 20 17 224.03 Gharwas Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm Foreset 325 17 20 17 263.53 S a d o z a i Kilfi E. Sadozai Kilt 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 215 9 2 28 190.36 188.92 E. S ad o zai KiR 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm F oreset 300 11 2 28 205.81 E. S a d o z a i KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 32 12 2 28 162.90 E. S ad o zai Kill 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Tabular 196 15 2 28 187.30 E. Sadozai KiR 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm Tabular 345 14 2 28 197.72 E. Sadozai KiR 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 339 36 8 35 269.44 233.04 E. Sadozai Kili 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 9 30 8 35 182.29 E. S ad o zai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 336 27 8 35 238.88 E. Sadozai KiR 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm F oreset 325 26 8 35237.77 E. S ad o zai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 305 22 28 25 254.69 221.28 E. S ad o zai KiR 30 1 0 .1 5 6 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 353 33 28 25 307.08 E. Sadozai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 77 6 28 25 195.58 E. S a d o z a i KiR : 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 25 18 28 25 215.54 E. Sadozai KiR 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 18 18 28 25 231.05 E. Sadozai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 20 15 28 25 219.57 E. S ad o zai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 45 17 28 25 178.45 E. Sadozai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm F oreset 45 10 28 25 197.18 E. S ad o zai KiR 3010.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 348 23 28 25 272.88 E. Sadozai Kili 30 10.156 68 54.329 Tgm Foreset 72 18 28 25 161.04 Kingri Kingri sec. 30 25.881 69 46.736 Tgm Foreset 95 83 104 55 85.44 116.52 Kingri sec. (Level 594m) Tgm F oreset 105 71 10455 107.43 Kingri sec. Tgm F oreset 120 66 10455 159.90 Kingri sec. Level 741m Tgm Foreset 128 86 100 68 160.47 168.30 Kingri sec. Tgm F oreset 121 72 100 68 182.30 Kingri sec. Tgm Foreset 113 75 100 68 162.61 Kingri sec, -- Tgm Foreset 116 61 11055 151.93 132.55 Kingri sec, " Tgm Foreset 125 63 110 55 172.17 Kingri sec. Tgm Foreset 100 62 110 55 56.67 Kingri sec. Level 1051m (KPM98011) Tgm Foreset 234 5 95 35 269.78 270.00 Kingri sec. Tgm Foreset 125 35 115 44 263.53 255.45 Kingri sec. Tgm Foreset 155 44 115 44 219.67 Kingri sec, Tgm Foreset 128 21 115 44 283.53 Kingri sec. Tgm Foreset 124 83 102 64 153.68 152.36 Kingri sec. Tgm Foreset 111 78 102 64 134.89 Kingri sec. Tgm F oreset 115 70 10264 168.03 K alat E. Microwave St. 28 25.299 66 19.617 Tgm T rough 318 35 38 28 6 42 187.00 S u ra b E. Microwave St, 28 25.299 66 19.617 Tgm Ripple 135.00 135.00 Horbi Hils 29 01.502 66 45.137 Tgm Trough 314 49 277 47 285 50 Horbi Hils " Tgm Trough 310 46 284 40 285 50 Horbi Hils " ’ Tgm Trough 250 44 325 29 285 50 Horbi Hils *" Tgm Trough 255 41 315 36 305 40 Horbi Hits " Tgm Trough 312 42280 54 310 50 Horbi Hils " Tgm Trough 320 34285 42 310 50 Horbi Hils " Tgm Trough 312 47290 32 310 50 Horbi Hils ’ Tgm Trough 308 44 288 37 310 50 Horbi Hils -" Tgm Trough 250 37292 43 270 30 Horbi Hite 29 01.732 66 44.973 Tgm Trough 8 2629034 270 25 193 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Less Daghari Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 284 68 249 32 252 50 7 12.26 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 259 55 253 37 252 50 3 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 259 25 207 34 252 50 145 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 290 52 227 24 252 50 10 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 287 39 254 23 252 50 16 - t ~ Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 281 66 216 51 252 50 203 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 6715.341 Tgm Trough 278 69 224 54 252 50 205 ■ J Plant F oss. LOc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 260 5021829 252 50 185 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 67 15.341 Tgm Trough 256 52 236 31 252 50 187 Plant Foss. Loc. 30 03.356 6715.341 Tgm Trough 280 71 217 47 252 50 202 P ir Ism ail Ziart (PIZ) Ibrahim Mari Mines 30 03.168 67 25.310Tgm Trough 197 187.53 Ibrahim Mari M ines 30 03.168 67 25.310Tgm Trough 298 Ibrahim Mari Mines 30 03.168 67 25.310Tgm Trough 17 4 - Ibrahim Mari Mines 30 03.168 67 25.310Tgm Trough 155 Ibrahim Mari Mines 30 03.168 67 25.310 Tgu Trough 164 M ach National Mine 29 55.586 67 17.739 Tgm Trough 76 32 92 34 65 35 248 68.50 National Mine 29 55.586 6717.739 Tgm Trough 66 3592 37 65 35 69 . .. .. S h ah rig PMDC Mines 30 07.964 67 45.920 Tgm Trough 230 5925538 215 73 276 276.00 ,. PMDC Mines 30 07.644 67 45.827 Tgm Trough 210 81 217 89 211 82 162 162.00 k Duki . - .. - G harw as Thana 30 07.947 68 38.665 Tgm Trough 250 10299 19 0 19 243 243.00 G harw as Thana 30 08.312 68 39.482 Tgm Trough 248 29308 32 20 17 281 247.50 G harw as Thana 30 08.312 6 8 39.482 Trough . 140 2414420 20 17 214 Kingri se c . 30 25.864 69 47.052 Tgm Ripple 147 34 80 60 219.78 215.02 ,_?> Kingri sec. Level 957m. Tgm Ripple 148 33 80 60221.03 ■ Kirigri sec. Tgm Ripple 122 69 104 71 203.79 120 120.00 Kirigrisec. Tgm Trough K ' ■ > UPPER GHAZ1J FORMATION (Tgu) S u ra b Microwave St. 28 25.065 66 16.968 Tgu Foreset 14 34 8 37 141.14 123.71 Microwave St. Tgu F oreset 20 32 8 37 139.19 ,• ::: Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 8 36 8 37 188.00 Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 6 38 8 37 316.60 . :W ' Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 19 21 8 37 174.32 » Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 20 19 8 37 175.86 Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 44 50 8 37 84.50 Microwave St. Tgu F oreset 25 44 8 37 72.33 Microwave St. Tgu F oreset 46 45 8 37 95.44 Microwave St. Tgu F oreset 25 48 8 37 60.81 Microwave St 28 25.244 66 1 6 .6 6 4 Tgu Foreset 8 52 6 55 158.40 107.43 Microwave St. ’ Tgu F oreset 20 50 6 55124.40 Microwave S t Tgu Foreset 10 50 6 55 154.80 Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 18 54 6 55 105.32 Microwave St. Tgu F oreset 22 57 6 55 91.98 Microwave St. ■ Tgu F oreset 22 52 6 55113.83 Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 8 56 6 55 65.32 Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 3 61 6 55 342.21 Microwave St. Tgu Foreset 22 55 6 55100.61 S ot R ange Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Tabular 192 43 20554 62.34 257.20 Shin Ghawazh (between SRPM0030&32) Tgu Tabular 215 60 205 54 262.23 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Tabular 204 55 205 54 165.56 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Tabular 218 69 205 54 245.63 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Tabular 210 54 205 54 296.47 Shin Ghawazh 3010.367 6711.748 Tgu Tabular 225 64 205 54 270.24 194 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Shin Ghawazh 30 1 0.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 189 26 205 54 39.15 45.65 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 196 36 205 54 41.36 ; v;:: :: Shin Ghawazh 30 1 0.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 189 39 205 54 57.42 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Foreset 190 46 222 56 100.37 127.22 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Foreset 183 53 222 56 115.19 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Foreset 184 51 222 56 111.46 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 196 44 222 56 92.93 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 210 65 222 56 169.65 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 202 58 222 56 133.24 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 205 59 222 56 139.14 Shin Ghawazh 30 1 0.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 190 65 222 56 141.39 Shin Ghawazh 30 1 0.367 67 11.748 Tgu Tabular 200 62 222 56 143.71 270 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.362 67 11.699 Tgu Foreset 205 65 217 57 177.81 137.12 Shin Ghawazh 30 1 0.362 67 11.699 Tgu Foreset 213 58 217 57 142.43 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.362 67 11.699 Tgu F o reset 210 58 217 57 134.72 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.362 67 11.699 Tgu Foreset 212 56 217 57 112.14 Shin Ghawazh 30 1 0.362 67 11.699 Tgu Foreset 195 57 217 57 120.96 Sinjdi Sinjdi M ine area 30-07.273 67 14.902 Tgu Tabular 298 39 282 26 322.51 329.65 Sinjdi M ine area 30-07.273 67 14.902 Tgu Tabular 315 47 282 26 339.65 Sinjdi Mine area 30-07.273 67 14.902 Tgu Tabular 305 46 282 26 326.04 P b* Ism ail Ziart Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 105 54 82 65 206.59 170.90 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 109 69 82 65 168.39 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 110 68 82 65 171.15 Ibrahim Mari : 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 100 75 82 65 144.76 Ibrahim Man 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 108 65 82 65 177.57 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 104 63 82 65 182.58 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Foreset 103 77 82 65 144.66 Bfci N ani Vferro Jhal syn. 29 40.023 67 18.986 Tgu F o reset 115 24 120 20 92.57 49.37 Warm Jhal syn. 29 40.023 67 18.986 Tgu Foreset 110 23 120 20 64.57 . . Warm Jhal syn. 29 40.023 67 18.986 Tgu Foreset 102 26 120 20 61.91 VWrro jhal sya 29 40.023 67 18.986 Tgu Foreset 95 17 120 20 357.71 Warm Jhal syn; 29 40.023 67 18.986 Tgu Foreset 112 20 120 20 26.24 Warro Jhal sya 29 41.109 67 19.833 Tgu Foreset 161 33 128 41 252.71 250.26 Warm Jhal syn. 29 41.109 67 19.833 Tgu Foreset 152 40 128 41 230.80 Warm Jhal sya 29 41.109 67 19.833 Tgu Foreset 128 43 128 41 128.00 W aitoJhai sya 29 41.109 67 19.833 Tgu Foreset 150 33 128 41 257.65 Warro Jhal syn. 29 41.109 67 19.833 Tgu F o reset 124 38 128 41 346.77 K h o st ' S . Railway St. 30 12.829 67 34.589 Tgu Foreset 217 52 220 38 209.04 173.85 S. Raijway S t. 30 12.829 67 34.589 Tgu Foreset 203 38 220 38 123.28 S : Railway St. 30 12.829 67 34.589 Tgu F o reset 208 47 220 38 173.41 . *.. , S. Railway St. 30 12.829 67 34.589 Tgu F o reset 215 49 220 38 179.28 S. Railway St. 30 12.829 67 34.589 Tgu Foreset 215 42 220 38 179.28 S. Railway S t. : : 30 12.829 67 34.589 Tgu Foreset 205 42 220 38 146.65 S. Railway St. 3012.829 67 34.589 Tgu Foreset 215 51 220 38 203.08 S. Railway S t 30 1 2.779 67 34.564 Tgu Foreset 215 82 205 50 223.29 199.52 S. Railway St. 30 12.779 67 34.564 Tgu Foreset 195 59 205 50 159.85 S . Railway S t 30 12.779 67 34.564 Tgu Foreset 216 72 205 50 231.54 S . Railway St. 30 12.779 67 34.564 Tgu F o reset 206 62 205 50 209.24 -A\ S. RaihwaySt 30 12.779 67 34.564 Tgu F o reset 204 58 205 50 198.93 S. Railway S t 30 12.779 67 34.564 Tgu F oreset 207 70 205 50 210.48 S. Railway St. 30 12.779 67 34.564 Tgu Foreset 198 56 205 50 159.86 S h ah rig PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 Tgu F oreset 212 78 217 80 104.37 102.73 CONGLOMERATE PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 (Congl. base) F oreset 210 74 217 80 84.92 PMDC Mines ; 30 07.662 67 45.823 F o reset 206 80 217 80 126.04 PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 F o reset 240 78 217 80 314.22 PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 Tabular 190 78 217 80 120.14 270 PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 Tgu F oreset 223 74 228 79 91.64 PMDC Mines. 30 07.662 67 45.823 (SSttop Foreset 222 76 228 79 110.26 PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 on Congl) Foreset 237 88 228 79 273.42 PMDC Mines. 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu Foreset 193 80 210 75 134.79 129.20 195 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu F oreset 195 64 210 76 79.49 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu F oreset 199 65 210 77 74.18 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu F oreset 205 79 210 78 158.80 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu Foreset 200 80 210 80 145.97 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu Foreset 216 73 210 81 91.98 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu F oreset 220 81 210 83 301.30 PMDC Mines ■ 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu Foreset 200 87 210 84 169.63 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu F oreset 200 82 210 85 145.97 PMDC Mines 30 07.655 67 45.825 Tgu F oreset 205 77 210 86 141.78 PMDC Mines 30 07.644 67 45.827 Tgu Foreset 212 79 211 75 224.81 238.82 PMDC Mines 30 07.644 67 45.827 Tgu Foreset 215 84 211 75 235.00 PMDC Mines 30 07.644 67 45.827 Tgu Foreset 223 79 211 75 283.54 PMDC Mines 30 07.644 67 45.827 Tgu F oreset 212 88 211 75 215.43 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 6 7 45.802 Tgu Foreset 230 76 212 86 332.55 356.98 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 6 7 45.802 Tgu Foreset 220 78 212 86 347.77 PMDC Mines ; 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Foreset 220 74 212 86 359.32 PMDC Mines . . . 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu F oreset 228 84 212 86 309.81 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Tabular 208 61 212 86 38.28 PMDC Mines; 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Tabular 210 64 212 86 33.91 Kingri-1995 Kingri se c . a rea 30 25.86 6 9 47.16 Tgu Foreset 63 55 110 55 6.00 16.01 ~ Kingri se c , a re a Tgu Foreset 80 59 1105520.52 ? Kingri sec. a rea Tgu Foreset 79 70 110 55 40.59 Kingri se c . a re a V 30 25.86 6 9 47.16 Tgu Foreset 139 61 120 45 169.65 160.39 Kingri se c . a re a Tgu F oreset 145 71 120 45 166.76 • i Kingri sec. a re a Tgu Foreset 133 76 120 45 143.69 - Kingri se c . a re a 30 25.86 69 47.16 Tgu Foreset 136 55 125 55 218.16 171.71 Kingri sec.; area Tgu Foreset 140 69 125 55 172.21 Kingri sec.: are a Tgu Foreset 125 58 125 55 125.00 - Kingri s e c . a re a 30 25.86 6 9 4 7 .1 6 Tgu F oreset 136 88 125 69 155.87 182.42 Kingri se c . a re a Tgu F oreset 181 86 125 69 205.74 4 Kingri se c . area Tgu Foreset 140 78 125 69 1 8 5 2 8 Kingri sec. N ear Loca&ty 16 Tgu F oreset 313 52 120 55 310.63 295.64 Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 293 66 120 55 292.57 Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 283 62 120 55 283.45 Kingri s e c ; : : Tgu F oreset 90 65 120 63 27.44 27.00 r Kingri sec. 30 26.041 69 47.227 Tgu Foreset 142 60 114 46 181.13 191.33 • • Kingri sec. (KPM 98014) Tgu Foreset 158 40 120 43 231.01 - #"i . : " ' Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 132 54 114 40 163.76 - Kingri sec, 30 25.858 69 47.141 Tgu Foreset 143 64 130 62 213.21 208.00 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 148 66 130 62 210.20 Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 136 64 130 62 200.87 Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 168 51 118 60 234.38 2.99 Kingri s e a • Tgu F oreset 100 41 125 48 4.55 ~ Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 120 48 125 48 33.33 t Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 114 46 125 48 17.32 Kingn sec. ■ Tgu Foreset 150 62 137 58 210.78 207.65 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 149 70 123 61 198.01 Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 159 56 123 61 231.59 -4 Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 152 76 123 61 189.98 Kingri sec. 30 25.948 69 47.528 Tgu Foreset 127 66 95 68 195.18 212.92 Kingri sec. " Tgu F oreset 148 38 95 68 235.28 ■ • ; ■ ■■" •. Kingri sec. Tgu Foreset 150 58 95 68 208.99 Kingri sec. Level 1523m. Tgu Foreset 125 64 103 48 158.45 163.93 Kingri sec. " Tgu F oreset 125 53 110 48 181.55 ■ %aP- ■ Kingri sec. " Tgu Foreset 125 64 110 48 152.36 196 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Kingri sec. 30 25.836 69 47.588 Tgu F oreset 133 37 114 43 237.26 180.23 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 130 70 110 50 156.44 ' Kingri sec, Tgu F oreset 124 72 110 58 155.39 rb Kingri sec. 30 25.867 69 47.61 Tgu F oreset 102 58 133 53 44.87 129.61 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 138 61 133 53 162.06 • 1 ' Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 122 70 102 55 156.85 Kingri sec. Level 1665m .? Tgu F oreset 117 58 77.95 54.84 kingri sec. U pper Toi Tgu F oreset 117 58 42.03 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 117 58 44.90 Kingri se c . Level 1667m.? Tgu F oreset 135 65 122 55 173.82 164.67 Kingri sec. Tgu Foreset 132 65 122 55 165.52 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 132 71 122 55 153.55 k Kingri sec. Level 1668m.? Tgu F oreset 35 117 57 338.51 348.64 2.30 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 50 117 57 ^ ■ Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 42 117 57 345.46 Kingri sec. Level 1670m .? Tgu F oreset 30 114 34 349.84 333.28 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 27 114 34 344.10 Kingri se c . Tgu F oreset 24 114 34 305.46 Kingri se c . Tgu F oreset 39 115 50 330.13 338.67 . ^ ~ Kingri se c . Tgu F oreset 38 115 50 341.72 Kingri se c , Tgu F oreset 36 115 50 343.84 Kingri sec! Level 1677m. Tgu F oreset 135 56 113 47 182.64 179.03 Kingri sec; Uppermost Toi Tgu F oreset 73 40 113 47 354.49 -A Kingri se c . Tgu F oreset 135 62 113 47 169.98 Kingri sec. Level 1678m. Tgu F oreset 139 71 118 58 178.50 156.23 Kingri se c . U pperm ost Toi Tgu F oreset 130 77 116 58 150.81 ■ . 1 . ’ Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 125 75 116 58 140.19 Kingri se c . Level 1680m. Tgu F oreset 141 58 122 52 196.59 199.33 Kingri sec. Uppermost Toi Tgu F oreset 140 55 122 52 205.77 ^ ■ Kingri se c . Tgu F oreset 144 60 122 52 194.81 Kingri s e c . : Tgu F oreset 126 70 119 59 150.46 184.61 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 150 70 119 59 194.89 Kingri sec; Tgu F oreset 140 61 119 59 208.09 i Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 131 80 111 75 188.97 182.37 Kingri s e c . : Tgu F oreset 132 80 111 75 189.75 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 130 88 111 75 168.05 f Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 151 35 114 40 230.97 233.00 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 147 34 114 40 233.69 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 148 34 114 40 233.62 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 210 20 130 23 262.85 245.34 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 185 32 130 23 226.78 Kingri sec; Tgu F o reset 180 22 130 23 246.11 Kingri sec. Tgu F o reset 104 122 58 339.31 10.44 'i. Kingri se c . 30 25.734 69 47.647 Tgu F o reset 107 50 122 58 354.34 Kingri sec.: Tgu F oreset 115 62 122 58 63.63 . -11 Kingri sec. 30 26.151 69.47.974 Tgu F oreset 110 55 116 49 75.87 62.62 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 115 55 116 49 108.21 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 107 45 116 49 351.70 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 132 62 107 57 190.56 120.00 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 130 74 107 57 163.27 Kingri sec, Tgu F oreset 139 67 107 57 185.70 > Kingri se c . 30 26.745 69 47.822 Tgu F oreset 130 65 111 52 167.60 167.00 Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 130 70 111 52 158.79 1 , Kingri sec. Tgu F oreset 135 111 52 173.52 197 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. M aizartuna Maizartuna Sec. 30 31.91 69 51.39 Tgu Foreset 128 76 108 50 147.63 151.33 ■ > ■ M aizartuna S ec. Tgu Foreset 126 71 108 50 149.64 . ' ■■it • " " M aizartuna S ec. Tgu Foreset 133 75 108 50 156.24 Maizarluna S e c . 90 Maizarluna Sec. 30 31.91 69 51.39 Tgu F oreset 154 59 127 57 219.35 227.34 Maizarluna Sec. Tgu Foreset 155 55 127 57 229.76 * M aizarluna S ec. Tgu Foreset 145 54 127 57 233.47 Maizartuna S ec. 30 31.91 69 51.39 Tgu Foreset 160 48 130 66 263.25 271.33 Maizartuna S ec. Tgu Foreset 155 40 130 66 279.59 Maizartuna Sec. Tgu Foreset 154 46 130 66 271.46 Maizarluna Sec. 30 31.928 69 51.593 Tgu Foreset 120 80 125 62 109.39 100.53 M aizartuna S e c . Tgu Foreset 123 76 125 62 117.02 Maizartuna Sec. Tgu Foreset 110 75 125 62 74.96 Maizarluna Sec. Tgu Foreset 192 79 109 57 204.56 213.65 M aizarluna S e c . Tgu F oreset 201 75 109 57 212.71 Maizarluna Sec. Tgu F oreset 203 64 109 57 223.14 •/ M aizartuna S ec. - Tgu Foreset 150 58 116 50 200.46 217.94 .. ,-r-. Maizarluna Sec. Tgu F oreset 155 52 116 50 214.94 . Maizartuna Sec. Tgu F oreset 157 40 116 50 239.11 '■^1? Maizartuna S e c . " Tgu Foreset 144 55 111 53 206.71 212.00 ...... W. Maizartuna S e c . Tgu F oreset 143 53 111 53 210.79 M aizarluna S ec. Tgu F oreset 141 50 111 53 217.59 Maizarluna S e a 30 31.842 69 51.713 Tgu Foreset 136 65 130 66 231.61 132.31 .anii. Maizartuna Sec. : Tgu Foreset 127 70 130 66 94.61 y^'P: ;:ii Maizarluna Sec, Tgu Foreset 127 74 130 66 110.06 Maizarluna Sec. Tgu F oreset 100 60 127 57 37.14 25.42 Maizartuna Sec. Tgu F oreset 95 47 127 57 5.86 r~ Maizarluna S e c . Tgu F oreset 97 59 127 57 33.31 M ughal Kot B aska ViSage 31 28.952 70 08.487 Tgu F oreset 110 44 58 20 132.11 96.73 Baska Vilage Tgu F oreset 104 31 58 20 141.38 ...... B a ste W a g e Tgu Foreset 92 42 58 20 112.48 ' % B aska ViSage Tgu Foreset 60 36 58 20 62.26 • : B aska W a g e " " Tgu Foreset 46 28 58 20 21.00 B a sla W a g e "' Tgu Tabular 59 21 85.00 Ghorfchezai " Tgu Tabular 55 34 123.43 K aiat Microwave Si Sec. 28 25.244 66 16.664 Tgu T rough 352 61 12 47 20 48 229 229.00 Microwave St. S ea Tgu Trough 37 28 2 26 8 37 192 V'f-Ss , S o r R ange Shin Ghawazh 3010.414 6711.689 Tgu Trough 225 73 205 59 205 54 172 87.50 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.414 6711.689 Tgu Trough 210 30 236 41 205 54 3 4 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Trough 218 61 202 47 205 54 341 340.25 Shin Ghawazh : 3010.367 67 11.748 Tgu Trough 229 54216 36 205 54 333 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Trough 210 34225 44 205 54 346 ■ m Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Trough 229 57226 53 205 54 341 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Trough 200 49 205 58 220 52 143 322.33 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 6711.748 Tgu Trough 210 61 202 45 220 52 144 Shin Ghawazh 30 10.367 67 11.748 Tgu Trough 195 40 202 53 222 56 140 Shin Ghawazh 3010.328 67 11.628 Tgu Trough 182 47 34 34 200 35 77 280.52 • \ ;1|£' Shin Ghawazh 30 10.328 67 11.628 Tgu Trough 193 54 225 45 222 50 53 Shin Ghawazh 3010.328 67 11.628 Tgu Trough 187 76 195 23 222 50 104 Shin Ghawazh 3010.328 67 11.628 Tgu Trough 195 57 210 23 222 50 103 A; Shin Ghawazh 3010.328 67 11.628 Tgu Trough 203 44 207 48 222 50 157 Shin Ghawazh 3010.328 67 11.628 Tgu Trough 203 57 214 22 222 50 112 Sinjdi ' ' • Sinjdi 30 07.303 67 14.739 Tgu Ripple 275 19 120.00 120.00 -.. ,v 198 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. Sinjdi Mine Area 30 07.303 67 14.739 Tgu Trough 216 36 326 21 275 19 106 293.39 Sinjdi Mine Area 30 07.303 67 14.739 Tgu Trough 260 39 358 16 275 19 166 Sinjdi Mine Area 30 07.484 67 14.496 Tgu Trough 170 39 262 64 170 32 84 Sinjdi Mine A rea 30 07.484 6 7 14.496 Tgu Trough 176 36 272 57 170 32 279 Sinjdi M ine A rea 30 07.484 67 14.496 Tgu Trough 151 26 264 46 170 32 108 Sinjdi Mine A rea 30 07.484 67 14.496 Tgu Trough 163 44 259 48 170 32 123 Less Daghari Plant Foss. Loc. 200m . in north to St. 2 Tgu Trough 245 59 265 36 252 50 HML M ines 30 04.219 67 15.130 Tgu Trough 280 24 273 43 266 31 4 .65 F HML M ines 30 04.219 67 15.130 Tgu Trough 263 16 275 46 266 31 ( HML M ines 30 04.219 6715.130 Tgu Trough 252 17 276 47 266 31 183 4 HML M ines 30 04.219 67 15.130 Tgu Trough 258 17 277 44 266 31 5 HML M ines 30 04.219 67 15.130 Tgu Trough 252 21 277 45 266 31 183 Pir Ismail Z ait ibrahim Mad 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Trough 107 79 93 64 84 70 222 79.77 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 6 7 25.819 Tgu Trough 111 62 91 53 84 70 245 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 6 7 25.819 Tgu Trough 101 62 92 58 84 70 243 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Trough 86 62 110 54 84 70 303 •'■r ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Trough 85 55 99 58 84 70 228 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.674 67 25.819 Tgu Trough 83 53 95 61 84 70 166 Ibrahim M ari 30 03.636 67 25.897 Tgu Trough 109 55 87 64 80 70 293 289.42 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.636 6 7 25.897 Tgu Trough 88 74 116 60 80 70 116 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.636 6 7 25.897 Tgu Trough 96 81 115 69 80 70 118 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.636 67 25.897 Tgu Trough 78 7494 80 80 70 104 Ibrahim Mari 30 03.636 67 25.897 Tgu Trough 121 59 88 61 80 70 276 R aja M ines 30 02.902 67 24.170 Tgu Trough 228 29 253 27 200 30 244 79.12 R aja M ines 30 02.902 67 24.170 Tgu Trough 265 32 240 23 200 30 31 Raja M ines 30 02.902 67 24.170 Tgu Trough 190 30 217 11 200 30 87 R aja M ines 30 02.902 6 7 24.170 Tgu Trough 240 22 265 38 200 30 17 R aja M ines 30 02.902 67 24.170 Tgu Trough 235 22 222 41 200 30 295 R aja M ines 30 02.902 67 24.170 Tgu Trough 256 15 235 35 200 30 306 Raja M ines 30 02.902 67 24.170 Tgu Trough 292 04 202 33 200 30 285 R aja M ines 30 03.855 6 7 24.049 Tgu Trough 37 56 348 51 355 64 79 36.77 R aja M ines 30 03.855 67 24.049 Tgu Trough 28 42 354 39 355 64 80 Raja Mines : 30 03.855 6 7 24.049 Tgu Trough 18 39 339 54 355 64 207 R aja M ines 30 03.855 67 24.049 Tgu Trough 25 67 358 68 355 64 > R aja M ines 30 03.855 6 7 24.049 Tgu Trough 30 53 355 60 355 64 e - R aja M ines 30 03.855 6 7 24.049 Tgu Trough 346 56 20 77 355 64 44 Raja M ines 30 03.855 6 7 24.049 Tgu Trough 345 66 375 46 355 64 217 R aja M ines 30 03.855 67 24.049 Tgu Trough 355 80 30 62 355 64 R aja M ines 30 03.855 67 24.049 Tgu Trough 332 61 5 54 355 64 R aja M ines 30 03.855 67 24.049 Tgu Trough 350 70 22 69 355 64 R aja M ines 30 03.855 67 24.049 Tgu Trough 2 61 42 40 355 64 222 R aja M ines 30 03.645 6 7 24.738 Tgu Trough 310 44 262 28 301 32 260 63.23 Raja M ines 30 03.645 67 24.738 Tgu Trough 305 36 314 11 301 32 Raja Mines 30 03.645 67 24.738 Tgu Trough 305 30 270 26 301 32 R aja M ines 30 03.645 67 24.738 Tgu Trough 305 39 220 07 301 32 Bibi N ani ,* Warro Jhal syn. 2 9 4 1 .1 0 9 6 7 19.833 Tgu Trough 131 44 132 20 128 41 219.00 S h ah rig PMDC Mines 30 07.662 67 45.823 Tgu Trough 230 60 225 70 222 79 109.00 . -Msg , PMDC Mines : 30 07.662 67 45.823 Tgu Trough 222 79 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Trough 230 78 210 88 212 86 240 286.85 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Trough 235 79 205 2 212 86 303 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Trough 230 69 202 89 212 86 69 PMDC Mines 30 07.608 67 45.802 Tgu Trough 218 66 208 8 212 86 301 K in g ri Kingri sec. Level 1715m? Tgu Trough 143 59 102 69 137 55 146 315.45 Kingri sec. Level 1734m? Tgu Trough 143 67 106 70 137 55 137 Kingri sec. Level 1750m? Tgu Trough 150 72 119 68 135 70 126 Kingri se c . Level 1755m? Tgu Trough 143 70 109 65 124 54 91 X Kingri se c . Level 1770m? Tgu Trough 164 55 109 52 137 54 138 N. Kingri sec. Tgu Trough 139 70 125 76 131 55 173 199 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. ~ Kingri sec. 30 26.745 69 47.822 Tgu Trough 145 48110 76 111 52 180 343.50 Kingri section 30 26.745 69 47.822 Tgu Trough 152 3290 60 118 52 147 ■A,.. " Maizartuna S e c . 30 31.928 69 51.593 Tgu Trough 149 43 122 73 131 50 194 60.93 M aizartuna S ec. ' Tgu Trough 160 5912075 131 50 174 Maizartuna Sec. Tgu Trough 160 65 139 90 131 50 230 % ^ \ Maizartuna Sec. Tgu Trough 129 5898 69 122 65 136 136.00 Maizarluna Sec. 30 31.875 69 51.629 Tgu Trough 150 42112 62 124 56 158 . - Maizarluna S ec. Tgu Trough 140 45 104 70 106 50 182 f . M aizarluna S e c . Tgu Trough 144 51121 59 130 66 112 110.00 Maizarluna Sec. 30 31.842 69 51.713 Tgu Trough 144 49110 64 128 62 114 M aizartuna S e c . Tgu Trough 90 3012531 116 35 106 M ughal kot B aska V illage; 31 28.952 70 08.487 Tgu Trough 60 5240 27 55 49 167 30.72 • • . B aska Village " Tgu Trough 60 47 27 32 55 49 191 BaskaVilage Tgu Trough 112 2711521 58 20 190 Baska Vilage 31 29.201 70 08.420 Tgu Trough 80 4853 39 60 25 38 60.22 BaskaVilage Tgu Trough 78 3450 33 60 25 60 B aska ViSage ’" Tgu Trough 28 38 81 30 60 30 70 BaskaVilage " Tgu Trough 10 31 48 39 60 30 15 Baska Vilage " Tgu Trough 40 398 26 60 30 353 Ghorkhezai 31 30.828 70 06.948 Tgu Trough 73 5410257 55 34 67 67.00 . . PAB FOTMATION M arap Valley Bitagu Area 28 47.583 66 14.822 Tgd?/Pab SstForeset 303 38 308 29 288.83 292.96 Bitagu Area " Tgd?/PabSstForeset 310 33 308 29 323.30 B itaguA rea Tgd?/Pab SstForeset 301 37 308 29 279.53 Bitagu Area " Tgd?/PabSstForeset 304 34 308 29 283.59 B itaguA rea " Tgd?/PabSstForeset 303 39 308 29 290.27 Kingri Hingukm Nala 30 24.678 69 58.995 Pab Sst. Foreset 290 51 294 43 272.52 264.00 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 279 60 29443 254.38 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 289 50 29443 264.86 HingulunNala: Pab Sst. Foreset 290 55 279 30 299.89 300.00 HingulunNala • Pab Sst. Foreset 291 56 279 30 301.19 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 289 54 27930 298.53 Hingiiun N ala Pab Sst. Foreset 288 59 29340 279.98 258.28 r- Hingtiun Nala P a b Sst. F oreset 271 50 29340 227.52 •T Hingtiun Nala P a b S st. F oreset 284 55 293 40 265.96 Hingukm Nata P a b S st. Foreset 334 51 300 50 38.89 85.96 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 295 34 300 50 129.98 ■ V Hingiiun Nala ; Pab Sst. Foreset 316 36 300 50 87.73 Hingukm Naia Pab Sst. Foreset 310 40 294 32 350.32 340.32 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 304 40 294 32 334.46 HingulunNala P a b S st. F oreset 307 42 29432 337.41 Hingiiun N ala P a b S st. Trough 290 40 229 229.00 .X HingulunNala Hingukm Nala P a b S st. F oreset 291 59 27735 305.25 314.31 Hingukm Nala P a b S st. F oreset 299 52 27735 327.27 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 292 55 277 35 310.60 HingtiunNala 30 24.755 69 58.871 Pab Sst. Foreset 321 39 299 33 13.34 12.01 f Hingtiun Naia Pab Sst. Foreset 314 39 299 33 1.02 HingulunNala Pab Sst. Foreset 322 37 299 33 21.82 200 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission. 324.99 Hingulun Naia Pab Sst. Foreset 308 65 29340 323.45 . \ Hir^jilun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 304 66 293 40 315.28 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 313 60 293 40 337.44 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 322 50 302 44 16.78 9.34 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 319 54 302 44 359.93 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 326 54 302 44 11.45 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 325 40 302 44 54.98 42.42 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 330 51 302 44 23.21 Hingiiun Nala P ab Sst. Foreset 336 42 302 44 49.39 HingulunNala P ab Sst. Foreset 299 54 290 40 318.38 287.05 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 266 66 290 40 245.48 Hingiiun Nala P ab Sst. Foreset 293 67 290 40 296.07 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 280 49 291 40 246.36 251.54 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 286 55 291 40 275.44 Hir^jutun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 265 58 291 40 234.20 Hingukm Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 297 56 279 43 331.68 318.65 Hingukm Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 287 56 279 43 306.78 Hingiiun Naia Pab Sst. Foreset 289 54 279 43 316.69 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 276 55 299 38 245.99 255.30 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 283 50 299 38 250.15 - Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 286 60 299 38 270.39 Hingukm Nala 30 24.819 69 58.486 Pab Sst. Foreset 288 64 276 35 297.74 299.33 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 286 62 276 35 295.09 Hingiiun Nala Pab Sst. Foreset 289 56 276 35 304.68 201 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.