The Role of the Church

The Functions of the Church Evangelism Edification Worship Social Concern The Heart of the Ministry of the Church: The Gospel The Character of the Church Willingness to Serve Adaptability

We have voiced criticism of the position that the church is to be defined in terms of its functions, that is, that its form is to follow from its functions. Nonetheless, the functions of the church are very important topics, for the church was not brought into being by our Lord simply to exist as an end in itself. Rather, it was brought into being to fulhl the Lords intention for it. It is to carry on the Lords ministry in the world- to perpetuate what he did and to do what he would do were he still here. Our first consideration in this chapter will be the various functions which the church is charged with carrying out.1 Then we will look at what is at

1. J. C. Hoekendijk, The Church Inside Out (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966), part 1. 1051 1052 The Church The Role of the Church 1053

the heart of the ministry of the church and gives form to all that the Jerusalem was, of course, the immediate vicinity. While it was not the church does, namely, the gospel. Finally, we will look at two qualities home territory of the inner circle of disciples (they were Galileans), it was which it is particularly important for the church to display at the present the site of Pentecost. Since the first converts would have many close time-willingness to serve and adaptability. contacts in Jerusalem, it was natural for the church to witness and grow there. Jerusalem was also the most difficult place to witness, however, for The Functions of the Church it was there that the scandal in connection with the events of Christ’s last days, and especially his humiliating death by crucifixion, had occurred. There would be a natural distrust of and perhaps even revulsion against Evangelism any presentation of the message of the Savior. On the other hand, one The one topic emphasized in both accounts of Jesus’ last words to his advantage of witnessing in Jerusalem was that the people lived close disciples is evangelism. In Matthew 28119 he instructs them, “Go therefore enough to each other to unite into one congregation if they chose to and make disciples of all nations.” In Acts 1:8 he says, “But you shall do so. receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you; and you shall Beyond Jerusalem, the disciples were to be witnesses in “all Judea.” be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria and to the This area was basically homogeneous in its thinking and customs, for its end of the earth.” This was the final point Jesus made to his disciples. It inhabitants were Jews, and Judean Jews at that. Yet most of them were appears that he regarded evangelism as the very reason for their being. too far removed from the center in Jerusalem to gather there. Conse- The call to evangelize is a command. Having accepted Jesus as Lord, quently, fulhlrnent of this part of the commission would result in the the disciples had brought themselves under his rule and were obligated establishment of additional congregations. to do whatever he asked. For he had said, “If you love me, you will keep Perhaps the most distasteful part of the commission, at least as far as my commandments” (John 14: 15); “He who has my commandments and the disciples were concerned, was the third part-“in Samaria.” This took keeps them, he it is who loves me” (v. 21a); and ‘You are my friends if them to the people whom they found most d&cult to love, and who you do what I command you” (John 1514). If the disciples truly loved would probably be least receptive to their message in that it would be their Lord, they would carry out his call to evangelize. It was not an brought by Jews. The Jews and the Samaritans had been engaged in optional matter for them. conflict for a long time. The friction dated back to the time of the Jews’ The disciples were not sent out merely in their own strength, however. return from the Babylonian captivity. Samaritans were half-breed Jews Jesus prefaced his commission with the statement, “KU authority in who represented the intermarriage of the Israelites left behind by the heaven and on earth has been given to me” (Matt. 28:18). Having all Assyrians and various foreign colonists whom the Assyrians then sent in authority, he commissioned the disciples as his agents. Thus they had the to help repopulate the area. When the Jews returned from Babylon and right to go and evangelize all nations. Further, Jesus promised his disci- began to rebuild the temple, the Samaritans offered to help, but their ples that the Holy Spirit would come upon them and that they would offer was spurned. From that time on, there was friction between the consequently receive power. So they were both authorized and enabled two groups. This is evident in the Gospel accounts of Jesus’ ministry. for the task. Moreover, they were assured that he was not sending them When Jesus asked a Samaritan woman for a drink of water, she re- off on their own. Although he was to be taken from them bodily, he sponded, “How is it that you, a Jew, ask a drink of me, a woman of would nonetheless be with them spiritually to the very end of the age Samaria?” John comments, “For Jews have no dealings with Samaritans” (Matt. 28:20). (John 4:9). This was an unusual encounter, for Jesus and his disciples did Note also the extent of the commission: it is all-inclusive. In Matthew not ordinarily pass through Samaria, preferring rather to cross over the 28:19 Jesus speaks of “all nations,” and in Acts 1:8 he gives a specific Jordan River and travel through Perea in their journeys between Galilee enumeration: “You shall be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea in the north and Judea in the south. Jesus lent additional force to his and Samaria and to the end of the earth.” Differing issues are involved parable about loving one’s neighbor by making the hero of it a Samaritan at the various levels of this command:* (Luke 10:29-37). The Jews meant to insult Jesus when they asked, “Are we not right in saying that you are a Samaritan and have a demon?” 2. Michael Green, Evangelism in the Early Church (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), (John 8:48). It is likely that the former taunt (to which Jesus did not reply) vol. 1) pp. I 17B. was intended to be the more humiliating of the two. Surely the Samari- 1054 The Church The Role of the Church 1055 tans were the people whom the Jews would have least liked to see controversial gifts is mentioned again, in varying ways, in verses 12, 17, included in the church with them, yet Jesus said, “You shall be my and 26. The last of these references sums up the matter: “Let all things witnesses in. . . Samaria.” be done for edification.” Note that edification is mutual upbuilding by all Finally, the disciples were to bear witness “to the end of the earth.” the members of the body. It is not merely the minister or pastor who is There was no geographical restriction upon the commission. They were to build up the other members. to take the gospel message everywhere, to all nations and every type of There are several means by which members of the church are to be people. They could not, of course, accomplish this on their own. Rather, edified. One of them is fellowship.3 The New Testament speaks of as they won converts, those converts would in turn evangelize yet others. KOtvWvh, literally, a having or holding all things in common. And indeed, Thus the message would spread in ever widening circles, and the task according to Acts 5, the members of the early church held even all their would eventually be completed. material possessions in common. Paul speaks of sharing one another’s Therefore, if the church is to be faithful to its Lord and bring joy to his experiences: “If one member suffers, all suffer together; if one member heart, it must be engaged in bringing the gospel to all people. This is honored, all rejoice together” (1 Cor. 12:26). While hurt is reduced, joy involves going to people whom we like and people whom we may by is increased by being shared. We are to encourage and sympathize with nature tend to dislike. It extends to those who are unlike us. And it goes each other. Believers are to bear one another’s burdens (Gal. 6:2). On beyond our immediate sphere of contact and influence. In a very real occasion this may entail correction and rebuke, which should be admin- sense, local evangelism, church extension or church planting, and world istered lovingly. Jesus laid down a pattern for discipline in Matthew missions are all the same thing. The only difference lies in the length of 18: 1.5-l 7. In severe cases, there may even be a need for excommunication the radius. The church must work in all of these areas. If it does not, it from the group, as in the case of the immoral man mentioned in 1 Cor- will become spiritually ill, for it will be attempting to function in a way its inthians 51-2. The primary aim of such disciplinary action is not to Lord never intended. rid the group of the erring member, however, but to restore such a person to righteous living and thus to fellowship with believers. The church also edifies its members through instruction or teaching.4 This is part of the broad task of discipling. One of Jesus’ commands in The second major function of the church is the edification of believers. the Great Commission was to teach converts “to observe all that I have Although Jesus laid greater emphasis upon evangelism, the edification of commanded you” (Matt. 28:20). To this end, one of God’s gifts to the believers is logically prior. Paul repeatedly spoke of the edification of the churches is “pastors and teachers” (Eph. 411) to prepare and equip the body. In Ephesians 4: 12, for example, he indicates that God has given people of God for service. The instruction need not always be given by various gifts to the church “for the equipment of the saints, for the work the official pastor-teacher of a congregation, however, nor need it be of ministry, for building up the body of Christ.” Believers are to grow up given within a large group. A beautiful picture of this truth is seen in into Christ, “from whom the whole body, joined and knit together by Acts 18. Apollos, a learned and eloquent Jew who had come to a knowl- every joint with which it is supplied, when each part is working properly, edge of Jesus, was speaking powerfully in the synagogue of Ephesus. makes bodily growth and upbuilds itself in love” (v. 16). The potential for There Priscilla and Aquila heard him, whereupon they invited him to edification is the criterion by which all activities, including our speech, their home and “expounded to him the way of God more accurately” are to be measured: “Let no evil talk come out of your mouths, but only (v. 26). He then continued his ministry with even greater effectiveness. such as is good for edifving, as fits the occasion, that it may impart grace Education may take many forms and occur on many levels. It is to those who hear” (v. 29). incumbent upon the church to utilize all legitimate means and technolo- Moreover, in Paul’s discussion of certain controversial spiritual gifts, gies available today. First of all, there is Christian education in the local he brings tip the matter of edification. He says, for example, in church, for example, through the Sunday school. Beyond that level the 1 Corinthians 14:4-S: “He who speaks in a tongue edifies himself, but he local church cooperates with other churches to carry on specific aspects who prophesies edifies the church. Now I want you all to speak in tongues, but even more to prophesy. He who prophesies is greater than 3. James E. Carter, The Mission of the Church (Nashville: Broadman, 1974), pp. 65-73. he who speaks in tongues, unless someone interprets, so that the church 4. Edmund Clowney, “Toward a Biblical Doctrine of the Church,” Westminster Theo- may be edified.” The importance of edifying others as one exercises logical Journal 3 1, no. 1 (November 1968): 7 l-72. IO56 The Church The Role of the Church 1057 of their instructional task. For example, theological seminaries and divin- tion to the Corinthians to set aside money on the first day of every week ity schools equip pastor-teachers and others to instruct people in the (1 Cor. 16:2) intimates that they regularly gathered for worship on that Word. This is a fulhlment of Paul’s command to Timothy: “And what you day. The writer to the Hebrews exhorts his readers not to neglect the have heard from me before many witnesses entrust to faithful men who assembling of themselves together, as was the habit of some (Heb. 10~25). will be able to teach others also” (2 Tim. 2:2). Although worship emphasizes God, it is also intended to benefit the Since the church has the task of teaching the truth of God as revealed worshipers. This we infer from Paul’s warning against prayers, songs, and in the Holy Scriptures, by implication it has the obligation to grow in its thanksgivings which fail to edify because no one is present to interpret understanding of that revelation. Thus the task of biblical scholarship is their meaning to those who do not understand (1 Cor. 14: 15-17). incumbent upon the church. This task is carried out by specialists who Worship, the praise and exaltation of God, was a common Old Testa- possess gifts in such matters. But the church must study not merely ment practice, as can be seen particularly in the Book of Psalms. And in God’s special revelation, but also his general revelation and the relation- the pictures of heaven in the Book of Revelation and elsewhere, the ships between the two. Christian liberal-arts colleges are one means by people of God are represented as recognizing and declaring his greatness. which the church can fulfil its responsibility to instruct. Christian day- It is appropriate that the church, which belongs to God, praise and glorify schools and academies represent the same endeavor on a less advanced him. In this aspect of its activity, the church centers its attention upon level. And mission schools, where basic literacy is taught, equip people to who and what God is, not upon itself. It aims at appropriately expressing read the biblical message. who and what he is, not at satisfying its own feelings.6 Preaching is another means of instruction that has been used by the It is important at this point to note the locus of the various functions Christian church from its very beginning.5 In 1 Corinthians 14, when Paul of the church. In biblical times the church gathered for worship and speaks of prophesying, he probably is referring to preaching. He com- instruction. Then it went out to evangelize. In worship, the members of ments that prophesying is of greater value than is speaking in tongues, the church focus upon God; in instruction and fellowship, they focus because it edifies or builds up the church: “He who prophesies speaks to upon themselves and fellow Christians; in evangelism, they turn their men for their upbuilding and encouragement and consolation. He who attention to non-Christians. It is well for the church to keep some sepa- speaks in a tongue edifies himself, but he who prophesies edifies the ration between these several activities. If this is not done, one or more church” (w. 3-4). may be crowded out. As a result the church will suffer, since all of these To the end of mutual edification God has equipped the church with activities, like the various elements in a well-balanced diet, are essential various gifts apportioned and bestowed by the Holy Spirit (1 Cor. 12:ll). to the spiritual health and well-being of the body. For example, worship As we noted earlier (p. 876) the New Testament contains four signifi- of God will suffer if the gathering of the body becomes oriented primarily cantly different lists of these gifts. Whenever virtues like faith, service, to the interaction among Christians, or if the service is aimed exclusively and giving, which, on biblical grounds, are to be expected of all believers, at evangelizing the unbelievers who happen to be present. This was not are represented as special gifts of the Spirit, it appears that the writer the pattern of the church in the Book of Acts. Rather, believers gathered has in mind unusual or extraordinary dimensions or degrees of those to praise God and be edified; then they went forth to reach the lost in the virtues. The Holy Spirit in his wisdom has given just what is needed, so world without. that the body as a whole may be properly built up and equipped. Social Concern Worship Cutting across the various functions of the church which we have thus far examined is its responsibility to perform acts of Christian love Another activity of the church is worship. Whereas edification focuses and compassion for both believers and non-Christians. It is clear that upon the believers and benefits them, worship concentrates upon the Jesus cared about the problems of the needy and the suffering.7 He Lord. The early church came together to worship on a regular schedule, a practice commanded and commended by the apostle Paul. His direc- 6. Langdon Gilkey, How the Church Can Minister to the World Without Losing Itself (New York: Harper and Row, 1964), pp. 104-l 7. 5. Karl Barth, The Word of God and the Word of Man, trans. Douglas Horton (New 7. Sherwood Wirt, The Sociul Conscience of the Evangelical (New York: Harper and York: Harper and Row, 1956), pp. 97-135. Row, 1968), pp. 19-26. 1058 The Church The Role of the Church 10.54, healed the sick and even raised the dead on occasion. If the church is to hurt, or wrong. There will be differences of opinion as to the strategies carry on his ministry, it will be engaged in some form of ministry to the and tactics that should be employed. In some cases, the church will work needy and the suffering. That Jesus has such an expectation of believers simply to alleviate the hurt, that is, to treat the consequences of the is evident in the parable of the good Samaritan (Luke 10:25-37). Jesus problem. In others, it will act to change the circumstances that have told this parable to the lawyer who, understanding that one can inherit produced the problem. There will be times when the church acting eternal life by loving God with one’s whole being and one’s neighbor as collectively will be able to accomplish more than will Christians acting oneself, asked who his neighbor was. In answering the question, Jesus individually; in other situations the reverse will be true.8 also explained what it means to love one’s neighbor as oneself. The good The church has agreat deal to do by way of improving its record. Yet Samaritan, although he had nothing to do with the assault on the man it occasionally fails to note just how much has already been accom- going down to Jericho, took it upon himself to care for the victim’s needs plished. What percentage of the colleges and hospitals in England and even at personal cost, inconvenience, and possible danger to himself. the United States were founded in earlier years by Christian groups? Since love of neighbor is closely linked by the law to love of God and Today many of the charitable and educational functions once carried involves actions like those of the good Samaritan, the Christian church out by the church are instead managed by the state and supported by must be concerned about hurt and need in the world. Indeed, Jesus taxes paid by both Christians and non-Christians. Consider also that the suggests in Matthew 2531-46 that the one sign by which true believers social needs in developed countries are not nearly as severe as they once can be distinguished from those who make empty professions is acts of were. love which are done in Jesus’ name and emulate his example. Concern Many of the churches which minimize the need for regeneration claim for the fatherless, the widow, and the sojourner is appropriate for those that evangelicals have not participated sufficiently in the alleviation of who worship a God who himself displays such concern (Deut. 10: 17-l 9). human needs? When, however, one shifts the frame of reference from Emphasis on social concern carries over into the Epistles as well. the American domestic scene to the world, the picture is quite different. James is particularly strong in stressing practical Christianity. Consider, For evangelicals, concentrating their medical, agricultural, and educa- for example, his definition of religion: “Religion that is pure and undefiled tional ministries in countries where the needs are most severe, have before God and the Father is this: to visit orphans and widows in their outstripped their counterparts in the mainline churches in worldwide affliction, and to keep oneself unstained from the world” (James 1:27). mission endeavor. Indeed, on a per capita basis, evangelicals have done He speaks out sharply against showing favoritism to the rich, an evil more than have the liberal churches, and certainly much more than has which occurred even within the church (2:1-l 1). He excoriates verbal the general popu.lace.lO encouragement unaccompanied by action: “Suppose a brother or sister is without clothes and daily food. If one of you says to him, ‘Go, I wish you well; keep warm and well fed,’ but does nothing about his physical The Heart of the Ministry of the Church: The Gospel needs, what good is it? In the same way, faith by itself, if it is not It is important for us now to look closely at the one factor which gives accompanied by action, is dead” (2: 15-17, IYLV). John is equally pointed: basic shape to everything the church does, the element which lies at the “If anyone has material possessions and sees his brother in need but has no pity on him, how can the love of God be in him? Dear children, let us heart of all its functions, namely, the gospel, the good news. At the beginning of his ministry Jesus announced that he had been anointed not love with words or tongue but with actions and in truth” (1 John 3:17-18, NIV). The half-brother of Jesus and the beloved disciple had 8. David 0. Moberg, Inasmuch Christian Social Responsibility in the Twentieth learned well what Jesus had taught to be the meaning of “Love your Century (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1965), pp. 8 l-82. neighbor as yourself.” 9. Robert M. Price, “A Fundamentalist Social Gospel?” Christian Century 96, no. 39 Social concern includes the condemning of unrighteousness as well. (28 November 1979): 1183-86. Note readers’ replies in vol. 97, no. 3 (23 January 1980): 78- Amos and several other Old Testament prophets spoke out emphatically 79. against the evil and corruption of their day. John the Baptist likewise 10. Harold Lindsell, “The Missionary Retreat,” Christianity Today, 9 November 1971, condemned the sin of Herod, the ruler of his day, even though it cost pp. 26-27 (188-89); William Hordern, New Directions in Theology Taiay, vol. 1, Introduc- tion (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966) pp. 75-76. See also Yearbook of American him his liberty (Luke 3: 19-20) and eventually even his life (Mark 6:17-29). Churches, ed. Herman C. Weber (New York: Round Table), 1933 ed., pp. 300-05; 1939 ed., The church is to show concern and take action wherever it sees need, pp. 6-17; 1941 ed., pp. 129-38. 1060 The Church The Role of the Church 1061 specifically to preach the gospel; later he charged the apostles to continue from his seat and broke his neck. In 1 Kings 1:42 and Isaiah 52:7, as well his ministry by spreading the gospel. Without doubt, then, the gospel lies as 2 Samuel 18:27, the adjective zit3 (lav, “good”) is used in conjunction at the root of all that the church does. with 1~3. Consequently, some scholars have concluded that the verb by Jesus entrusted to the believers the good news which had character- itself means simply “to deliver a message.” That is, it is thought to be ized his own teaching and preaching from the very beginning. It is neutral as to whether the news is good or bad. Gerhard Friedrich rejects sign&cant that, in the Book of Mark, the first recorded activity of Jesus this conclusion, appealing to evidence from other Semitic languages: after his baptism and temptation is his preaching the gospel in Galilee: “Now after John was arrested, Jesus came into Galilee, preaching the This is not so. In all Semitic languages, in Accadian, Ethiopic and Arabic, gospel of God, and saying, ‘The time is fulfilled, and the kingdom of God the sense of “joy” is contained in the stem. The realistic conception of the is at hand; repent, and believe in the gospel”’ (Mark 1:14-15). Similarly, “word” in Semitic languages is shown by the fact that they have a special Luke records that Jesus inaugurated his ministry in Nazareth by reading stem for declaring something good, whereas Latin and modern languages from Isaiah 61:1-2 and applying the prophecy to himself: “The Spirit of do not, and Greek takes a middle course by constructing the composite the Lord is upon me, because he has anointed me to preach good news E~OL yyih~ov, &~+&u&xL. The addition 230 in the OT is simply a strength- to the poor. He has sent me to proclaim release to the captives and ening of something already present in the stem.11 recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed, to proclaim the acceptable year of the Lord” (Luke 418-19). And when Similarly, the key New Testament words with reference to the gospel, John the Baptist inquired whether Jesus was really the one who had &YY&[O~(YL and EL%XY$~LOV, by virtue of the element EL? invariably been prophesied, Jesus’ reply included as evidence the fact that “the poor denote good tidings. l2 In fact, Friedrich states categorically: “&YY&OY have good news preached to them” (Luke 7:22). Matthew characterizes is a technical term for ‘news of victory.‘“13 the ministry of Jesus as “teaching in their synagogues and preaching the It has been questioned whether Jesus used the term ~dayyih~ov (or, gospel of the kingdom, and healing every disease and every inErmity” more correctly, its Aramaic equivalent) in speaking of himself. The scope (Matt. 935). Furthermore, Jesus linked fidelity to the gospel very closely of this volume does not permit our considering all of the arguments with commitment to him: “Truly, I say to you, there is no one who has which have been accumulated on the subject. It is sufficient to observe left house or brothers or sisters or mother or father or children or lands, that Jesus thought of himself not only as declaring, but also as constitut- for my sake and for the gospel, who will not receive a hundredfold now ing the good news: in this time, houses and brothers and sisters and mothers and children and lands, with persecutions, and in the age to come eternal life” (Mark The really decisive question is not whether Jesus himself used the word 1029-30). He also declared that the good news must be preached to all euangelion but whether it is a word appropriate to the substance of his nations or throughout the world before the end (Matt. 2413; Mark 13:lO). message. There is no doubt that Jesus saw his message of the coming The key Old Testament word with reference to the gospel is the verb kingdom of God (Mk. 1:14) which is already present in his word and 1.v~ (basar). It has the general sense of “proclaiming good news.” An action as good news.. . . Moreover, he appears not only as the messenger example is found in 1 Kings 1:42, where Adonijah says to Jonathan the and author of the message, but at the same time as its subject, the one of son of Abiathar the priest, “Come in, for you are a worthy man and bring whom the message tells. It is therefore quite consistent for the early good news.” David uses the verb in 2 Samuel 410: “When one told me, Christian church to take up the term euangelion to describe the message ‘Behold, Saul is dead,’ and thought he was bringing good news, I seized of salvation connected with the coming of Jesus.14 him and slew him at Z&lag, which was the reward I gave him for his news.” A messenger coming from battle is thought to be bearing good 11. Gerhard Friedrich, tdayyAi[o~a~, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, tidings (2 Sam. 18:27). In Jeremiah 2015 the verb is used of the glad ed. Gerhard Kittel and Geqhard Friedrich, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 10 ~01s. (Grand tidings of the birth of a son. Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-l 976), vol. 2, p. 707. In some cases, the verb l@? is used of a message which is not favorable, 12. Ibid., pp. 710-12, 721-25. 13. Ibid., p. 722. as in 1 Samuel 4: 17, where a messenger announces the defeat of Israel, 14. Ulrich Becker, “Gospel, Evangelize, Evangelist,” in The New International Dic- the loss of the ark, and the death of Eli’s sons, Hophni and Phinehas, a tionary of New Testament Theolou, ed. CoLin Brown (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1976), combination of bad news that resulted in Eli’s death-he fell backward vol. 2, p. 110. 1062 The Church The Role of the Church 1063

Friedrich observes that whether Jesus used the word &~-yih~o~ of exhortation in 2 Timothy 2:8: “Remember Jesus Christ, risen from the himself is “a question of His Messianic consciousness. If He realised that dead, descended from David, as preached in my gospel.” He was the Son of God who must die and rise again, then He also To summarize: Paul viewed the gospel as centering upon Jesus Christ realised that He was Himself the content of the message.. . . What is and what God has done through him. The essential points of the gospel given with His person constitutes the content of the Gospel.“15 are Jesus Christ’s status as the Son of God, his genuine humanity, his Among New Testament writers it is Paul who makes the greatest use death for our sins, his burial, resurrection, subsequent appearances, and of the terms &yy&ov and ~bayy~h~o~a~. It is significant that on many future coming in judgment. It may well be said that, in Paul’s view, Jesus occasions he uses the noun without any qualifier; that is, there is no Christ is the gospel. In fact, the apostle uses the expression “the gospel of adjective, phrase, or clause to define what he means by “the gospel” Christ” on several occasions (Rom. 15: 19; 1 Cor. 9: 12; 2 Cor. 2: 12; 9: 13; (Rom. 1:16; 10:16; 11:28; 1 Cor. 415; 914 [twice]; 9:23; 2 Cor. 8:18; Gal. 25, 10~14; Gal. 1:7; Phil. 1:27; 1 Thess. 3:2). Friedrich contends that we should 14; Phil. 15, 7, 12, 16, 27; 2:22; 43, 15; 1 Thess. 2:4; 2 Tim. 1:8; Philem. 13). not attempt to determine whether the objective or subjective genitive is being used in these passages; Christ is to be understood as both the Obviously, EZ~CX~@UOV had a meaning sufficiently standardized that Paul’s readers knew precisely what he meant by “the gospel.” The word has object and the author of the message. l6 Paul sees the essential truths of two basic senses: active proclamation of the message and the content this gospel message as fulfilments of Old Testament promises (Ram. l:l-4; proclaimed. Both senses occur in 1 Corinthians 9: 14: “those who proclaim 16:25-26; 1 Cor. 15: l-4). Even the fact of coming judgment is good news to the believer (Rom. 2:16), since Christ will be the agent of judgment. the gospel [the content] should get their living by the gospel [the act of For the believer, the result of the judgment will be vindication, not proclaiming it].” condemnation. It is apparent that when Paul uses &yyCA~ov as the direct object of a Taking note of what Paul opposes or refutes is another way of deter- verb of speaking or hearing, he has in view a particular content, a mining some of the basic elements in the gospel. The occasion of his particular body of facts. Among the verbs of speaking which are used in letter to the Galatians was their turning away from what he had conjunction with &yyCA~ov are rziayyrAi(lo~a~ (1 Cor. 151; 2 Cor. 11:7; preached, and the one in whom they had believed, to a different kind of Gal. 1:l l), ~cr~ayyihho (1 Cor. 9:14), KT&~UUJ (Gal. 2:2; Col. 1:23; 1 Thess. gospel-which, in reality, was not a gospel at all (Gal. 1:6-9). Some of the 2:9), Aahio (1 Thess. 2:2), yvwpi(;o (1 Car. 151; Eph. 6: 19) GuSdia~o (Gal. Galatians had come to believe that righteousness, at least a degree of it, 1:12), and &va~i~~~~ (Gal. 2:2). Verbs of hearing used with &yyCA~ov can be attained by works. The true gospel, on the other hand, argues include &KOdw (Col. 1:23), ?7pOaKOh~ (Col. 1:5), 7~c~paAa@vo (1 Cor. 151; Paul, categorically maintains that one is justified by faith in the gracious Gal. 1:12), and G~XO~UYL (2 Cor. 11:4). work of Jesus Christ in his death and resurrection. The question arises, If Paul and his readers viewed the gospel as In spite of all that has been said to this point, we must not think of the involving a certain content, what is that content? While Paul nowhere gospel as merely a recital of theological truths and historicaI events. gives us a complete and detailed statement of the tenets of the gospel, Rather, it relates these truths and events to the situation of every individ- some passages are indicative of what it includes. In Remans 1:3-4 he ual believer. Thus, Jesus died. But he died “for our sins” (1 Cor. 153). Nor speaks of “the gospel concerning [God’s] Son, who was descended from is the resurrection of Jesus an isolated event; it is the beginning of the David according to the flesh and designated Son of God in power accord- general resurrection of all believers (1 Cor. 1520 in conjunction with ing to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Rom. 1:3-4). Furthermore, the fact of coming judgment pertains to Christ our Lord.” In 1 Corinthians 15 Paul reminds his readers in what everyone. We wilI all be evaluated on the basis of our personal attitude terms he had preached the gospel to them (v. 1): “For I delivered to you toward and response to the gospel: “vengeance [will be inflicted] upon as of first importance what I also received, that Christ died for our sins those who do not know God and upon those who do not obey the gospel in accordance with the scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised of our Lord Jesus” (2 Thess. 1:8). on the third day in accordance with the scriptures, and that he appeared To Paul, the gospel is a&important. He declares to the church in Rome to Cephas . . . to the twelve . . . to more than five hundred brethren at one that the gospel “is the power of God for salvation to every one who has time. . . to James . . . also to me” (w. 3-8). A briefer reference is Paul’s faith, to the Jew first and also to the Greek’ (Rom. 1:16). He reminds the

IS. Friedrich, tbayy&~opc~c, p. 728. 16. Ibid., p. 731. IOb4 The Church The Role of the Church 1065

Corinthians: “By [the gospel] you are saved, if you hold it fast-unless that very city an earthshaking demonstration of the power of God to you believed in vain”- (1 Cor. 1.52). He explains to the Ephesians: “In salvation, could Paul ever have surrendered the gospel? Yet some people [Christ] you also, who have heard the word of truth, the gospel of your have contended that the gospel needs no defense, that it can stand on its salvation, and have believed in him, were sealed with the promised Holy own two feet. This reasoning, however, runs contrary to the pattern of Spirit” (Eph. 1: 13). It is the means by which life is obtained. He writes to Paul’s own activity, for example, his speech in the middle of the Areopa- Timothy that God “now has manifested [grace] through the appearing of gus (Acts 17: 16-34).17 The objection to an apologetic approach rests upon our Savior Christ Jesus, who abolished death and brought life and im- a misconception of how God works, a failure to recognize that in creating mortality to light through the gospel” (2 Tim. 1:lO). The gospel brings belief the Holy Spirit makes use of human minds and reason. peace and hope to those who believe. Accordingly, Paul speaks of “the But we must not characterize Paul’s activity as simply a defense of the gospel of peace” (Eph. 6:15) and “the hope of the gospel” (Col. 1:23). gospel. He went on the offensive as well. He was eager to proclaim the Convinced that only the gospel can bring salvation along with all its good news to all nations. He wanted to see it established everywhere. He attendant blessings, Paul insists that the gospel is absolute and exclusive. wanted to preach it to the Romans (Rom. 1: 15). He had a sense of Nothing is to be added to or taken from it, nor is there any alternate compulsion about his mission: “Woe to me if I do not preach the gospel!” route to salvation. We have already alluded to the case of certain Judaiz- (1 Cor. 9: 16). It had been entrusted to his stewardship, and he had a ers who came to Galatia after Paul had preached there. Seeking to sacred obligation to proclaim it. improve upon the gospel, they insisted that Gentile converts submit to This gospel not only cuts across all racial, social, economic, and edu- circumcision, a rite which the Old Testament law had required of prose- cational barriers (Rom. 1:16; Gal. 3:28), but also spans the centuries of lytes to Judaism. Paul was very vigorously opposed, since any reliance time. A message which does not become obsolete (Jude 3) it is the upon such works would constitute a partial loss of confidence in the church’s sacred trust today. In an age in which most ideas and systems efficacy of grace. He reminded the Galatians that those who rely upon of thought, as well as techniques and commodities, are of a throwaway the law are required to fulfil all of its points and hence are doomed to variety, the church has an infallible and enduring resource-a message fail (Gal. 3:lO). Those believers who have turned to this different gospel which is the only means of salvation. The church can display the same have deserted the one who called them (1:6). Paul is so categorically confidence in the gospel that Paul had, for it is still the same gospel; time opposed to any effort to alter the gospel message that he declares, “Even has not eroded its effectiveness. if we, or an angel from heaven, should preach to you a gospel contrary The church has good news to offer to the world, news which, as we to that which we preached to you, let him be accursed” (v. 8). He reiter- observed earlier, brings hope. In this respect the message and ministry of ates this thought in the following verse: “If any one is preaching to you a the church are unique. For in our world today there is little hope. Of gospel contrary to that which you received, let him be accursed” (v. 9). course, to varying degrees there has always been a lack of hope. Sopho- (The verb in the first statement is subjunctive [“should preach”], pointing cles, in the golden age of Greece some five centuries before Christ, wrote: to a hypothetical situation; the verb in the latter is indicative [“is preach- “Not to be born at all-that is by far the best fate. The second best is as ing”], pointing to an actual situation.) Surely Paul would be this insistent soon as one is born with all speed to return thither whence one has only on a point of the utmost significance. come.“’ 8 In the twentieth century, however, hopelessness has reached Knowing that the gospel is the only route to salvation, Paul is deter- new proportions. Existentialism has spawned literary works like Jean- mined to defend it. He writes to the Philippians of his “defense and Paul Sartre’s No Exit and Albert Camus’s “Myth of Sisyphus.” There is confirmation of the gospel” (Phil. 1:7). Those who preach Christ out of little encouraging news, whether social, economic, or political, in the love know that Paul has been in prison for the defense of the gospel newspapers. In Herzog Saul Bellow has captured well the spirit of the (v. 16). In both instances, the Greek word is &rohoyia, a legal term entire age: “But what is the philosophy of this generation? Not God is signifying the case of someone who has been brought to trial. Paul was dead, that period was passed long ago. Perhaps it should be stated death prepared to give a reasoned argument for the gospel. It is noteworthy is God. This generation thinks-and this is its thought of thoughts-that that it is in his letter to the church at Philippi that Paul speaks of his defense of the gospel. There is every likelihood that the jailor who had 17. F. F. Bruce, The Defence of the Gospel in the New Tmtament (Grand Rapids: responded to Paul’s presentation of the gospel and become a new crea- Eerdmans, 1959), pp. 37-48. ture (Acts 16:25-34) was a member of that church. Having witnessed in 18. Sophocles Oedipus at Colonus 1224. 1066 The Church The Role of the Church 1067 nothing faithful, vulnerable, fragile can be durable or have any true alternative to an unbelieving or secular world, have succeeded in winning power. Death waits for these things as a cement floor waits for a dropping non-Christians. This phenomenon has been examined in books like Dean light bulb.“19 By contrast, the church says with Peter, “Blessed be the God Kelley’s Why Conservative Churches Are Growing.21 The gospel is still the and Father of our Lord Jesus Christ! By his great mercy we have been power of God for salvation to everyone who believes, just as it was in the born anew to a living hope through the resurrection of Jesus Christ from first century. the dead” (1 Peter 1:3). There is hope, and it comes to fulfrlment when we believe and obey the gospel. The gospel offers its blessings of peace, joy, and satisfaction in a way The Character of the Church contrary to what we expect. (This is not surprising, since Jesus was not the kind of Messiah his contemporaries expected.) We do not obtain the benefits of the gospel by seeking them directly, for Jesus said, “Whoever We must not limit our study of the role of the church to an investiga- would save his life will lose it; and whoever loses his life for my sake and tion of what the church does, that is, its functions. The attitude or the gospels will save it” (Mark 8:35). It is only when we give up our own disposition with which the church performs its functions is also a matter will, self-seeking, and pride, that peace, joy, and satisfaction emerge. The of extreme importance. Since the church is, in its continuing existence, same point can be made regarding the matter of self-esteem. Those who Christ’s body and bears his name, it should be characterized by the seek to build up their self-esteem will fail For genuine self-esteem is a attributes Christ manifested during his physical incarnation on earth. by-product of exalting and esteeming God. Two of these attributes are crucial as the church operates in our rapidly Because the gospel has been, is, and will always be the way of salva- changing world: willingness to serve and adaptability. tion, the only way, the church must preserve the gospel at all costs. When the gospel is modified, the vitality of the church is lost. The church dies. Willingness to Serve Kenneth Scott Latourette notes what resulted when rationalism ate away parts of the gospel message, and particularly the person of Christ: Jesus stated that his purpose in coming was not to be served, but to serve (Matt. 20:28). In becoming incarnate he took upon himself the form Those forms [of the church] which conformed so much to the environ- of a servant (Phil. 2:7). “He humbled himself and became obedient unto ment that they sacrificed this timeless and placeless identity died out with death, even death on a cross” (v. 8). The church must display a similar the passing of the age, the society, and the climate of opinion to which willingness to serve. It has been placed in the world to serve its Lord and they had adjusted themselves. The central core of the uniqueness of the world, not to be exalted and have its own needs and desires satisfied. Jesus, of fidelity to his birth, life, teachings, death, and resurrection as events in history, and of belief in God’s working through him for the Although the church may attain great size, wealth, and prestige, it is not revelation of Himself and the redemption of man proved essential to here for that purpose. continuing life.*O Jesus did not associate with people for what they could in turn do for him. If he had, he would never have gone to Zacchaeus’s home, or The truth of Latourette’s observations has been evident in twentieth- engaged the Samaritan woman in conversation, or allowed the sinful century Christianity. Groups which in the first half of the century aban- woman to wash his feet in the house of Simon the Pharisee. These were doned the gospel of supernatural regeneration through faith in a super- acts of which a modern campaign manager or public-relations expert natural, atoning Christ have not prospered. Indeed, they have declined, would certainly have disapproved, for they were not helpful in gaining as spiritual momentum ebbed from them. Conservative evangelical Jesus prestige or favorable publicity. But Jesus was not interested in groups, on the other hand, have grown. Those groups which have contin- exploiting people. Similarly, the church today will not determine its activ- ued to preach the gospel Paul preached, which have offered an authentic ity on the basis of what will enable it to prosper and grow. Rather, it will seek to follow its Lord’s example of service. It will be willing to go to the 19. Quoted in Sam Keen, “Death in a Posthuman Era,” in New Theology No. 5, ed. undesirables and helpless, those who cannot give anything in return to Martin E. Marty and Dean G. Peer-man (New York: Macmillan, 1968), p. 79. 20. Kenneth Scott Latourette, A History of the Expansion of Chridmity (New York: 2 1. Dean M:Kelley, Why Conservutive Churches Are Growing (New York: Harper and Harper and Brothers, 1943, vol. 7, p. 492. Row, 1977). I OhH The Church the church. A true representative of the church will even be willing to give his or her life, if necessary, for the sake of its ministry. Willingness to serve means that the church will not seek to dominate society for its own purposes. The question of the relationship of church and state has had a long and complex history. Scripture tells us that the state, like the church, is an institution created by God for a specific purpose (Rom. 13: l-7; 1 Peter 2:13-17). Many models of church-state relationships have been devised and put into practice. Some of these models have involved such a close alliance between the two that the power of the state virtually compelled church membership and certain religious practices. But in such cases the church was acting as a master rather than a servant. The right goal was pursued, but in the wrong fashion (as would have been the case had Jesus succumbed to the temptation to fall down and -worship Satan in exchange for all the I _- I kingdoms of the world). This is not to say that the church should not receive the benefits which the state provides for all within its realm, or that the church should not address the state on issues regarding which legislation is to be enacted. But it will not seek to use political force to The Government of the Church compel spiritual ends.

Adaptability Forms of Church Government Episcopal The church must also be versatile and flexible in adjusting its methods Presbyterian and procedures to the changing situations of the world in which it finds Congregational itself. It must go where needy persons are to be found, even if that means Nongovernment a geographical or cultural change. It must not cling to all its old ways. As Constructing a System of Church Government for Today the world to which it is trying to minister changes, the church will have to adapt its ministry accordingly, but without altering its basic direction. As the church adapts, it will be emulating its Lord, who did not hesitate to come to earth to redeem humanity. In doing so, he took on the conditions of the human race (Phil. 258). In similar fashion, the body of uuith the emphasis upon ecumenism, the question of the Christ will preserve the basic message with which it has been entrusted, organization or government of the church has risen to special visibility and continue to fulfil the major functions of its task, but will make all in the twentieth century. For if there are to be close fellowship and legitimate changes which are necessary in order to carry out its Lord’s cooperation, there must be some agreement upon the seat of authority. purposes. The stereotypical church-a rural congregation headed by but If, for example, a minister who belongs to one denomination is to preach one minister and consisting of a group of nuclear families who meet at and officiate at the Lord’s Supper in another, there must be some agree- eleven o’clock on Sunday morning in a small white building with a ment as to who is a duly ordained minister, which in turn presupposes steeple-still exists in some places. But it is the exception. Circumstances agreement upon who has the power to ordain. For the question of church are now very different in most parts of the world. If the church has a government is in the final analysis a question of where authority resides sense of mission like that of its Lord, however, it will find ways to reach within the church and who is to exercise it. Actually, the advocates of the pcoplc wherever they are. various forms of church government agree that God is (or has) the ultimate authority. Where they differ is in their conceptions of how or through whom he expresses or exercises it. 1069 I070 The Church The Government of the Church 1071

Forms of Church Government the kingdom. It is desirable and perhaps even necessary for the well-being, but not the being, of the church. The church can exist without an episco- Throughout the history of : the church there have been several basic pacy, but wiJl not be at its best. Therefore, the powers of the bishop are forms of church government. Our study will begin with the most highly considerable, if not absolute. Finally, there are churches which retain the structured and move on to the less structured. After we have carefully office of bishop, but with considerably lessened powers. Throughout the examined the basic forms, we will attempt to determine whether one is history of the Methodist church, for example, the amount of power preferable. granted to the bishops has varied.4 The role of the bishops is to exercise the power of God which has been vested in them. Their authority transcends that of ordinary ministers. In Episcopal particular, as Gods representatives and pastors they govern and care for a In the episcopal form of church government, authority resides in the group of churches rather than merely one local congregation.5 bishop (i&~orroq). There are varying degrees of episcopacy, that is to One particular power of the bishop is ordination. He has the authority say, the number of levels of bishops varies. The simplest form of episcopal to ordain ministers or priests. In laying hands upon a candidate for ordi- government is found in the Methodist church, which has only one level nation, the bishop vests in the candidate the powers which attach to the of bishops. Somewhat more developed is the governmental structure of ministry. The bishop also has the authority of pastoral placement. In the Anglican or Episcopal church, while the Roman Catholic Church has theory, he has absolute power to place a minister in a particular local the most complete system of hierarchy, with authority be@g vested parish. In practice, however, the episcopacy has tended toward a greater especially in the supreme pontiff, the bishop of Rome, the pope. The democratization in recent years; the bishop or his representative usually genius of the episcopal system is that authority is fixed in a particular consults the local congregation regarding their wishes and sometimes office, that of the bishop. even permits the congregation a considerable amount of initiative in the Inherent in the episcopal structure is the idea of different levels of matter. This is much more characteristic of the Methodist than of the ministry or different degrees of ordination.1 The first level is that of the Roman Catholic Church. The bishop also has the responsibility of preserv- ordinary minister or priest. In some churches there are steps or divisions ing the true faith and the proper order within a particular geographical within this first level, for example, deacon and elder. The clergy at this area. He exercises discipline within his diocese or conference. level are authorized to perform all of the basic duties associated with the Viewed as the primary channel by which God expresses his authority ministry, that is, they preach and administer the sacraments. Beyond this upon earth, bishops have in times past exercised wide responsibilities in level, however, there is a second level of ordination, which constitutes temporal affairs. In some forms of episcopacy, they are considered the one a bishop and invests him with certain special powers. princes of the church or even, as we have already suggested, the church The bishop is the key to the functioning of church government. Some itself. Certain communions regard the bishops as the successors to the would go as far as to say that the episcopacy is of the very essence of the apostles. By the laying on of hands in the ceremony of ordination, the church: the church cannot exist without it.* Indeed, a few would even authority of the apostles has been transmitted down through history to assert that the episcopacy is the church. Those who claim that the the bishops of today. According to this theory, which is known as the episcopacy is necessary to the very being of the church include the theory of apostolic succession, modern bishops have the authority which Roman Catholics and Anglo-Catholics (or High-Church Anglicans). Others, the apostles had, authority which the apostles had in turn received from such as Low-Church Anglicans, see the system of bishops as but one of ChristP a number of forms of church government with scriptural basis.3 They There is, in this scheme, little distinction between the visible and the do, however, view episcopacy as the best system for doing the work of 4. Gerald F. Moede, The Office of Bishop in Methodism: Its History and Development I. Leon Morris, “Church, Nature and Government of (Episcopalian View),” in Encyclo- (Nashville: Abingdon, 1964). pcdiu of C’hristiunity, ed. Gary G. Cohen (Marshalltown, Del.: National Foundation for 5. Leon Morris, “Church Government,” in Baker? Dictionary of Theology, ed. Christian Education, 1968), vol. 2, p. 483. Everett F. Harrison (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1960), p. 126. 2. A. G. Hebert, The Form of the Church (London: Faber and Faber, 1944), pp. 109-23. 6. Kenneth E. Kirk, “The Apostolic Ministry,” in The Apostolic Ministry, ed. 3. Morris, Enqvclopedia of Christianity, vol. 2, p. 485. Kenneth E. Kirk (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1946), p. 43. 1072 The Church The Government of the Church 107.3 invisible church. The bishops define the church. They are not chosen Several arguments are advanced in support of the episcopal form of from below, but from above. A bishop is a bishop because he has been government. The case usually begins with a declaration that Christ is the chosen either by someone on a higher level (such as an archbishop) or founder of the church? He provided it with an authoritative governing by other bishops. Where those who are to rule or guide the church are structure. For immediately after asserting that all authority in heaven and selected by people at a lower level, it is questionable whether a bishopric on earth is his (Matt. 28:18), he sent forth the eleven apostles in that really exists, even if the name is used. authority (w. 19-20; Acts 1:B). It is to be noted that, to the best of our The most highly developed episcopal form of government is that knowledge, the apostles were the only officers Jesus appointed. It might be found within the Roman Catholic Church.7 Here the bishop of Rome concluded that they were the only persons in the New Testament with the emerged as the supreme bishop and came to be referred to as the pope right to exercise ecclesiastical oversight or authority (

23. Ibid., p. 495; Berkhof, Systematic Theology, pp. 581-84. 24. Franz Pieper, Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia, 1953). vol. 3, p. 421. 27. Ibid., p. 42 1. 25. Ibid., p. 43 I. 28. Edward T. Hiscox, The New Directory for Baptist Churches (Philadelphia: Judson, 26. Ibid., p. 475. 1894), pp. 153-59. The Church The Government of the Church must be qualified. When a congregation is accepting financial subsidiza- obtained with his own blood” (v. 28). It is argued that the use of all three tion from a larger fellowship of churches, the association or convention terms in connectidn with the same group indicates equivalency. The only will want to be fully informed of the actions of the local body, and may other office is a lay office, that of the deacon (literally, “the one who even proceed to lay down some guidelines and restrictions which the serves”). latter must follow. (This is not surprising, for accepting a loan or mort- Several arguments are advanced for making the congregational sys- gage from a bank entails assuming certain obligations and restrictions.) tem the normative form of church government. In the earliest days of It should be borne in mind, however, that the restrictions are voluntarily the church, which are recounted by the Book of Acts, the congregation assumed; the congregation has not been compelled to accept assistance. as a whole chose persons for office and determined policy.32 They chose The concept of democracy means that authority within the local Judas’s successor (Acts 1). They selected the first deacons (Acts 6). While congregation rests with the individual members. Much is made here of there is no explicit statement that the congregation as a whole was the priesthood of all believers. It is felt that this principle would be involved in appointing Paul and Barnabas to their work (Acts 13: l-3), we surrendered if bishops or elders were given the decision-making prerog- do draw that conclusion from the fact that when they returned to ative. The work of Christ has made such rulers unnecessary, for now Antioch, they made their report to the whole church (Acts 14:27). And it every believer has access to the Holy of Holies and may directly approach was the whole church that sent Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem to help God. Moreover, as Paul has reminded us, each member or part of the settle the question of circumcision (Acts 15:2-3). Similarly, the whole body has a valuable contribution to make to the welfare of the whole.29 church of Jerusalem sent the reply: “Then it seemed good to the apostles There are some elements of representative democracy within the and the elders, with the whole church, to choose men from among them congregational form of church government. Certain persons are elected and send them to Antioch with Paul and Barnabas. They sent Judas by a free choice of the members of the body to serve in special ways?O called Barsabbas, and Silas, leading men among the brethren” (v. 22). They are representatives and servants of the church. They are answer- What of the apparent appointing of elders by the apostles (Acts 14:23)? able to those who have chosen them. They are not to exercise their One possible interpretation is that they may not actually have been authority independently of or contrary to the wishes of the people. If chosen by the apostles. Perhaps the apostles suggested the idea and they do, they may be removed from office. All major decisions, however, presided at the ordination, but the choice was made by the people. This such as the calling of a pastor and the purchase or sale of property, are is in fact the pattern in Acts 6. Further, Jesus’ teaching would seem to be opposed to the special made by the church as a whole. This power is reserved to the entire leadership positions found within the episcopal and presbyterian membership by the constitution of the church. In these and all other schemes of government. He censured those who sought rank above matters of congregational decision, every member of voting age, regard- other persons. When his disciples disputed which of them was the great- less of social or economic status, has one vote. est, Jesus said to them, “The kings of the Gentiles exercise lordship over In the congregational form of government, as in the presbyterian, them; and those in authority over them are called benefactors. But not there is only one level of clergy. The titles of bishop, elder, and pastor are so with you; rather let the greatest among you become as the youngest, believed to be different names for the same office; it has been suggested and the leader as one who serves. For which is the greater, one who sits that they designate different functions or different aspects of the minis- at table, or one who serves? Is it not the one who sits at table? But I am try.31 It is noteworthy that when addressing the elders of Ephesus (Acts among you as one who serves” (Luke 22:25-27). A leader, then, is actually 20:17) Paul advised, “Take heed to yourselves and to all the flock, in to be the servant of all. A proper sense of servanthood will result if which the Holy Spirit has made you guardians [irria~orro~, bishops], to leaders keep in mind that they have been chosen by those whom they feed [~o~~(Y&LY, to shepherd or pastor] the church of the Lord which he serve and are answerable to them. Jesus also taught that we are not to seek special distinctions and titles: “But you are not to be called rabbi, 29. William Roy McNutt, Polity and Practice in LIaptkt Churches (Philadelphia: Judson, for you have one teacher, and you are all brethren” (Matt. 23:8). These 1935), pp. 2 l-26. teachings of Jesus would seem to favor a democratic structure within 30. James M. Bulman, “Church, Nature and Government of (Autonomous View),” in E~x:vclopediu of Christiunity, vol. 2, p. 478. the Christian church. 3 I. Augustus H. Strong, Systematic Theology (Westwood, N.J.: Revell, 1907), pp. 914-15. 32. Ibid., p. 906. 1082 The Church The Government of the Church 1083

Another consideration is that both Jesus and Paul taught that the groups, such as the Quakers (Friends) and the Plymouth Brethren, deny authority to discipline belongs to the group as a whole, not some individ- that the church has a need for a concrete or visible form. Accordingly, ual or set of leaders. In Jesus’ discussion of the treatment of a brother they have virtually eliminated all governmental structure. They stress who has sinned, the final agent of discipline is the church. If the offending instead the inner working of the Holy Spirit; he exerts his influence upon brother refuses to listen to the church, he is to be treated like a pagan or and guides individual believers in a direct fashion rather than through a tax collector (Matt. 18: 15-17). Paul instructed the Corinthian congre- organizations or institutions. gation as a whole (1 Cor. 1:2), not merely the elders, to put out of their Quakers emphasize the concept of “inner light.” Since church mem- fellowship the man who was living immorally with his father’s wife (1 Cor. bership has strictly minimal significance, there are no explicit rules for 5).33 joining. In the local groups there may be elders or overseers who have Finally, it is observed that the letters of Paul were addressed to the certain responsibilities. Meetings are held to determine courses of action. churches as a whole rather than to a bishop or a group of elders. The However, no votes are ever taken. Instead, the decisions are made by a letters to Timothy, Titus, and Philemon were written to them as individ- mutual agreement produced by the Holy Spirit.37 uals, not as leaders of a particular church.J4 The Plymouth Brethren virtually eliminate the visible church. They But there are several objections to the congregational form of church hold that the church exists on earth primarily in its invisible form, which government, just as there were to the episcopal and presbyterian forms. is made up of all true believers. Thus, there is no need for an organization The first objection to the congregational scheme is that it disregards the involving specific officeholders as such. The presidency of the Holy Spirit biblical evidence for apostolic (and hence episcopal) authority. For ex- is the ruling force.38 ample, Paul did appoint elders (Acts 1423) and instructed Titus to do the In each of these groups there is a concerted effort to eliminate as same (Titus 1:5). In addition, on many of the occasions when Paul spoke much structural organization as possible. They rely upon the Holy Spirit or wrote to the churches, he was not simply offering advice or counsel. to work in a direct fashion, to lead them to conviction of what he wants He virtually commanded them to do what he said.35 done. Those who hold this position are to be commended for accentuat- Second, it is noted that there was a separation of the offices of bishop, ing the role of the Holy Spirit and the need to rely upon him. However, elder, and deacon rather early in church history. The bishops were their assumption of a universal direct working of the Spirit is not justified accorded a special status and authority. If we maintain that this trend by the biblical evidence. Moreover, the degree of sanctification and sen- was not already present within the body of Christ in New Testament sitivity to the Holy Spirit which they posit of the members of a congre- days, we are making the rather large assumption that the church very gation is an unrealistic ideal. The main issue here is whether we regard quickly departed from its New Testament foundations?6 the Bible or some more direct communication by the Holy Spirit as God’s Finally, while it is true that the letters of Paul are addressed to whole primary guide for OLU- lives. In keeping with the principle that has marked congregations rather than their leaders, what of Revelation 2-3, Johns the whole of OUT study thus far, we consider Scripture to be the most letters to the seven churches? These letters were addressed to the “angel” important means of revelation. or “messenger” of the respective congregations, presumably the ruling elder in each case. Constructing a System of Church Government for Today Nongovernment Attempts to develop a structure of church government which adheres A final view needs to be considered briefly. Actually, those who hold it to the authority of the Bible encounter difficulty at two points. The first do not advocate a particular form of church government as much as is the lack of didactic material. There is no prescriptive exposition of they advocate what might best be termed nongovernment. Certain 37. Rufus M. Jones, The Faith and Practice of the Quakers, 3rd ed. (London: Methuen, 33. Ibid.,pp. 905-06. 1928), pp. 54-69. 34. H&ox, New Directory, pp. 155ff. 38. Clarence B. Bass, The Doctrine of the Church in the Theology of J A! Da& with 35. Harris, Encyclopedia of Christianity, vol. 2, p. 490. Special Reference to Its Contribution to the Plymouth Brethren Movement (Ann Arbor, 36. Morris, Encyclopedia of Christ&@, vol. 2, p. 484. Mich.: University Microfilms, 1952), p. 116. 10x4 The Church The Government of the Church 1085 what the government of the church is to be like. There simply is nothing Even if it were clear that there is one exclusive pattern of organization comparable to, say, Paul’s elucidation of the doctrines of human sinful- in the New Testament, that pattern would not necessarily be normative ness and justification by faith. The churches are not commanded to for us today. It would be merely the pattern which was, not the pattern adopt a particular form of church order. The only didactic passages on which must be. But as matters stand, there is so much variation in the church government are Paul’s enumerations of basic qualifications for descriptions of the New Testament churches that we cannot discover an offices which already existed (1 Tim. 3: 1-13; Titus 159). Although it is authoritative pattern. We must therefore turn to the principles which we preferable to build on the basis of didactic or prescriptive rather than find in the New Testament, and attempt to construct our governmental narrative or descriptive passages, in this case we have little choice. system upon them. When we turn to examine the descriptive passages, we fir&a second We must ask two questions if we are to construct our system in this problem: there is no unitary pattern. On the one hand, there are strongly fashion. First, in what direction was church government moving within democratic elements, a fact pointed out by the advocates of the congre- the New Testament period? Is there anything which would indicate the gational form. There also are strongly monarchical elements, particularly ultimate outcome? We can discern in the New Testament the beginnings the apostles’ appointing and ordaining officers and instructing the of a movement to ameliorate the situation of women and slaves. Is there churches. These passages are highlighted by those who favor the episco- a similar movement to improve church governmerrt? If so, we might be pal approach. From still other passages we conclude that the elders had able to infer the ideal at which the movement was aiming, although we a strong role. might have difficulty ascertaining just how far it was intended to pro- It is probably safe to say that the evidence from the New Testament is gress. Here unfortunately we have little to go on. We know that the inconclusive; nowhere in the New Testament do we find a picture closely church originally took over the pattern of the Jewish synagogue: a group resembling any of the fully developed systems of today. It is likely that in of elders served as rulers. We also know that while the church was in its those days church government was not very highly developed, indeed, infancy, the apostle Paul sometimes had to take a directive approach. that local congregations were rather loosely knit groups. There may well Other than that we know little. There is no indication that the church have been rather wide varieties of governmental arrangements. Each was moving toward a specific form of church government. church adopted a pattern which fit its individual situation. The second question we must ask is, What are the reasons for church It should be borne in mind that at this point the church was just government? What values is it intended to promote and preserve? As has coming into being; it was not as yet sharply distinguished from Judaism. been our approach all along, we will look to the Bible for authoritative The pragmatic needs in a period of establishment are, naturally, quite answers. Once we have determined what Scripture has to say on the different from those in a later stage of development. Anyone who has matter, we will be able, in accordance with our guidelines for contempor- served as the first pastor of a church, particularly one made up of new izing the biblical message, 39 to construct a model of church government Christians, knows that there are occasions when delegation and commit- suitable for today. tee work simply are not practical. One principle that is evident in the New Testament, and particularly in Most of the churches in the New Testament were established by 1 Corinthians, is the value of order. The situation at Corinth, where total itinerant missionaries. Thus, there was no fixed and permanent ministry. individuality tended to take over, was not very desirable. At its worst it Given these circumstances, it was natural for the apostles to exercise was downright destructive. It was necessary, then, to have some control immense and unilateral authority. It later became possible and necessary, over the highly individualized ways in which spirituality was being ex- however, to establish a permanent and resident ministry. In one sense, pressed (1 Cor. 1440). It was also desirable to have certain persons re- this should not have been necessary. Ideally, the universal priesthood of sponsible for specific ministries. We are reminded here of the situation all believers should have obviated the need for offices of authority. The in Acts 6, where we are told that seven men were appointed to be in ideal was not at this point practical, however. charge of the ministry to widows. Initially, as we would expect, the pattern of the synagogue, that is, a Another principle is the priesthood of all believers.4O Each person is system of elders, was adopted. This pattern did not become universal, however. In the Greek settings, the office of bishop tended to predomi- 39. See chap. 5. nate. In addition, there were some modifying factors already at work 40. Cyril Eastwood, The Priesthood of All Believers (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1962), producing a more democratic pattern. pp. 238-57. 1086 The Church The Government of the Church 1087 capable of relating to God directly. Several texts teach this truth either large congregational meetings may be impractical. Here a greater use of explicitly or implicitly (Rom. 5: 1-5; 1 Tim. 25; Heb. 4: 14-16). There is no the representative approach will probably be necessary. Even in this need of any special intermediary. All have redemptive access to the Lord. situation, however, the elected servants must be ever mindful that they And what is true of the initiation of the Christian life is also true of its are responsible to the whole body. (2) In a group of immature Christians continuation. Each believer can know God’s will directly. where there is an absence of trained and competent lay leadership, a Finally, the idea that each person is important to the whole body is pastor may need to take more initiative than is ordinarily the case. But implicit throughout the New Testament and explicit in passages like he should also constantly work at instructing and building up the con- Romans 12 and 1 Corinthians 12. The multiplicity of gifts suggests that gregation so that they might become increasingly involved in the affairs the input into decision making should be broadly based. The Book of of the church. Acts stresses group consensus (Acts 432; 1522). There is a special sense of fellowship whenever all the members of a community feel that they have played a significant part in determining what is to be done. It is my judgment that the congregational form of church government most nearly fulfils the principles which have been laid down. It takes seriously the principle of the priesthood and spiritual competency of all believers. It also takes seriously the promise that the indwelling Spirit will guide all believers. At the same time, the need for orderliness suggests that a degree of representative government is necessary In some situations leaders must be chosen to act on behalf of the group. Those chosen should always be conscious of their answerability to those whom they represent; and where possible, major issues should be brought to the membership as a whole to decide. We may think of the episcopal system as a structuring of the church along monarchical or imperial lines. The presbyterian form is like a representative democracy, the congregational a direct democracy. It is not surprising that the episcopal system developed and thrived during the days of monarchies. Monarchy was the system of government to which people were accustomed and with which they were probably most comfortable. In a day of widespread education and political interest, however, people will function best within a presbyterian or congrega- tional system. It might be concluded that, since most national democracies today are representative democracies, the presbyterian system would be the most suitable form of church government. But local churches are less like national governments than like local governments which hold open hearings and town meetings. The value of direct involvement by well- informed people is considerable. And the principle that decisions are best made by those who will be most affected likewise argues for the congre- gational pattern of local autonomy. Two situations call for some qualification of our conclusion. (1) In a very large church many members may not have sufficient knowledge of the issues and candidates for office to make well-informed decisions, and 52 The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism

The Basic Views of Baptism Baptism as a Means of Saving Grace Baptism as a Sign and Seal of the Covenant Baptism as a Token of Salvation Resolving the Issues The Meaning of Baptism The Subjects of Baptism The Mode of Baptism

v irtually all Christian churches practice the rite of baptism. They do so in large part because Jesus in his final commission com- manded the apostles and the church to “go . . . and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit” (h&t. 28:19). It is almost universally agreed that baptism is in some way connected with the beginning of the Christian life; it is one’s initiation into the universal, invisible church as well as the local, visible church. Yet there is also considerable disagreement regarding baptism. 1089 1090 The Church The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1091

Three basic questions about baptism have sparked great controversy offered to God by the person being baptized. Nor is it a work performed among Christians: (1) What is the meaning of baptism? What does it by the minister or priest. That is to say, the baptizer does not pour some actually accomplish? (2) Who are the proper subjects of baptism? Is it to form of grace into the person being baptized. Rather, baptism is the Holy be restricted to those who are capable of exercising conscious faith in Spirit’s work of initiating people into the church: “For by one Spirit we Jesus Christ, or may it also be administered to children and even infants; were all baptized into one body-Jews or Greeks, slaves or free-and all and if so, on what basis? (3) What is the proper mode of baptism? Must were made to drink of one Spirit” (1 Cor. 12: 13).2 it be by dipping (immersion), or are other methods (pouring, sprinkling) Romans 6: l-l 1 is crucial to the sacramental&’ view of baptism. In acceptable? It could be said that these questions have been arranged in their interpretation of this passage baptism is not simply a picture of our decreasing order of significance, since our conclusion as to the meaning being united with Christ in his death and resurrection. Rather, it actually and value of the act of baptism will go far toward determining our unites us with Christ. When Paul says, “All of us who have been baptized conclusions on the other issues. into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death” (v. 3), he means that baptism actually unites us with Christ’s death. And it will also unite us with him in his resurrection (v. 5)? The Basic Views of Baptism In addition to one’s being objectively united with Christ once and for all by baptism, the sacrament also has a subjective effect on the believer. Baptism as a Means of Saving Grace This effect will last throughout life, even though baptism is administered only once. Believers will often be reminded of it. This, in fact, is what Before we attempt to resolve these issues, it will be wise for us to Paul is doing in Romans 6:3-5 as well as in Galatians 3:26-27. The sketch the various ways in which Christians interpret baptism. Some knowledge that one has been baptized and therefore is united with Christ groups believe that the act of baptism in water actually conveys grace to in his death and resurrection will be a constant source of encouragement the person baptized. Those who espouse this view speak of baptismal and inspiration to the believer.4 regeneration: baptism actually effects a transformation bringing a person The subjects of baptism, according to Lutheranism, fall into two gen- from spiritual death to life. The most extreme form of this view is to be eral groups. First, there are adults who have come to faith in Christ. found in traditional Catholicism. We will, however, focus on a classic Explicit examples are found in Acts 2:41 and 8:36-38. Second, children Lutheran position which shares many features with Catholicism. and even infants were also baptized in New Testament times. Evidence is Baptism, according to the sacramental&, i).s a means by which God seen in the fact that children were brought to Jesus to be touched (Mark imparts saving grace; it results in the remission of sins1 By either awak- 10: 13-16). In addition, we read in Acts that whole households were ening or strengthening faith, baptism effects the washing of regeneration. baptized (Acts 11:14 [see 10:48]; 16:15, 31-34; 18:8). It is reasonable to In the Lutheran understanding, the sacrament is ineffectual unless faith assume that most of these households were not composed exclusively of is already present. In this respect, the Lutheran position differs from the adults. Children are part of the people of God, just as surely as, in the Catholic position, which holds that baptism confers grace ex: opere oper- Old Testament, they were part of the nation of Israel.5 ato, that is, the sacrament works of itself. The Lutheran view, in other That children were baptized in the New Testament is precedent for words, emphasizes that faith is a prerequisite, while the Catholic doctrine the practice today. Moreover, the baptism of children is necessary. For all stresses that the sacrament is self-sufficient. The sacrament, it should be persons are born into this world with original sin, which is sufficient emphasized, is not a physical infusion of some spiritual substance into grounds for condemnation. The taint of this sin must be removed. Since the soul of the person baptized. children are not capable of exercising the faith needed for regeneration, A comparison is often drawn between the sacrament of baptism and it is essential that they receive the cleansing wrought by baptism. the preaching of the Word. Preaching awakens faith by entering the ear In Roman Catholic theology, unbaptized infants who die cannot enter to strike the heart. Baptism, on the other hand, reaches and moves the heart via the eye. 2. Ibid., p. 270. The sacrament, it must be understood, is God’s doing. It is not a work 3. Ibid., p. 268. 4. Ibid., p. 275. 1. Franz Pieper, Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia, 1953), vol. 3, p. 264. 5. Ibid., p. 277. 1092 The Church The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1093 into heaven. They are consigned to a place called limbus infuntium. In the Lutheran view, the mode of baptism is not of great importance. There they do not suffer the pains and deprivation of hell, but neither do It Imust of course involve water, but that is the only crucial factor. To be they enjoy the benefits of the blessedness of heaven.6 The Lutheran sure, the primary meaning of the word fla&&~ is “to dip.” There are theologian, on the other hand, is not so sure about the status of unbap- other meanings of the word, however. Consequently we are uncertain tized infants. There is a possibility that God has a means, not fully what method was used in biblical times, or even whether there was only revealed to us, of producing faith in the unbaptized children of Chris- one method. Since there is no essential, indispensable symbolism in the tians. We are reminded that girls in the Old Testament, though they were mode, baptism is not tied to one form. not circumcised, were somehow able to enjoy the benefits of the cove- nant. There is no similar proposal regarding the children of unbelievers, however. Nor is there any dogmatism about any of these matters, since Baptism as a Sign and Seal of the Covenant they have not been revealed to us, but are among the unsearchable The position held by traditional Reformed and Presbyterian theolo- things of God.7 There is, the Lutheran observes, a long history of the practice of infant baptism. As a matter of fact, it can be traced back in gians is tied closely to the concept of the covenant. They regard the sacraments, of which baptism is one, as signs and seals of God’s grace. extrabiblical sources at least to the second century A.D. There is thus Sacraments are not means of grace ex opere operato or in virtue of some good precedent for the practice. Since we do not know the details of inherent content of the rite itself. Rather, as the Belgic Confession says, God’s dealing with unbaptized children and infants, it is advisable for they are “visible signs and seals of an inward and invisible thing, by Christians to baptize their offspring. means whereof God works in us by the power of the Holy Spirit.“11 In The Lutheran theologian is aware of the charge of inconsistency particular, they are signs and seals of God’s working out the covenant between the practice of infant baptism and the insistence upon justifica- which he has established with the human race. Like circumcision in the tion by faith alone. This apparent dilemma is generally dealt with in one Old Testament, baptism makes us sure of God’s promises. of two ways. One is the suggestion that infants who are baptized may The significance of the sacrament of baptism is not quite as clear-cut possess an unconscious faith. Faith, it is maintained, does not necessarily require reasoning power and self-consciousness. Luther observed that to the Reformed and Presbyterian as to the sacramental&. The covenant, faith does not cease when we are asleep, preoccupied, or engaged in God’s promise of grace, is the basis, the source, of justification and strenuous work. Jesus teaches that children can have implicit faith. Eti- salvation; baptism is the act of faith by which we are brought into that dence is found in Matthew 18:6 (“one of these little ones who believe in covenant and hence experience its benefits. The act of baptism is both me”); 19: 14; Mark 1094; and Luke 18:16-17. Another proof is the proph- the means of initiation into the covenant and a sign of salvation. Charles ecy that John the Baptist “will be filled with the Holy Spirit, even from Hodge puts it this way: “God, on his part, promises to grant the benefits his mother’s womb” (Luke 1:lS). Finally, we have John’s words, “I write to signified in baptism to all adults who receive that sacrament in the you, children, because you know the Father” (1 John 2: 13).8 The other exercise of faith, and to all infants who, when they arrive at maturity, means of dealing with the apparent inconsistency is to maintain that it is remain faithful to the vows made in their name when they were bap- the faith of the parents that is involved when a child is baptized. Some tized.“lz In the case of adults, these benefits are absolute, while the would even say that the church has faith on behalf of the child. Infant salvation of infants is conditional upon future continuance in the vows baptism, then, rests on vicarious faith? made. In Roman Catholicism, this dilemma does not occur. For according to The subjects of baptism are in many ways the same as in the sacra- Catholic doctrine, baptism takes effect ex opere operato. Faith is not really mentalists’ view. On the one hand, all believing adults are to be baptized. necessary. The only requisites are that someone present the child and a They have already come to faith. Examples in Scripture are those who priest administer the sacrament properly.10 responded to Peter’s invitation at Pentecost, believed, and were baptized (Acts 2:41) and the Philippian jailor (Acts 16:31-33).13 On the other hand, 6. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologica, part 3, supplement, question 69, articles 4-7. 7. Pieper, Christiun LIogmutics, vol. 3, p. 278. 11. Belgic Confession 33. 8. Ibid., vol. 2, pp. 448-49. 12. Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952), vol. 3, 9. Ibid., vol. 3, p. 285. p. 582. 10. Ibid., p. 256. 13. Louis Berkhof, Systerrutic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), pp. 63 l-32. The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1095 1094 The Church the children of believing parents are also to be baptized. While the sins; and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Spirit.” In 1 Peter 3:21 he baptism of children is not explicitly commanded in Scripture, it is none- writes, “Baptism . . . now saves you.” Paul refers to “the washing of regen- theless implicitly taught. God made a spiritual covenant with Abraham eration and renewal in the Holy Spirit” (Titus 35) and also links baptism and with his seed (Gen. 17:7). This covenant has continued to this day. In with spiritual revival (Rom. 6:4). Conclusive evidence for the supplanting the Old Testament it is always referred to in the singular (e.g., Exod. 2:24; of circumcision by baptism is found in Colossians 2: 1 l-l 2: “In him also Lev. 26:42). There is only one mediator of the covenant (Acts 4: 12; 10~43). you were circumcised with a circumcision made without hands, by New Testament converts are participants in or heirs to the covenant (Acts putting off the body of flesh in the circumcision of Christ; and you were 2:39; Rom. 413-18; Gal. 3:13-18; Heb. 613-18). Thus, the situation of buried with him in baptism, in which you were also raised with him believers both in the New Testament and today is to be understood in through faith in the working of God, who raised him from the dead.” terms of the covenant made with Abraham.14 Certainly this passage indicates that baptism now suffices as the sign of Since the Old Testament covenant remains in force, its provisions still the covenant. apply. If children were included in the covenant then, they are also to be Two additional observations need to be made here. First, those who included today. We have already observed that the covenant was not only hold that baptism is essentially a sign and seal of the covenant claim that to Abraham, but to his seed as well. Also of significance is the all- it is not legitimate to impose upon a child the requirements incumbent embracing character of the Old Testament conception of Israel. Children upon an adult. Second, those who hold this view emphasize the objective were present when the covenant was renewed (Deut. 2910-13). Joshua aspect of the sacrament. What really matters is not one’s subjective read the writings of Moses in the hearing of the entire congregation- reaction, but one’s objective initiation into the covenant with its promise “all the assembly of Israel, and the women, and the little ones” (Josh. of salvation.16 8:35). When the Spirit of the Lord came upon Jahaziel, and he spoke the In the Reformed and Presbyterian approach to baptism, the mode is a relatively inconsequential consideration. The verb @a&[~ is ambigu- Lords word of promise to all Israel, the children were present (2 Chron. ous. What was important in New Testament times was the fact and 20: 13). All of the congregation, including even nursing infants (Joel 2:16), results of baptism, not the manner in which it was administered.17 heard Joel’s promise of the outpouring of the Spirit upon their sons and There are indications that the means used in New Testament times daughters (v. 28). was not, indeed, could not have been, exclusively immersion. For ex- A key step in the argument now occurs: as circumcision was the sign ample, would John have been physically capable of immersing all those of the covenant in the Old Testament, baptism is the sign in the New who came to him? Did the Philippian jailor leave his post in the prison to Testament. Baptism has been substituted for circumcision.15 It is clear go where there was sufficient water for immersion? Was water brought that circumcision has been put away; it no longer avails (Acts 151-2; to Cornelius’s house in sufficient quantities for immersion? When Paul 2 1:2 1; Gal. 2:3-S; 5:2-6; 6: 12-13, 15). Baptism has taken the place of was baptized, did he leave the place where Ananias found him? These circumcision as the initiatory rite into the covenant. It was Christ who are questions which suggest that immersion may not have been prac- made this substitution. He commissioned his disciples to go and evange- ticed in every case.‘* lize and baptize (Matt. 28:19). Just as circumcision was required of pros- Moreover, immersion is not required for preservation of the symbol- elytes converting to Judaism, so baptism is required of those converting ism of baptism. It is not primarily death and resurrection which are to Christianity. It is their mark of entrance into the covenant. The two being set forth in the rite of baptism. Rather, the central concept depicted rites clearly have the same meaning. That circumcision pointed to a is purification. Any of the various Old Testament means of ablution- cutting away of sin and a change of heart is seen in numerous Old immersion, pouring, sprinkling-will picture purification. They are the Testament references to circumcision of the heart, that is, spiritual cir- &(Y@~OLS @rrr~apoi~ referred to in Hebrews 9:lO. In light of all of these cumcision as opposed to physical circumcision (Deut. 10:16; 30:6; Jer. considerations, we are free to use whatever means is appropriate and 4:4; 925-26; Ezek. 44:7,9). Baptism is similarly pictured as a washing away available.19 of sin. In Acts 2:38 Peter instructs his hearers, “Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your 16. Hodge, Systematic Theology, pp. 552-55. 17. Berkhof, Systematic Theology, p. 630. 18. Ibid. 14. Ibid., pp. 632-33. 19. Hodge, Systematic Theology, pp. 533-34. 15. Ibid., p. 634. 1096 The Church The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1097

negative argument or an argument from silence. The only people whom the New Testament specifically identifies by name as having been bap- Baptism as a Token of Sah/ation tized were adults at the time of their baptism.24 The arguments that “there must surely have been children involved when whole households The third view we will examine sees baptism as a token, an outward were baptized,” and “‘we cannot say for sure that no children were symbol or indication of the inward change which has been effected in baptized,” do not carry much weight with those who hold to believers’ the believer.20 It serves as a public testimony of one’s faith in Jesus Christ. baptism; and, indeed, such arguments seem flimsy at best. Further, Scrip- It is an initiatory rite- we are baptized into the name of Christ.21 ture makes it clear that personal, conscious faith in Christ is prerequisite The act of baptism was commanded by Christ (Matt. 28:19-20). Since to baptism. In the Great Commission, the command to baptize follows it was ordizined by him, it is properly understood as an ordinance rather the command to disciple (Matt. 28:19). John the Baptist required repent- than a sacrament. It does not produce any spiritual change in the one ance and confession of sin (Matt. 3:2,6). In the conclusion of his Pentecost baptized. We continue to practice baptism simply because Christ com- sermon, Peter called for repentance, then baptism (Acts 2:37-41). Belief manded it and because it serves as a form of proclamation. It confirms followed by baptism is the pattern in Acts 8:12; 18:8; and 19:1-7.25 All the fact of one’s salvation to oneself and affirms it to others. these considerations lead to the conclusion that responsible believers are The act of baptism conveys no direct spiritual benefit or blessing. In the only people who are to be baptized. particular, we are not regenerated through baptism, for baptism pre.sup- Regarding the mode of baptism, there is some variation. Certain poses faith and the salvation to which faith leads. It is, then, a testimony groups, particularly the Mennonites, practice believers’ baptism, but by that one has already been regenerated. If there is a spiritual benefit, it is modes other than immersion.26 Probably the majority of those who hold the fact that baptism brings us into membership or participation in the to believers’ baptism utilize immersion exclusively, however, and are local church.22 generally identified as Baptists. Where baptism is understood as a symbol In the view of those who regard baptism as basically an outward and testimony of the salvation which has occurred in the life of the symbol, the question of the proper subjects of baptism is of great impor- individual, it is not surprising that immersion is the predominant mode, tance. Candidates for baptism will already have experienced the new since it best pictures the believer’s resurrection from spiritual death.27 birth on the basis of faith. They will have exhibited credible evidence of regeneration. While it is not the place of the church or the person administering baptism to sit in judgment upon the candidate, there is an Resolving the Issues obligation to determine at least that the candidate understands the meaning of the ceremony. This can be determined by requiring the We now come to the issues which we raised at the beginning of this candidate to give an oral testimony or answer certain questions. Prece- chapter. We must ask ourselves which of the positions we have sketched dent for such caution before administering baptism can be found in John is the most tenable in the light of all of the relevant evidence. The the Baptist’s words to the Pharisees and Sadducees who came to him for question of the nature and meaning of baptism must precede all others. baptism: ‘You brood of vipers! Who warned you to flee from the wrath to come? Bear fruit that befits repentance” (Matt. 3:7-8)L3 The Meaning of Baptism The baptism of which we are speaking is believers’ baptism. Note that Is baptism a means of regeneration, an essential to salvation? A num- this is not necessarily add baptism. It is baptism of those who have met ber of texts seem to support such a position. On closer examination, the conditions for salvation (i.e., repentance and active faith). Evidence

for this position can be found in the New Testament. First, there is a 24. Ibid., p. 95 1. 25. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, “Baptism, Believers’,” in Baker: Dictionary of Theology, ed. 20. H. E. Dana, A Manual of Ecclesiology (Kansas City, Kans.: Central Seminary, 1944), Everett F. Harrison (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1960), p. 86. pp. 281-82. 26. John C. Wenger, Introduction to Theology (Scottdale, Pa.: Herald, 1954), pp. 237- 2 1. Edward T. Hiscox, The New Directory for Baptist Churches (Philadelphia: Judson, 40. 1894), p. 121. 27. Paul King Jewett, “Baptism (Baptist View),” in Encyclopedia of Christianity ed. 22. Augustus H. Strong, Systematic Theology (Westwood, N.J.: Revell, 1907), p. 945. Edwin H. Palmer (Marshalltown, Del.: National Foundation for Christian Education, 1964), 23. Ibid. vol. 1, p. 520. 1098 The Church The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1094, however, the persuasiveness of this position becomes less telling. In Mark that it is “an appeal to God,” an act of faith acknowledging dependence 16: 16 we read, “He who believes and is baptized will be saved”; note, upon him. The real basis of our salvation is Christ’s resurrection. however, that the second half of the verse does not mention baptism at Then there are the passages in the Book of Acts where repentance all: ‘but he who does not believe will be condemned.” It is simply absence and baptism are linked together. Probably the most crucial is Peter’s of belief, not of baptism, which is correlated with condemnation. Accord- response on Pentecost to the question, “Brethren, what shall we do?” ing to the canons of inductive logic, if a phenomenon (e.g., salvation) (Acts 2:37). He replied, “Repent, and be baptized every one of you in the occurs on one occasion but not on another, the one circumstance in name of Jesus Christ for the forgiveness of your sins; and you shall which they differ is the cause of the phenomenon. Thus, while Mark receive the gift of the Holy Spirit” (v. 38). The emphasis in the remainder 16: 16 is a forceful argument that belief is necessary for salvation, it is not of the narrative, however, is that three thousand received his word-then so clear on the matter of baptism. An additional consideration is the fact they were baptized. In Peter’s next recorded sermon (3:17-26), the em- that the entire verse (and indeed the whole passage, verses 9-20) is not phasis is upon repentance, conversion, and acceptance of Christ; there is found in the best texts. no mention of baptism. The key verse (v. 19, which is parallel to 2:38 Another verse cited in support of the concept of baptismal regenera- except for the significant fact that there is no command to be baptized) tion, the idea that baptism is a means of saving grace, is John 35: “Unless reads: “Repent therefore, and turn again, that your sins may be blotted one is born of water and the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God.” out, that times of refreshing may come from the presence of the Lord.” But there is no clear indication that baptism is in view here. We must ask The kerygma in chapter 4 centers upon the cruciality of belief in Jesus; what being “born of water” would have meant to Nicodemus, and our once again there is no mention of baptism (w. 8-12). And when the conclusion, while not unequivocal, seems to favor the idea of cleansing Philippian jailor asked, “What must I do to be saved?” (Acts 16:30), Paul or purification, not baptism .28 Note that the emphasis throughout the answered simply, “Believe in the Lord Jesus, and you will be saved, you passage is upon the Spirit and that there is no further reference to water. and your household” (v. 3 1). He did not mention baptism. (We should not, The key factor is the contrast between the supernatural (Spirit) and the however, pass over the fact that the whole household was baptized natura2 (flesh): “That which is born of the flesh is flesh, and that which is shortly thereafter.) While there is a close and important connection born of the Spirit is spirit” (v. 6). Jesus explains that to be born anew is to between repentance and conversion on the one hand, and baptism on be born of the Spirit. This working of the Spirit, like the blowing of the the other, these passages in Acts seem to indicate that the connection is wind, is not fully comprehensible (w. 7-8). In view of the overall context, not inseparable or absolute. Thus, unlike repentance and conversion, it appears that being born of water is synonymous with being born of baptism is not indispensable to salvation. It seems, rather, that baptism the Spirit. The K& in verse 5, then, is an instance of the ascensive use of may be an expression or a consequence of conversion. the conjunction, and the verse should be translated, “Unless a man is Finally, we must examine Titus 35. Here Paul writes that God “saved born of water, even the Spirit, he cannot enter the kingdom of God.” us, not because of deeds done by us in righteousness, but in virtue of his A third passage which needs to be taken into account is 1 Peter 3:21: own mercy, by the washing of regeneration and renewal in the Holy “Baptism, which corresponds to this, now saves you, not as a removal of Spirit.” If this is an allusion to baptism, it is vague. It seems, rather, that dirt from the body but as an appeal to God for a clear conscience, “the washing of regeneration” refers to a cleansing and forgiveness of through the resurrection of Jesus Christ.” Note that this verse is actually sins. Baptism is simply a symbolic portrayal, not the means, of this a denial that the rite of baptism has any effect in itself. It saves only in forgiveness. We conclude that there is little biblical evidence to support the idea that baptism is a means of regeneration or a channel of grace

28. Leon Morris, The Gospel According to John (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1971), essential to salvation. pp. 2 15-16. An Anglican, Morris comments on the suggestion that Jesus is referring to Moreover, certain specific difficulties attach to the concept of baptis- Christian baptism: “The weak point is that Nicodemus could not possibly have perceived mal regeneration. When all the implications are spelled out, this concept an allusion to an as yet non-existent sacrament. It is d&cult to think that Jesus would contradicts the principle of salvation by grace, which is so clearly taught have spoken in such a way that His meaning could not possibly be grasped. His purpose in the New Testament. The insistence that baptism is necessary for was not to mystify but to enlighten. In any case the whole thrust of the passage is to put the emphasis on the activity of the Spirit, not on any rite of the church.” See also D. W. B. salvation is something of a parallel to the insistence of the Judaizers that Robinson, “Born of Water and Spirit: Does John 3:5 Refer to Baptism?” Reformed Theo- circumcision was necessary for salvation, a contention which Paul vig- lo&xl Review 25, no. 1 (January-April 1966): 15-23. orously rejected in Galatians 51-12. Further, with the exception of the II00 The Church The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1101

Great Commission, Jesus did not include the topic of baptism in his therefore with him by baptism into death, so that as Christ was raised preaching and teaching about the kingdom. Indeed, the thief on the cross from the dead by the glory of the Father, we too might walk in newness was not, and could not have been, baptized. Yet he was assured by Jesus, of life” (w. 3-4). We note, second, that the Book of Acts often ties belief “Today you will be with me in Paradise.” It should also be noted that the and baptism together. Baptism ordinarily follows upon or virtually coin- attempts to reconcile the concept of baptismal regeneration with the cides with belief. Paul at the time of his conversion was struck blind. biblical principle of salvation by faith alone have’ proved inadequate. When Ananias at God’s behest went to the house in the street called Neither the argument that infants who are baptized possess an uncon- Straight, spoke to Paul, and laid hands upon him, something like scales scious faith nor the argument that the faith of the parents (or the church) fell from Paul’s eyes and he regained his sight. Then he rose, was baptized, avails is very forceful. On a variety of grounds, then, the view that and took food (Acts 9: 18-19). Many years later, in recounting this event baptism is a means of salvific grace is untenable. to a mob in Jerusalem, Paul quoted Ananias’s words to him: “And now . . What of the view that baptism is a continuation or a supplanting of why do you wait? Rise and be baptized, and wash away your sins, calling the Old Testament rite of circumcision as a mark of one’s entrance into the covenant? It is significant here that the New Testament tends to on his name” (Acts 22:16). Ananias’s words suggest that in baptism one is depreciate the external act of circumcision. It argues that circumcision calling upon the name of the Lord. Baptism is itself, then, an act of faith .is to be replaced, not by another external act (e.g., baptism), but by an and commitment. While faith is possible without baptism (i.e., salvation internal act of the heart. Paul points out that Old Testament circumcision does not depend upon one’s being baptized), baptism is a natural accom- was an outward formality denoting Jewishness, but the true Jew is one paniment and the completion of faith. who is a Jew inwardly: “He is a Jew who is one inwardly, and real Baptism is, then, an act of faith and a testimony that one has been circumcision is a matter of the heart, spiritual and not literal. His praise united with Christ in his death and resurrection, that one has experienced is not from men but from God” (Rom. 2:29). Paul is asserting not merely spiritual circumcision. It is a public indication of one’s commitment to that circumcision has passed, but that the whole framework of which Christ. Karl Barth makes a straightforward presentation of this point in circumcision was a part has been replaced. Whereas Oscar Cul.lma~~~ the very first words of his remarkable little book The Teaching of the and others have argued vigorously that baptism is the New Testament Church Regarding Baptism: “Christian baptism is in essence the repre- equivalent of circumcision, George Beasley-Murray has pointed out that sentation [Abbild] of a man’s renewal through his participation by means baptism actually “did away with the need of circumcision because it of the power of the Holy Spirit in the death and resurrection of Jesus signified the union of the believer with Christ, and in union with Him the Christ, and therewith the representation of man’s association with Christ, old nature was sloughed off. A lesser circumcision has been replaced by with the covenant of grace which is concluded and realized in Him, and a greater; the spiritual circumcision promised under the old covenant with the fellowship of His Church.“3l has become a reality under the new through baptism.“30 If anything has Baptism is a powerful form of proclamation. It is a setting forth of the taken the place of external circumcision, then, it is not baptism but truth of what Christ has done; it is a “word in water” testifying to the internal circumcision. Yet there is, as Paul suggests in Colossians 2:11-12, believers participation in the death and resurrection of Christ (Rom. a close relationship between spiritual circumcision and baptism. 63-S). It is a symbol rather than merely a sign, for it is a graphic picture What, then, is the meaning of baptism? To answer this question, we of the truth it conveys. There is no inherent connection between a sign note, first, that there is a strong connection between baptism and our being united with Christ in his death and resurrection. Paul emphasizes and what it represents. It is only by convention, for example, that green this point in Romans 6: l-l 1. The use of the aorist tense suggests that at traffic lights tell us to go rather than to stop. By contrast, the sign at a some specific moment the believer actually becomes linked to Christ’s railroad crossing is more than a sign; it is also a symbol, for it is a rough death and resurrection: “Do you not know that all of us who have been picture of what it is intended to indicate, the crossing of a road and a baptized into Christ Jesus were baptized into his death? We were buried railroad track. Baptism is a symbol, not a mere sign, for it actually pictures the believer’s death and resurrection with Christ.

29. Oscar Cullmann, Baptism in the New Testament (London: SCM, 1950), pp. 56-70. 30. George R. Beasley-Murray, L3uptisrn in the New Testament (London: Macmillan, 3 1. Karl Barth, The Teaching of the Church Regarding Baptism, trans. Ernest A. Payne 1962), p. 3 IS. (London: SCM, 1948), p. 9. The Church I IO.2 The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1103

The Subjects of Baptism baptism. Beasley-Murray maintains, for example, that “on Jeremias’ prin- ciple no doubt is to be entertained concerning the meaning of [Acts We turn next to the question of the proper subjects of baptism. The 1044-481: all the house of Cornelius heard the word, all received the issue here is whether to hold to infant baptism or believers’ baptism (i.e., Spirit, all spoke with tongues, all were baptized; the infants present also the position that baptism should be restricted to those who have con- heard the word, received the Spirit, spoke with tongues and so were fessed faith in Christ’s atoning work). Note that our dichotomy is not baptized. To this no exception is permissible!‘Q4 There is, of course, between infant and adult baptism, for those who reject infant baptism another interpretation of this passage and others like it. It is possible that stipulate that candidates for baptism must actually have exercised faith. all of the members of these households met the conditions for baptism: We contend that believers’ baptism is the correct position. they believed and repented. In that case, of course, all of the individuals One of the most significant considerations is the lack of any positive involved had reached an age of understanding and responsibility. New Testament indication that infants were baptized. An impressive Another argument used in support of infant baptism is that the chil- admission was made in Baptism and Confirmation TaSay, a report of the dren who were brought to Jesus that he might lay his hands on them Joint Committees on Baptism, Confirmation, and Holy Communion of (Matt. 19:13-15; Mark 10:13-16; Luke 18:15-17) were actually being the Church of England: brought to be baptized. The Special Commission on Baptism of the Church of Scotland contended in its 19.55 interim report that Jesus’ It is clear that the recipients of Baptism were normally adults and not expression “little ones who believe in me” (Matt. 18:6) signifies that they infants; and it must be admitted that there is no conclusive evidence in had been “baptized into Christ” (Gal. 3:27).35 The report further sought to the New Testament for the Baptism of infants. All we can say is that it is possible that the “households” said to have been baptized rruty have demonstrate that Matthew 18:3; Mark 10: 15; and Luke 18: 17 are parallel included children (Acts 16.15, 33; 1 Cor. 1.16). But at any rate it is clear to John 3:3 and 3:5, and that all have reference to baptism.36 This is an that the doctrine of Baptism in the New Testament is stated in relation to elaboration of Jeremias’s argument. Beasley-Murray comments on this the Baptism of adults, as was also the case (with two or three exceptions) section of the report: “Some of that exegesis appears to me to be so in the writers of the first three centuries.. . . In every recorded case of improbable, I cannot understand how a responsible body of mid-twen- Baptism in the New Testament, the Gospel has been heard and accepted, tieth century theologians could permit it to be published in their name.“37 and the condition of faith (and presumably of repentance) has been Both Jeremias and CL&XUKI see Mark 10~13-16 and the parallel consciously fulfilled prior to the reception of the Sacrament.J* passages in terms of the Sitz im Leben, the situation of the early church. They believe that these narratives were included in the Gospels to justify A large number of New Testament scholars now concede this point. They the church’s practice of infant baptism.38 While analysis and evaluation make no assertion stronger than that it is possible that the baptisms of of this issue go beyond the scope of our treatise,39 it is important to whole households included infants. observe that the passages in question do not mention baptism. Surely, if Some scholars take a more vigorous approach, however. Among them the purpose of including them in the Gospels was to justify infant bap- is Joachim Jeremias, who has argued that there must have been infants tism, there would be an explicit reference to baptism somewhere in the in the households which were baptized. With regard to Acts 11:14 (see immediate context. When Jesus said that whoever would enter the king- 10:48); 16:15; 16:31-34; 18:8; and 1 Corinthians 1:16, he states, “In all five dom of heaven must become like a child, he was making a point about cases the linguistic evidence forbids us to restrict the concept of the the necessity of simple trust, not about baptism. ‘house’ to the adult members of the family. On the contrary it shows Finally, we note that the case for baptism of infants rests upon either plainly that it is the complete farnib including all its members which receives baptism.“33 Beasley-Murray points out, however, that this line of 34. Beasley-Murray, Baptism, p. 3 15. argument, while it seems reasonable, leads to conclusions beyond what 35. The Church of Scotland, “Interim Report of the Special Commission on Baptism,” Jcremias intends, for the households in question experienced more than May 195.5, p. 23. 36. Ibid., p. 25. 37. Beasley-Murray, Baptbm, p. 311, n. 27. 32. Bupti.srr~ crntl Confirmution T&uy (London: SCM, 1955), p. 34. 38. Joachim Jeremias, Infant Baptism in the First Four Centuries, trans. David Cairns 33. .Joachim Jcremias, 71~ Origins of Infunt Baptbm: A Further Study in Reply to Kurt (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1960), p. 51; Cullmann, Baptkm, pp. 72-78. Akur~d, hea M. Barton (London: SCM, 1965), p. 25. I IYIIIS. Dorot 39. See Beasley-Murray, fkptism, pp. 322ff. 1104 The Church The Initiatory Rite of the Church: Baptism 1105 the view that baptism is a means of saving grace or the view that baptism, Despite the frequent denials of exegetes, it is surely reasonable to believe like Old Testament circumcision, is a sign and seal of entrance into the that the reason for Paul’s stating that the baptized is buried as dead, covenant. Since both of those views were found to be inadequate, we rather than that he died (as in v. 6), is the nature of baptism as immersion. The symbolism of immersion as representing burial is striking, and if must conclude that infant baptism is untenable. The meaning of baptism baptism is at all to be compared with prophetic symbolism, the parallel- requires us to hold to the position of believers’ baptism, as does the fact ism of act and event symbolized is not unimportant. Admittedly such a that the New Testament nowhere offers a clear case of an individuals statement as that of C. H. Dodd, “Immersion is a sort of burial . . . emer- being baptized before exercising faith. gence a sort of resurrection,“can be made only because the kerygma gives this significance to baptism; its whole meaning is derived from Christ and The Mode of Baptism His redemption-it is the kerygma in action, and if the action suitably bodies forth the content of the kerygma, so much the clearer is its speech. It is not possible to resolve the issue of the proper mode of baptism But we repeat, the “with Him” of baptism is due to the gospel, not to the on the basis of linguistic data. We should note, however, that the predomi- mimesis. It is “to His death”: Christ and His dying, Christ and His rising nant meaning of @~TT~&I is “to dip or to plunge under waterY40 Even give the rite all its meaning. As one of the earliest of British Baptists put Martin Luther and John Calvin acknowledged immersion to be the basic it, to be baptized is to be “dipped for dead in the water.“42 meaning of the term and the original form of baptism practiced by the early church.41 There are several considerations which argue that im- One might contend that Beasley-Murray, as a Baptist, is prejudiced on mersion was the biblical procedure. John baptized at Aenon “because this matter. The same cannot be said, however, of the Reformed scholar there was much water there” (John 3:23). When baptized by John, Jesus Karl Barth, who wrote: “came up out of the water” (Mark 1:lO). Upon hearing the good news, The Greek word flcrrrri([w and the German word tuufen (from Tiefe, depth) the Ethiopian eunuch said to Philip, “See, here is water! What is to originally and properly describe the process by which a man or an object prevent my being baptized?” (Acts 8:36). Then they both went down into is completely immersed in water and then withdrawn from it again. the water, Philip baptized him, and they came up out of the water (w. 38- Primitive baptism carried out in this manner had its mode, exactly like 39). the circumcision of the Old Testament, the character of a direct threat to But is the fact that immersion was the mode originally employed life, succeeded immediately by the corresponding deliverance and pres- more than historically authoritative for us? That is, is it also normatively ervation, the raising from baptism. One can hardly deny that baptism authoritative for us? There is no doubt that the procedure followed in carried out as immersion-as it was in the West until well on into the New Testament times was immersion. But does that mean we must Middle Ages-showed what was represented in far more expressive fash- ion than did the affusion which later became customary, especially when practice immersion today? Or are there other possibilities? Those to this affusion was reduced from a real wetting to a sprinkling and eventu- whom the mode does not seem crucial maintain that there is no essential ally in practice to a mere moistening with as little water as possible. . . . Is link between the meaning of baptism and the way in which it is admin- the last word on the matter to be, that facility of administration, health, istered. But if, as we stated in our discussion of the meaning, baptism is and propriety are important reasons for doing otherwise [i.e., for admin- truly a symbol, and not merely an arbitrary sign, we are not free to istering baptism in other than its original form]?43 change the mode. In Romans 6:3-S Paul appears to be contending that there is a signifi- In light of these considerations, immersionism seems the most adequate cant connection between how baptism is administered (one is lowered of the several positions. While it may not be the only valid form of into the water and then raised out of it) and what it symbolizes (death to baptism, it is the form which most fuuy preserves and accomplishes the sin and new life in Christ-and beyond that, baptism symbolizes the basis meaning of baptism. of the believer’s death to sin and new life: the death, burial, and resurrec- Whatever mode be adopted, baptism is not a matter to be taken lightly. tion of Christ). Beasley-Murray says: It is of great importance, for it is both a sign of the believer’s union with Christ and, as a confession of that union, an additional act of faith which 40. H~YII-y Gcorgc Liddell and Robert Scott, A Greek-English Lexicon (Oxford: Clar- serves to cement the more firmly that relationship. cndon, I95 I ), vol. I, pp. 305-06. 4 I. Wlrtrt 1.1!/1zcr Suys, camp. Ewald M. Plass (St. Louis: Concordia, 1959), vol. 1, pp. 57- 42. Beasley-Murray, Baptism, p. 133. 58; John Calvin, 1twtitlrtr.s of the Christian Religion, book 4, chapter 16, section 13. 43. Barth, Teaching, pp. 9-10. The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper

Points of Agreement Establishment by Christ The Necessity of Repetition A Form of Proclamation A Spiritual Benefit to the Partaker Restriction to Followers of Christ The Horizontal Dimension Points of Disagreement The Presence of Christ The Efficacy of the Rite The Proper Administrator The Appropriate Recipients The Elements to Be Used Major Views The Traditional Roman Catholic View The Lutheran View The Reformed View The Zwinglian View Dealing with the Issues The Presence of Christ The Efficacy of the Rite The Proper Administrator The Appropriate Recipients The Elements to Be Used The Frequency of Observance 1107 I IO8 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1109

Establishment by Christ

For a long period of time, there was no question that Jesus himself established the Lords Supper. It was simply assumed by all students of W hde baptism is the initiatory rite, the Lords Supper is the contin- the New Testament that the rite goes back to him. The first to call this uing rite of the visible church. It may be defined, in preliminary fashion, point seriously into question was H. E. G. Paulus in his commentary on as a rite which Christ himself established for the church to practice as a the New Testament (1800-l 804) and his life of Jesus (1828). David Strauss commemoration of his death. likewise denied it in the first edition of his life of Jesus (1835) but We immediately encounter a curious fact about the Lord’s Supper. admitted its possibility in the later popular edition (1864) when he ques- Virtually every branch of Christianity practices it. It is a common factor tioned merely the details.1 Some form critics in our time also dispute the uniting almost all segments of Christianity. Yet on the other hand, there authenticity of Jesus’ statements establishing the Lord’s Supper. W. D. are many different interpretations. Historically, it has actually kept var- Davies, for example, speaks of “the precipitate of those words percolated ious Christian groups apart. It has that effect at the present time as well. through the mind of a Rabbi.“2 So it is at once a factor which unites and divides Christendom. For the most part, however, there is agreement that the establishment Philosophical presuppositions have played a large role in shaping the of the Lords Supper goes back to Jesus himself. The evidence includes major views of the Lords Supper. Some of these presuppositions reflect the fact that the three Synoptic Gospels agree in attributing to him the debates and disputes which occurred in medieval times. In many cases, words inaugurating the practice (Matt. 26:26-28; Mark 14:22-24; Luke the philosophical positions underlying the presuppositions have been 22:19-20). Although there are some variations in the details, the common altered or even abandoned. And what is more, today there is far less of core in the Synoptics argues for an early inclusion in the oral tradition.3 an orientation to philosophical issues. Yet, curiously, the theological con- In addition, Paul in 1 Corinthians 11:23-29 gives a similar account of the sequences of medieval philosophical issues linger on. Therefore, it will be instituting of the Lords Supper. He states that he received from the Lord important to isolate the presuppositions upon which the differing views (~~pc~&&~w) what he now passes on (~~cx~cu%%u~L) to his readers. While of the Lord’s Supper rest. Paul does not state whether the facts in his letter were directly revealed In some cases the subject of the spiritual or practical value of the to him by the Lord, or had been transmitted to him by others, the verb Lord’s Supper has become lost in the dispute over theoretical issues. The rrapcrha&vw suggests that the account had been passed on by others, theoretical questions are important (they affect the spiritual considera- and his giving it to the Corinthian church is a continuation of the process tions), and so they ought not to be too quickly dismissed. If, however, we of transmission.4 Paul probably heard the account from eyewitnesses, bog down in the technical issues, and do not move on to deal with the that is, the apostles. In any event, Paul’s inclusion of the narrative indi- practical meaning, we will have missed the whole point of Christ’s having cates that the tradition existed several years before the writing of the established the Supper. It is not sufficient to comprehend what it means. first of the Gospels, which was likely Mark.5 We conclude that while we We must also experience what it means. may not be able to determine the precise words spoken by Jesus, we do know that he instituted the practice which bears his name: the Lordk Supper.

Points of Agreement 1. “Lord’s Supper,” in The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge, ed. Samuel Macauley Jackson (New York: Funk and Wagnalls, 1908), vol. 7, p. 24. 2. W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism (London: S.P.C.K., 1948), pp. 246-50 (the It is well to begin our examination of the Lord’s Supper with those quote is from p. 249). matters on which the several traditions or denominational groups agree. 3. Joachim Jeremias, The Eucharistic Words of Je.su (New York: Macmillan, 1955), It should be emphasized that these points of agreement are broad and pp. 68-7 1. 4. Donald Guthrie, New Testament Theology (Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity, 198 l), highly significant. When we have properly examined them, we will iden- p. 758. tify the arcas of disagreement. 5. Jeremias, Eucharistic Words, pp. 27-35. 1 I10 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1111

The Necessity of Repetition A Form of Proclamation Some theologians maintain that Jesus himself established the Lord’s While there is a difference of opinion as to whether the bread and Supper, but did not issue a command to repeat it. This conclusion is wine are more than mere emblems, there is a general agreement among based upon the fact that Matthew and Mark do not include “Do this in all communions that the Lord’s Supper is at least a representational remembrance of me” in their accounts.6 Some redaction critics assume setting forth of the fact and meaning of Christ’s death. Paul specificaUy that Luke added this command, editing it into the text, although it was indicated that the Lord’s Supper is a form of proclamation: “For as often not in the tradition which he received. But absence from Matthew and as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death Mark does not prove that the command is not authentic. Luke may well until he comes” (1 Cor. 11:26). The act of taking the bread and the cup is have had independent sources. In any event, since Luke wrote under the a dramatization of the gospel, a graphic display of what Christ’s death inspiration of the Holy Spirit, his letter in its entirety is the Word of God has accomplished. It points backward to his death as the basis of our and, consequently, on this particular point is authoritative and binding salvation. More than that, however, it also declares a present truth-the upon us. In addition, Paul’s account includes the command, “Do this in vitalness of a proper frame of mind and heart. Communicants are to remembrance of me” (1 Cor. 11:24-25), and continues, “For as often as examine themselves before eating the bread and drinking the cup; any- you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s death until one who participates “without discerning the [Lord’s] body eats and he comes” (v. 26). We must add to these considerations the practice of drinks judgment upon himself” (w. 28-29). To eat the bread or drink the cup of the Lord in an unworthy manner is to be guilty of sinning against the church. Evidently believers celebrated the Lords Supper from a very the Lord’s body and blood (v. 27). While one might interpret Paul’s refer- early time. Certainly it was already being observed by the church at the ence to “discerning the body” (v. 29) as signifying that the church was time of Paul’s first letter to the Corinthians (c. A.D. 55). This was easily not being properly recognized, the expression “the body and blood of the within the lifetime of the eyewitnesses, who would have been a check Lord” (v. 27) is evidence that Paul was actually thinking of Jesus’ death. upon the authenticity of Paul’s report of Jesus’ words. It would seem, In addition to having a correct understanding of what Christ has accom- then, that the command to repeat the sacrament goes back to Jesus. plished and a vital relationship with him, communicants must get along We also need to ask what the point of the Last Supper would have with one another. Paul noted with chagrin that there were divisions been had there been no command to repeat it. In that case, the bread within the Corinthian church (v. 18). Some of the members in partaking and wine would have had significance only for the group that was of the elements were not really eating the Lord’s Supper (v. 20), for they present. The elements would have constituted some sort of private object simply went ahead without waiting for the others (v. 21). Disregard for lesson for the Eleven. And the report of the Last Supper would have been fellow Christians and for the church is a contradiction of the Lord’s incorporated in the Gospels only for the sake of the historical record. We Supper. So the Lord’s Supper is as much a symbol of the present vital know, however, that by the time of the writing of Mark (c. A.D. 60-62) fellowship of believers with the Lord and with one another as it is a there was no longer a pressing need for a historical account of the Last symbol of the past death of Jesus. It is also a proclamation of a future Supper (unlike most of the other events of Jesus’ ministry). Paul’.. detailed fact; it looks forward to the Lord’s second coming. Paul wrote, “For as historical and didactic account was already in circulation. That Mark often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the Lord’s and the other Synoptists nevertheless saw fit to include a report of the death until he come-s” (v. 26, italics added). Last Supper strongly suggests that they regarded it as substantially more than a historical event. It is reasonable to infer that they included the A Spiritual Benefit to the Partaker Lord’s Supper in their Gospels because Jesus intended it to be a continu- ing practice for future generations. In that case, the inclusion of the All Christians who participate in the Lord’s Supper see it as conferring Lord’s Supper in the narratives of Matthew and Mark is evidence that a spiritual benefit upon them. In this sense, all agree that the Lord’s the rite is to be regularly repeated, even though those two writers record Supper is sacramental. It ca.n be a means, or at least an occasion, of no command to that effect. spiritual growth in the Lord. There are different understandings of the nature of the benefit conferred by taking of the Lord’s Supper. There 6. Ibid., p. 1 10. also are different understandings of the requisite conditions for receiving I I I2 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1113 this spiritual benefit. All are in agreement, however, that we do not take sion. Even Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli, who agreed upon other the elements merely because the Lord’s command obligates us to do so. matters, including the efficacy and value of the rite, could not reach Participation actually has a beneficial effect upon the communicant. It agreement upon this point The issue pertains to whether, and in what leads or contributes to salvation or growth therein. sense, the body and blood of Christ are actually present in the elements employed. That is, how literally are we to interpret the statements “This Restriction to Followers of Christ is my body” and “This is my blood”? Several answers have been given to this question: All denominations are agreed that the Lord’s Supper is not to be administered indiscriminately to all persons. It is in some fashion a token 1. The bread and wine are the physical body and blood of Christ.’ of the discipleship involved in the relationship between the individual 2. The bread and wine contain the physical body and blood.8 believer and the Lord. Accordingly, it must not be administered to some- 3. The bread and wine contain spiritdly the body and blood? one who is not a disciple of the Lord. 4. They represent the body and blood.10 This restriction is based upon the fact that the Lord’s Supper was originally administered to the inner circle of disciples. It was not shared The Efficacy of the Rite with the crowds of persons who came to Jesus, some of whom were merely curious or desirous of some personal benefit from him. Rather, What is the value of the Lord’s Supper? What does it actually accom- the Last Supper was shared within the intimate gathering of those most plish for (and in) the participants? One position is that it actually conveys fully committed to Christ. Further, remember that the group had to be grace to the communicant. The rite has within it the power to effect purified. Judas, who was to betray Jesus, left the group apparently in the spiritual changes that would not otherwise occur. A second position is midst of the meal. that the Lord’s Supper serves to bring the participants into contact with Restriction of the Lord’s Supper to believers is also borne out by Paul’s the living Christ. He is present spiritually, and we benefit from thus statement about self-examination, which we noted earlier. It is necessary encountering him. It is the encounter, however, not the rite itself, which for a person to examine himself, so that he may eat and drink in a worthy is the source of the benefit. The rite is merely an instrument to foster our manner. One must be not only a believer, but a practicing believer, to relationship with him. It does not constitute the relationship nor convey take of the elements. Anything less is sin (1 Cor. 11:27-34). the attendant blessing. Yet a third option holds that the Lord’s Supper serves merely as a reminder of the truth that the Lord is present and The Horizontal Dimension available. Its potential for spiritual benefit is much the same as that of a sermon. The content of a sermon may be believed and accepted; and, as The Lord’s Supper is, or represents, the Lord’s body. It is also for the a consequence, the individual will benefit spiritually. Or it may be disbe- body, that is, the church. In 1 Corinthians 10: 15 17 Paul argues that since lieved and rejected; in that case there will be no spiritual benefit The all partake of one loaf, which is Christ’s body, they are all one body. This effect depends completely upon the response. It is quite possible to is the background to Paul’s statements in 1 Corinthians 11:17-22. For partake of the Lord’s Supper and be unaffected by the experience. members of the church to be divided into factions and to despise others who partake with them of the one loaf is an abuse and contradiction of The Proper Administrator the sacrament. The Lord’s Supper is an ordinance of the church. It cannot be appropriately practiced by separate individuals in isolation. It Who may preside when the Lord’s Supper is observed? Is it necessary is the property of the functioning body of Christ. to have a priest or minister? Is an ordained person a necessity for the rite to be valid? And if so, what constitutes proper ordination?

Points of Disagreement 7. Joseph Pohle, The Sacraments: A Dogmatic Treattie, ed. Arthur Preuss (St. Louis: B. Herder, 1942), vol. 2, p. 25. The Presence of Christ 8. Franz Pieper, Christian Dogmatics (St. Louis: Concordia, 1953), vol. 3, p. 345. 9. Lewis Berkhof, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), pp. 653-54. Of the disputed matters regarding the Lord’s Supper, the nature of 10. Augustus H. Strong, Systematic Theology (Westwood, N.J.: Revell, 1907), pp. Christ’s presence has probably been the most prominent point of discus- 538-43. 1114 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1115 I

We are dealing here with the issue of sacerdotalism, which is closely The Elements to Be Used linked to sacramentalism. Sacramentahsm is the doctrine that the sac- raments in and of themselves convey grace and can even accomplish the Finally, we turn to an issue which does not divide denominations from individuals salvation. Sacerdotalism is the correlative doctrine that only one another as much as it causes disputes within intramural groups: certain persons are qualified to administer the sacraments. For example, Must the elements be the same as those used at the first observance of in classic Roman Catholic dogma, only a Catholic priest ordained into the Supper? Must the bread be unleavened, as was the case in the the apostolic succession can administer the Eucharist. If any other per- Passover meal? Or can we interpret Paul’s reference to “one loaf” (1 Cor. son should take the same physical elements and pronounce the same 10: 17, NIV) as signifying that other breads are acceptable? Must we use words over them, they would remain bread and wine. Those who receive wine, or will grape juice serve equally well? If wine, what alcoholic the elements would be partaking not of the Eucharist, but simply a meal. content would equal that in the wine used by Jesus and the disciples? In some very nonliturgical Christian groups, there is no special limi- And must there be one common cup, or will individual cups do equally tation upon who may administer the Lords Supper. Any Christian who well? Is the congregation at liberty to make changes in the procedure for possesses the spiritual qualifications for partaking of the Lord’s Supper sanitary purposes? While these questions may seem relatively inconse- may also administer it. If a lay person follows the established form and quential to some, they have at times been the basis of rather severe has the proper intention, the sacrament is valid. debate, even virtually rending congregations apart. A subsidiary issue here is the relative emphases upon the church and Sometimes this issue arises out of a desire for cross-cultural adapta- the clergy. Some fellowships which spell out precise qualifications for the tion of the Christian message. May elements quite dissimilar from those administrant nonetheless put greater emphasis on the church. The clergy originally used be employed if bread and wine are not available, or would is an institution of the church; the clergyman is simply its designated not carry the meaning which they conveyed to the people who lived in representative. Other fellowships lay greater stress upon the priesthood the New Testament world? For example, might an Eskimo culture substi- per se and proper ordination into it. In their view, the priest actually tute water and fish for wine and bread? possesses the power to effect what the Lord’s Supper accomplishes. Sometimes the issue arises from a desire for variety or novelty. Young people may feel that they can put freshness into their religious experience by varying the symbols. Would it be valid to substitute potato chips and The Appropriate Recipients cola when bread and wine or grape juice are available? We have noted that all churches require that those who partake of the Lord’s Supper be Christians. There may be additional stipulations as well. Some groups insist that the participant have been properly baptized. Major Views Some local congregations distribute the elements only to their own members. Others specify a minimum age. A particular state of spiritual readiness is often required, at least tacitly or informally. Virtually all The Traditional Roman Catholic View groups deny the Lord’s Supper to people known to be living in serious sin. It may be necessary to go to confession or to fast before taking of The official Roman Catholic position on the Lord’s Supper was spelled the elements. out at the Council of Trent (15451563). While many Catholics, especially A specific issue of historical interest is whether the laity are proper in Western countries, have now abandoned some of the features of this recipients of both elements of the Lord’s Supper. One of Luther’s great view, it is still the basis of the faith of large numbers. Let us note its major criticisms of the Catholic church was that it withheld the cup from the tenets. laity. They were permitted to take only the bread. The clergy took the Transubstantiation is the doctrine that as the administering priest cup on behalf of the laity. This practice constituted what Luther labeled consecrates the elements, an actual metaphysical change takes place. one of the “Babylonian captivities” of the church.’ l The substance of the bread and wine-what they actually are-is changed into Christ’s flesh and blood respectively. Note that what is 11. Martin Luther, The Babylonian Cuptivity of the Church, in Three Treatises (Phila- changed is the substance, not the accidents. Thus the bread retains the delphia: Muhlcnberg, 1943), pp. 127-36. shape, texture, and taste of bread. A chemical analysis would tell us that 1116 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1117 it is still bread. But what it essentially is has been changed.12 The whole The Lutheran View of Christ is fully present within each of the particles of the host.13 All who participate in the Lord’s Supper, or the Holy Eucharist as it is termed, The Lutheran view differs from the Roman Catholic view a.t many literally take the physical body and blood of Christ into themselves. but not all points. Luther did not reject in toto the traditional view. In To modern persons who are not given to thinking in metaphysical contrast to the Reformed churches and Zwingli, Luther retained the terms, transubstantiation seems strange, if not absurd. It is, however, Catholic conception that Christ’s body and blood are physically present based upon Aristotle’s distinction between substance and accidents, in the elements. In his dialogue with Zwingli (the Mar-burg Colloquy), which was adopted by Thomas Aquinas and thus found its way into the Luther is reputed to have repeatedly stressed the words “This is my official theology of the Roman Catholic Church. From that philosophical body.“18 He took the words of Jesus quite literally at this point. The body perspective, transubstantiation makes perfectly good sense. and blood are actually, not merely figuratively, present in the elements. A second major tenet of the Catholic view is that the Lord’s Supper What Luther denied was the Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation. involves a sacrificial act. In the mass a real sacrifice is again offered by The molecules are not changed into flesh and blood; they remain bread Christ in behalf of the worshipers. It is a sacrifice in the same sense as and wine. But the body and blood of Christ are present “in, with, and was the crucifixion .14 It is to be understood as a propitiatory sacrifice under” the bread and wine. It is not that the bread and wine have satisfying the demands of God. It serves to atone for venial sins. The become Christ’s body and blood, but that we now have the body and sacrament of the Eucharist is greatly profaned, however, if someone blood in addition to the bread and wine. The body and blood are there, bearing unforgiven mortal sins participates. Thus, one should seriously but not exclusively so, that is, not in a way which would exclude the examine oneself beforehand, just as Paul instructed his readers to do. presence of the bread and wine. While some have used the term consub- A third tenet of the Catholic view is sacerdotalism, the idea that a stantiation to denote Luther’s concept that body and bread are concur- properly ordained priest must be present to consecrate the host. Without rently present, that blood and wine coexist, it was not Luther’s term. such a priest to officiate, the elements remain merely bread and wine. Thinking in terms of one substance interpenetrating another, he used as When, however, a qualified clergyman follows the proper formula, the an analogy an iron bar which is heated in fire. The substance of the iron elements are completely and permanently changed into Christ’s body does not cease to exist when the substance of fire interpenetrates it, and blood. l5 heating it to a high temperature.19 In the traditional administration of the sacrament, the cup was with- Luther rejected other facets of the Catholic conception of the mass. held from the laity, being taken only by the clergy. The major reason was In particular, he rejected the idea that the mass is a sacrifice. Since Christ the danger that the blood might be spilt.16 For the blood of Jesus to be died and atoned for sin once and for all, and since the believer is justified trampled underfoot would be a desecration. In addition, there were two by faith on the basis of that one-time sacrifice, there is no need for arguments to the effect that it is unnecessary for the laity to take the repeated sacrilices.20 cup. First, the clergy act representatively for the laity; they take the cup Luther also rejected sacerdotalism. The presence of Christ’s body and on behalf of the people. Second, nothing would be gained by the laity’s blood is not a result of the priest’s actions. It is instead a consequence of taking the cup. The sacrament is complete without it, for every particle the power of Jesus Christ. Whereas Catholicism holds that the bread and of both the bread and wine contains fully the body, soul, and divinity of wine are transformed at the moment the priest pronounces the words, Christ.‘7 Lutheranism does not speculate as to when the body and blood first . appear. While a properly ordained minister ought to administer the

12. Pohle, Sacraments, pp. 103-27. 18. Great Debates of the Reformation, ed. Donald J. Ziegler (New York: Random 13. Ibid., p. 99. House, 1969), pp. 75, 78, 80. An account of the continuation of the Reformed-Lutheran 14. Ibid., part 3. debate will be found in Mm-burg Revisited, ed. Paul C. Empie and James I. McCord 15. Ibid., pp. 256-60. (Minneapolis: Augsburg, 1966). 16. Ibid., p. 252. 19. Luther, Bubylonian Cuptiviv, p. 140. 17. Ibid., pp. 246-54. 20. Ibid., pp. 161-68. Ill8 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1119 sacrament, the presence of the body and blood is not to be attributed to we have in mind here. Rather, we are referring to Calvin’s view of the him or to anything that he does.2r Lord’s Supper. Despite denials of various facets of the Catholic position, Luther in- There is some disagreement as to just what the respective views of sisted upon the concept of manducation. There is a real eating of Jesus’ Calvin and Zwingli were. In one interpretation, Calvin’s emphasis on the body. Luther interpreted “Take, eat; this is my body” (Matt. 26:26) literally. dynamic or influential presence of Christ is not far different from LU- In his view these words do not have reference to some spiritual reception ther’s view.24 Zwingli, on the other hand, taught that Christ is merely of Christ or of his body, but to a real taking of Christ into our bodyF2 spiritually present. If this interpretation is correct, then it was Zwinglik Indeed, Jesus had said on another occasion: “Truly, truly, I say to you, view, not Calvin’s, which prevailed in Reformed circles. According to unless you eat the flesh of the Son of man and drink his blood, you have another interpretation, Calvin held that Christ is spiritually present in the no life in you; he who eats my flesh and drinks my blood has eternal life, elements, and Zwingli maintained that the elements are mere symbols of and I will raise him up at the last day. For my flesh is food indeed, and Christ; he is neither physically nor spiritually present.25 If this interpreta- my blood is drink indeed. He who eats my flesh and drinks my blood tion of their respective positions is correct, it was Calvin’s view that was abides in me, and I in him” (John 653-56). The plain sense of these words accepted by the Reformed churches. Whose view eventually became the fits well with Jesus’ statement at the Last Supper. We must take these standard of the Reformed churches is not as important, however, as is statements literally if we are to be faithful to the text and consistent in what the Reformed position entails. And on that we can be quite clear our interpretation. Therefore, it is best to label the position we are discussing “Reformed” What of the benefit of the sacrament? Here Luther’s statements are not as clear as we might wish. He insists that by partaking of the rather than “Calvinistic.” sacrament one experiences a real benefit-forgiveness of sin and confir- The Reformed view holds that Christ is present in the Lord’s Supper, mation of faith. This benefit is due, however, not to the elements in the but not physically or bodily. Rather, his presence in the sacrament is sacrament, but to one’s reception of the Word by faim23 At this point spiritual or dynamic. Using the sun as an illustration, Calvin asserted that Luther sounds almost as if he regards the sacrament as simply a means Christ is present influentially. The sun remains in the heavens, yet its of proclamation to which one responds as to a sermon. If the sacrament warmth and light are present on earth. So the radiance of the Spirit is merely a form of proclamation, however, what is the point of the conveys to us the communion of Christ’s flesh and bkK126 According to physical presence of Christ’s body and blood? At other times Luther Romans 8:9-l 1, it is by the Spirit and only by the Spirit that Christ dwells appears to have held that the benefit comes from actually eating the in us. The notion that we actually eat Christ’s body and drink his blood is body of Christ. What is clear from Luther’s disparate statements is that absurd. Rather, true communicants are spiritually nourished by partak- he certainly regarded the Lords Supper as a sacrament. By virtue of ing of the bread and the wine. The Holy Spirit brings them into closer taking the elements believers receive a spiritual benefit which they connection with the person of Christ, the living head of the church and otherwise would not experience. The Christian ought therefore to take the source of spiritual vitality. advantage of the opportunity for grace afforded by the sacrament of the In the Reformed view, the elements of the sacrament are not arbitrary Lords Supper. or separable from what they signify-the death of Christ, the value of his death, the believer’s participation in the crucified Christ, and the union of believers with one another.27 And while the elements signify or represent The Reformed View the body and blood of Christ, they do more than that. They also seal. The third major view of the Lords Supper is the Calvinistic or Re- Louis Berkhof suggests that the Lords Supper seals the love of Christ to formed view. While the term Calvinism usually stirs up images of a believers, giving them the assurance that all the promises of the covenant specific view of salvation and of God’s initiative in it, his choosing and and the riches of the gospel are theirs by a divine donation. In exchange decreeing that certain persons shall believe and be saved, that is not what 24. Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952), vol. 3, pp. 626-3 1. 2 1. Ibid., pp. 158-59. 25. Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), p. 646. 22. Ibid., pp. 129-32. 26. John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion, book 4, chapter 17, section 12. 23. Ibid., p. 147. 27. Berkhof, Systematic Theology, p. 650. 1120 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lard’s Supper 1121 * for a personal claim on and actual possession of all this wealth, believers sermon. Both are types of proclamation. 32 The Lord’s Supper differs from express faith in Christ as Savior and pledge obedience to him as Lord sermons only in that it involves a visible means of proclamation. In both and King.28 cases, as with all proclamation, there is the absolute essential of faith if There is, then, a genuine objective benefit of the sacrament. It is not there is to be any benefit. Christ is not present with the nonbelieving generated by the participant; rather, it is brought to the sacrament by person. We might say, then, that it is not so much that the sacrament Christ himself. By taking the elements the participant actually receives brings Christ to the communicant as that the believer’s faith brings Christ anew and continually the vitality of Christ. This should not be thought of to the sacrament. as unique, however, in the sense that the participant experiences in the sacrament something experienced nowhere else. Indeed, even the Old Testament believers experienced something of the same nature. Calvin Dealing with the Issues says, “The water gushing from the rock in the desert was to the Israelites a badge and sign of the sarrie thing that is figured to us in the Supper by The Presence of Christ tie.“29 Nor should the benefit of the Lord’s Supper be thought of as automatic. The effect of the sacrament depends in large part upon the We must now come to grips with the issues which we posed earlier in faith and receptivity of the participant. this chapter and seek to arrive at some resolution. The first issue is the question of Christ’s presence in the sacrament. Are the body and blood of Christ somehow specially present, and if so, in what sense? The most The Zwinglian View natural and straightforward way to render Jesus’ words, “This is my body,” and “This is my blood,” is to interpret them literally. Since it is our The f5.na.l position we will examine is the view that the Lord’s Supper general practice to interpret Scripture literally, we must be prepared to is merely a commemoration. This view is usually associated with Zwingli, offer justification if we interpret these words in any other way. In this although some would argue that Zwingli’s conception went further. It is particular case it so happens that there are certain considerations which likely that Zwingli embraced more than one stance on this matter, and do in fact argue against literal interpretation. that he may have altered his position toward the end of his life. Charles First, if we take “This is my body” and “This is my blood” literally, an Hodge maintains that there is very little difference between the views of absurdity results. If Jesus meant that the bread and wine were at that zwingli and Calvin.3O moment in the upper room actually his body and his blood, he was What is prominent in Zwingli’s view is his strong emphasis upon the asserting that his flesh and blood were in two places simultaneously, role of the sacrament in bringing to mind the death of Christ and its since his corporeal form was right there beside the elements. To believe efficacy in behalf of the believer. Thus, the Lord’s Supper is essentially a that Jesus was in two places at once is something of a denial of the commemoration of Christ’s death.31 While Zwingli spoke of a spiritual incarnation, which limited his physical human nature to one location. presence of Christ, some who in many respects adopted his position (e.g., Second, there are conceptual difficulties for those who declare that the Anabaptists) denied the concept of a physical or bodily presence so Christ has been bodily present in the subsequent occurrences of the energetically as to leave little room for any type of special presence. They Lord’s Supper. While the preceding paragraph introduced the problem pointed out that Jesus is spiritually present everywhere. His presence in of how Christ’s flesh and blood could have been in two places simultane- the elements is no more intense than his presence elsewhere. ously, here we face the problem of how two substances (e.g., flesh and The value of the sacrament, according to this view, lies simply in bread) can be in the same place simultaneously (the Lutheran concep- receiving by faith the benefits of Christ’s death. The Lord’s Supper is but tion) or of how a particular substance (e.g., blood) can exist without any one of the ways in which we can receive these benefits by faith, for the of its customary characteristics (the Catholic view). While those who effect of the Lord’s Supper is no different in nature from, say, that of a hold to a physical presence offer explanations of their view, their cases rest upon a type of metaphysic which seems very strange to twentieth- 28. Ibid., p. 65 1. century minds, and indeed appears to us to be untenable. 29. Calvin, Institutes, book 4, chapter 17, sections 1, 5. 30. Hedge, Systemutic Theolou, pp. 626-27. 3 I. Ibid., pp. 627-28. 32. Strong, Systematic Theology, pp. 541-43. I122 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper I123

These difficulties in themselves are not enough to determine our sometimes characterized this view that the Lord’s Supper is essentially a interpretation. They do, however, suggest that Jesus’ words are not to be memorial. Out of a zeal to avoid the conception that Jesus is present in taken literally. We must now look for clues as to what Jesus actually some sort of magical way, certain Baptists among others have sometimes meant when he said, “This is my body,” and “This is my blood.” gone to such extremes as to give the impression that the one place where As Jesus spoke the words inaugurating the sacrament of the Lord’s Jesus most assuredly is not to be found is the Lord’s Supper. This is what Supper, he focused attention on the relationship between individual one Baptist leader termed “the doctrine of the real absence” of Jesus believers and their Lord. It is noteworthy that on many of the other Christ. occasions when he addressed this topic, he used metaphors to character- How, then, should we regard the Lord’s Supper? We should look ize himself: ‘2 am the way, and the truth, and the life”; “I am the vine, you forward to the Lord’s Supper as a time of relationship and communion are the branches”; “I am the good shepherd”; “I am the bread of life.” At with Christ. We should come to each observance of it with the confidence the Last Supper he used similar metaphors, reversing the subject and that we will therein meet with him, for he has promised to meet with us. predicate noun: “This Coread] is my body “; “This [wine] is my blood.” In We should think of the sacrament not so much in terms of Christ’s keeping with the figurative language, we might render Jesus’ statements, presence as in terms of his promise and the potential for a closer rela- “This represents [or signifies] my body,” and “This represents [or signifies] tionship with him. We also need to be careful to avoid the neoorthodox my blood.” This approach spares us from the type of difficulties incurred conception that for the true communicant the Lord’s Supper is a subjec- by the view that Christ is physically present in the elements. tive encounter with Christ. He is objectively present. The Spirit is capable But what of the idea that Christ is spiritually present? This view arose of making him real in our experience and has promised to do so. The from two historical sources. One was the desire of certain theologians to L.orcls Supper, then, is a time when we are drawn close to Christ, and retain something of the traditional belief in the presence of Christ even thus come to know him better and love him more. as they sought to change it. Their approach to reformation of the faith leaned more toward retaining whatever is not explicitly rejected by The Efficacy of the Rite Scripture than toward starting from scratch, preserving only those tenets of the faith which are explicitly taught in Scripture. Instead of totally What has been said about the presence of Christ has also intimated a rejecting tradition and constructing a completely new understanding, great deal about the nature of the benefit conferred by the Lord’s Supper. they chose to modify the old belief. The other source of the view that It should be apparent from Paul’s statements in 1 Corinthians 11:27-32 Christ is spiritually present was a disposition toward mysticism. Some that there is nothing automatic about this benefit. Many at Corinth who believers, having felt a profound experience of encounter with Christ as participated in the Lord’s Supper, instead of being spiritually edified, had they observed the Lord’s Supper, concluded that Christ must have been become weak and iu; some had even died (v. 30). The value intended by spiritually present. The doctrine served as an explanation of the experi- the Lord was not being realized in their cases. It is evident that the effect ence. of the Lord’s Supper must be dependent upon or proportional to the As we evaluate this view, it is important to remember that Jesus faith of the believer and his or her response to what is presented in the promised to be with his disciples everywhere and through all time (Matt. rite. The Corinthians who became ill or died had not recognized or 28:20; John 1423; 154-7). So he is everywhere present, and yet he has judged correctly (&aK&O) the body of Christ. A correct understanding also promised to be with us especially when we gather as believers (h4att. of the meaning of the Lord’s Supper and an appropriate response in faith 18:20). The Lord’s Supper, as an act of worship, is therefore a particularly are necessary for the rite to be effective.33 fruitful opportunity for meeting with him. It is likely that Christ’s special It is therefore important to review what the Lord’s Supper symbolizes. presence in the sacrament is influential rather than metaphysical in It is in particular a reminder of the death of Christ and its sacrificial and nature. In this regard it is significant that Paul’s account of the Lord’s propitiatory character as an offering to the Father in our behalf. It further Supper says nothing about the presence of Christ. Instead, it simply says, symbolizes our dependence upon and vital connection with the Lord, “For as often as you eat this bread and drink the cup, you proclaim the and points forward to his second coming. In addition, it symbolizes the Lord’s death until he comes” (1 Cor. 11:26). This verse suggests that the rite is basically commemorative. 33. G. H. Clayton, “Eucharist,” in Dictionary of the Apostolic Church, ed. James Has- We need to be particularly careful to avoid the negativism which has tings (New York: Scribner, 1916), vol. 1, p. 374. 1124 The Church The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1125 a unity of believers within the church and their love and concern for each people whose sin was so grave that Paul urged the church to remove other. The Lords Supper reflects the fact that the body is one body. them from the body (1 Cor. 51-S). Certainly, the church, to which the It is appropriate to explain the meaning of the Lords Supper at each Lord’s Supper has been committed, should, as a first step in discipline, observance. And there should also be a rigorous self-examination by withhold the bread and cup from one known to be living in flagrant sin. each participant. Every individual should carefully ascertain his or her In other cases, however, since we do not know what the requirements own understanding and spiritual condition (1 Cor. 11:27-28). The Lords for membership in the New Testament churches were, it is probably best, Supper will then be an occasion of recommitment of oneself to the Lord. once we have explained what the sacrament means and on what basis one should partake, to leave the decision as to whether to participate to The Proper Administrator , the individuals themselves. Scripture gives very little guidance on the matter of who should The Elements to Be Used administer the Lords Suppen Except for the original celebration of the What elements we decide to use in celebrating the Lord’s Supper will sacrament, when Jesus himself administered the elements, we are not depend, at least in part, upon whether our chief concern is to duplicate told who presided or what they did. Nor does Scripture stipulate any the original conditions as closely as possible or to capture the symbolism special qualifications for those who lead or for those who assist in the of the sacrament. If our chief concern is duplication, we will use the rite. For that matter, very little is said in the New Testament about unleavened bread of the traditional Passover meal. If, however, our ordination. concern is the symbolism, we might use a loaf of leavened bread. The What does appear in the Gospel accounts and in Paul’s discussion is oneness of the loaf would symbolize the unity of the church; breaking that the Lords Supper has been entrusted to, and is presumably to be the loaf would signify the breaking of Christ’s body. With respect to the administered by, the church. It would therefore seem to be in order for cup, duplication of the original event would call for wine, probably the persons who have been chosen and empowered by the church to diluted with anywhere from one to twenty parts of water for every part supervise and conduct its services of worship to superintend the Lords of wine.j4 If, on the other hand, representation of the blood of Christ is Supper as well. Thus, at least some of the duly chosen leaders of the the primary consideration, then grape juice will suffice equally well. church should assist in the observance of the sacrament; the pastor Where the traditional elements are unavailable, substitutes which should take the leading role. In the absence of such officers, others retain the symbolism may be employed. Indeed, fish might well be a who meet the qualifications might serve in their place. In general, those more suitable symbol than bread. The use of bizarre substitutes simply who assist should meet the qualifications which Paul laid down for for variety should be avoided. Potato chips and cola, for example, bear deacons; those who lead should meet his set of qualifications for bishops little resemblance to the original. A balance should be sought between, (1 Tim. 3). on the one hand, repeating the act with so little variation that we partic- ipate routinely without awareness of its meaning, and, on the other, The Appropriate Recipients changing the procedures so severely that we focus our attention upon the mechanics instead of Christ’s atoning work. Nowhere in Scripture do we find an extensive statement of prerequi- What we are commemorating in the Lords Supper is not the precise sites for receiving the Lord’s Supper. Those which we do have we infer circumstances of its initiation, but what it represented to Jesus and the from Paul’s discourse in 1 Corinthians 11 and from our understanding disciples in the upper room. That being the case, suitability to convey the of the meaning of the sacrament. If the Lord’s Supper signifies, at least meaning, not similarity to the original circumstances, is what is impor- in part, a spiritual relationship between the individual believer and the tant as far as the elements are concerned. A similar consideration holds Lord, then it follows that a personal relationship with God is a prerequi- with respect to the time of observance. To celebrate the sacrament on site. In other words, those who participate should be genuine believers in Maundy Thursday rather than Good Friday may be more an attempt to Christ. And while no age qualifications can be spelled out in hard and duplicate the Last Supper than a commemoration of the Lord’s death. fast fashion, the communicant should be mature enough to be able to discern the body (1 Cor. 11:29). 34. Robert H. Stein, “Wine-Drinking in New Testament Times,” C’hristianify T&q, 20 We infer another prerequisite from the fact that there were some June 1975, pp. 9-l 1 (923-25). The Continuing Rite of the Church: The Lord’s Supper 1127 1126 The Church more difficult? There is something to be said for making the sacrament As to whether it is necessary to use one loaf of bread and one cup, sufficiently unavailable as to require a definite intention and decision to there is some latitude. Paul does speak of the “one bread’ of which all partake. If the Lord’s Supper is appended to another worship service, partake (1 Cor. 10: 17), but this does not necessarily dictate a whole loaf. many people will remain and participate simply because they happen to There is no parallel statement about “one cup,” so the use of individual be there. On the other hand, if the Lords Supper is a separate service, its cups does not compromise the symbolism. Sanitary concerns may well importance will be highlighted. All the participants will have made a lead the church to utilize individual containers rather than one common specific decision to receive the elements and to concentrate on their cup. Moreover, in large gatherings this may be the only practical means meaning. of celebrating the Supper. The Lords Supper, properly administered, is a means of inspiring the , faith and love of the believer as he or she reflects again upon the wonder The Frequency of Observance of the Lords death and the fact that those who believe in him will live everlastingly. How often we should observe the Lord’s Supper is another matter concerning which we have no explicit didactic statements in Scripture. We do not even have a precise indication of what the practice was in the And can it be that I should gain early church, although it may well have been weekly, that is, every time An interest in the Savior’s blood? the church assembled In view of the lack of specific information, we will Died He for me, who caused His pain? make our decision on the basis of biblical principles and practical consid- For me, who Him to death pursued? erations. Amazing love! how can it be The tendency of our beliefs to slip from the conscious to the precon- That Thou, my God, shouldst die for me? scious level was one of the reasons Christ instituted the Lords Supper. (Charles Wesley, 1738) Sigmund Freud recognized that the human personality has at least three levels of awareness: the conscious (or, as Freud termed it, the perceptual conscious), the preconscious, and the unconscious. The conscious is what we are actually aware of at any given moment. In the unconscious lie those experiences and ideas of ours which we cannot volitionally recall into consciousness (although some psychologists and psychiatrists claim that no experience is ever lost; every idea can be brought back into consciousness through psychoanalysis, hypnosis, or certain types of drugs). The preconscious contains those experiences and ideas which, although one is not currently aware of them, can readily be recalled to consciousness by an act of will. Most of our doctrinal beliefs hover at this intermediate level. The Lords Supper has the effect of bringing preconscious beliefs into consciousness. It should therefore be observed often enough to prevent long gaps between times of reflection upon the truths which it signifies, but not so frequently as to make it seem trivial or so commonplace that we go through the motions without really thinking about the meaning. Perhaps it would be good for the church to make the Lord’s Supper available on a frequent basis, allowing the indi- vidual believer to determine how often to partake. Knowing that we can partake of the Lord’s Supper when we feel the need and desire, but that we are not required to participate at every available opportunity, will prevent the sacrament from becoming routinized. Should it be as easy as possible for one to partake, or should it be The Unity of the Church

Arguments for Unity of the Church Biblical Teachings Regarding the Unity of Believers General Theological Considerations Practical Considerations: A Common Witness and Efficiency Conceptions of the Nature of Unity Spiritual Unity Mutual Recognition and Fellowship Conciliar Unity Organic Unity The History and Present Status of Ecumenism Issues Raised by Evangelicals The Theological Issue The Ecclesiological Issue The Methodological Issue The Teleological Issue Guidelines for Action

A topic which has come up for discussion at various periods in history is the unity of the church. The definition of church unity and the degree of urgency in the discussion have varied throughout the 1129 I130 The Church The Unity of the Church 1131 centuries. At times church unity has been a subject of considerable clear that this unity is to extend beyond the local church to which he is controversy. In the twentieth century, disagreements over the nature of writing. It is important for us to keep in mind here, however, that Ephe- church unity have, ironically, caused a great deal of disunity. Yet the topic sians was likely an encyclical letter. It was not restricted to one congre- is such that it cannot be avoided. gation of believers.’ Thus Paul’s appeal for unity undoubtedly circulated over a large area. Paul makes a somewhat similar appeal in Philippians 2:2, where he Arguments for Unity of the Church urges his readers to be “in full accord and of one mind.” The key to developing this attitude is humility and concern for others (w. 3-4). And Biblical Teachings Regarding fhe Unity of Believers the perfect model is the self-emptying action of Christ (w. 5-8). Following l his example will lead to true unity among the members of the congre- Among the reasons why the church must strive for unity are didactic gation. passages in the New Testament which specifically teach that the church ought to be, actually is, or will be one. Probably the most persuasive is the so-called high-priestly prayer of Jesus: “I do not pray for these only, General Theological Considerations but also for those who believe in me through their word, that they may all be one; even as thou, Father, art in me, and I in thee, that they also In addition to these specific teachings of Scripture, there are more may be in us, so that the world may believe that thou hast sent me. The general theological considerations which argue for unity among believ- glory which thou hast given me I have given to them, that they may be ers. These considerations include the oneness of ancient Israel and the one even as we are one, I in them and thou in me, that they may become oneness of God, on which Israel’s nationhood was based. Israel was to be perfectly one, so that the world may know that thou hast sent me and one nation because the God she worshiped was one. That God is one is hast loved them even as thou hast loved me” (John 17:20-23). It is most clearly expressed in passages like Deuteronomy 6:4. Because God significant that, as our Lord strongly expresses concern for the welfare is one, the people of Israel were expected to worship him with all their of his followers, he speaks of the unity between the Father and the Son heart (v. 5). Moreover, because God is one, the universe is truly one. All as a model for the unity of believers with one another. The unity of of it has been created by God, as Genesis 1 teaches; the entire world, believers with each other and with God will testify to the world the fact being a unity, conforms to the will of its Creator. Since everything, that the Father has sent the Son. Little is said about the nature of this including man, has a common origin and one Lord, it is altogether fitting, unity, however. indeed it is imperative, that believers unite.2 A second major passage is Paul’s exhortation in Ephesians 4. After The unity of Old Testament Israel is symbolized in two institutions, the begging his readers to lead a life worthy of their calling (v. l), he urges temple and the law. In Deuteronomy 12 it is made clear that all other them to be “eager to maintain the unity of the Spirit in the bond of places and forms of worship are to be eliminated, because there is only peace” (v. 3). He follows up this appeal with a list of fundamentals which one true God. The temple is the place of God’s abode; all the people of unite believers: “There is one body and one Spirit, just as you were called Israel are to center their worship therein. Similarly, the law is a unifying to the one hope that belongs to your call, one Lord, one faith, one factor. All persons, regardless of their tribe and social class, are to obey baptism, one God and Father of us all, who is above all and through all it.3 and in all” (w. 4-6). Since all believers confess the same body, Spirit, Various New Testament images make it clear that the church, as the hope, Lord, faith, baptism, God and Father, they ought to display a unity successor to Israel, is to follow her lead in manifesting unity. Like Israel, of the Spirit. As Paul concludes his case, he urges his readers to grow up believers in Christ constitute one race, one nation: “you are a chosen into Christ, ‘from whom the whole body, joined and knit together by race, a royal priesthood, a holy nation, God’s own people” (1 Peter 2:9). every joint with which it is supplied, when each part is working properly, makes bodily growth and upbuilds itself in love” (v. 16). When the church 1. Stig Hanson, The Unity of the Church in the New Testament: Colossians and Ephesians (Lexington, KY.: American Theological Library Association, 1963). pp. 107-08. unites under Christ as its head, there is a maturing Christian experience. 2. Ibid., p. 7. Yet as concerned as Paul is about building a unity of the Spirit, he does 3. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, The Unity and Disunity of the Church (Grand Rapids: Eerd- not really specify just what this unity consists in. Nor does he make it mans, 1958), pp. 9- 10. I I.32 The Church The Unity of the Church 113.3

But the New Testament goes beyond the concept of race, for there is a above all these put on love, which binds everything together in perfect variety of peoples within the new community of God. The unity is more harmony. And let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts, to which indeed intense; Paul refers to the church as a household: “So then you are no you were called in the one body.“6 longer strangers and sojourners, but you are fellow citizens with the Unity of the church is a theme sounded throughout the Book of saints and members of the household of God” (Eph. 2:19). Here Paul Ephesians. The first chapter concludes with the image of Christ as “the introduces the image of the temple to stress the idea of unity: “Built upon head over all things for the church, which is his body” (Eph. 1:22-23). In the foundation of the apostles and prophets, Christ Jesus himself being the next chapter the emphasis is upon the unity of Jew and Gentile: “For the cornerstone, . . . the whole structure is joined together and grows into he is our peace, who has made us both one, and has broken down the a holy temple in the Lord; in whom you also are built into it for a dwelling dividing wall of hostility, by abolishing in his flesh the law of command- place of God in the Spirit” (w. 20-22). Peter similarly speaks of ‘the ments and ordinances, that he might create in himself one new man in church as a spiritual house: “And like living stones be yourselves built place of the two, so making peace, and might reconcile us both to God into a spiritual house, to be a holy priesthood, to offer spiritual sacrifices in one body through the cross, thereby bringing the hostility to an end” acceptable to God through Jesus Christ” (1 Peter 2:5).4 (2:14-16). The chapter concludes with a passage we noted earlier-Jew The image of the church ZIS the bride of Christ likewise argues for and Gentile joined together into a holy temple in the Lord (vv. 20-22). In unity among believers. From the very beginning, marriage was intended chapter 4 Paul compiles a list of the grounds on which the church is to to be monogamous: “Therefore a man leaves his father and his mother be thought of as one (4:4-6). Stig Hanson comments on the passage: and cleaves to his wife, and they become one flesh” (Gen. 2:24). There is “One Body refers to the Church as the Body of Christ, the opinion of no suggestion here of anything other than one man and one woman. most expositors. This Body must be one since Christ is one, and Christ Jesus quotes this verse in arguing for the permanence of marriage (Matt. cannot be divided.“’ Later in the chapter (w. 1 l- 14) Paul develops the 19:5), and Paul quotes it in a passage which compares the marital rela- idea of the ministry, which has the purpose of building up the church in tionship to the relationship between Christ and the church (Eph. 5:31). If the one faith (v. 5). This guarantees the unity initiated by the one Christ. the church is the bride of Christ, it must be one body, not many.5 The image of the church as the body of Christ is another powerful Practical Considerations: A Common Witness and Efficiency argument for unity. As Paul discusses the multiplicity of members and functions within the church, he says explicitly: “For just as the body is There are also some practical considerations which argue for Chris- one and has many members, and all the members of the body, though tian unity. One of them is the common witness which a closely knit group many, are one body, so it is with Christ. For by one Spirit we were all can present. We mentioned earlier that Jesus prayed for the unity of baptized into one body-Jews or Greeks, slaves or free-and all were believers so that their concerted testimony might influence the world made to drink of one Spirit” ( 1 Cor. 12: 12-13). (John 17:2 1). The early believers were characterized by a oneness of Paul’s most profound theological argumentation for the unity of be- purpose, and they were highly effective in their testimony. Perhaps there lievers is probably to be found in Ephesians and Colossians. In Colossians is a logical cause-and-effect relationship between the two: “Now the 1:13-23, a passage which begins on a soteriological note and then company of those who believed were of one heart and soul, and no one switches to God’s work of creation, Paul declares that Christ has created said that any of the things which he possessed was his own, but they had all things (vv. 15-16) and in him all things hold together (v. 17). This everything in common. And with great power the apostles gave their means that he is the head of the body, the church (v. 18). A climax is testimony to the resurrection of the Lord Jesus, and great grace was reached in verses 19-20: “For in him all the fulness of God was pleased upon them all” (Acts 4:32-33). to dwell, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether on The company of believers tends to grow when their witness is united, earth or in heaven, making peace by the blood of his cross.” Christ’s aim whereas there may well be a negative or canceling effect when they is to reconcile all things to himself. AU things, including the church, will compete with or even criticize one another. This truth is evident enough unite in him. Paul has this end in view when he pleads in 3:14-15: “And in the United States, where quarrels within a denomination discourage

4. Ibid., pp. IO-I I 6. Hanson, Unity of the Church, pp. 109-l 1. 5. Ibid., p. I I. 7. Ibid., p. 152. I I.34 The Church The Unity of the Church II35 people from becoming associated with the Christian faith. The problem Conceptions of the Nature of Unity is aggravated, however, in non-Christian lands, where the native, con- fronted by a multiplicity of missionary efforts, must decide not only Despite the considerable amount of agreement about the deskability whether to become a Christian, but also what type of Christian to be- of unity, there is little agreement about its nature, the form which it is to come: Presbyterian, Baptist, Lutheran, or whatever.8 In some cases, there take. There are basically four different ideas about unity. To some extent may even be representatives of two or more varieties of the same denom- they can be correlated with conceptions of the nature of the church. The ination. It would not be surprising if potential converts were to throw up list which follows moves from a view emphasizing the invisible church to their hands in dismay, unable to choose among options which appear a view emphasizing the visible church. In general, the greater the concen- basically the same. Certainly the gospel witness is not reinforced by ,the tration upon the visible church, the greater will be the concern that unity existence of competitive groups. be manifested in actual organic union. Another practical consideration is the matter of efficiency. Where there is a lack of unity among Christians, there is a great reduplication Spiritual Unity of efforts. Every local congregation feels that it must have certain struc- tural and procedural components, just as do every mission board and The first view of church unity emphasizes that all Christians are one every Christian college and seminary. The result is a great waste of by virtue of being committed to and serving the same Lord. They are resources of the kingdom of God. Consider as an extreme example a joined together in the invisible church, of which Christ is the head. One town square in the Midwest. On each side of the square stands a church day there will be an actual gathering of this body in visible form. In the building. All four of the buildings are old, inefficient to heat, and in need meantime, the unity of the church consists in the fact that there is no of repair. The size and budget of all four congregations are modest. The hostility among believers. All believers love other believers, even those pastoral salaries are small. Consequently, the congregations are habitu- with whom they have no actual contact or interaction. The existence of ally served by either young, inexperienced pastors or older men well past separate organizations of the visible church, even in the same area, does their peaks. Mediocre programs in such areas as Christian education are not constitute a challenge to this unity. Christians who regard church the norm. But what is most distressing is that the services, messages, and unity as essentially spiritual in nature usually emphasize purity of doc- programs of the four congregations are virtually the same! A visitor trinal belief and lifestyle as criteria for membership.9 would not find any significant difference among them. An efficiency expert would regard this situation as a gross misuse of Mutual Recognition and Fellowship resources. Instead of four small struggling churches, it would make better sense to merge them into one congregation. The four properties The second view involves more than a mere ideological acceptance of could be sold and the new congregation relocated to an efficient struc- unity. Unity is implemented on a practical level. Each congregation rec- ognizes others as legitimate parts of the family of God. Thus believers ture. A staff of competent specialists could be engaged at appropriate can readily transfer their membership from one congregation to another. compensations, and missionary giving could be increased as a result of There may be pulpit exchanges as well, a practice which entails recogni- the reduced overhead. What we are advocating on the local level would tion of ordination by other groups. In addition, members of different be highly desirable on broader levels as well. While some people may churches have fellowship with one another, and congregations with sim- regard this suggestion as an application of the General Motors mentality ilar commitments and ideals work together when possible. For example, to the work of the church, it is in fact a matter of practicing good they may cooperate in conducting mass evangelistic crusades. Essen- stewardship of the resources with which we Christians have been en- tially, however, cooperation is on an ad hoc basis; it is not expressed in trusted. any form of official, permanent organization.‘O

8. Martin H. Cressy, “Organic Unity and Church Unions,” The Reformed World 35, no. 9. J. Marcellus Kik, Ecumenbm and the Evangelical (Philadelphia: Presbyterian and 3 (Scptcmbvr 197X): 103; Martin Marty, Church Unity und Church Mission (Grand Rapids: Reformed, 1958), pp. 48-53. IO. James DeForest Murch, Cooper&m Without Compromise (Grand Rapids: Eerd- Eerdn1ans, I964), [‘p. 40-41. mans, 1956). 1136 The Church I The Unity of the Church 1137

Conciliar Unity occurred among Reformed groups, notably the Presbyterians. Those groups which incline toward congregationalism and a more independent Yet there are occasions when churches do enter into organizational orientation, such as the Baptists, have shown less tendency to combine alliance in order to accomplish their common purposes. They band or, in cases of onetime union and subsequent separation, to recombine. together into what is called a council or association of churches. This is 3. “Organic unity” relates not only to establishing unity, but to retain- essentially a cooperative fellowship of denominations, each of which ing or preserving it as well. We are here referring to the issue of whether retains its own identity. It is a combined endeavor of, say, Methodists, dissatisfied Christians remain within the denomination of which they are Lutherans, and Episcopalians, all of whom continue their own unique a part or separate from it. This is an issue which frequently has faced traditions. There is emphasis upon both fellowship and action, since the conservatives within a denomination which has become predominantly unity is visible as well as spiritual. liberal. In a few cases, it is the less conservative element that must make such a decision. An example is the formation of Evangelical Lutherans in Mission (ELIM) by members of the Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod. Organic Unity On this particular level, “organic unity” may refer either to remaining Finally, there is the view that church unity means the actual creation within a denomination instead of separating or to separating from a of one organization in which separate identities are surrendered. Mem- denomination to form another group of basically similar tradition and bership and ordination are joint. When denominations unite in this fash- liturgy (e.g., separating from one Baptist group to form another Baptist ion, there is often a merging of local congregations as well. A prime fellowship of churches). example is the United Church of Canada, a single denomination formed 4. Finally, “organic unity” may relate to a local congregation. Here we in 1925 by the uniting of Methodists, Presbyterians, and Congregational- refer to the question of whether an individual or group remains within a ists. Another example is the Church of South India. In the early 1960s congregation or separates from it. An individual can simply leave the the Consultation on Church Union (COCU) began to plan the merger of fellowship; but if a group withdraws, it is a matter of actual schism. More several denominations into what they decided to call the Church of Christ people face the issue of organic unity at this level than at any of the Uniting. The ultimate goal is the combination of all Christian churches, others. Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, and Protestant, into one common church. In practice the aim of the National Council of the Churches of Christ has seemed to alternate between conciliar unity and organic unity. It is important that we look more closely at conciliar and organic The History and Present Status of Ecumenism unity, since they are the areas where disagreement and controversy tend to occur. Before we do so, however, we must point out that the term Ecumenism can be traced back a long way. Indeed, one history of “organic unity” is understood in several different ways: ecumenism traces it from 15 17 0nward.l 1 In a sense, however, the mod- 1. The usual sense of “organic unity” is what we referred to above, ern ecumenical movement began in 19 10 as a cooperative missionary namely, the merging of differing denominations. Here there is an agree- endeavor. Kenneth Scott Latourette says, “The ecumenical movement ment to allow diversity of practice or to base the union upon some lowest was in large part the outgrowth of the missionary movement.“12 For the common denominator. We have noted that rather major mergers of this historical background we look to the revivals which swept Europe and type have occurred in Canada and India. More limited mergers which North America in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Participants have taken place in the United States are those of the Congregational in those revivals found that they had a common theology and experience Church and the Evangelical and Reformed Church to form the United which transcended denominational lines. Most important, they had a Church of Christ, and of the Methodist Episcopal Church and the Evan- common task and purpose which bound them together: world evangeli- gelical United Brethren to form the United Methodist Church. 2. “Organic unity” also has reference to the combining of fellowships 11. A History of the Ecumenical Movement, 1517-1948, ed. Ruth Rouse and Stephen which arc basically of the same confessional standard. Here we have in Charles Neill, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1968). mind, for example, the series of mergers which have taken place among 12. Kenneth Scott Latourette, “Ecumenical Bearings of the Missionary Movement various Lutheran groups in the United States. Similar mergers have also and the International Missionary Council,” in Ecumenical Movement, Q. 353. 1138 The Church The Unity of the Church 1139 zation.13 The revival movements gave birth to a number of organizations: was born”18 One of the delegates, Bishop Charles Brent of the Protestant the Young Men’s Christian Association (1844), the Evangelical Alliance Episcopal Church, in October 19 10 proposed to his denomination the (1846), the Young Women’s Christian Association (1855), and the Worlds calling of a conference to study matters relating to “faith and order.” Student Christian Association (1895). While these organizations were not Other Christian groups from around the world would be invited to join truly ecumenical in their own right, they “were later to provide favour- in this endeavor.19 Virtually simultaneously, similar action was being able ground for the propagation of ecumenical ideas.“14 taken by two other American denominations, the Disciples of Christ and Missionaries were the first to sense that the divisions among the the National Council of Congregational Churches.20 As a result, wide- churches constituted an obstacle to the work of evangelization. Inter- spread support developed for a World Conference on Faith and Order? national conferences for the advancement of missions were held, those Before the conference could be held, however, the First World War broke in London in 1878 and 1888 and in New York in 1900 being particularly out. significant. The last of these, in fact, was officially designated the Ecu- When peace was restored, plans were resumed for the world confer- menical Missionary Conference. Attendance became progressively larger. ence. It convened in Lausanne, Switzerland, in 1927. Two years earlier, The crucial event was the 19 10 World Missionary Conference in Edin- Bishop Nathan Siiderblom of Sweden had convened in Stockholm a burgh, which is usually regarded as the beginning of the modern ecu- Universal Christian Council for Life and Work. Although Siiderblom was menical movement. The two major leaders were John R. Mott and a pragmatist who attempted to dismiss questions of a doctrinal nature, it Joseph H. 01dham.15 The purpose was to plan the next steps in evangeliz- became evident that there had to be a clear understanding of the church ing the world.16 if there was to be cooperative endeavor22 In 1937, the Faith and Order At one of the sessions a delegate from the Far East decried the movement met in Edinburgh and the Life and Work movement met in detrimental effect which denominational divisions among missionaries Oxford. Out of those meetings came the establishment of a provisional had in his country. Neither his name nor his exact words have been committee to unite the work of the two movements into what would preserved, but we do have a firsthand recollection of the substance of come to be called the World Council of Churches. Again, however, war his remarks: interrupted the plans. The actual formation of the World Council did not take place until 1948 in Amsterdam, at which time 147 denominational You have sent us your missionaries, who have introduced us to Jesus groups became members. 23 Later assemblies of the World Council of Christ, and for that we are grateful. But you have also brought us your Churches were held in Evanston, Illinois (1954), New Delhi (1961), Upp- distinctions and divisions: some preach Methodism, others Lutheranism, sala (1968), Nairobi (1975), and Vancouver (1983). Congregationalism or Episcopalianism. We ask you to preach the Gospel The original statement of the theological basis of the World Council to us, and to let Jesus Christ himself raise from among our peoples, by was brief and simple: “The World Council of Churches is a fellowship of the action of his Holy Spirit, a Church conforming to his requirements churches which accept our Lord Jesus Christ as Lord and Savior.“24 This and also to the genius of our race. This Church will be the Church of statement was criticized as not covering the full range of Christian Christ in Japan, the Church of Christ in China, the Church of Christ in beliefs, and so in 1961 an expanded version was adopted: “The World India; it will free us from all the ir;ms with which you colour the preaching Council of Churches is a fellowship of churches which confess the of the Gospel among us.17 Lord Jesus as God and Saviour according to the Scriptures and therefore seek to fulfill together their common calling to the glory of the one God, Maurice Villain reports that this speech had a powerful effect upon many of the delegates. They determined to use “every possible 18. Ibid.,p. 30. means . . . to remove this scandal[.] That day the ecumenical movement 19. Tissington Tatlow, “The World Conference on Faith and Order,” Ecumenical Move- ment, p. 407. 13. Ibid. 20. Ibid.,pp. 407-08. 14. Maurice Villain, Unity: A History and Some Reflections, trans. J. R. Foster from the 21. Ibid.,pp. 408-13. 3rd rev. ed. (Baltimore: Helicon, 1961). 22. Villain, Unity,p. 32. 15. Latourette, “Ecumenical Bearings,” p. 356. 23. Norman Goodall, The Ecumenical Movement: What It Is and What It Does, 2nd ed. 16. Ibid., pp. 357-58. (New York: Oxford University, 1964), pp. 63-68. 17. Villain, Unity, p. 29. 24. Ibid.,p. 68. 1140 The Church I The Unity of the Church 1141

Father, Son and Holy Spirit.“25 Also in 196 1, the International Missionary The activities of the American Council and its member churches have Council, another movement spawned from the 1910 conference at Edin- led to some very negative results. The tendency to schism which began burgh, merged with the World Council.*6 Another significant develop- when the Bible Presbyterian Church and Faith Seminary came into ment was occurring at the same time. On Christmas Day 1961, Pope existence as splits, respectively, from the Orthodox Presbyterian Church John XXIIl issued a call convoking the Second Vatican Council. The new and Westminster Seminary has continued. A case in point is the founding openness to non-Catholic Christianity displayed by this council was soon of Covenant College and Setiary and the allied denomination.29 Fur- to make Protestant-Catholic dialogue a reality. ther, the American Council has opposed not merely those of a liberal The World Council of Churches and its affiliate in the United States, persuasion, but also inconsistent evangelicals who, although thoroughly the National Council of the Churches of Christ, are not the only inter- orthodox, have not completely broken off ties with the National Council. church movements of note. In 1941 the American Council of Christian Indeed, no voting member of the American Council may sustain any Churches was organized; its global equivalent, the International Council cdnnection with the National C0uncil.3~ of Christian Churches, was established somewhat later. On the surface One year after the origin of the American Council of Christian these groups might appear to be conservative counterparts to the Na- Churches, yet another interchurch association came into existence. A tional and World Councils, attempting to achieve the same goals but group of evangel&& had in 1929 organized the New England Fellowship, from within a conservative theological framework. Upon closer scrutiny, which involved Bible conferences, camps, and radio broadcasting. Some however, it becomes obvious that the American and International Coun- of the leaders, having a vision of a nationwide fellowship, issued invita- cils exist for the purpose of opposing the aims and positions of the tions to evangel&& across the country to attend a session in St. Louis in National and World Co~ncil.s.*~ April 1942. Out of this session came the National Association of Evangel- From the beginning the major moving force in the American Council icals for United Action; the name was later shortened to National Associ- of Christian Churches has been Carl M&tire. He was a leader in the ation of Evangel&&?’ separation of the Bible Presbyterians from the Orthodox Presbyterian Two facts regarding the beginning of the National Association of Church, the founding of Faith Theological Seminary, and the transfor- Evangelicals reflect its distinctive nature and purposes. First, the original mation of the National Bible Institute into Shelton College. He has also name points to its orientation to practical action; in this respect the been the speaker on the “Twentieth Century Reformation Hour” radio association resembles the Edinburgh conference of 19 10. Second, the program. leaders of the evangelicals, having taken note of the formation of the The activities of the American Council include lobbying in Washington American Council the previous year, chose not to join because of its concerning government policy affecting the chaplaincy, foreign missions, negative orientation. Instead, the primary aim of the new group was and radio broadcasting.** It is opposition to the National and World constructive cooperative action. We might call it an ecumenical action Councils, however, which constitutes the raison d’etre of this group. One group: of its tactics is to hold a simultaneous rally in the very city where the World Council or one of its agencies is meeting. McIntire’s book, Twn- One thing became clear. Thousands had come to the conclusion that they tieth Century Reformation, is an extensive, vigorous, and pointed attack could no longer cooperate with the Federal [National] Council of upon the liberalism of the ecumenical group. It is not only theology Churches. [But the evangel&&] were not interested in drawing up indict- which is at stake, for matters of political and economic policy and ments and in spending their time in war-like strategy to reform or to practice also come up for controversial discussion. destroy the Council. They believed that too much time and energy, money and talent had already been lost in such endeavors. They desired a constructive, aggressive, dynamic, and unified program of evangelical 25. Ibid., p. 69. action in the fields of evangelism, missions, Christian education and every 26. Norman Goodall, Ecumenical Progress: A Decade of Change in the Ecumenical other sphere of Christian faith. They wanted a sound doctrinal basis for Mnvment, 1961-1971 (New York: Oxford University, 1972), p. 139. 27. Carl McIntire, Twentieth Century Reformation, 2nd and rev. ed. (Collingswood, N.J.: Christ ian Beacon, 1945). 29. Carl Henry, “The Perils of Independency,” Christianity Tday, 12 November 1956, 28. Paul Woolley, “American Council of Christian Churches,” in Twentieth Century p.21. Erqdopctliu of Religious Knowledge, cd. Lefferts A. Loetscher (Grand Rapids: Baker, 30. Woolley, “American Council,” p. 30. I955), vol. 1, p. 30. 3 1. Murch, Cooperation,pp. 48-6 1. II42 The Church The Unity of the Church 1143

such action. They sought leadership in these realms. They believed that categories. Although he wrote particularly from the perspective of Bap- the time had c&me to demonstrate the validity of their faith and the tists and ecumenism, we will, with some adaptations, use his outline ability of evangelicals to work together and build together in a great here.34 constructive program.32 The Theological Issue The National Association of Evangelicals functions through several com- missions. Its journal, Action (formerly United Evungelicul Action), gives When one considers the various types of reservations which have expression to the views of its members. been expressed regarding the ecumenical movement, theology is the field which comes immediately to mind. For disagreement on theological matters is what created separate denominations in the first place. Evan- Issues Raised by Evangelicals gelicals will not consider union with any group which fails to subscribe to certain basic doctrines: the supreme authority of the Bible as the source of faith and Christian practice; the deity of Jesus Christ, including When ecumenism is discussed, several issues are of particular con- his miracles, atoning death, and bodily resurrection; salvation as a super- cern to evangel&&. Evangelicals have always insisted that fellowship is natural work of regeneration and justification by grace through faith; impossible without agreement on certain basic truths. This insistence the second coming of Christ. It appears to the evangelical that, with stems from belief in an objective God to whom humans relate in faith. regard to the theological basis for fellowship, the ecumenical movement We are able to relate to him because he has revealed himself to us. Since has often settled for the lowest common denominator. As a result, the this revelation is at least partially in propositional form, faith is a matter evangelical suspects that some of the members of the fellowship may of personal trust in God and acceptance of the truths he has revealed. not be genuine Christians. There is also the question of what doctrinal Consequently, similar emotional experiences and cooperative endeavors standards (i.e., confessions or creeds), if any, are to be followed, and what are insufficient foundations for union. There must also be agreement their status or authority is to be.35 upon at least the most basic items of belief. This position of evangel&& might be interpreted as a natural or logical barrier to ecumenism. Actually, as John Warwick Montgomery The Ecclesiological Issue has pointed out, it has functioned in the opposite way; it has encouraged interdenominational activity. Because of their concern for truth, evangel- In a sense, the ecclesiological issue is merely a subdivision of the icals have been inclined to cooperate with and to feel themselves at one theological issue. Evangel&& will not consider union with groups that with those who hold the same basic beliefs which they do.33 Indeed, do not share their doctrine of the church. And yet, somewhat broader fundamentalism began historically with a series of Bible conferences questions are also at stake here. Evangelicals insist that there be basic attended by people who shared a set of distinctive beliefs termed “fun- agreement on what makes a church a church. Indeed, does the church damentals of the faith.” Many participants discovered that they had more make Christians Christian, or do Christians make the church the church? in common theologically and spiritually with some Christians bearing Here in a sense we have the question of the very nature of Christianity. different denominational labels than they did with some members of Then, too, there is the matter of the meaning of the term church Does it their own denomination. Thus the very fact of doctrinal diversity within apply primarily to a local congregation of believers, to a denomination, or to a federation of denominations? There must also be a consensus on the larger denominations has been a stimulus to ecumenism. the structure of church government and on the form and function of the Evangelicals have, however, in light of their concern for truth, been ministry. A merger of convinced Episcopalians and doctrinaire Congre- somewhat cautious about the degree to which they are willing to engage in ecumenism. A number of issues perpetually arise when evangelicals gationalists is not likely to be accomplished without some measure of discuss ecumenism. William Estep has conveniently grouped them into strain regarding the organization and adrninistration of church govern- ment, the significance and criteria of ordination, and allied subjects.

32. Ibid., p. 62. 33. John Warwick Montgomery, Ecumenicity, Evangelicals, and Rome (Grand Rapids: 34. William R. Step, lkptbts and Christian Unity (Nashville: Broadman, 1966), p. 170. Zondervan, 1969), p. 18. 35. Montgomery, Ecumenicity p, 17, n. 6; Step, lkptists, p. 170. II44 The Church The Unity of the Church II45 < Attention must also be given to such matters as the purpose and strategy lems of our time? The debate continues and both partners in the conver- of the church, the appropriateness and degree of social and political sation have to learn from each other.37 activism, and the relationship between state and church. It is significant that the areas we have just mentioned and related The Teleological Issue questions concerning the sacraments are causing the ecumenical move- ment its most severe tensions and difficulties, just as they did in the The final issue which evangelicals raise when they appraise ecumen- sixteenth century, when Martin Luther and Ulrich Zwingli were unable ism is what Estep calls the teleological issue.38 What is the ultimate goal to unite their wings of the Reformation, and negotiations broke down of the ecumenical movement? Is it organic merger of all denominations over the question of the nature of Christ’s presence in the Lord’s Supper. into one super-church? The leaders of the World Council have repeatedly The reason is readily apparent. With respect to other areas of belief, it is and emphatically declared that this is not their goal; individual denomi- possible to allow individuals to have their own private views. But the nations will persist and maintain their integrity. Nonetheless, Estep has church and the sacraments are outward, observable components of compiled an impressive list of statements by other leaders of the ecu- Christianity. Hence a greater degree of agreement is necessary concern- menical movement to the effect that organic union of all churches is to ing them. . be sought and attained. E. Roberts-Thomson distinguishes between the specific function of the World Council and the ultimate goal of the The Methodological Issue ecumenical movement. The Council itself is prohibited by its own consti- tution from becoming more than a council. It is expected, however, that Since a major reason for founding the ecumenical movement was to overcome the drawbacks of a divided witness, there is real pertinence to the consciences of the members of the World Council will become so a pragmatic question raised by evangelicals: Just how effective is the sensitized to the sin of separateness that they will seek a merger which ecumenical movement in carrying out the task of evangelizing the world? goes beyond the activities of the C0uncil.3~ Harold Lindsell has pointed out that the United Church of Canada was Should a complete merger take place, certain unfortunate results characterized by declining membership and a reduction of missionaries would occur Church membership would become meaningless. Robert at a time when other denominations were showing growth and progress Handy has observed that “the drive for total organizational unity inevit- in these areas.36 ably forces anew the question of who is a heretic. In the effort to escape In light of the origin of the ecumenical movement, its failure in the the harsher aspects of that question, while pressing for total organiza- area of world missions is particularly sign&cant. Evangelicals have fre- tional unity, standards of membership would be lowered and the nature quently criticized the World Council of Churches on this score. W. A. of the church would, in effect, be presented in minimal terms.“4o An Visser ‘t Hooft, the first general secretary of the World Council, at- additional problem with such a superchurch is that it would be regarded tempted to respond to the criticism: as the exclusive trustee, so to speak, of Christianity. Believers would be made to feel that one cannot be a Christian outside of the visible church. Perhaps the most relevant question raised by the conservative Evangeli- But what then becomes of the dissenter or nonconformist? Where could cals has been whether the ecumenical movement has concentrated its such a person go? A monolithic structure would preclude the system of energies too much on social and international problems and neglected checks and balances which is as necessary in the church as in secular the primary task of mission and evangelism. The question is all the more relevant since a comparison between the W.C.C. Churches and the evan- politics. gelical bodies shows that the latter are spending a much greater propor- tion of their resources of men and money on evangelism and foreign 37. W. A. Visser ‘t Hooft, “The General Ecumenical Development Since 1948,” in The missions. But the great question arises: What is evangelism? Is the Church Ecumenical Advance: A Hktory of the Ecumenical Movement, vol. 2, 1948-1968, ed. evangelistic only if it preaches the gospel to individuals? Or is it also Harold E. Fey (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1970), p. 19. 38. Estep, Baptists, p. 185. evangelistic if it throws the light of the gospel on the great human prob- 39. E. Roberts-Thomson, With Hands Outstretched (London: Marshall, Morgan and Scott, 1962) p. 39. 36. Harold Lindsell, “What Are the Results? Ecumenical Merger and Mission,” Chris- 40. Robert Handy, “The Ecumenical Task Today,” Founa’ations 4, no. 2 (April 1961): tiarzity Todq 30 March 1962, p. 5. 105-06. 1146 The Church

Guidelines for Action

In view of Christ’s prayer for the unity of his followers, what should our stance be? We conclude our chapter on church unity with several guidelines. 1. We need to realize that the church of Jesus Christ is one church. All who are related to the one Savior and Lord are indeed part of the same spiritual body (1 Cor. 12: 13). 2. The spiritual unity of believers should show itself or come to expres- sion in goodwill, fellowship, and love for one another. We should employ every legitimate way of affirming that we are one with Christians who are organically separated from us. 3. Christians of all types should work together whenever possible. If no essential point of doctrine or practice is compromised, they should join forces. In other words, it is important that there be occasions on PART -TWELVE which Christians lay aside their differences. Cooperation among Chris- tians gives a common witness to the world and is faithful stewardship of the resources entrusted to us. 4. It is important to delineate carefully the doctrinal basis and objec- The Last Things tives of fellowship. The original goal of the 1910 World Missionary Con- ference at Edinburgh has been, by Visser ‘t Hooft’s own admission, largely supplanted by other concerns. Yet the execution of Christ’s com- mission is still the major task of the church. Consequently, it is difficult 55. Introduction to Eschatology to justify committing time, personnel, and finances to activities that do 56. Individual Eschatology not contribute, at least indirectly, to evangelization. In other words, a return to the original goals of the ecumenical movement should be our 57. The Second Coming and Its Consequents aim, for not every one who says, “Lord, Lord,” is really one of his. 58. Millennial and Tribulational Views 5. We must guard against any union that would sap the spiritual 59. Final States vitality of the church. It is conservative churches that are growing; evangel&& have the momentum. Alliances that would dilute their vital- ity must be very carefully evaluated and probably avoided. 6. Christians should not be too quick to leave their parent denomina- tion. As long as there is a reasonable possibility of redeeming the denom- ination, the conservative witness should not be abandoned. For that matter, if conservatives withdraw from ecumenical circles, their position will not be represented therein. 7. It is imI&tant that Christians make sure that divisions and separa- tion are due to genuine convictions and principles, and not to personality conflicts or individual ambition. It is a discredit to the cause of Christ when Christians who hold the same beliefs and goals separate. 8. Where Christians do disagree, whether as individuals, churches, or denominations, it is essential that they do so in a spirit of love, seeking to correct others and persuade them of the truth, rather than refute them or expose them to ridicule. Truth will ever be linked to love. Introduction to Eschatology

The Status of Eschatology The Classification of Eschatologies Modern Treatments of Eschatology The Liberal Approach: Modernized Eschatology Albert Schweitzer: Demodernized Eschatology C. H. Dodd: Realized Eschatology Rudolf Bultmann: Existentialized Eschatology Jtirgen Moltmann: Politicized Eschatology Dispensationalism: Systematized Eschatology Conclusions Regarding Eschatology

The Status of Eschatology

As the derivation of the word indicates, eschatology has traditionally meant the study of the last things. Accordingly, it has dealt with questions concerning the consummation of history, the completion of God’s working in the world. In many cases it has also been literally the last thing in the study of theology, the last topic considered, the last chapter in the text- book. Eschatology has had varying fortunes during the history of Christian- 1149 1150 The Last Things Introduction to Eschatology 1151 ity. Because theology is usually defined and refined in response to chal- eschatology.7 There is, then, a wide range of views of the status of lenges and controversies, and the number of major debates over eschatology; it is variously regarded as an appendage to other doctrines, eschatology has been few, it has remained relatively undeveloped in one of the major doctrines, the supreme doctrine, and the whole of comparison to such doctrines as the nature of the sacraments and the theology. person and work of Christ. These latter doctrines, being more central to There are a number of reasons for the current attention to eschatol- the Christian faith and experience, were extensively treated at an earlier ogy. One is the rapid development of technology and consequent changes point. James Or-r observed that as church history advanced, different in our culture in general. To avoid obsolescence, it ,is necessary for doctrines predominated. The usual order of theological studies reflects corporations and public agencies to predict and prepare for the future. the order in which the various doctrines attained prominence. Orr sug- This has given rise to a whole new discipline-“futurism.” Curiosity as to gested that, in keeping with this sequence, eschatology would be the what homes, transportation, and communication will be like in the next dominant matter on the modern theological agenda.1 Whether it has decade or the next century gives rise to speculation and then research. been the supreme topic might be disputed, for in our century a great There is a corresponding interest in the future in a broader sense, a amount of attention has been given to revelation and the work of the cosmic sense. What does the future hold for the whole of reality? Holy Spirit. Yet it is certainly true that in the late nineteenth century and A second major reason for the prominence of eschatology is the rise throughout the twentieth century, eschatology has received closer ex- of the Third World. For those who live in the developed nations, the past amination than it ever had before. is rich with meaning. Indeed, in the minds of some, the best which life There are various conceptions of the relationship of eschatology to will ever offer lies buried in the past, and all current economic and other doctrines. Some theologians have regarded it as merely an appen- political trends are negative and discouraging. For the Third World na- dage to some other doctrine, the completion of another theological topic tions, however, it is otherwise. The future holds great promise and poten- as it were. For instance, it has sometimes been considered as simply a tial. As Christianity continues its rapid growth in the Third World nations, part of the doctrine of salvation.2 When viewed as essentially a study of indeed, more rapid there than anywhere else, their excitement and antic- the final steps in Christ’s establishing his rule in the world, eschatology ipation regarding the future stimulate greater interest in eschatology completes the doctrine of the work of Christ? It has also been attached than in accomplished history. to the doctrine of the church; we think, for example, of Augustine’s Further, the strength of communism or dialectical materialism in our discussion of the kingdom and the church.4 Other theologians have world has forced theologians to focus upon the future. Communism has looked upon eschatology as an independent doctrine on a par with the a definite philosophy of history. It sees history as marching on to an other major doctrines.5 Still other theologians have insisted that escha- ultimate goal. As the dialectic achieves its purposes, history keeps moving tology is the supreme doctrine- it sums up all of the others and brings from one stage to the next. Ernst Bloch’s Das Prinzip Hoffnung (The them to their fulfilment.6 Finally, a few have maintained that eschatology Principle of Ho~e),~ which represents Marxism as the world’s hope for a is the whole of theology or, more correctly, that the whole of theology is better future, has had great impact on various Christian theologians. They have felt challenged to set forth an alternative, superior basis for hope. 1. James Or-r, The Progress of Dogma (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952 reprint), pp. 20- 30. Certain schools of psychology have also begun to emphasize hope. 2. Theodore Haering, The Chrktian Faith: A System of Dogmatics (London: Hodder Perhaps the most notable example is Viktor Frankl’s logotherapy, a blend and Stoughton, 1913) vol. 2, pp. 829-924; Anthony Hoekema, The Bible and the Future of existentialism and psychoanalysis. From his experiences in a concen- (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1979) p. 297. tration camp during World War II, Frankl concluded that humans need 3. Geerhardus Vos, The Pauline fichatology (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University, 1930) p. 36. a purpose for living. One who has hope, who ‘knows the ‘why’ for his 4. Augustine The City of God 20.6-10, especially 9. 5. Augustus H. Strong, Systematic Theology (Westwood, N.J.: Revell, 1907), pp. 981- 7. Karl Barth says, “If Christianity be not altogether thoroughgoing eschatology, there 1056. remains in it no relationship whatever with Christ”-Epistle to the Romans, 6th ed., trans. 6. Joseph Pohle, Eschatology; or, The Catholic Doctrine of the Lust Things: A Dogmatic Edwyn C. Hoskyns (New York: Oxford University, 1968) p. 3 14. Treutise (St. Louis: B. Herder, 1917), p. 1. 8. Ernst Bloch, Du.s Prinzip Hoffnung (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp, 1959). 1152 The Last Things Introduction to Ekchatology 1153 existence. . . will be able to bear almost any ‘how.’ “9 In a very real sense, alistic approach to eschatology, some preachers and teachers avoid dis- the why, the purpose, of existence is related to the future, to what one cussion of the subject altogether. As a result, in some conservative circles anticipates will occur. there is virtually no alternative to dispensationalism. Many lay persons, Finally, the threat of destruction which hovers above the human race having heard no other view presented, have come to think of dispensa- has stirred inquiry regarding the future. The possibility of a nuclear tion&m as the only legitimate approach to eschatology. Moreover, in holocaust is a dark cloud over the whole world. And while the effect of situations where a rather minor point of eschatology has been made a the ecological crises we face is less rapid than nuclear war would be, test of orthodoxy, younger pastors tend to avoid the subject entirely, they, too, jeopardize the future of the race. These facts make it clear that hoping thus to avert suspicion. And in settings where discussing escha- we cannot live merely in the present, preoccupied with what is now. We tology has become an intramural sport, some pastors, hoping to avoid must think of the future. divisiveness, make little or no mention of the millennium and the great When we examine what theologians and ministers are doing with tribulation. In this respect, eschatological topics are not greatly unlike eschatology, we find two contrasting trends. On the one hand, there is an glossolalia, intensive preoccupation with eschatology. Theological conservatives have Many of the issues of eschatology are obscure and difficult to deal shown great interest in the subject. Dispensational& in particular have with. Consequently, some teachers and preachers simply avoid the sub- emphasized it in their preaching and teaching. One pastor is reported to ject. Certain professors who teach courses in Christian doctrine always have preached on the Book of Revelation every Sunday evening for find themselves running behind schedule in their lecturing. Conse- nineteen years! Sometimes the teaching is augmented by large detailed quently, they never have time to deal with the millennium and the great charts of the last times. Current political and social events, especially tribulation. Similarly, professors of New Testament studies have difficulty finding time for the Book of Revelation, and even some professors of Old those relating to the nation of Israel, are identified with prophecies in the Testament studies have difficulty budgeting their schedule to allow much Scripture. As a result, some preachers have been caricatured as having attention to the prophetical books. Perhaps this is just lack of organiza- the Bible in one hand and the daily newspaper in the other. Hal Lindsey’s tion and discipline, but more than one instructor has admitted that the Late Great Pihnet Earth is a noteworthy example of this type of “escha- lack of time is a convenience. tomania.“lO Somewhere between the two extremes of preoccupation with and There is another variety of eschatomania, very different in orientation avoidance of eschatology, we must take our stance. For eschatology is and content. This is the approach which makes eschatology the whole of neither an unimportant and optional topic nor the sole subject of signifi- theology.ll The Christian faith is regarded as so thoroughly eschatologi- cance and interest to the Christian. We will find an appropriate mediating cal that “eschatological” is attached as an adjective to virtually every position if we keep in mind the true purpose of eschatology. At times theological concept. Eschatology is seen “behind every bush” in the New eschatology has become a topic of debate, resulting in accusations and Testament. In the view of those who follow this approach, however, the acrimony among Christians. This is not the purpose for which eschato- central subject of eschatology is not the future, but the idea that a new logical truths were revealed by God. Paul indicates in 1 Thessalonians 4 age has begun. Often the tension between the old and the new is empha- his reason for writing about the second coming. Some believers whose sized; in fact, the phrase “already, but not yet” has become a sort of loved ones had died were experiencing a grief which was, at least to a slogan. degree, unhealthy and unnecessary. Paul did not want them to sorrow The opposite of the two varieties of eschatomania might be called like unbelievers, who have no hope for their departed loved ones (v. 13). “eschatophobia’‘-a fear of or aversion to eschatology, or at least an After describing the second coming and assuring his readers of its cer- avoidance of discussing it. In some cases, eschatophobia is a reaction tainty, he counsels, “Therefore comfort one another with these words” against those who have a definite interpretation of all prophetic material (v. 18). It is sometimes easy to forget that the eschatological truths in in the Bible and identify every significant event in history with some God’s Word, like the rest of his revelation, are intended to comfort and biblical prediction. Not wanting to be equated with this rather sensation- assure us.

9. Viktor Frankl, MunIs Seurch for Meuning (New York: Washington Square, 1963), The Classification of Eschatologies p. 127. IO. Hal Lindsey, 7‘1~~ Inrtr Greut Pkmet Eurth (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1971). There is a series of questions which can be posed to help us classify I I. Jiitgcrt Molt tnattn, The Tlzeology of Hope (New York: Harper and Row, 1967). I the various eschatological views held by Christians. In some cases, a 1154 The Last Things Introduction to Eschatology 1155 single question will serve to classify the view being considered, since it 3. Is divine activity or human effort thought to be the agent of escha- will be a key to the entire system. In other cases, several questions will tological events? If divine activity, these events will be regarded as super- have to be asked if we are to fully comprehend the nature of the view naturally realized; if human effort, they will be viewed as the result of with which we are dealing: familiar and natural processes. The former perspective looks for genu- 1. Is eschatology thought of as pertaining primarily to the future or inely transcendent working by God; the latter stresses Gods immanent the present? Eschatology has traditionally been understood as dealing activity in the world. with the end times, matters to transpire at some future point. Some 4. Is the focus of eschatological belief this-worldly or otherworldly? In theologians, however, see eschatology as a description of events in the other words, is it expected that the promises of God will largely come to here and now. We are in a new age and experience a new quality of life. pass upon this earth in a fundamental continuity with life as we now Still others view eschatology as a description of what has always been, is, experience it, or is it expected that there will be a deliverance from the and always will be true. In other words, eschatology has a timeless present scene and that his promises will be fulfilled in heaven or some character. place or situation radically different from what we now experience? At this point it will be helpful to note a system which is used to classify Eschatologies of the former type pursue more secular hopes; those of the various interpretations of prophetic or apocalyptic material in Scrip- the latter type are more spiritual in nature. ture. While it is most often utilized as a means of classifying interpreta- 5. Does the particular view speak of hope for the church alone or for tions of the Book of Revelationl* or, more generally, all such prophetic the human race in general? Do the benefits anticipated accrue only to literature, the system can also be applied to distinguish views of escha- those who are believers, or are the promises to all? If the latter, is the tology: church the agent or vehicle of the good things coming to all? 6. Does the eschatology hold that we will come into the benefits of the 1. The futuristic view holds that most of the events described are in new age individually, or that their bestowal will be cosmic in character? the future. They will come to fulfilment at the close of the age, If the latter, it is likely that Gods promises will be fulfilled in one all- many of them probably clustered together. inclusive occurrence. Moreover, in that case the effects may not be 2. The preterist view holds that the events described were taking place limited to human beings, but may involve other segments of the creation; at the time of the writer. Since they were current for the writer, there may well be a transformation of the natural order. they are now in the past. 7. Is there a special place for the Jewish people in the future occur- 3. The historical view holds that the events described were in the rences? As Gods chosen and covenant people in the Old Testament, do future at the time of writing, but refer to matters destined to take they still have a unique status, 01 are they simply like the rest of the place throughout the history of the church. Instead of looking solely human race? to the future for their occurrence, we should also search for them within the pages of history and consider whether some of them may be coming to pass right now. 4. The symbolic or idealist view holds that the events described are Modern Treatments of Eschatology not to be thought of in a time sequence at all. They refer to truths which are timeless in nature, not to singular historical occurrences. In many ways the history of eschatology has paralleled that of the doctrine of the Holy Spirit. In both cases a formal position was worked 2. Is the view of the future of life here on earth primarily optimistic or out fairly early and became part of orthodoxy. In orthodox circles, pessimistic? Some eschatologies anticipate an improvement in conditions. consequently, eschatology and the Holy Spirit were only rarely of vital Others look for a general worsening of the circumstances of human interest or major objects of concern. It was in the cults, or in radical existence. Many of them expect that, under human control, the situation fringe groups, that these doctrines were taken very seriously and given will deteriorate until God intervenes and rectifies what is occurring. dynamic and aggressive expression. While they were part of traditional belief, they were not the subject of much debate or preaching. In the 12. Merrill C. Tenney, The New Testument: An Historical and Analytic Survey (Grand twentieth century, however, both doctrines have become matters of Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), pp. 404-06. much broader interest and concern. II56 The Last Things Introduction to Eschatology II57 I The Liberal Approach: Modernized Eschatology standing reality. Yet they also believed that the conception contains an important message. The teaching of the bodily second coming is merely The nineteenth century was a time of considerable intellectual fer- the husk within which is contained the true message, the kernel. What ment, and Christian theology felt its force. The Darwinian theory of must be done is to peel away the husk to get to the kernel.15 What is evolution, the growth of natural sciences, and critical studies of the Bible really being proclaimed by the teaching of the second coming is the all contributed to a new mood. In theology, liberalism attempted to retain victory of God’s righteousness over evil in the world. This is the kernel; the Christian faith while bringing the scientific approach to religious the second advent is merely the husk or wrapping. We need not retain matters. There was confidence in the historical method as a means of the wrapping. Noone in his right mind eats the husk with the corn-at gaining understanding of what had actually occurred in biblical times. least no human being does. Application of this method to study of the Gospels came to be known as In the rejection of the idea of the second coming, we see the liberals’ the search for the historical Jesus. While there were variations in the profound appreciation for the conclusions of modern learning, which, conclusions, there were some general agreements. One was that Jesus along with the historical method, was one of the basic components of was basically a human teacher whose message was primarily about the their approach to the Bible. Prominent in the heyday of liberalism was heavenly Father. He was the first Christian. As some put it, Jesus called the idea of progress. Advances were being made scientifically, politically, us to believe with him rather than in him. and economically. The Darwini an theory of evolution was being gener- The message of Jesus was really quite simple, according to Adolf von alized to cover all of reality. Everything was seen as growing, developing, Harnack, whose thought represented the culmination of nineteenth- progressing. Not merely biological organisms, but human personality and century liberalism. Jesus emphasized the fatherhood of God, who has institutions were supposedly advancing as well. The belief in the triumph created all humans and who watches over and protects them, as he does of God over evil was blended with this doctrine of pro,gress. It was all parts of his creation. The infinite value of a human soul was another presumed that a continuing Christianization of the social order, including major teaching of Jesus. God has made man the highest object of his I economics, would be the current exemplification of the real meaning of creation and his love, so we should love our fellow humans.13 the second coming. The kingdom of God was still another basic topic of Jesus’ teaching. Whereas this kingdom had traditionally been understood as a future earthly reign of Christ which would be established by his dramatic Albert Schweitzer: Demodernized Eschatology second coming, liberals stressed the present character of the kingdom. They pointed out that Jesus had said to his disciples, “Whenever you Some theologians, however, were uneasy with the interpretations of enter a town and they receive you, eat what is set before you; heal the Jesus which they found in the liberals’ writings. It was not merely conser- sick in it and say to them, ‘The kingdom of God has come near to you”’ vatives who registered dissent; some who shared the liberals’ basic ap- (Luke 10~8-9). The kingdom, then, is not something far removed, either proach to interpreting the Bible also objected. One of the first of this spatially or temporally. It is something near, something into which hu- group was Johannes Weiss. His Jesus’Procl&nation of the Kingdom of mans can enter. It is not something external imposed from without. It is G&proved to be a radical departure for those who applied the historical simply the reign of God in human hearts wherever obedience to God is method to the Gospels. Instead of assuming that the kingdom of which found. The role of Christians is to spread this kingdom, which, according Jesus spoke is a present ethical kingdom, Weiss theorized that Jesus was to Albrecht Ritschl, is a realm of righteousness and ethical values.14 thoroughly eschatological, futuristic, and even apocalyptic in his outlook. In the view of liberals, Jesus also taught some rather strange ideas. According to Weiss, Jesus did not look for a gradual spread of the One of these ideas was the second coming, the conception that he would kingdom of God as an ethical rule in the hearts of men, but for a future return bodily at the end of the age to establish his kingdom. Liberals kingdom to be introduced by a dramatic action of God. This hypothesis found this an untenable carryover from a prescientific way of under- appeared to Weiss to fit the data of Jesus’ life and teaching much better than did the conclusions of the standard lives of Jesus.16 13. Adolf von Harnack, What Is Christianity? (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1957), pp. 52-74. 15. Harnack, Whut 1s Christiunily? pp. 55-56. 14. Albrecht Ritschl, The Christian Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliution (Edin- 16. Johannes Weiss, Jcsu.s ‘~roc.lrllrcrtior3 of the Kingdom of God, ed. and trans. Richard burgh: T. and T. Clark, 1900), pp. 3Off. H. Hicrs arid David I,. Holland (Philadc+hia: Fortress, 197 I ). 11.58 The Last Things Introduction to Eschatology 1159

What Weiss had begun, Albert Schweitzer completed. He was sharply eschatology is a major theme permeating Scripture, particularly Jesus’ critical of the liberal interpretations and reconstructions of the life of teachings. Unlike Schweitzer, however, Dodd insisted that the content of Jesus. These half-historical, half-modern conceptions were the product Jesus’ message was not a future coming and a future kingdom; rather, of fruitful imaginations. He said of the liberal conception of Jesus as a with the advent of Jesus the kingdom of God had already arrived. In preacher of an ethical kingdom: “He is a figure designed by rationalism, tern-is of the four views of eschatology of which we spoke earlier, this is endowed with life by liberalism, and clothed by modern theology in an the preterist approach. historical garb?’ Instead of a Jesus who had little to say about the future, In formulating his eschatology, Dodd pays particular attention to the Schweitzer found a Jesus whose thoughts and actions were permeated biblical references to the day of the Lord. He notes that whereas in the by a radical, thoroughgoing eschatology. Schweitzer used the phrase Old Testament the day of the Lord is viewed as a future matter, in the “consistent eschatology.” A key factor in Jesus’ message was his future New Testament it is depicted as a present occurrence. The mythological coming (Schweitzer preferred this term to “second conring”). Not only concept of the day of the Lord has become a definite historical reality was this eschatological preaching basic and central to Jesus’ ministry; it Eschatology has been fulfilled or realized. Hence Dodd’s view has come was also the original plan. While some theologians see the eschatological to be known as “realized eschatology.” Instead of looking ahead for future element in Jesus’ teaching as an afterthought adopted when he failed to fulfilments of prophecy, we should note the ways in which it has already establish an earthly kingdom, Schweitzer believed that a future heavenly been fulfilled. For example, the triumph of God was evident when Jesus kingdom was at the base of Jesus’ preaching even from the beginning of saw Satan fall from heaven (Luke 10~18). With the coming of Christ, the his first Galilean ministry.18 judgment has already taken place (John 3:19). Eternal life is already our Jesus preached a future kingdom which would be radically super- possession (John 524). In Dodd’s mind, there is little doubt that the New natural, sudden in its coming, and discontinuous from human society as Testament writers saw the end times as having already come. In drawing previously experienced. It would be introduced through a cosmic catas- this conclusion, Dodd gives greater attention to Paul than do Schweitzer trophe. One should prepare for it by repenting. This is what Jesus really or the liberal lives of Jesus. Peter’s witness at Pentecost is also of signifi- believed, according to Schweitzer; but, of course, Jesus was mistaken! cance: “But this is what was spoken by the prophet Joel: ‘And in the last Failing in his attempt to introduce his contemporaries to this cosmic days it shall be, God declares, that I will pour out my Spirit upon all kingdom, Jesus was destroyed. He died a martyr’s death.19 It is this true flesh”’ (Acts 2:16-17). There really is no need to look ahead for the historical Jesus, not the modern Jesus, that we are to follow. For Jesus fulfilment of prophecies like Joel’s. They have already been fulfilled.21 cannot be made to fit our conceptions. He will reveal himself to those who obey his commands and perform the tasks he has set them.20 While Rudolf Bultmann: Existentialized Eschatology Schweitzer did not specify just what this means or how this revelation is to take place, his mission work in Lamberene was evidently his personal Still another approach to eschatology was put forward by Rudolf attempt to fulfil Christ’s commands. Bultmann. His handling of eschatology is simply part of his much larger program of demythologization. Because demythologization has been examined elsewhere in this treatise, we will not give a full-scale exposition C. H. Dodd: Realized Eschatology here. In short, Bultmann insisted that much of the New Testament is in the form of mythology. The writers expressed their understanding of life C. H. Dodd gave eschatology its next major reorientation. His escha- in terms which were common in New Testament times. What they tology was similar to Schweitzer’s in one major respect but diametrically recorded is not to be taken as an objective account of what actually opposed to it in another. In common with Schweitzer he held that transpired or as a literal explanation of the cosmos. If taken in this fashion, the New Testament seems ludicrous. The ideas that Jesus as- 17. Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its Progress cended into heaven, for example, and that diseases are caused by de- from Reirnarus to Wrede (New York: Macmillan, 1964), p. 396. 18. Albert Schweitzer, The Mystery of the Kingdom of God: The Secret of Jesus’ mons inhabiting humans are simply untenable as well as unnecessary. Messiahship and Passion, trans. Walter Lowrie (London: Black, 1914), p. 87. 19. Schweitzer, Quest of the Htitorical Jesus, pp. 368-69. 2 1. C. H. Dodd, The Apostolic Preaching and Its Development (Chicago: Willett, Clark, 20. Ibid., p. 40 1. 1937), pp. 142-49. I IhO The Last Things Introduction to Eschatology I161

Instead, we must understand that the New Testament writers used myths the spirit of antichrist, then, do not depend upon whether a particular drawn from Gnosticism, Judaism, and other sources, to give expression event has yet transpired, for they are true in a timeless, existential sense. to what had happened to them existentially?2 Bultmann brought to his interpretation of the New Testament the Jiirgen Moltmann: Politicized Eschatology existentialism of Martin Heidegger. Since the message of the New Testa- ment is existential rather than historical (i.e., it does not tell us what The theology of hope considers eschatology not simply one part of actually happened), does it not make good sense to interpret it by Using theology, or one doctrine of theology, but rather the whole of theology. existential philosophy? Bultmann considers Heidegger’s thought to be a To an unusual degree, the inspiration for this theology stems from the secularized, philosophical version of the New Testament view of human personal experiences of one man, Jtigen Moltmann. Moltmann was a existence.23 prisoner of war in a British camp until 1948. He saw the collapse of his Since the historical element in the New Testament does not tell us native Germany and all of its institutions. Like some other authors of primarily about specific occurrences but about the very nature of exis- prison-camp memoirs, he noted that, as a general rule, the prisoners with tence, we must regard it as essentially timeless. The same is true of hope had the best chance of survival. When he returned to Germany eschatology. Just as biblical history does not tell us about literal events and began to study theology, his views matured. In particular, exposure which occurred in the past, eschatology does not refer to literal events to the thought of the Marxist philosopher Ernst Bloch intensified his which will occur in the future. Paul in particular writes of current interest in the theme of hope. He could not understand why Christian experience rather than future events. He thinks of salvation as bearing theology had allowed this theme, of which it was the rightful owner, to upon present existence: “If any one is in Christ, he is a new creation; the slip away.25 As atheistic Marxism picked up and exploited the theme of old has passed away, behold, the new has come” (2 Cor. 5: 17). Resurrec- hope, Christianity was becoming irrelevant. On the one hand, Christianity tion, too, is a present experience: “Death is swallowed up in victory” had a God but no future, and on the other, Marxism had a future but no (1 Cor. 1554). And from words spoken by Jesus the week of his crucifix- God.26 Moltmann called Christians to remember the “God of Hope” who ion and recorded by John, we know that judgment is a present phenom- is witnessed to in both the Old Testament and the New Testament; enon as well: “Now is the judgment of this world, now shall the ruler of reclaiming the theme of hope, they should “begin to assume responsibil- this world be cast out” (John 12:3 1). John likewise reports words of Jesus ity for the personal, social, and political problems of the present.“27 which represent eternal life and resurrection as current experiences This quotation suggests the direction in which Moltmann’s subsequent rather than future events: “He who believes in the Son has eternal life; he thought has gone. He has called upon the church to mediate the presence who does not obey the Son shall not see life, but the wrath of God rests of Christ, who in turn will mediate the future of God. The Christian hope upon him” (John 3:36); “Truly, truly, I say to you, the hour is coming, and will not be brought about simply by passive waiting, however. For “we now is, when the dead will hear the voice of the Son of God, and those are construction workers and not only interpreters of the future whose who hear will live” (525). Bultmann comments, “For John the resurrec- power in hope! as well as in fulfillment is God. This means that Christian hope is a creative and militant hope in history. The horizon of eschatologi- tion of Jesus, Pentecost and the purousia of Jesus are one and the same cal expectation produces here a horizon of ethical intuitions which, in event, and those who believe have already eternal life.“24 Even a purely turn, gives meaning to the concrete historical initiatives.“28 eschatological event like the coming of the spirit of antichrist is existen- Aiming at realization of the Christian hope, Moltmann has developed tially true at all times: “And every spirit which does not confess Jesus is a political theology to transform the world. We are not to passively await not of God. This is the spirit of antichrist, of which you have heard that the arrival of the future, for what the future proves to be depends in it was coming, and now it is in the world already” (1 John 4:3). The next verse declares that the children of God have overcome these spirits. 25. Jiirgen Moltmann, “Politics and the Practice of Hope,” Christian Century, 11 March Eschatological realities like resurrection, eternal life, and the coming of 1970, p. 288. 26. Ji.irgen Moltmann, “Hope and History,” Theology T+ 25, no. 3 (October 1968):

22. Rudolf Bultmann, Jts14.s Chrbt und Mythology (New York: Scribner, 1958), p. 33. 370. 23. Ibid., p. 45. 27. Ibid., p. 371. 24. Ibid., p. 33. 28. Ibid., p. 384. 1162 The Last Thlngs Introduction to Eschatology 1163 large part upon our efforts. Yet the future will not be achieved primarily example is the frequent explanation of the Song of Solomon as a picture by our work. It will be basically Gods doing. To attain that future (our of Christ’s love for his church, in spite of the fact that the book says hope) requires action, not theological explanation. In contrast to earlier nothing about either Christ or the church. theologies, which attempted to deal with the problem of evil in the world Dispensationalism finds in God’s Word evidence of a series of “dispen- by offering a theodicy (a vindication of God’s justice), the theology of sations” or economies under which he has managed the world. These hope, instead of asking why God does not do something about evil in the dispensations are successive stages in Gods revelation of his purposes. world, acts to transform that evil So faith has become action, which in They do not entail different means of salvation, for the means of salva- turn will help to bring about the object of that faith. tion has been the same at all periods of time, namely, by grace through faith. There is some disagreement as to the number of dispensations, the Dispensationalism: Systematized Eschatology most common number being seven. Thus, man was first in the dispen- sation of innocence. Then came the dispensations of conscience (from One additional school of eschatolog-y needs to be looked at, for al- the fall to the flood), human government (from the flood to the call of though it is relatively new as orthodox theologies go, it has exerted a Abraham), promise, law, and grace. The seventh is yet to come. Many considerable influence within conservative circles. This is the movement dispensational& emphasize that recognizing to what dispensation a which has come to be known as dispensationalism. Dispensationalism is given passage of Scripture applies is crucial. We should not attempt to a unified interpretive scheme. That is to say, each specific part or tenet is govern our lives by precepts laid down for the millennium, for example.31 vitally interconnected with the others. Thus, when we speak of the Dispensational&s also put great stress on the distinction between systematizing of eschatology, we have in mind not only that the data Israel and the church. Some of them, in fact, regard this distinction as have been organized to facilitate understanding, but also that conclu- fundamental to understanding Scripture and organizing eschatology. In sions in some areas automatically follow from tenets in others. The their view, God made an unconditional covenant with Israel; that is to developer of dispensation&m was John Nelson Darby (1800-1882). He say, his promises to them do not depend upon their fulfilling certain was the organizing force in the Plymouth Brethren movement as well. requirements. They will remain his special people and ultimately receive Dispensationalism was popularized through the Scofield Reference Bible his blessing. Ethnic, national, political Israel is never to be confused with and through conferences on biblical prophecy which were led by pastors the church, nor are the promises given to Israel to be regarded as and lay persons who had studied at Bible institutes where dispensation- applying to and fulfilled in the church. They are two separate entities.j2 alism was virtually the official position.29 God has, as it were, interrupted his special dealings with Israel, but will Dispensational&s tend to think of their system as being, first and resume them at some point in the future. Unfulfilled prophecies regard- foremost, a method of interpreting Scripture. At its core is the conviction ing Israel will be fulfilled within the nation itself, not within the church. that Scripture is to be interpreted literally. This does not mean that Indeed, the church is not mentioned in the Old Testament prophecies. It obviously metaphorical passages are to be taken literally, but that if the is virtually a parenthesis within God’s overall plan of dealing with Israel. plain meaning makes sense, one must not look further.30 Application of We must be careful, then, not to confuse the two divine kingdoms this principle leads to rejection of both allegorical interpretations and the mentioned in Scripture. The kingdom of heaven is Jewish, Davidic, and liberal attempts to explain away the supernatural elements in Scripture, messianic. When it was rejected by national Israel during Jesus’ ministry, for example, the miracles. It also means that prophecy is interpreted very its appearance on earth was postponed. The kingdom of God, on the literally and often in considerable detail. Specifically, “Israel” is always other hand, is more inclusive. It encompasses all moral intelligences understood as a reference to national or ethnic Israel, not the church. obedient to the will of God-the angels and the saints from every period Despite the stress on literal interpretation, however, there is also a tend- of time.33 ency toward a typological understanding of some narrative and poetical 3 1. Charles C. Ryrie, Dispensationalism Toa!ay (Chicago: Moody, 1965), pp. 86-90. portions which at times approaches the old allegorizing method. An 32. Ibid., pp. 132-55. 33. The Scofild Reference Bible, p. 996, n. 1; p. 1226, n. 3. Some later dispensationalists 29. Clarence B. Bass, Backgrounds to Dispensationalism: Its Historical Genesis and maintain that the distinction between the kingdom of heaven and the kingdom of God is Ecclesiastical Implications (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1960). not essential. To them the issue is whether the Davidic theocratic kingdom is present 30. John Walvoord, “Dispensational Premillennialism,” Chtitzizni~ Today, 15 Septem- today in the form of the church or has simply been postponed. See Ryrie, LXspensation- ber 1958, pp. 11-12. alism T&q, pp. 170-74. I I64 The Last Things Introduction to Jkhatology 1165

Finally, the millennium takes on a special significance in dispensation- see it in terms of social action. As we carry out our role, however, we alism. At that time God will resume his dealings with Israel, the church must also be mindful that eschatology pertains primarily to a new realm having been taken out of the world or “raptured” some time earlier (just beyond space and time, a new heaven and a new earth. This kingdom prior to the great tribulation). The millennium consequently will have a will be ushered in by a supernatural work of God; it cannot be accom- markedly Jewish character. The unfuM.led prophecies regarding Israel plished by human efforts. will come to pass at that time. Here we see the organic nature of 7. The truths of eschatology should arouse in us watchfulness and dispensationalism, the interconnectedness of its tenets. Proceeding on alertness in expectation of the future. But preparation for what is going the principle of literal interpretation, dispensationalists put great stress to happen will also entail diligence in the activities which our Lord has on the distinction between Israel and the church. All of the prophecies assigned to us. We must not become impatient nor prematurely abandon regarding Israel are interpreted as applying to the nation; and, in turn, our tasks. We should study the Scripture intensively and watch develop- the millennium is regarded as having a Jewish character.34 ments in our world carefully, so that we may discern God’s working and not be misled. We must not become so brash, however, as to dogmatically identify specific historical occurrences with biblical prophecy or predict Conclusions Regarding Eschatology when certain eschatological events will take place. 8. As important as it is to have convictions regarding eschatological 1. Eschatology is a major topic in systematic theology. Consequently, matters, it is good to bear in mind that they vary in significance. It is we dare not neglect it as we construct our theology. On the other hand, essential to have agreement on such basic matters as the second coming it is but one doctrine among several, not the whole of theology. We must of Christ and the life hereafter. On the other hand, holding to a specific not convert our entire doctrinal system into eschatology, nor allow our position on less central and less clearly expounded issues, such as the theology to be distorted by an undue emphasis upon it. millennium or the tribulation, should not be made a test of orthodoxy or 2. The truths of eschatology deserve careful, intense, and thorough a condition of Christian fellowship and unity. Emphasis should be placed attention and study. At the same time, we must guard against exploring upon the points of agreement, not the points of disagreement. these matters merely out of curiosity. And when striving to understand 9. When we study the doctrines of eschatology, we should stress their the meaning of difhcult and obscure portions of God’s Word, we must spiritual significance and practical application. They are incentives to also avoid undue speculation and recognize that because the biblical purity of life, diligence in service, and hope for the future. They are to be sources vary in clarity, our conclusions will vary in degree of certainty. regarded as resources for ministering, not topics for debate. 3. We need to recognize that eschatology does not pertain exclusively to the future. Jesus did introduce a new age, and the victory over the powers of evil has already been won, even though the struggle is still to be enacted in history. 4. We must pair with this insight the truth that there are elements of predictive prophecy, even within Jesus’ ministry, which simply cannot be regarded as already fulfilled. We must live with an openness to and anticipation of the future. 5. The biblical passages regarding eschatological events are far more than existential descriptions of life. They do indeed have existential signif- icance, but that significance is dependent upon, and an application of, the factuality of the events described. They really will come to pass. 6. We as humans have a responsibility to play a part in bringing about those eschatological events which are to transpire here upon earth and within history. Some see this responsibility in terms of evangelism; others

34. Walvoo~d, “lhpensational Premillennialism,” p. 13. 1560

Individual Eschatology

Death The Reality of Death The Nature of Death Physical Death: Natural or Unnatural? The Effects of Death The Intermediate State The Difficulty of the Doctrine Current Views of the Intermediate State Soul Sleep Purgatory Instantaneous Resurrection A Suggested Resolution Implications of the Doctrines of Death and the Intermediate State

vvhen we speak of eschatology, we must distinguish between individual eschatology and cosmic eschatology-those experiences which lie, on the one hand, in the future of the individual, and, on the other, in the future of the human race and indeed of the entire creation. The former will occur to each individual as he or she dies. The latter will occur to all persons simultaneously in connection with cosmic events, specifically, the second coming of Christ. 1167 The Last Things Individual Fkchatology 1169

Death of death. Death is simply the end of the process, the final stage of life, and we must accept it.2 An undeniable fact about the future of every person is the inevitability While disagreeing with the existentialist as to the meaning of death, of death. There is a direct assertion of this fact in Hebrews 927: “It is the Christian agrees as to its reality and inescapability. Paul acknowledges appointed to men to die once, and after that comes judgment.” The that death is ever present in the world: “For while we live we are always thought also runs through the whole of 1 Corinthians 15, where we read being given up to death for Jesus’ sake, so that the life of Jesus may be of the universality of death and the effect of Christ’s resurrection. While manifested in our mortal flesh. So death is at work in us, but life in you” (2 Cor. 4~11-12). Death is not something that comes upon us suddenly. It death is said to have been defeated and its sting removed by his resurrec- is the end of the process of decay of our mortal, corruptible bodies. We tion (vv. 54-56) there is no suggestion that we will not die. Paul certainly reach our physical peak and then deterioration begins. In little ways we anticipated his own death (2 Cor. 5:1-10; Phil. 1:19-26). find our strength ebbing from us, until finally the organism can no longer function. The Reality of Death The Nature of Death Death is one facet of eschatology that almost all theologians and all What is death, however? How are we to define it? Various passages in believers and indeed all persons in general recognize. The only exception Scripture speak of physical death, that is, cessation of life in our physical would seem to be the Christian Scientists, who question the reality both body. In Matthew 10~28, for example, Jesus contrasts death of the body of sickness and of death. Yet even this group, after initial denials, even- with death of both body and soul: ‘And do not fear those who kill the tually came to acknowledge that their founder, Mary Baker Eddy, had body but cannot kill the soul; rather fear him who can destroy both soul died.’ and body in hell.” The same idea appears in Luke 12:4-5: “I tell you, my Although everyone at least intellectually acknowledges the reality and friends, do not fear those who kill the body, and after that have no more the certainty of death, there nonetheless is often an unwillingness to face that they can do. But I will warn you whom to fear: fear him who, after the inevitability of one’s own death. So we see within our society numer- he has killed, has power to cast into hell; yes, I tell you, fear him!” Several ous attempts to avoid thinking of death. At funeral homes, many people other passages speak of loss of the $vx’lj (“life”). An example is John pay their. formal respects and then seek to get as far away from the 13:37-38: “Peter said to him, ‘Lord, why cannot I follow you now? I will casket as possible. The embalmers cosmetic art is highly developed, the lay down my life for you.’ Jesus answered, ‘Will you lay down your life aim apparently being to conceal the appearance of death. We employ a for me?“’ Other references of this type include Luke 6:9 and 14:26. Finally, death is referred to in Ecclesiastes 12:7 as separation of body and whole series of euphemisms to avoid acknowledging the reality of physi- soul (or spirit): “And the dust returns to the earth as it was, and the spirit cal death. Persons do not die-they expire or pass away. We no longer returns to God who gave it.” This passage is reminiscent of Genesis 2:7 have graveyards, but cemeteries and memorial parks. Even in the church, (man originated when God breathed the breath of life into dust from the death is spoken of only during Passion Week and funerals. Many people ground) and 3:19 (man shall return to dust). In the New Testament, James have not made a will, some probably because of procrastination, but 2:26 also speaks of death as separation of body and spirit: “For as the others because of an abhorrence of the thought of death. body apart from the spirit is dead, so faith apart from works is dead.” To the existentialist, this unwillingness to come to grips with the reality What we are dealing with here is cessation of life in its familiar bodily of death is a prime example of “inauthentic existence.” Death is one of state. This is not the end of existence, however. Life and death, according the harsh realities of life: every individual is going to grow old, die, be to Scripture, are not to be thought of as existence and nonexistence, but taken to the cemetery and buried in the ground. That is our inevitable as two different states of existence.3 Death is simply a transition to a end. I,ifc>, if it is to be lived properly, must include acceptance of the fact different mode of existence; it is not, as some tend to think, extinction.

2. Karl Jasper-s, The Way to Wisdom, trans. Ralph Manheim (New Haven, Corm.: Yale University, 195 l), p. 53. 3. Louis Berkhof, Systematic Theolou (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), p. 668. I170 The Last Things Individual Eschatology 1171 . In addition to physical death, Scripture speaks of spiritual and eternal goes on to say that if the sinner turns from his wicked ways, he shall live death. Physical death is the separation of the soul from the body; spiritual and not die (w. 21-22). Since both believer and unbeliever experience death is the separation of the person from God; eternal death is the physical death, the reference here cannot be to physical death. The same finalizing of that state of separation-one is lost for all eternity in his or holds true of Romans 6:23: “For the wages of sin is death, but the free her sinful condition.4 Scripture clearly refers to a state of spiritual dead- gift of God is eternal life in Christ Jesus our Lord.” That it is eternal life ness, which is an inability to respond to spiritual matters or even a total which is contrasted with death suggests that the result of sin in view loss of sensitivity to such stimuli. This is what Paul has in mind in here is eternal death, not physical death. In 1 Corinthians 15, however, Ephesians 2:1-2: ‘And you he made alive, when you were dead through the trespasses and sins in which you once walked.” When the Book of Paul is clearly referring, at least in part, to physical death when he says, Revelation refers to the “second death,” it is eternal death which is in ‘As by a man came death, by a man has come also the resurrection of view. An example is found in Revelation 21:8: “But as for the cowardly, the dead” (v. 2 1). For physical death is one of the evils countered and the faithless, the polluted, as for murderers, fornicators, sorcerers, idola- overcome by Christ’s resurrection. He was himself delivered from physi- ters, and all liars, their lot shall be in the lake that burns with fire and cal death. This verse, then, is proof that physical death came from man’s brimstone, which is the second death.” This second death is something sin; it was not part of God’s original intention for humankind. separate from and subsequent to normal physical death. We know from Since physical death is a result of sin, it seems probable that man was Revelation 20:6 that the second death will not be experienced by believ- created with the possibility of living forever. He was not inherently im- ers: “Blessed and holy is he who shares in the first resurrection! Over mortal, however; that is, he would not by virtue of his nature have lived such the second death has no power, but they shall be priests of God and on forever. Rather, if he had not sinned, he could have partaken of the of Christ, and they shall reign with him a thousand years.” The second tree of life and thus have received everlasting life. He was mortal in the death is an endless period of punishment and of separation from the sense of being able to die; and when he sinned, that potential or possibility presence of God, the finalization of the lost state of the individual who is became a reality. We might say that he was created with contingent spiritually dead at the time of physical death. immortality. He could have lived forever, but it was not certain that he would. Upon sinning he lost that status. Physical Death: Natural or Unnatural? Death, then, is not something natural to man. It is something foreign and hostile. Paul pictures it as an enemy (1 Cor. 15:26). And there is little There has been a great deal of debate as to whether man was born doubt that God himself sees death as an evil and a frustration of his mortal or immortal, whether he would have died had he not sinned.5 It original plan. God is himself the giver of life; those who thwart his plan is our position that physical death was not an original part of man’s of life by shedding human blood must forfeit their own lives (Gen. 96). condition. But death was always there as a threat should man sin, that His sending death is an expression of his disapproval of human sin, our is, eat of or touch the forbidden tree (Gen. 3:3). While the death which frustrating his intention for us. This was the case with the flood which was threatened must have been at least in part spiritual death, it appears God sent to do away with all flesh (Gen. 6:13), the destruction of Sodom that physical death was also involved, since the man and woman had to and Gomorrah (Gen. 19), the punishment of Korah and those who be driven out of the Garden of Eden lest they also eat of the tree of life rebelled with him (Num. 16), and the numerous other instances of the and live forever (Gen. 3:22-23). death penalty. In each case, those put to death had departed from God’s It must be admitted that some of the Scripture passages which have intention for them. Death was the unnatural consequence which they been offered as evidence that physical death is the result of man’s sin had to pay for their sin. The psalmist vividly depicts death as an expres- prove no such thing. A case in point is Ezekiel 18:4,20: “the soul that sins sion of God’s anger: “Thou dost sweep men away; they are like a dream, shall die.” The reference here is to spiritual or eternal death, for the text like grass which is renewed in the morning: in the morning it flourishes and is renewed; in the evening it fades and withers. For we are consumed 4. Augustus H. Strong, Systematic Theology (Westwood, N.J.: Revell, 1907), p. 982. by thy anger; by thy wrath we are overwhelmed” (Ps. 905-7). Yet God is 5. E.g., Augustine, Anti-Pelagian Writings, in A Select Library of the Nicene and Post- Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, vol. 5, ed. Philip Schaff (New York: Scribner, also compassionate. Jesus wept at the death of Lazarus (John 11:35), and 1902). on other occasions as well restored the dead to life. The Last Things Individual Eschatology 1173

earth; for the LORD has spoken” (Isa. 258); “Shall I ransom them from the power of Sheol? Shall I redeem them from Death? 0 Death, where are For the unbeliever, death is a curse, a penalty, an enemy. For although your plagues? 0 Sheol, where is your destruction? Compassion is hid death does not bring about extinction or the end of existence, it cuts one from my eyes” (Hos. 13:14). In 1 Corinthians 15:55 Paul cites the latter off from God and from any opportunity of obtaining eternal life. But for passage, and in Revelation 21:3-4 John picks up the former: “Behold, the those who believe in Christ and so are righteous, death has a different dwelling of God is with men. He will dwell with them, and they shall be character. The believer still undergoes physical death, but its curse is his people, and God himself will be with them; he will wipe away every gone. Because Christ himself became a curse for us by dying on the tear from their eyes, and death shall be no more, neither shall there be cross (Gal. 3:13), believers, although still subject to physical death, do not mourning nor crying nor pain any more, for the former things have experience its fearsome power, its curse. As Paul put it, “When the passed away.” In the previous chapter John has written, “Then Death and perishable puts on the imperishable, and the mortal puts on immortality, Hades were thrown into the lake of fire” (Rev. 20: 14a). Passages such as then shall come to pass the saying that is written: ‘Death is swallowed up these make it clear that death has been defeated and will ultimately be in victory.’ ‘0 death, where is thy victory? 0 death, where is thy sting?’ destroyed. The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law. But thanks be to Here the question arises as to why the believer is still required to God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ” (1 Car. experience death at all. If death, physical as well as spiritual and eternal, 1.554-57). is the penalty for sin, then when we are delivered from sin and its Looking on death as indeed an enemy, the non-Christian sees nothing ultimate consequence (eternal death), why should we not also be spared positive in it and recoils from it in fear Paul, however, was able to take from the symbol of that condemnation, namely, physical death? If Enoch an entirely different attitude toward it. He saw death as a conquered and Elijah were taken to be with the Lord without having to go through enemy, an erstwhile foe which now is forced to do the Lord’s will. So death, why should not such translation be the experience of all whose Paul regarded death as desirable, for it would bring him into the presence faith is placed in Christ? Is it not as if something of the curse for sin still of his Lord. He wrote to the Philippians: “It is my eager expectation and remains on those who have been forgiven of sin? hope that I shall not be at all ashamed, but that with full courage now as Some theologians have attempted to show that death has certain always Christ will be honored in my body, whether by life or by death. beneficial results. One such attempt is that of Louis Berkhof.6 He argues For to me to live is Christ, and to die is gain. . . . My desire is to depart and that death is the culmination of the chastisements which God uses to be with Christ, for that is far better” (Phil. 1:20-23). This was the Paul sanctify his people. While acknowledging that death evidently is not who, as Saul of Tarsus, had heard dying Stephen exclaim that he could indispensable to the accomplishment of sanctification, since Enoch and see heaven and the Son of man standing at the right hand of God (Acts Elijah did not die, Berkhof nonetheless sees it as a means by which 756). Stephen had then prayed simply, “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit” believers can identify with their Lord, who also went through sufferings (v. 59) and “Lord, do not hold this sin against them” (v. 60). And Paul had and death on the way to his glory. Death frequently calls forth from undoubtedly been told the tradition of the Lord himself, who had said at believers unusual degrees of faith. Yet while this is true in many cases, the end of his life, “Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit!” (Luke there are other instances in which death (or suffering, for that matter) 23:46). For Paul, as for Stephen and Jesus, death was no longer an active does not appear to sanctify or evoke unusual faith. That greater degrees enemy, but a conquered enemy who now serves not to condemn and of sanctification and faith are realized by some Christians at the time of destroy, but to Free us from the dreadful conditions which sin has death is hardly sufficient ground to justify the physical death of all introduced. believers. Berkhof’s effort therefore appears to be a somewhat strained The believer can thus face the prospect of death with the knowledge explanation. A better approach is simply to consider death one of the that its c+fects are not final, for death itself has been destroyed. Although conditions of humanity as now constituted; in this respect, death is like the final execution of this judgment upon death is yet in the future, the birth. judgment itself is already accomplished and assured. Even the Old Tes- It is necessary to distinguish here between the temporal and the tament c-ontained prophecies regarding the victory over death: “He will eternal consequences of sin. We have noted that the eternal conse- swallow up d<>ath for ever, and the Lord GOD will wipe away tears from all ~‘xu, and the reproach of his people he will take away from all the 6. Rerkhof, Svstrndc Th~lo~v, pp. 670-7 1.

.,,, ‘ “_,“..” _,I_._.C_ -_.” i^l _--__..._ _..-i,=-.i--. “-- 1174 The Last Things Individual Eschatology 1175 quences of our own individual sins are nullified when we are forgiven, resurrection and the second coming are. Rather, it is treated somewhat but the temporal consequences, or at least some of them, may linger on. incidentally. At least two explanations have been offered for the relative This is not a denial of the fact of justification, but merely an evidence silence. One is that the early church expected the period between Jesus’ that God does not reverse the course of history. What is true of our departure and his return to be relatively brief; thus the period between individual sins is also true of God’s treatment of Adam’s sin or the sin of any human being’s death and resurrection would be relatively brief as the race as well. All judgment upon and our guilt for original and well.’ The other is that, whatever its length, the intermediate state is individual sin are removed, so that spiritual and eternal death are can- merely temporary and, accordingly, did not concern the early believers celed. We will not experience the second death. Nonetheless, we must as much as did the final states of heaven and hell.8 In view of the experience physical death simply because it has become one of the relatively little evidence upon which to construct the doctrine of the conditions of human existence. It is now a part of life, as much so as are intermediate state, there is a tendency to think that the biblical writers birth, growth, and suffering, which also ultimately takes its origin from did not consider it to be very important. In one sense, of course, it is not sin. One day every consequence of sin will be removed, but that day is essential or indispensable, since one’s salvation does not depend upon not yet. The Bible, in its realism, does not deny the fact of universal one’s convic,tion regarding the intermediate state. Nonetheless, like other physical death, but insists that it has different significance for the believer nonessential issues, for example, the form of church government, the and the unbeliever. doctrine of the intermediate state is, as we have already noted, of consid- erable practical importance. The second reason why Christians fail to minister effectively to the The Intermediate State bereaved is the theological controversy which has developed around the doctrine of the interrnediate state. Prior to the twentieth century, ortho- The Diffhdfy of the Doctrine doxy had a fairly consistent doctrine worked out. Believing in some sort of dualism of body and soul (or spirit) in the human person, the orthodox The doctrine of the intermediate state is an issue which is both very maintained that a part of the human survives death. Death consists in significant and yet also problematic. It therefore is doubly important that the separation of the soul from the body. The immaterial soul lives on in we examine carefully this somewhat strange doctrine. “Intermediate state” refers to the condition of humans between their death and the a conscious personal existence while the body decomposes. At the second resurrection. The question is, ‘What is the condition of the individual coming of Christ, there will be a resurrection of a renewed or trans- during this period of time? formed body which will be reunited with the soul. Thus, orthodoxy held It is vital that we have practical answers to this question at the time of to both the immortality of the soul and the resurrection of the body? bereavement. Many pastors and parents have been asked at a graveside, Liberalism, however, rejected the idea of the resurrection of the body. “Where is Grandma now? What is she doing? Is she with Jesus already? Harry Emerson Fosdick, for example, regarded this doctrine as grossly Are she and Grandpa back together? Does she know what we are doing?” materialistic. In addition, many liberals considered it to be mythological These questions are not the product of idle speculation or curiosity; they and scientifically impossible. It is preposterous to think that a body which are of crucial importance to the individual posing them. An opportunity has decomposed, and perhaps even been cremated, its ashes being scat- to offer comfort and encouragement is available to the Christian who is tered, can be brought back to life. The liberal who wished to maintain informed on the matter. Unfortunately, many Christians do not seize this some sort of continuing life after death replaced the idea of the resurrec- opportunity because they do not know of a helpful reply. This has been tion of the body with the immortality of the soul. Although the body may particularly true in recent years. Confusion and uncertainty have been die and decompose, the soul, being immortal, lives on. Since those who the lot of many a pastor who finds himself unable to answer and to minister to the questioner. 7. C. Harris, “State of the Dead (Christian),” in Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, There are two major reasons why many Christians find themselves ed. James Hastings (New York: Scribner, 1955), vol. 10, p. 837. 8. Loraine Boettner, “The Intermediate State,” in Baker> Dictionary of Theology, ed. unable to minister effectively to the bereaved. The first is the relative Everett F. Harrison (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1960), p. 291. scarcity of biblical references to the intermediate state. This doctrine is 9. James Addison, Life Beyond Death in the Beliefs of Mankind (Boston: Houghton not the subject of any extended discourse in the way in which the h4ifKn, 193 l), p. 202. 1176 The Last Things Individual Fkchatology 1177 held this view did not anticipate any future resurrection, they did not Hoekema’s characterization of the Adventist position as soul-extinction is believe in a bodily second coming of Christ either.lO quite in order, as long as we understand that “soul” is here being used, Neoorthodoxy took a quite different view of the matter. In the judg- as is often the case, as a synonym for “person.” ment of these theologians, the idea of the immortality of the soul was a The case for soul sleep rests in large measure on the fact that Scrip- Greek, not a biblical, concept. It stemmed from the notion that all matter, ture frequently uses the imagery of sleep to refer to death. Stephens including the body, is inherently evil, and that salvation consists in deliv- death is described as sleep: “And when he had said this, he fell asleep” erance of the good soul or spirit from the evil body. The neoorthodox (Acts 7:60). Paul notes that “David, after he had served the counsel of hope for the future lay instead in an expectation of the resurrection of God in his own generation, fell asleep” (Acts 13:36). Paul uses the same the body. While some were careful to distinguish this concept from image four times in 1 Corinthians 15 (w. 6,18,20,.5 1) and three times in resurrection of the flesh, some form of bodily resurrection was envi- 1 Thessalonians 413-15. Jesus himself said of Lazarus, “Our friend Laz- sioned. Underlying this view was the monistic idea of the human person arus has fallen asleep, but I go to awake him out of sleep” (John 11:l l), as a radical unity-existence means bodily existence; there is no separate and then indicated clearly that he was referring to death (v. 14). Literal spiritual entity to survive death and exist apart from the body.” So understanding of this imagery has led to the concept of soul sleep. whereas liberalism held to immortality of the soul, neoorthodoxy held to Every view of the intermediate state is, of course, closely related to a resurrection of the body. Both schools were in agreement that their specific anthropology or understanding of human nature. Those who views were mutually exclusive. That is, it was a matter of either/or; they subscribe to soul sleep maintain that the person is a unitary entity did not consider the possibility of both/and. without components. Man does not consist of body and soul. Rather, man, body, and soul are one and the same entity. Thus, when the body Current Views of the lntemediate State ceases to function, the soul (i.e., the whole person) ceases to exist. Nothing survives physical death. There is no tension, then, between immortality Soul Sleep of the soul and resurrection of the body. The simplicity of this view We turn now to examine various current understandings of the inter- makes it quite appealing. Nevertheless, there are several problems. mediate state. One view which over the years has had considerable One of the problems is that there are several biblical references to popularity is termed “soul sleep.” This is the idea that the soul, during the personal, conscious existence between death and resurrection. The most period between death and resurrection, reposes in a state of uncon- extended is the parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16:19-3 1). sciousness. In the sixteenth century, many Anabaptists and Socinians While it was not Jesus’ primary intent here to teach us about the nature apparently subscribed to this view that the soul of the dead person lies of the intermediate state, it is unlikely that he would mislead us on this in a dreamless sleep. And today the Seventh-day Adventists list among subject. Another reference is Jesus’ words to the thief on the cross, “Truly, their “Fundamental Beliefs” the concepts “that the condition of man in I say to you, today you will be with me in Paradise” (Luke 23:43). In death is one of unconsciousness [and that] all men, good and evil alike, addition, dying persons speak of giving up their spirits to God. Jesus remain in the grave from death to the resurrection.“l* (The Jehovah’s himself said, “Father, into thy hands I commit my spirit!” (Luke 23:46); Witnesses, a group that originated from within Seventh-day Adventism, and Stephen said, “Lord Jesus, receive my spirit” (Acts 759). While one hold to a similar view.) In the case of the Adventists, however, the phrase might argue that Stephen was not necessarily speaking under the inspi- “soul sleep” is somewhat misleading. Anthony Hoekema suggests instead ration of the Holy Spirit and consequently may not have been expressing “soul-extinction,” since in the Adventist view one does not fall asleep at an infallible word from God on this point, certainly what Jesus said must death, but actually becomes completely nonexistent, nothing surviving.13 be regarded as authoritative. The second problem is whether it is legitimate to conclude that Scrip- 10. Harry E. Fosdick, The Modern Use of the Bible (New York: Macmillan, 1933), ture passages which refer to death as sleep are literal descriptions of the pp. 9s 104. condition of the dead prior to the resurrection. It would seem, rather, I I. Emil Brunncr, The Christiun Doctrine of the Church, Fuith, and the Consumma- that “sleep” should be understood simply as a euphemism for the cessa- /ion (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1962), pp. 383-85, 408-14. tion of life. Nothing more specific is implied about the character of the 12. Selx~tlth-rlu~v Ah~c~ntists AnsMu Questions on Doctrine (Washington: Review and Herald, 1957), p. 13. dead persons state. Jesus’ use of the image of sleep in reference to 13. Anthony Hockcma, The Four Mujor Cults (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963), p. 345. Lazarus (John 11:ll) and the explanation which follows (v. 14) support 117x The Last Things Individual Eschatology 1179 this interpretation. If indeed “sleep” is more than a figure of speech, that are in a perfect state of grace and penitence, who are completely purified needs to be substantiated. at the time of death, go directly and immediately to heaven, which, while Another problem for the theory of soul sleep is the conceptual difh- it is described as both a state and a place, should be thought of primarily culty attaching to the view that human nature is unitary. If indeed as a state.” Those who, although in a state of grace, are not yet spiritually nothing of the person survives death, then what will be the basis of our perfect go to purgatory. identity? If the soul, the whole person, becomes extinct, what will come Two other features of the Catholic view of the intermediate state apply to life in the resurrection? On what basis can we maintain that what will to rather limited groups. Limbus patrum was the abode of dead saints come to life will be the person who died? It would seem that we will prior to the time of Christ. When Christ had accomplished his atoning identify the postresurrection person with the predeath person on the work on the cross, he descended into Sheol, where the Old Testament basis of the body that is raised. Yet this in turn presents two further believers had gone, and delivered them from their captivity. Since that difficulties. How can the very same molecules come together to form the time limbus patrum has been empty. Limbus infantium is for unbaptized postresurrection person? The molecules constituting the predeath per- infants. Because of original sin, which can be removed only by the son may well have been destroyed, have formed new compounds, or sacrament of baptism, they may not go into the presence of the Lord. even have been part of someone else’s body. In this connection, cremation They suffer the punishment for original sin, which is the loss of the presents a particularly dilhcult problem. But beyond that, to identify the beatific vision or the presence of God. They do not, however, experience predeath and postresurrection persons on the basis of the body raised is the punishment for actual sin, which is the suffering referred to above. to hold that human nature is primarily material or physical. For all of the It is purgatory which constitutes the most unusual and most interest- foregoing reasons, the theory of soul sleep must be rejected as inade- ing feature of the traditional Roman Catholic teaching regarding the quate. intermediate state. Joseph Pohle defines it as “a state of temporary punishment for those who, departing this life in the grace of God, are Purgatory not entirely free from venial sins or have not yet fully paid the satisfaction Because the doctrine of purgatory is primarily a Roman Catholic due to their transgressions.“18 As we noted, those who leave this life in a teaching, it is necessary to see it in the context of Catholic dogma in state of spiritual perfection go directly to heaven. Those who have mortal general. We begin with the idea that immediately upon death, the individ- sin upon their souls or are entirely outside the grace of the church are uals eternal status is determined. The soul becomes aware of God’s consigned to hell. But there is a large number who fall into neither of judgment upon it. This is not so much a formal sentence as it is a clear these two groups. Since nothing defiled can enter heaven, God cannot perception of whether one is guilty or innocent before God. The soul is justly receive them into his immediate presence. On the other hand, he then “moved of its own accord to hasten either to Heaven, or Hell, or cannot justly consign them to hell, for they have done nothing warranting Purgatory, according to its deserts. “14 The text on which this view rests is such severe punishment. Purgatory is a middle state, so to speak, where Hebrews 9:27: “it is appointed for men to die once, and after that comes they may be cleansed of their venial sins. judgment.” The juxtaposition of these two events is understood as an Thomas Aquinas argued that the cleansing which takes place after indication that immediately after death there is a judgment which deter- death is through penal sufferings. In this life, we can be cleansed by mines the destination of each individual. Those who have died in a state performing works of satisfaction, but after death that is no longer pos- of wickedness go directly to hell, where they immediately realize that sible. To the extent that we fail to attain complete purity through works they are irrevocably lost. 15 Their punishment, eternal in nature, consists on earth, we must be further cleansed in the life to come. “This is the of both the sense of having lost the greatest of all goods and actual I reason,” said Thomas, “why we posit a purgatory or place of cleansing.“19 suffering. The suffering is in proportion to the individuals wickedness Thomas also suggested that purgatory, as a place of suffering, is con- and will intensify after the resurrection. 16 On the other hand, those who nected with hell.20 Pohle argues, instead, that it is connected with heaven,

14. Joseph Pohle, Eschatology; or, The Catholic Doctrine of the Last Things: A Dog- 17. Ibid., p. 28. r~~utic Treuticc (St. Louis: B. Herder, 1917), p. 18. 18. Ibid., p. 77. 15. Ibid., p. 70. 19. Thomas Aquinas Summa contra Gentiles 4. 91. 16. Ibid., pp. 52-61. 20. Thomas Aquinas, Summa theologica, Appendix, question 1, article 2. 1180 The Last Things Individual Fkchatology 11x1 since those in purgatory are children of God and will sooner or later be pious thought. Therefore, he made atonement for the dead, that they admitted to the abode of the blessed. Yet while their eventual departure might be delivered from their sin. from purgatory to heaven is sure and definite, the time of deliverance is uncertain and the rate of cleansing variable. The New Testament text most often cited is Matthew 12:32, where Jesus The forgiveness of venial sins can be accomplished in three different says, “But whoever speaks against the Holy Spirit will not be forgiven, ways: by an unconditional forgiveness on God’s part; by suffering and either in this age or in the age to come.” Roman Catholics contend that the performance of penitential works; and by contrition. Although God this verse implies that some sins (i.e., sins other than speaking against the can forgive unconditionally, he has chosen to require contrition and Holy Spirit) will be forgiven in the world to come, an interpretation held works as conditions of forgiveness in this life; and so it seems likely that by Augustine25 and some other Fathers. Some Catholics also cite he does not forgive venial sins unconditionally in purgatory either? Since 1 Corinthians 3: 15: “If any man’s work is burned up, he will suffer loss, the soul in purgatory is not able to perform works of satisfaction, it can though he himself will be saved, but only as through fire.” atone only by passive suffering. But there are also three means by which The major points in our rejection of the concept of purgatory are the souls in purgatory can be assisted in their progress toward heaven by points which distinguish Catholicism and Protestantism in general. The the faithful still on earth-the mass, prayers, and good works.22 These major text appealed to is in the Apocrypha, which Protestants do not three means reduce the period of time necessary for purgatorial suffer- accept as canonical Scripture. And the inference from Matthew 12:32 is ing to have its full effect. When the soul arrives at spiritual perfection, no rather forced; the verse in no way indicates that some sins will be venial sin remaining, it is released and passes into heaven. forgiven in the life to come. Further, the concept of purgatory implies a The Roman Catholic Church bases its belief in purgatory upon both salvation by works. For humans are thought to atone, at least in part, for tradition and Scripture. We find a clear statement of the doctrine in the their sins. This idea, however, is contrary to many clear teachings of Decree of Union adopted at the Council of Florence in 1439: “souls are Scripture, including Galatians 3: 1-14 and Ephesians 2%9. To be sure, cleansed by purgatorial pains after death, and in order that they may be there is something quite appealing about the doctrine of purgatory. rescued from these pains, they are benefitted by the suffrages of the When one thinks about it, it simply does not seem right that we should living faith, viz.: the sacrifice of the Mass, prayers, alms, and other works be allowed to go freely into heaven. Each of us ought to suffer a bit for of piety.‘Q3 The Council of Trent reiterated the belief, pointing to various our sins. Here we have a clear indication of just how difficult it is for most of us to accept the idea of salvation by grace. But it is the teaching church fathers and synods as authorities for it. As we have noted, of Scripture that must prevail, not what appears to us to be logical and Thomas Aquinas wrote concerning purgatory, and there was an ancient just; and on that basis, the concept of purgatory-and indeed any view tradition of praying, offering the mass, and giving alms for the benefit of which posits a period of probation and atonement following death- the dead. Tertullian mentions anniversary masses for the dead, a practice must be rejected. which suggests belief in purgatory.24 The primary biblical text appealed to is 2 Maccabees 12:43-45: Instantaneous Resurrection A novel and creative conception that has been advanced in recent He [Judas Maccabaeus] also took up a collection, man by man, to the years is the idea of an instant resurrection or, more accurately, an instant amount of two thousand drachmas of silver, and sent it to Jerusalem to reclothing. This is the belief that immediately upon death, the believer provide for a sin offering. In doing this he acted very well and honorably, receives the resurrection body that has been promised. One of the most taking account of the resurrection. For if he were not expecting that those complete elaborations of this view is found in W. D. Davies’s Paul and who had fallen would rise again, it would have been superfluous and foolish to pray for the dead. But if he was looking to the splendid reward Rabbinic Judaism. Davies holds that Paul had two different conceptions that is laid up for those who fall asleep in godliness, it was a holy and concerning our resurrection. In 1 Corinthians 15 Paul is thinking of a future resurrection of the body. In 2 Corinthians 5, however, we have his 2 1. Pohle, Eschutology, pp. 89-9 1. more advanced understanding of the subject. The initial stages of the 22. Ibid., p. 95. age to come had already appeared in the resurrection of Jesus. Paul 23. Ibid., p. 78. 24. Tertullian On A4onogurny 10. 25. Augustine Confessions 9. 13. 1182 The Last Things Individual Eschatology 1183 realizes that, having died and risen with Christ, he is already being glorification (e.g., Rom. 2:3-16; 1 Cor. 45; 2 Thess. 152:12; 2 Tim. 4:8). transformed and will receive his new or heavenly body at the moment And Jesus himself laid emphasis upon a future time when the dead will of physical death. The fear of being unclothed, which he speaks of in be raised (John 525-29). We must conclude that Davies’s solution to the verse 3, has been supplanted by the realization that on both this side and problem which, as a result of a faulty presupposition, he has injected into the other side of death, he will be clothed.26 the writings of Paul does little more than create additional problems. It was the position of rabbi& Judaism that we will be disembodied at death and will then have to wait for the general resurrection. Davies A Suggested Resolution contends that Paul presents a different view in his later writings: Is there some way to resolve the numerous problems which attach to the issue of the intermediate state, some means of correlating the biblical [The dead will], on the contrary, be embodied, and there is no room in testimony regarding resurrection of the body and conscious survival Paul’s theology for an intermediate state of the dead. It agrees with this between death and resurrection? Several considerations must be kept in that Paul in later passages of his Epistles speaks not of the resurrection mind: of Christians but of their revelation. In Rom. 8.19 we read: “The earnest longing of the creation waiteth for the revelation of the sons of God”; and in Col. 3.4 we read: “When Christ who is our life shall be revealed then Joachim Jeremias has pointed out that the New Testament distin- shall ye also be revealed with him in glory.” There is no need to resurrect guishes between Gehenna and Hades. Hades receives the unrigh- those who have already died and risen with Christ and received their teous for the period between death and resurrection, whereas heavenly body, but they may be revealed. The final consummation would Gehenna is the place of punishment assigned permanently at the merely be the manifestation of that which is already existent but “hidden” last judgment. The torment of Gehenna is eternal (Mark 9:43, 48). in the eternal order.27 Further, the souls of the ungodly are outside the body in Hades, whereas in Gehenna both body and soul, reunited at the resurrec- According to Davies, then, when Paul wrote 2 Corinthians, he no longer tion, are destroyed by eternal fire (Mark 9:43-48; Matt. 1028). This believed in an intermediate state. Rather, upon death there will be an is a counter to the view of some of the early church fathers that all immediate transition into the final state, an instantaneous reception of who die, righteous and unrighteous alike, descend to Sheol or the heavenly body. This position supplanted his belief in a future bodily Hades, a sort of gloomy, dreamy state where they await the coming resurrection to take place in connection with the second advent. So if we of the Messiah.28 build our eschatology upon Paul’s most mature thinking, we presumably There are indications that the righteous dead do not descend to will not have a doctrine of an intermediate state either. Hades (Matt. 16:18-l% Acts 2:31 [quoting Ps. 16:10]). But has Davies solved the problem? He has attempted to resolve what Rather, the righteous, or at least their souls, are received into he perceives to be an inherent contradiction between the Greek concept paradise (Luke 16~19-31; 23:43). of immortality and the rabbinic concept of bodily resurrection. But Paul equates being absent from the body with being present with laboring as he does under the presupposition that human nature is an the Lord (2 Cor. 51-10; Phil. 1:19-26). essential and absolute unity, an idea perhaps derived from behaviorism, Davies has been led astray in his interpretation of Paul. The fact is that On the basis of these biblical considerations, we conclude that upon Paul’s anthropology was such that he could hold to both a future resur- death believers go immediately to a place and condition of blessedness, rection and a disembodied survival. They are not contradictory ideas, and unbelievers to an experience of misery, torment, and punishment. but complementary parts of a whole. Nor is Davies’s solution as biblical Although the evidence is not clear, it is likely that these are the very as he seems to think, for there are a number of passages in which Paul places to which believers and unbelievers will go after the great judg- ties the transformation of our bodies to a fuhrre resurrection accom- ment, since the presence of the Lord (Luke 23:43; 2 Cor. 58; Phil. 1:23) panying the second advent (e.g., Phil. 3:20-2 1; 1 Thess. 416-17). Paul also would seem to be nothing other than heaven. Yet while the place of the makes much of the second coming as an occasion of deliverance and 28. Joachim Jeremias, y&vva, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. 26. W. D. Davies, Paul and Rabbinic Judaism (London: S.P.C.K., 1955), pp. 317-18. Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 10 ~01s. (Grand 27. Ibid., p. 3 18. Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964-l 976), vol. 1, pp. 657-58. II84 The Last Things intermediate and final states may be the same, the experiences of para- dise and Hades are doubtlessly not as intense as what will ultimately be, since the person is in a somewhat incomplete condition. Because we developed in chapter 24 a model of human nature which allows for disembodied personal existence, we will not go into detail here. We do need to note, however, that there is no inherent untenability about the concept of disembodied existence. The human being is capable of existing in either a materialized (bodily) or immaterialized condition. We may think of these two conditions in terms of a dualism in which the soul or spirit can exist independently of the body. Like a chemical com- pound, the body-soul, so to speak, can be broken down under certain conditions (specifically, at death), but otherwise is a definite unity. Or we may think in terms of different states of being. Just like matter and energy, the materialized and immaterialized conditions of the human are I- -. ^’ I I interconvertible. Both of these analogies are feasible. Paul HelmF9 Richard _- -‘-’ Pu~?ill~~ and others have formulated conceptions of disembodied sur- vival that are neither self-contradictory nor absurd. We conclude that the disembodied intermediate state set forth by the biblical teaching is philosophically tenable. The Second Coming and Its Consequents Implications of the Doctrines of Death and the Intermediate State

1. Death is to be expected by all, believer and unbeliever. Unless we The Second Coming are alive when the Lord returns, it will happen to us as well. It is The Definiteness of the Event important that we take this fact seriously and live accordingly. The Indefiniteness of the Time 2. Although death is an enemy (God did not originally intend for man The Character of the Coming to die), it has now been overcome and made captive to God. It therefore Personal need not be feared, for its curse has been removed by the death and Physical Visible resurrection of Christ. It can be faced with peace, for we know that it Unexpected now serves the Lord’s purpose of taking to himself those who have faith Triumphant and Glorious inhim. The Unity of the Second Coming 3. There is between death and resurrection an intermediate state in The Imminence of the Second Coming which believers and unbelievers experience, respectively, the presence Resurrection and absence of God. While these experiences are less intense than the The Biblical Teaching final states, they are of the same qualitative nature. A Work of the Triune God 4. In both this life and the life to come, the basis of the believer’s Bodily in Nature relationship with God is grace, not works. There need be no fear, then, Of Both the Righteous and the Unrighteous that our imperfections will require some type of postdeath purging The Final Judgment before we can enter into the full presence of God. A Future Event Jesus Christ the Judge 29. Paul Helm, “A Theory of Disembodied Survival and Re-embodied Existence,” The Subjects of the Judgment Hc1igiou.s Studies 14, no. 1 (March 1978): 15-26. The Basis of the Judgment 30. Richard L. Pm-till, “The intelligibility of Disembodied Survival,” Christiun Schohrk The Finality of the Judgment Revitw 5, no. 1 ( 1975): 3-22. Implications of the Second Coming and Its Consequents 1185 1186 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its Consequents 1187

“Men of Galilee, why do you stand looking into heaven? This Jesus, who was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you Among the most important events of cosmic eschatology, as we saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:ll). The second coming was part of the have defined it in this work, are the second coming and its consequents: apostolic kerygma: “Repent therefore . . . that [God] may send the Christ the resurrection and the final judgment. These events form the subject appointed for you, Jesus, whom heaven must receive until the time for matter of this chapter. establishing all that God spoke by the mouth of his holy prophets from of old” (Acts 3:19-2 1). Paul wrote of the second coming on several The Second Coming occasions. He assured the Philippians, “But our commonwealth is in heaven, and from it we await a Savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, who will With the exception of the certainty of death, the one eschatological change our lowly body to be like his glorious body, by the power which doctrine on which orthodox theologians most agree is the second coming enables him even to subject all things to himself” (Phil. 3:20-21). This of Christ. It is indispensable to eschatology. It is the basis of the Christian’s passage in a book not explicitly eschatological is particularly significant hope, the one event which will mark the beginning of the completion of in that it shows the practical effect which the second coming will have Gods plan. upon us. Probably Paul’s clearest and most direct statement is in 1 Thessalonians 4: 1.5-l 6: “For this we declare to you by the word of the The Definiteness of the Event Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, Many Scriptures indicate clearly that Christ is to return. Jesus himself shall not precede those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will promises that he will come again. In his great discourse on the end times descend from heaven with a cry of command, with the archangels call, (Matt. 24-25) he says, “Then will appear the sign of the Son of man in and with the sound of the trumpet of God.” Other direct statements are heaven, and then all the tribes of the earth will mourn, and they will see found in 2 Thessalonians 1:7, 10; and Titus 2: 13. In addition, we find in the Son of man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great Paul many less elaborate references to the second coming: 1 Corinthians glory” (2430). Several other times in this same speech he mentions the 1:7; 1523; 1 Thessalonians 2: 19; 3: 13; 523; 2 Thessalonians 2: 1, 8; “coming of the Son of man” (w. 27,37,39,42,44). Toward the end of the 1 Timothy 6: 14; 2 Timothy 4:1,8. Other authors also mention the second discussion we read: “When the Son of man comes in his glory, and all coming: Hebrews 9:28; James 57-B; 1 Peter 1:7, 13; 2 Peter 1: 16; 3:4, 12; the angels with him, then he will sit on his glorious throne” (253 1). All of 1 John 2:28. Certainly the second coming is one of the most widely taught the teachings in this speech, including the parables, presuppose the doctrines in the New Testament. second coming. Indeed, Jesus delivered the discourse in response to his disciples’ request, “Tell us, when will this be, and what will be the sign of The Indefiniteness of the Time your coming and of the close of the age?” (Matt. 243). Later that week, in his hearing before Caiaphas, Jesus said, “But I tell you, hereafter you While the fact of the second coming is very emphatically and clearly will see the Son of man seated at the right hand of Power, and coming asserted in Scripture, the time is not. Indeed, the Bible makes it clear that on the clouds of heaven” (Matt. 26:64). While Matthew records more than we do not know and cannot ascertain the exact time when Jesus will do the other Gospel writers, Mark, Luke, and John also include some of return. Although God has set a definite time, that time has not been Jesus’ comments on the second coming. We find in Mark 13:26 and Luke revealed. Jesus indicated that neither he nor the angels knew the time of 2 1:27, for example, almost identical declarations that the people living in his return, and neither would his disciples: “But of that day or that hour the last days will see the Son of man coming in clouds with power and no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the glory. And John tells us that in the upper room Jesus promised his Father. Take heed, watch; for you do not know when the time will disciples, “And when I go and prepare a place for you, I will come again come. . . . Watch therefore-for you do not know when the master of the and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also” (John house will come, in the evening, or at midnight, or at cockcrow, or in the 14:3). morning” (Mark 13:32-33, 35; see also Matt. 24:36-44). Apparently the In addition to Jesus’ own words, there are numerous other direct time of his return was one of the matters to which Jesus was referring statements in the New Testament regarding his return. At Jesus’ ascen- when, just before his ascension, he responded to his disciples’ question sion, two men in white robes, presumably angels, said to the disciples, whether he would now restore the kingdom to Israel: “It is not for you to 1188 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its C’orlsrqllrn*s I189 know times or seasons which the Father has fixed by his own authority” however, that at no point does Jesus specifically teach that he will return (Acts 1:7). Instead of satisfying their curiosity, Jesus told the disciples that quickly. Further, there is no essential reason why the kingdom cannot be they were to be his witnesses worldwide. That the time of his return is both present and future, both immanent and cataclysmic. not to be revealed explains Jesus’ repeated emphasis upon its unexpect- edness and the consequent need for watchfulness (Matt. 24:44,50; 25:13; Physical Mark 13:35). There are those who claim that Jesus’ promise to return was fulfilled on Pentecost through a spiritual coming. Jesus did, after all, say, “I am The Character of the Coming with you always, to the close of the age” (Matt. 28:20). He also said, “If a man loves me, he will keep my word, and my Father will love him, and Personal we will come to him and make our home with him” (John 14:23). And That Christ’s second coming will be personal in character is not the Paul spoke of the riches of this mystery, “Christ in you, the hope of glory” subject of any extensive discussion. Rather, it is simply assumed through- (Col. 1:27). Some interpreters put a great deal of weight upon the use of out the references to his return. Jesus says, for example, “I will come the term rc~pouaia! for the second coming. Pointing out that the word again and will take you to myself, that where I am you may be also” basically means “presence,” they argue that its force in references to “the (John 143). Paul’s statement that “the Lord himself will descend from coming of the Lord” is that Jesus is present with us, not that he is coming heaven” (1 Thess. 4: 16) leaves little doubt that the return will be personal at some future time. in nature. The word of the angels at Jesus’ ascension, “This Jesus, who Since Pentecost Christ has indeed been with and in each believer from was taken up from you into heaven, will come in the same way as you the moment of new birth on. Several considerations, however, prevent saw him go into heaven” (Acts 1:l l), argues conclusively that his return our regarding this spiritual presence as the full meaning of the coming will be just as personal as was his departure. which he promised. While it is true that the basic meaning of rrapouaia Nonetheless, some recent interpreters have given the Scriptures cited is “presence,” it also means “coming,” and this is the meaning which is above a different interpretation. This is an attempt to resolve what they most prominent in the New Testament, as can be determined by exam- believe to be two contrasting and even conflicting emphases within Jesus’ ining how the word is used in context. Further, there are several other teaching.’ On the one hand, there is the apocalyptic motif: the kingdom New Testament terms, particularly &ro~drhu~~r and &~TTL$&YEL(Y, which will be ushered in through a sudden and cataclysmic event, the personal clearly do indicate “coming. “4 And the statement in Acts 1:ll that Jesus return of Christ. On the other hand, there is the theme that the kingdom will return in the same way as he departed implies that the return will be is immanent; it is already present within the world and will keep on bodily. Perhaps the most persuasive argument, however, is that many of growing in a gradual fashion. William Newton Clarke interprets the the promises of Jesus’ second coming were made after Pentecost, in fact former in the light of the latter: “No visible return of Christ to the earth as much as sixty years later, and they still placed the coming in the future. is to be expected, but rather the long and steady advance of his spiritual Kingdom. . . . If OLU- Lord will but complete the spiritual coming that he Visible has begun, there will be no need of a visible advent to make perfect his The Jehovah’s Witnesses maintain that Christ began his reign over the glory on the earth.“2 Sometimes this approach has been adopted out of earth on October 1, 19 14. This was not a visible return to earth, however, a conviction that Jesus believed in and taught (as did the early church) for Jesus has not had a visible body since his ascension. Nor was it even an impending return, probably within that very generation, but was a literal return, since it was in heaven that Christ ascended the throne. obviously wrong.3 A careful exegesis of the pertinent passages will show, His presence, then, is in the nature of an invisible influence.5 It is difficult to reconcile the Witnesses’ conception of the second 1. L. Harold DeWolf, A Theology of the Living Church (New York: Harper and Row, coming with the biblical descriptions. Once again we point to Acts 1:ll: 1960), pp. 306-07. 2. William Newton Clarke, An Otrtline of Christian Theology (New York: Scribner, Christ’s return will be like his departure, which was certainly visible, for 190 1 ), p. 444. the disciples watched Jesus being taken into heaven (vv. 9-10). Other 3. E.g., Albert Schweitzer, The Quest of the Historical Jesus: A Critical Study of Its PYO~Y~.S.S from Reimarus to Wrede (New York: Macmillan, 1964), pp. 368-69; Rudolf 4. Gcorgc E. Ladd, 772~~ Hk.~.strtl llopc’r (Grand Rapids: Eer-dmans, 1956). pp. 65-70. Bultmann, Theology of the New Testament (New York: Scribner, 195 l), vol. 1, pp. 5-6. 5. I,et God f& TYZW (Brooklyn: Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1952), p. 14 I. 1191 1190 The Second Coming and Its Consequents The Last Things descriptions of the second coming make it clear that it will be quite who hold this view are termed pretribulationists, and most of them are conspicuous; for example, Matthew 2430: “and they will see the Son of dispensationalists. man coming on the clouds of heaven with power and great glory.” The rapture or “coming for” will be secret; it will not be noticed by anyone except the church. Because it is to precede the tribulation, there Unexpected is no prophecy which must yet be fulfilled before it can take place. Although the second coming will be preceded by several signs-the Consequently, the rapture could occur at any moment or, in the usual desolating sacrilege (l’vlatt. 24:15), great tribulation (v. 2 l), darkening of terminology, it is imminent. It will deliver the church from the agony of the sun (v. 29), they will not indicate the exact time of Jesus’ return. the great tribulation. Then at the end of the seven years, the Lord will Consequently, there will be many for whom his return will be quite return again, bringing his church with him in a great triumphant arrival. unexpected. It will be as in the days of Noah (Matt. 2437). Although Noah This will be a conspicuous, glorious event universally recognized.7 Christ spent some time in the construction of the ark, none of his contempo- will then set up his earthly millennial kingdom. raries, except for his own family, prepared themselves for the flood. People In contrast to pretribulationism, the other views of Christ’s second will be feeling secure, but sudden destruction will come upon them coming hold that it will be a single occurrence, a unified event. They (1 Thess. 52-3). Jesus’ teachings suggest that because of a long delay refer all prophecies regarding the second coming to the one event, before the second coming, some will be lulled into inattention (Matt. whereas the pretribulationist refers some of the prophecies to the rap- 25: 1-13; cf. 2 Peter 3:3-4). When the parousia finally occurs, however it ture and others to the revelation.8 will happen so quickly that there will be no time to prepare (Matt. 2&- How are we to resolve this issue? Will the second coming be a single 10). As Louis Berkhof puts it, “The Bible intimates that the measure of or a dual-stage occurrence? While numerous considerations which bear surprise at the second coming of Christ will be in an inverse ratio to the upon this issue will be examined in the following chapter, there is one measure of their watchfulness.“6 crucial consideration which we will examine now. It relates to the vocab- Triumphant and Glorious ulary used to designate the second advent. The three major terms for the second coming are 7rcwpouaia, &7rOK&hU\CIlS, and ~~L+&wKx. The pre- Various descriptions of the return of Christ indicate its glorious char- tribulation& argues that ~~pou& refers to the rapture, the first stage of acter, a sharp contrast to the lowly and humble circumstances of his first the return, the believer’s blessed hope of being delivered from this world coming. The latter was the hrst stage of Christ’s humiliation. the former before the tribulation begins. The other two terms refer to Christ’s com- will be the final stage of his exaltation. He will come on the 'clouds with ing with the saints at the end of the tribulation. great power and great glory (Matt. 24:30; Mark 13:26; Luke 21:27). He will When examined closely, however, the terms which designate the sec- be accompanied by his angels and heralded by the archangel (1 Thess. ond coming do not support the distinction made by pretribulationists. Zn 4:16). He will sit upon his glorious throne and judge all the nations (Matt. 2531-46). The irony of this situation is that he who was judged at the 1 Thessalonians 415-17, for example, the term ~~~pouaicu is used to denote end of his stay on earth will be the judge over all at his second coming. an event which it is hard to conceive of as the rapture: “For this we Clearly, he will be the triumphant, glorious Lord of all. declare to you by the word of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming [7~~pouaicu] of the Lord, shall not precede those who have fallen asleep. For the Lord himself will descend from heaven with a The Unity of the Second Coming cry of command, with the archangel’s call, and with the sound of the trumpet of God. And the dead in Christ will rise first; then we who are A large and influential group of conservative Christians teaches that alive who are left, shall be caught up together with them in the clouds Christ’s coming will actually take place in two stages. These stages are to meet the Lord in the air; and so shall we always be with the Lord.” As the rapture and the revelation, or the “coming for” the saints and the George Ladd says, “It is very difficult to find a secret coming of Christ in “coming with” the saints. These two events will be separated by the great tribulation, believed to be approximately seven years in duration. Those 7. John F. Walvoord, The Return of the Lord (Findlay, Ohio: Dunham, 1955), pp. 52-53. 6. Louis Bcrkhof, System&c Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), p. 706. 8. Ladd, Blessed Hope, p. 67.

1194 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its Consequents 119.5 before Jesus would return, the second coming could not have happened tions in Psalm 73:24-25 and Proverbs 23:14,14 although the latter in immediately. His saying, “Watch!” and “You do not know the hour,” is not particular is questionable. inconsistent with a delay to allow certain events to happen. While we must exercise care not to read too much of the New Testa- This is not to say that it is inappropriate to speak of imminence. It is, ment revelation into the Old Testament, it is significant that Jesus and the however, the complex of events surrounding the second coming, rather New Testament writers maintained that the Old Testament teaches res- than the single event itself, that is imminent. Perhaps we should speak of urrection. When Jesus was questioned by the Sadducees, who denied this complex as imminent and the second coming itself as “impending.” the resurrection, he accused them of error due to lack of knowledge of the Scriptures and of the power of God (Mark 12:24), and then went on to argue for the resurrection on the basis of the Old Testament: ‘And as Resurrection for the dead being raised, have you not read in the book of Moses, in the passage about the bush, how God said to him, ‘I am the God of Abraham, and the God of Isaac, and the God of Jacob’? He is not God of the dead, The major result of Christ’s second coming, from the standpoint of but of the living you are quite wrong” (w. 26-27). Peter (Acts 2:24-32) individual eschatology, is the resurrection. This is the basis for the believ- and Paul (Acts 13:32-37) saw Psalm 16: 10 as a prediction of the resurrec- er’s hope in the face of death. Although death is inevitable, the believer tion of Jesus. Hebrews 11:19 commends Abraham’s belief in God’s ability anticipates being delivered from its power. to raise persons from the dead: “He considered that God was able to raise men even from the dead; hence, figuratively speaking, he did re- The Biblical Teaching ceive Faac] back.” The New Testament, of course, teaches the resurrection much more The Bible clearly promises resurrection of the believer. The Old Tes- clearly. We have already noted Jesus’ rejoinder to the Sadducees, which tament gives us several direct statements, the first being Isaiah 2619: is recorded in all three Synoptic Gospels (Matt. 22:29-32; Mark 12:24-27; “Thy dead shall live, their bodies shall rise. 0 dwellers in the dust, awake Luke 20~34-38). And John reports several additional occasions when and sing for joy! For thy dew is a dew of light, and on the land of the Jesus spoke of the resurrection. One of the clearest declarations is in shades thou wilt let it fall.” Daniel 12:2 teaches resurrection of the be- John 5: “Truly, truly, I say to you, the hour is coming, and now is, when liever and of the wicked as well: “Xnd many of those who sleep in the the dead will hear the voice of the Son of God, and those who hear will dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and some to shame live. . . . Do not marvel at this; for the hour is coming when all who are in and everlasting contempt.” The idea of resurrection is also asserted in the tombs will hear his voice and come forth, those who have done good, Ezekiel 37: 12-l 4: “Therefore prophesy, and say to them, Thus says the to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the resurrec- Lord GOD: Behold, I will open your graves, and raise you from your tion of judgment” (w. 25,28-29). Other affirmations of the resurrection graves, 0 my people; and I will bring you home into the land of Israel. are found in John 639-40, 44, 54, and the narrative of the raising of And you shall know that I am the LORD, when I open your graves, and Lazarus (John 11, especially w. 24-25). raise you from your graves, 0 my people. And I will put my Spirit within The New Testament Epistles also give testimony to the resurrection. you, and you shall live, and I will place you in your own land; then you Paul clearly believed and taught that there is to be a future bodily shall know that I, the LORD, have spoken, and I have done it, says the resurrection. The classic passage is 1 Corinthians 15, where he discusses LORD.” the resurrection at great length. The teaching is especially pointed in In addition to direct statements, the Old Testament intimates that we verses 51 and 52: “Lo! I tell you a mystery. We shall not all sleep, but we can expect deliverance from death or Sheol. Psalm 49: 15 says, “But God shall all be changed, in a moment, in the twinkhng of an eye, at the last will ransom my soul from the power of Sheol, for he will receive me.” trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and the dead will be raised im- While there is no statement about the body in this passage, there is an perishable, and we shall be changed.” The resurrection is also clearly expectation that the incomplete existence in Sheol will not be our final taught in 1 Thessalonians 4: 13-l 6 and implied in 2 Corinthians 5: l- 10. condition. Psalm 17:15 speaks of awaking in the presence of God: “As for And when Paul appeared before the council, he created dissension be- me, I shall behold thy face in righteousness; when I awake, I shall be satisfied with beholding thy form.” Some expositors see similar intima- 14. Berkhof, Systematic Theology p. 72 1. 1196 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its Cor~serpents I197 tween the Pharisees and Sadducees by declaring, “Brethren, I am a himself.” In the resurrection chapter, 1 Corinthians 15, he says, “It is sown Pharisee, a son of Pharisees; with respect to the hope and the resurrec- a physical body, it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a physical body, tion of the dead I am on trial” (Acts 23:6); he made a similar declaration there is also a spiritual body” (v. 44). Paul also makes clear that the view before Felix (Acts 2421). John also affirms the doctrine of resurrection that resurrection has already occurred, that is, in the form of a spiritual (Rev. 204-6, 13). resurrection not incompatible with the fact that the bodies are still lying in their graves, is a heresy. He makes this point when he condemns the A Work of the Triune God views of Hymenaeus and Philetus, “who have swerved from the truth by holding that the resurrection is past already. They are upsetting the faith All of the members of the Trinity are involved in the resurrection of of some” (2 Tim. 2: 18). believers. Paul informs us that the Father will raise believers through the In addition, there are inferential or indirect evidences of the bodily Spirit: “If the Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, nature of the resurrection. The redemption of the believer is spoken of he who raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life to your mortal as involving the body, not merely the soul: “We know that the whole bodies also through his Spirit which dwells in you” (Rom. 8:ll). There is creation has been groaning in travail together until now; and not only a special connection between the resurrection of Christ and the general the creation, but we ourselves, who have the first fruits of the Spirit, resurrection, a point particularly emphasized by Paul in 1 Corinthians groan inwardly as we wait for adoption as sons, the redernption of our 15: 12-14: “Now if Christ is preached as raised from the dead, how can bodies” (Rom. 8:22-23). In 1 Corinthians 6:12-20 Paul points out the some of you say that there is no resurrection of the dead? But if there is spiritual significance of the body. This is in sharp contrast to the view of no resurrection of the dead, then Christ has not been raised; if Christ has the Gnostics, who minimized the body. Whereas some Gnostics drew the not been raised, then our preaching is in vain and your faith is in vain.” conclusion that, the body being evil, a strict asceticism should be prac- In Colossians 1: 18 Paul refers to Jesus as “the beginning, the f&t-born ticed, others concluded that what is done with the body is spiritually from the dead.” In Revelation 15 John similarly refers to Jesus as the irrelevant, and hence engaged in licentious behavior. Paul, however, in- “first-born of the dead.” This expression does not point so much to Jesus’ sists that the body is holy. Our bodies are members of Christ (v. 1.5). The being first in time within the group as to his supremacy over the group body is a temple of the Holy Spirit (v. 19). “The body is not meant for (cf. Col. 1:15, “the first-born of all creation”). The resurrection of Christ is immorality, but for the Lord, and the Lord for the body” (v. 13). In view the basis for the believer’s hope and confidence. Paul writes, “For since of the emphasis on the body, the statement which immediately follows is we believe that Jesus died and rose again, even so, through Jesus, God obviously an argument for bodily resurrection: ‘And God raised the Lord will bring with him those who have fallen asleep.” And although the and will also raise us up by his power” (v. 14). The conclusion of the context does not explicitly mention the general resurrection, Peter at the entire passage is: “So glorify God in your body” (v. 20). beginning of his first epistle ties the new birth and the living hope of the Another indirect argument for the bodily character of the resurrection believer to the resurrection of Christ and then looks to the second is that Jesus’ resurrection was bodily in nature. When Jesus appeared to coming, when genuine faith will result in praise, glory, and honor (1 Peter his disciples, they were frightened, thinking that they were seeing a spirit. 1:3-9). He reassured them by saying, “Why are you troubled, and why do questionings rise in your hearts? See my hands and my feet, that it is I Bodily in Nature myself; handle me, and see; for a spirit has not flesh and bones as you see that I have” (Luke 24:38-39). And when he later appeared to Thomas, There are several passages in the New Testament which affirm that who had expressed skepticism about the resurrection, Jesus said, “Put the body will be restored to life. One of them is Romans 8:ll: “If the your finger here, and see my hands; and put out your hand, and place it Spirit of him who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in you, he who in my side; do not be faithless, but believing” (John 20:27). That Jesus was raised Christ Jesus from the dead will give life to your mortal bodies also seen and heard and recognized by the disciples suggests that he had a through his Spirit which dwells in you.” In Philippians 3:20-2 1 Paul writes, body similar to the one he had possessed before. The fact that the tomb “But our commonwealth is in heaven, and from it we await a Savior, the was empty and the body was never produced by the opponents of Christ Lord Jesus Christ, who will change our lowly body to be like his glorious is a further indication of the bodily nature of his resurrection. The special body, by the power which enables him even to subject all things to connection which, as we have already noted, exists between the rcsurrcc- I I98 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its Consequents 1199 tion of Christ and that of the believer argues that our resurrection will be bodily as well. The philosophical problem here is the basis of identity. What is it that We now must face the question of just what it means to say that the marks each of us as the same individual at birth, as an adult, and in the resurrection involves the body. There are certain problems if we look resurrection? Certainly not the cells of the body, for we know that there upon the resurrection as merely a physical resuscitation. One is that the is a complete change of cells within a person’s body once every seven body would presumably be subject to dying again. Apparently Lazarus years. If biological cells were the basis of identity, adults would not be and the others restored to life by Jesus eventually died again and were the persons they were at birth. There is evidently a continuity of identity, buried. Yet Paul speaks of the new body as “imperishable,” in contrast to however, despite all of the changes. The adult is the same person as the the “perishable” body that is buried (1 Cor. 1542). A second problem is child, even if substitutions have been made for every cell in the body. the contrast drawn between the “physical [soul&h] body” that is sown Similarly, despite the transformation which will occur at resurrection, and the “spiritual body” that is raised (v. 44). There is a sign&cant differ- we know from Paul that we will still be the same person. ence between the two, but we do not know the precise nature of that It is sometimes assumed that our new bodies will be just like that of difference. Further, there are explicit statements which exclude the pos- Jesus in the period immediately following his resurrection. His body sibility that the resurrection body will be purely physical. Paul says near apparently bore the physical marks of his crucifixion, and could be seen the end of his discussion of the resurrection body, “Flesh and blood and touched (John 20~27). Although the Scripture does not explicitly say cannot inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the that Jesus ate, we draw that inference from Luke 24:28-31 and John imperishable” (1 Cor. 1550). Jesus’ retort to the Sadducees, “For in the 21:9-E. It should be borne in mind that there were more steps remaining resurrection they neither marry nor are given in marriage, but are like in Jesus’ exaltation. The ascension, involving a transition from this space- angels in heaven” (Matt. 22:30), seems to carry the same implication. time universe to the spiritual realm of heaven, may well have produced Finally, there is the problem of how one’s body can be reconstituted from yet another transformation. The change which will occur in our bodies molecules which may have become part of another person’s body.15 at the resurrection (01; in the case of those still alive, at the second Cannibalism presents the most extreme example of this problem. Human coming) occurred in two stages in his case. Our resurrection body will bodies serving to fertilize fields where crops are grown and the scattering be like Jesus’ present body, not like that body he had between his resur- of human ashes over a river from which drinking water is drawn are rection and ascension. We will not have those characteristics of Jesus’ other cases in point. A ludicrous parody of the Sadducees’ question, “In postresurrection earthly body which appear inconsistent with the de- the resurrection whose wife will she be?” (Mark 12:23), arises; namely, scriptions of our resurrection bodies (e.g., physical tangibility and the “Whose molecules will they be in the resurrection?” need to eat). What we have, then, is something more than a postdeath survival by We conclude that there will be a bodily reality of some type in the the spirit or soul; this something more is not simply a physical resuscita- resurrection. It will have some connection with and derive from our tion, however. There is a utilization of the old body, but a transformation original body, and yet it will not be merely a resuscitation of our original of it in the process. Some sort of metamorphosis occurs, so that a new body. Rather, there will be a transformation or metamorphosis. An anal- body arises. This new body has some connection or point of identity with ogy here is the petrification of a log or a stump. While the contour of the the old body, but is differently constituted. Paul speaks of it as a spiritual original object is retained, the composition is entirely different.” We have body (1 Cor. 1544) but does not elaborate. He uses the analogy of a seed difficulty in understanding because we do not know the exact nature of and the plant that springs from it (v. 37). What sprouts from the ground the resurrection body. It does appear, however, that it will retain and at is not merely that which is planted. It issues from that original seed, the same time glorify the human form. We will be free of the imperfec- however.16 tions and needs which we had on earth.

IS. See Augustus H. Strong’s question, “Who ate Roger Williams?” in Systematic 17. A number of theologians have held this or a similar position. Origen suggested Theofogv (Westwood, N.J.: Revel], 1907), p. 1019. that the two bodies have the same “seminal principle or form.” Thomas Aquinas posited 16. Gcorgc E. Ladd points out that although Paul does not attempt to describe the that the resurrection body will have the same substance, but different accidents. M. E. nature of the resurrection body, he does mention some qualities in which it will differ Dahl speaks of somatic identity without material identity. John Hick refers to the resur- from the physical body-A Theology of the New TRrtament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, rection body as a divine creation of an exact replica of the previous body. For a mot-c 1974), p. 564. complete account of these views, see Paul Badham, Christian Beliefs About L,ife After Death (New York: Harper and Row, 1976), pp. 65-94. I 200 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its Consequents 1201

mind that it is not intended to ascertain our spiritual condition or status, for that is already known to God. Rather, it will manifest or make our Of Both the Righteous and the Unrighteous status public.l* Most of the references to the resurrection are to the resurrection of believers. Isaiah 26: 19 speaks of the resurrection in a fashion which A Future Event indicates that it is a reward. Jesus speaks of the “resurrection of the just” (Luke 14: 14). In his statement to the Sadducees about the resurrection The final judgment will occur in the future. Of course, God has in he declares that “those who are accounted worthy to attain to that age some cases already made his judgment manifest, as when he took right- and to the resurrection from the dead neither marry nor are given in eous Enoch and Elijah to heaven to be with him, sent the destructive marriage” (Luke 20:35). He afhrms to Martha, “I am the resurrection and flood upon the earth (Gen. 6-7), and destroyed Korah and those who the life; he who believes in me, though he die, yet shall he live, and participated with him in the rebellion (Num. 16). A New Testament whoever lives and believes in me shall never die” (John 11:25-26). In example is Gods striking down Ananias and Sapphira (Acts 5: l-l 1). Philippians 3: 11 Paul expresses his desire and hope “that if possible I may Friedrich Schelling, among others, maintained that the history of the attain the resurrection from the dead.” Neither the Synoptic Gospels nor world is the judgment of the world, that, in other words, the events that Paul’s writings make explicit reference to unbelievers being raised from occur within history are in effect a judgment upon the world. Yet this is the dead. not the whole of what the Bible has to say about judgment. A definite On the other hand, there are a number of passages which do indicate event is to occur in the future. Jesus alluded to it in Matthew 11:24: “But a resurrection of unbelievers. Daniel 12:2 says, ‘And many of those who I tell you that it shall be more tolerable on the day of judgment for the sleep in the dust of the earth shall awake, some to everlasting life, and land of Sodom than for you.” On another occasion he spoke clearly of some to shame and everlasting contempt.” John reports a similar state- the judgment which he would execute in connection with the future ment of Jesus: “Do not marvel at this; for the hour is coming when all resurrection (John 5:27-29). There is an extended picture of this judg- who are in the tombs will hear his voice and come forth, those who have ment in Matthew 25:31-46. While preaching on the Areopagus Paul done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to declared that God “has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in the resurrection of judgment” (John 528-29). Paul, in his defense before righteousness by a man whom he has appointed, and of this he has given Felix, said, “But this I admit to you, that according to the Way, which they assurance to all men by raising him from the dead” (Acts 17:31). Later call a sect, I worship the God of our fathers, believing everything laid Paul argued before Felix “about justice and self-control and future judg- down by the law or written in the prophets, having a hope in God which ment” (Acts 24~25). He wrote to the Remans, “But by your hard and these themselves accept, that there will be a resurrection of both the just impenitent heart you are storing up wrath for yourself on the day of and the unjust” (Acts 24:14-15). And since both believers and unbelievers wrath when God’s righteous judgment will be revealed” (Rom. 2:5). The will be present at and involved in the last judgment, we conclude that author of the letter to the Hebrews put it clearly and directly: “It is the resurrection of both is necessary. Whether they will be raised simul- appointed for men to die once, and after that comes judgment” (Heb. taneously or at two different times will be discussed in the following 9:27). Other clear references include Hebrews 10:27; 2 Peter 3:7; and chapter. Revelation 20:11-15. Scripture specifies that the judgment will occur after the second coming. Jesus said, “For the Son of man is to come with his angels in the The Final Judgment glory of his Father, and then he will repay every man for what he has done” (Matt. 16:27). This idea is also found in Matthew 13:37-43; 24:29- The second coming will also issue in the great final judgment. This is 35; and 25:31-46. Similarly, Paul wrote, “Therefore do not pronounce for many people one of the most frightening prospects regarding the judgment before the time, before the Lord comes, who will bring to light f‘uturt.~, and well it might be for those who are apart from Christ and

constqlc~ntly will be judged to be among the unrighteous. For those who 18. Gottlob Schrenk, 6LKC~l00h~, in Theological Dictionary of the New Tatument, cd. are irl (:hrist, how&r, it is something to look forward to, for it will Gerhard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 10 wk. (Grand vindicate their lives. As WC study the final judgment, we should keep in Rapids: Eerdmans, 1964- 1976) vol. 2, p. 207. 1202 The Last Things The Second Coming and Its Consequents 1203 the things now hidden in darkness and will disclose the purposes of the “God did not spare the angels when they sinned, but cast them into hell heart. Then every man will receive his commendation from God” (1 Cor. [Tartarus] and committed them to pits of nether gloom to be kept until 45). the judgment” (2 Peter 2:4). Jude 6 makes an almost identical statement. The good angels, on the other hand, will participate in the judgment by gathering together all who are to be judged (Matt. 13:41; 24:31). Jesus Christ the Judge

Jesus pictured himself as sitting on a glorious throne and judging all The Basis of the Judgment nations (Matt. 25:31-33). Although God is spoken of as the judge in Hebrews 12:23, it is clear from several other references that he delegates Those who appear will be judged in terms of their earthly lives.20 Paul this authority to the Son. Jesus himself said, “The Father judges no one, said that we will all appear at the judgment, “so that each one may but has given all judgment to the Son.. . and has given him authority to receive good or evil, according to what he has done in the body” (2 Cor. execute judgment, because he is the Son of man” (John 5:22,27). Peter 5:lO). Jesus said that at the resurrection all will “come forth, those who told the gathering in Cornelius’s house, “[Jesus] commanded us to preach have done good, to the resurrection of life, and those who have done evil, to the people, and to testify that he is the one ordained by God to be to the resurrection of judgment” (John 5:29). While one might infer from judge of the living and the dead” (Acts 10:42). Paul informed the Atheni- Matthew 25:31-46 that it is the doing of good deeds that makes the ans that God ‘has fixed a day on which he will judge the world in difference, Jesus indicated that some who claim and who even appear to righteousness by a man whom he has appointed, and of this he has given have done good deeds will be told to depart (Matt. 7:21-23). assurance to all men by raising him from the dead.” And Paul wrote to The standard on the basis of which the evaluation will be made is the the Corinthians, “We must all appear before the judgment seat of Christ, revealed will of God. Jesus said, “He who rejects me and does not receive so that each one may receive good or evil, according to what he has my sayings has a judge; the word that I have spoken will be his judge on done in the body” (2 Cor. 5:lO). Second Timothy 4: 1 states that Christ is the last day” (John 12:48). Even those who have not explicitly heard the to judge the living and the dead. law will be judged: ‘Au who have sinned without the law will also perish It appears that believers will share in the judging. In Matthew 19:28 without the law, and all who have sinned under the law will be judged by and Luke 22:28-30 Jesus suggests that the disciples will judge the twelve the law” (Rom. 2: 12). tribes of Israel. We are also told that believers will sit on thrones and judge the world (1 Cor. 6:2-3; Rev. 3:21; 20~4). While we are not told the The Finality of the Judgment exact details, Christ will apparently permit the saints to share in this work. Once passed, the judgment will be permanent and irrevocable. The righteous and the ungodly will be sent away to their respective final places. There is no hint that the verdict can be changed. In concluding The Subjects of the Judgment his teaching about the last judgment, Jesus said that those on his left AU humans will be judged (Matt. 25:32; 2 Cor. 5:lO; Heb. 927). Paul hand “will go away into eternal punishment, but the righteous into eternal warns that “we shall all stand before the judgment seat of God” (Rom. life” (Matt. 25:46). 14: 10). Every secret will be revealed; all that has ever occurred will be evaluated. Some have questioned whether the sins of believers will be included--that would seem to be unnecessary inasmuch as believers Implications of the Second Coming and Its Consequents have been justified. But the statements concerning the review of sins are universal. Berkhof’s perspective on this matter is probably correct: 1. History will not simply run its course, but under the guidance of “Scripture leads us to believe that [the sins of believers] will be [revealed], God will come to a consummation. His purposes will be fi..&lled in the though they will, of course, be revealed as pardoned sin~.“~~ end. In addition, the evil angels will be judged at this time. Peter writes that 20. Floyd V. F&on, “The Second Epistle to the Corinthians,” in The Interpreter? Bible, 19. Berkhof, S~stermtic Theo&v, p. 732. ed. George A. Buttrick (Nashville: Abingdon, 1978), vol. 10, p. 332. 1204 The Last Things

2. We as believers should watch for and work in anticipation of the sure return of the Lord. 3. Our earthly bodies will be transformed into something far better. The imperfections which we now know will disappear; our everlasting bodies will know no pain, illness, or death. 4. A time is coming when justice will be dispensed. Evil will be pun- ished, and faith and faithfulness rewarded. 5. Ln view of the certainty of the second coming and the finality of the judgment which will follow, it is imperative that we act in accordance with the will of God. 0

1 .- 580 Millennial and Tribulational Views

Millennial Views Postmillennialism Premillennialism Amillennialism Resolving the Issues Tribulational Views Pretribulationism Posttribulationism Mediating Positions Resolving the Issues

0 ver the years there has been considerable discussion in Christian theology regarding the chronological relationship between Christ’s second coming and certain other events. In particular, this dis- cussion has involved two major questions. (1) Will there be a millennium, an earthly reign of Jesus Christ; and if so, will the second coming take place before or after that period? The view that there will be no earthly reign of Christ is termed amiflennialism. The teaching that the return of Christ will inaugurate a miUennium is termed premillennialism, while the belief that the second coming will conclude a millennium is postmillen- 1205 1206 The Last Things I Millennial and Tribulational Views 1207 nialism. (2) Will Christ come to remove the church from the world before period, however, Satan will be loosed for a short time before being finally the great tribulation (pretribulationism), or will he return only after the subdued.2 tribulation (posttribulationism)? This second question is found primarily As we look at current conditions in the world and the church, it may in premillennialism. We shall examine in turn each of the millennial and seem difficult to reconcile Augustine’s view with what is actually going then the tribulational views. on. It is important to remember the context in which Augustine formu- lated and presented his view, however. Christianity had achieved unprece- dented political success. A series of circumstances had led to the Millennial Views conversion of the emperor Constantine in 312. With that event, Christi- anity was granted tolerance within the empire and became virtually the Although all three millennial positions have been held virtually official religion. The church was entering into its inheritance. Its major throughout church history, at different times one or another has domi- opposition, the Roman Empire, had virtually capitulated. While the prog- nated. We will examine them in the order of their major period of ress of the church would be gradual rather than sudden, it would be popularity. sure. No dates were set for the completion of the millennium and the return of Christ, but it was assumed that they would come to pass about the year le.3 Postmillennialism With the*end of the first millennium of church history, it of course Postmillennialism rests on the belief that the preaching of the gospel became necessary to revise somewhat the details of postmillennialism. will be so successful that the world will be converted. The reign of Christ, The millennium was no longer viewed as a period of a thousand years, the locus of which is human hearts, will be complete and universal. The but as the whole of church history. Postmillennialism was most popular petition, “Thy will be done, on earth as it is in heaven,” will be actualized. during periods in which the church appeared to be succeeding in its task Peace will prevail and evil will be virtually banished. Then, when the of winning the world. It came to particular popularity in the latter part gospel has fully taken effect, Christ will return. Basically, then, postmillen- of the nineteenth century. Bear in mind that this was a period of great nialism is an optimistic view. effectiveness in world missions as well as a time of concern about and The first three centuries of the church were probably dominated by progress in social conditions. Consequently, it seemed reasonable to what we would today call premillennialism, but in the fourth century an assume that the world would soon be reached for Christ. African Donatist named Tyconius propounded a competitive view.’ Al- As we have suggested, the major tenet of postmillennialism is the though Augustine was an archopponent of the Donatists, he adopted successful spread of the gospel. This idea is based upon several passages Tyconius’s view of the millennium. This interpretation was to dominate of Scripture. In the Old Testament, Psalms 47,72, and 100; Isaiah 45:22- eschatological thinking throughout the Middle Ages. Augustine taught 25; and Hosea 2:23, for example, make it clear that all nations will come that the millennium does not lie in the future, but has already begun. We to know God. In addition, Jesus said on several occasions that the gospel are in the millennium. The thousand years began with Christ’s first would be preached universally prior to his second coming. A prime coming. In support of this view, Augustine cited Mark 3:27: “But no one example of this teaching is found in Matthew 24: 14. Inasmuch as the can enter a strong man’s house and plunder his goods, unless he first Great Commission is to be carried out in his authority (Matt. 28:18-20), it binds the strong man; then indeed he may plunder his house.” In Augus- is bound to succeed. Often the idea of the spread of the gospel includes tine’s understanding of this verse, the strong man is Satan and the the concomitants of the gospel-transforming effects upon social condi- plundered goods represent people who were formerly under his control tions will follow from the conversion of large numbers of hearers. In but are now Christian. Satan was bound at the time of the first coming some cases, the belief in the spread of the kingdom has taken on a of Christ and will remain bound until the second coming. Since Satan is somewhat more secularized form, so that social transformation rather therefore unable to deceive the nations, the preaching of the gospel is than individual conversions is considered the sign of the kingdom. For highly successful. Christ reigns on earth. At the end of this millennial 2. Augustine Sermon 259.2. I. Traugott Hahn, Tyconius-Studien. Ein Beitrag ZUT Kirchen-und-Dogmen- 3. Adolf von Harnack, ‘Millennium,” in Encyclopaedia Britannica, 9th ed. (New York: geschichte des 4. Jahrhunderts (Leipzig: Dieterich, 1900; Aalen: Schilling, 1971 reprint). Scribner, 1883), vol. 16, pp. 3 14-18. 120X The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views I209 example, the social-gospel movement in the late nineteenth century basically optimistic view. Consequently, it has fared rather poorly in the aimed at the Christianizing of the social order, culminating in a change twentieth century. The convinced postmillennialist regards the distress- of the economic structure. Discrimination, injustice, and conflict would ing conditions of the twentieth century as merely a temporary fluctua- then wither away, and wars would be a thing of the past. This form of tion in the growth of the kingdom. They indicate that we are not as near postmillennialism was usually accompanied by a generalized concept of the second coming as we had thought. This argument, however, has not divine providence: God was seen as working outside the formal bounda- proved persuasive to large numbers of theologians, pastors, and lay ries of the church. So on two occasions in the twentieth century, signifi- persons.7 cant numbers of German Christians identified God’s working in the world with political movements of their time: Raiser Wilhelm’s war policy in Premillennialism the teens, and then Hitler’s Naziism in the 1930s.4 Emphasizing ‘social transformation, liberals, insofar as they held a millennial view, were Premillennialism is committed to the concept of an earthly reign by generally postmillennialists, but by no means were alI postmillennial& Jesus Christ of approximately one thousand years (or at least a substan- liberal. Many of them envisioned an unprecedented number of conver- tial period of time). Unlike postmillennialism, premillennialism sees Christ sions, with the human race becoming a collection of regenerated individ- as physically present during this time; it believes that he will return uals.5 personally and bodily to commence the millennium. This being the case, In postmillennial thought, the kingdom of God is viewed as a present the millennium must be seen as still in the future. reality, here and now, rather than a future heavenly realm. Jesus’ parables Premillennialism was probably the dominant millennial view during in Matthew 13 give us an idea of the nature of this kingdom. It is like the early period of the church. Christians of the first three centuries had leaven, spreading gradually but surely throughout the whole. Its growth a strong expectation of an early return of Christ. Instead of holding to a will be extensive (it will spread throughout the entire world) and intensive gradual growth of the kingdom, they anticipated that the eschaton would (it will become dominant). Its growth will be so gradual that the onset of be inaugurated by a cataclysmic event. Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, and the millennium may be scarcely noticed by some. The progress may not several other significant early theologians held to this view.8 Much of the be uniform; indeed, the coming of the kingdom may well proceed by a millennialism of this period-often termed “chiliasm,” from the Greek series of crises. Postmillennialists are able to accept what appear to be word for “thousand’‘-had a rather sensuous flavor. The millennium setbacks, since they believe in the ultimate triumph of the gospel.6 would be a time of great abundance and fertility, of a renewing of the In the postmillennial view, the millennium will be an extended period, earth and building of a glorified Jerusalem.9 This tended to repulse the but not necessarily a literal one thousand years. Indeed, the postmillen- Alexandrian school of Clement, Origen, and Dionysius. A major factor in nial view of the millennium is frequently based less upon Revelation 20, the decline of chiliasm was Augustine’s view of the millennium, which where the thousand-year period and the two resurrections are men- we discussed earlier. In the Middle Ages, premillennialism became quite tioned, than upon other passages of Scripture. The very gradualness of rare. Often it was mystical sects which perpetuated it. the coming of the kingdom makes the length of the millennium difficult About the middle of the nineteenth century, premillennialism began to calculate. The point is that the millennium will be a prolonged period to grow in popularity in conservative circles. This was partly due to the of time during which Christ, even though physically absent, will reign fact that liberals, insofar as they had a millennial view, were postmillen- over the earth. One essential feature which distinguishes postmillennial- nial&s, and some conservatives considered anything associated with ism from the other millennial views is that it expects conditions to liberalism to be suspect. The growing popularity of the dispensational become better, rather than worse, prior to Christ’s return. Thus it is a system of interpretation and eschatology also lent impetus to premillen- nialism. It has considerable adherence among conservative Baptists, Pen- tecostal groups, and independent fundamentalist churches. 4. Karl Barth, How I Changed My Mind (Richmond: John Knox, 1966), pp. 2 1,45; The Church und the Political Problem of Our Lky (New York: Scribner, 1939). 5. Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952), vol. 3, pp. 7. Ibid., pp. 132-33. BOO- I 2. 8. Justin Martyr Dialogue with Trypho 80. 1. 6. Loraine Boettner, “Postmillennialism,” in The Meaning of the Millennium, ed. 9. A. J. Visser, “A Bird’+Eye View of Ancient Christian Eschatology,” Numen 14 (1967): Robert G. Clousc (Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity, 1977), pp. 120-2 1. 10-l 1. I210 The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views 1211

The key passage for premillennialism is Revelation 20:4-6: participate in the first resurrection are not involved in the second. It is “the rest of the dead” (oi AOLTTO~ T&V veKp&) who do not come to life until Then I saw thrones, and seated on them were those to whom judgment the end of the thousand years. Although it is not said that they will come was committed. Also I saw the souls of those who had been beheaded for to life at that point, the implication is that they will. There is an obvious their testimony to Jesus and for the word of God, and who had not contrast between those involved in the second resurrection and those in worshiped the beast or its image and had not received its mark on their the first. foreheads or their hands. They came to life, and reigned with Christ a It is also important to observe the nature of the millennium. Whereas thousand years. The rest of the dead did not come to life until the the postmillennialist thinks that the millennium is being introduced grad- thousand years were ended. This is the first resurrection. Blessed and ually, perhaps almost imperceptibly, the premillennialist envisions a sud- holy is he who shares in the first resurrection! Over such the second death den, cataclysmic event. In the premillennialist view, the rule of Jesus has no power, but they shall be priests of God and of Christ, and they Christ will be complete from the very beginning of the millennium. Evil shall reign with him a thousand years. will have been virtually eliminated. According to premillennialism, then, the millennium will not be an Premillennialists observe that here is evidence of a thousand-year period extension of trends already at work within the world. Instead, there will and two resurrections, one at the beginning and the other at the end. be a rather sharp break from conditions as we now find them. For Premillennialists insist on a literal and consistent interpretation of this example, there will be worldwide peace. This is a far cry from the present passage. Since the same verb-Z[qacuv-is used in reference to both situation, where worldwide peace is a rare thing indeed, and the trend resurrections, they must be of the same type. The amillennialist, or for does not seem to be improving. The universal harmony will not be that matter the postmillennialist, is usually forced to say that they are of restricted to humans. Nature, which has been “groaning in travail,” await- different types. The usual explanation is that the first resurrection is a ing its redemption, will be freed from the curse of the fall (Rom. 8:19- spiritual resurrection, that is, regeneration, while the second is a literal, 23). Even animals will live in harmony with one another (Isa. 11:6-7; physical, or bodily resurrection. Thus those who take part in the first 65:25), and the destructive forces of nature will be calmed. The saints resurrection will undergo the second as well. PremilIennialists, however, will rule together with Christ in this millennium. Although the exact reject this interpretation as untenable. George Beasley-Murray observes nature of their reign is not spelled out, they will, as a reward for their that it attributes confusion and chaotic thinking to the biblical author.lO faithfulness, participate with him in the glory which is his. Henry Alford a century ago contended that if one resurrection is a All premillennialists also anticipate that Israel will have a special place spiritual coming to life and the other a physical coming to life, “then in the millennium. They disagree, however, as to the nature of that special there is an end of all signilicance in language, and Scripture is wiped out place. Dispensational&s hold to a continuing unconditional covenant of as a definite testimony to anything.“ii George Ladd says that if Qacrv God with national Israel, so that when God has completed his dealings means bodily resurrection in verse 5, it must mean bodily resurrection with the church, he will return to his relations with national Israel. Jesus in verse 4; if it does not, “we have lost control of exegesis.“12 will literally sit upon David’s throne and rule the world from Israel. All of All of these men are sensitive to the fact that context can alter the the prophecies and promises regarding Israel will be fulfilled within the meanings of words. They note, however, that in this case the two usages millennium, which will therefore have a markedly Jewish character. of &XYV occur together. And there is nothing in the context to suggest Nondispensationalists put much less emphasis upon national Israel, hold- any shift in meaning. Consequently, what we have here are two resurrec- ing instead that Israel’s special place, being spiritual in nature, will be tions of the same type which involve two different groups at an interval found within the church. Israel will be converted in large numbers during of a thousand years. It also appears from the context that those who the millennium.13 Premillennialists also hold that the millennium will be a tremendous IO. George R. Beasley-Murray, “The Revelation,” in The New Bible Commentary change from what immediately precedes it, namely, the great tribulation. Revised, ed. Donald Guthrie and J. A. Motyer (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1970), p. 1306. The tribulation will be a time of unprecedented trouble and turmoil, I 1. Henry Alford, The New Testament for English Readers (Chicago: Moody, n.d.), pp. 1928-29. 12. George E. Ladd, “Revelation 20 and the Millennium,” Review and Expositor 57, 13. George E. Ladd, “Israel and the Church,” Evangelical Quarterly 36, no. 4 (October- no. 2 (April 1960): 169. December 1964): 206-l 3. 1212 The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views 1213

including cosmic disturbances, persecution, and great suffering. While gesting that the figure of one thousand years is primarily symbolic rather premillennial&s disagree as to whether the church will be present during than literal. It is likely that postmillennialism and amillennialism simply the tribulation, they agree that the world situation will be at its very were not differentiated for much of the first nineteen centuries of the worst just before Christ comes to establish the milletium, which will church. When postmillennialism began to fade in popularity in the twen- be, by contrast, a period of peace and righteousness. tieth century, amillennialism was generally substituted for it, since amil- lennialism is much closer to postmillennialism than is premillennialism. Amillennialism Consequently, amillennialism has enjoyed its greatest popularity in the period since World War L Literally, amillennialism is the idea that there will be no rnillennium, When amillennialists deal with Revelation 20, they usually have the no earthly reign of Christ. The great final judgment will immediately whole book in view. They see the Book of Revelation as consisting of follow the second coming and issue directly in the final states of the several sections, seven being the number most frequently mentioned. righteous and the wicked. Amillennialism is a simpler view than either of These several sections do not deal with successive periods of time; rather, the others that we have been considering. Its advocates maintain that it they are recapitulations of the same period, the period between Christ’s is built on a number of relatively clear eschatological passages, whereas first and second comings. 15 It is believed that in each of these sections premillennialism is based primarily upon a single passage, and an ob- the author picks up the same themes and elaborates them. If this is the scure one at that. case, Revelation 20 does not refer solely to the last period in the history Despite the simplicity of amillennialism and the clarity of its central of the church, but is a special perspective upon the entire history of the tenet, it is in many ways difficult to grasp. This is due in part to the fact church. that, its most notable feature being negative, its positive teachings are Amillennialists also remind us that the Book of Revelation as a whole not always expounded. It has sometimes been distinguished more for its is very symbolic. They note that even the most rabid premillennialists do rejection of premillennialism than for its affirmations. Also, in dealing not take everything in the Book of Revelation literally. The bowls, seals, with the very troublesome passage of Revelation 20:4-6, amillennial.ists and trumpets, for example, are usually interpreted as symbols. By a have come up with a rather wide variety of explanations. One wonders simple extension of this principle amillennialists contend that the “thou- at times whether these explanations reflect the same basic view or quite sand years” of Revelation 20 might not be literal either. In addition, they different understandings of eschatological and apocalyptic literature. point out that the millennium is mentioned nowhere else in Scripture.16 Finally, it has not always been possible to distinguish amillennialism from The question arises, If the figure of a thousand years is to be taken postmillennialism, since they share many common features. Indeed, var- symbolically rather than literally, of what is it a symbol? Many amillen- ious theologians who have not addressed the particular issues which &lists utilize War-field’s interpretation: “The sacred number seven in serve to distinguish the two views from one another-among them are combination with the equally sacred number three forms the number of Augustine, John Calvin, and B. B. Warfield-have been claimed as ances- holy perfection, ten, and when this ten is cubed into a thousand the seer tors by both camps. What the two views share is a belief that the has said all he could say to convey to our minds the idea of absolute “thousand years” of Revelation 20 is to be taken symbolically. Both often completeness. “17 The references to a “thousand years” in Revelation 20, hold as well that the millennium is the church age. Where they differ is then, convey the idea of perfection or completeness. In verse 2 the figure that the postmillennialist, unlike the amillennialist, holds that the millen- represents the completeness of Christ’s victory over Satan. In verse 4 it nium involves an earthly reign of Christ. suggests the perfect glory and joy of the redeemed in heaven at the In light of the problems one encounters in trying to grasp amillennial- present time.18 ism, its history is difficult to trace. Some historians of doctrine have found amillennialism in the Epistle of Barnabas,14 but this is disputed by 15. Floyd Hamilton, The Basis of Millennial Faith (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1942), pp. others. It is clear that Augustine, whether or not he should be classified 130-31. 16. William Hendriksen, More than Conquerors (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1939), pp. 1 l- as an amillennialist, contributed to the formulation of the view by sug- 64; Anthony Hoekema, “Amtiennialism,” in Meaning of the Millennium, pp. 156-59. 17. Benjamin B. Warfield, “The Mtiennium and the Apocalypse,” in Biblical Doctrines 14. Diedrich Kromminga, The Millennium in the Church: Studies in the History of (New York: Oxford University, 1929), p. 654. Christ& Chiliasm (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1945), p. 40. 18. W. J. Grier, “Christian Hope and the Millennium,” Christianity Today, I3 October 1958, p. 19. 1214 The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views 1215

The major exegetical problem for amillennialism, however, is not the Christ; there is nothing here about the body coming to life. Those who one thousand years, but the two resurrections. Among the variety of participate in this resurrection are the ‘living” dead. The “dead” dead, by amillennial opinions about the two resurrections, the one common factor contrast, have no part in the hrst resurrection and will suffer the second is a denial of the premillennial contention that John is speaking of two (spiritual) death. Their souls survive the first (physical) death, but will physical resurrections involving two different groups. The most common never come to life. Though both groups are physically dead, the former amillennial interpretation is that the first resurrection is spiritual and the are spiritually alive during the thousand years; the latter are not. While second is bodily or physical. One who has argued this at some length is some commentators have inferred from verse 5 (“the rest of the dead Ray Summers. From Revelation 20~6 (“Blessed and holy is he who shares did not come to life until the thousand years were ended”) that the in the first resurrection! Over such the second death has no power”) he “dead” dead will come to life at the end of the millennium, Hughes concludes that the first resurrection is a victory over the second death. renders the clause in question, “They did not live during the thousand Since it is customary in eschatological discussions to consider the second years, nor thereafter.” And what, then, of the second resurrection? death to be spiritual rather than physical, the first resurrection must be Hughes regards it as highly significant that the term “second resurrec- spiritual as well. The first death, which is not mentioned but implied, tion,” which pertains to the survival of just and unjust souls during the must surely be physical death. If it is to be correlated with the second intermediate state, is not to be found in Revelation 20. Unlike the f&t resurrection as the second death is with the first resurrection, the second resurrection, then, the second resurrection is virtually hypothetical. Like resurrection must be physical. The first resurrection, then, is the new the f&t, however, it is spiritual in nature. Thus, Hughes has managed to birth those who experience it will not come into condemnation. The interpret the two occurrences of <[vaav consistently.21 second resurrection is the bodily or physical resurrection which we Another feature of amillennialism is a more general conception of usually have in view when we use the word remrrection. All those who prophecy, especially Old Testament prophecy, than is found in premillen- participate in the first resurrection also participate in the second resur- nialism. We have noted that premillennialists tend to interpret biblical rection, but not all of those experiencing the second resurrection will prophecy quite literally. On the other hand, amillennialists frequently have partaken of the first.19 treat prophecies as historical or symbolic rather than futuristic. As a general rule, prophecy occupies a much less important place in amillen- The most common premillennial criticism of the view that the first nial than in prernillennial thought. resurrection is spiritual arid the second physical is that it is inconsistent Finally, we should observe that amillennialism usually does not display in interpreting identical terms (i[qnav) in the same context. Some amil- the optimism that is typically found in postmillennialism. There may be lennialists have accepted this criticism and have sought to develop a a belief that preaching of the gospel will be successful, but great success position in which the two resurrections are of the same type. James in this regard is not necessary to the amillennial scheme, since no literal Hughes has constructed such a view. He accepts the premillennialist reign of Christ, no coming of the kingdom before the coming of the King, point that the first and second resurrections must be understood in the is expected. This has made the amillennial view more credible than same sense.2o He suggests, however, a logical possibility which the premil- postmillennialism in the twentieth century. This is not to say that amillen- lennialists seem to have overlooked: both resurrections may be spiritual. nialism is like premillennialism in expecting an extreme deterioration of Hughes contends that Revelation 204-6 is a description of disembod- conditions before the second coming. Yet there is nothing in amillennial- ied souls in the intermediate state. He cites as evidence the fact that ism to preclude such a possibility. And because no millennium will those who are involved in the first resurrection are termed “souls” (v. 4). precede the second coming, the Lord’s return may be at hand. For the Further, he argues that Z&XXIV should be interpreted not as an ingressive most part, however, amillennialists do not engage in the type of eager aorist (“they came to life”), but as a constative aorist (“they lived and searching for signs of the second coming that characterizes much of reigned with Christ a thousand years”). He concludes that the first premillennialism. resurrection is the ascension of the just soul to heaven to reign with Resolving the Issues

19. Ray Summers, “Revelation 20: An Interpretation,” Review and Expositor 57, no. 2 We must now address the question of which millennial view to adopt. (April 1960): 176. The issues are large and complex, but on close analysis can be reduced 20. James A. Hughes, “Revelation 20:4-6 and the Question of the Millennium,” West- minster Theological Journal 35 (1973): 300. 2 1. Ibid., pp. 299-300. 1216 The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views 1217 to a comparative few. We have noted in the course of this treatise that Nor is the premillennialist interpretation based upon only one passage theology, like other disciplines, is often unable to find one view which is in the Bible. Intimations of it are found in a number of places. For conclusively supported by all of the data. What must be done in such example, Paul writes, “For as in Adam all die, so also in Christ shall all be situations is to find the view which has fewer difficulties than do the made alive. But each in his own order: Christ the first fruits, then at his alternatives. That is the approach we will follow here. coming those who belong to Christ. Then comes the end, when he The postmillennial view has much less support at the present time delivers the kingdom to God the Father after destroying every rule and than it did in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. This every authority and power” (1 Cor. 1522-24). Paul uses the adverbs &ELT(Y should not in itself persuade us to reject the position. We must, however, (v. 23) and &Y (v. 24), which indicate temporal sequence. He could have seek the reasons for the decline in postmillennialism, for they may be used the adverb ~67~ to indicate concurrent events, but he did not do determinative of our conclusions. Here we should note that the optimism ~0.~~ It appears that just as the first coming and resurrection of Christ of postmillennialism regarding gospel proclamation seems somewhat were distinct events separated by time, so will there be an interval unjustified. There has been a decline in evangelistic and missionary between the second coming and the end.23 We should also observe that success. In parts of the world the percentage of the population actually while the two resurrections are spoken of explicitly only in Revelation 20, practicing the Christian faith is very small. Further, many Communist there are other passages which hint at either a resurrection of a select and Muslim countries are now closed to Christian missionary endeavor group (Luke 1414; 20~35; 1 Cor. 1523; Phil. 3: 11; 1 Thess. 4: 16) or a of a conventional type. On the other hand, we must not be oblivious to resurrection in two stages (Dan. 12:2; John 529). In Philippians 3:11, for the fact that in parts of the world, notably Africa and South America, example, Paul speaks of his hope of attaining “the resurrection from the Christianity is thriving, and is beginning to approach majority status. dead.” Literally, the phrase reads “the out-resurrection out from among Who can tell what reversals of fortune lie in store for the preaching of the dead ones” (+ i&~v&a~~a~v +jv

24. John F. Walvoord, The Rapture Question (Findlay, Ohio: Dunham, 1957), pp. 101, 26. E. Schuyler English, Re-thinking the Rapture: An Examination of What the Scrip- 198. tures Teach as to the Time of the Translation of the Church in Relation to the Tribulation 25. Charles L. Feinberg, Premillennialivn or Amillennialism? The Premillennial and (Neptune, N.J.: Loizeaux, 1954), pp. 100-O 1. Amillennial Systems of Interpretation Analyzed and Compared (Grand Rapids: Zonder- 27. Walvoord, Rapture Question, pp. 75-82. van, 1936), p. 146. 28. Gordon Lewis, “Biblical Evidcncc for Pretribulationism,” Bibliotheca Sacra 125 ( 1968): 2 16-26. 1220 The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views 1221

The church can have a blessed hope (Titus 2:13) only if the next major “believers.” Since Pentecost, the term elect has denoted the church. The event to transpire is the coming of Christ. If the Antichrist and the great Lord will preserve the church during, but not spare it from, the tribula- tribulation were the next items on the eschatological agenda, Paul would tion. have told the church to expect suffering, persecution, anguish. But in- Postmillennialists draw a distinction between the wrath of God and stead he instructs the Thessalonians to comfort one another with the the tribulation. The wrath (dpyrj) of God is spoken of in Scripture as fact of Christ’s second coming (1 Thess. 418). Since the next event, to coming upon the wicked-he who does not obey the Son shall not see which the church is to look forward with hopeful anticipation, is the life, but the wrath of God rests upon him” (John 3:36); “the wrath of God coming of Christ for the church, there is nothing to prevent it from is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and wickedness of men happening at any time.29 who by their wickedness suppress the truth” (Rom. 1: 18; see also 2 Thess. Finally, pretribulationism maintains that there will be at least two 1:s; Rev. 6:16-17; 1410; 16:19; 1915). On the other hand, believers will not judgments. The church will be judged at the time of the rapture. It is undergo the wrath of God-”we [shall] be saved by [Christ] from the then that rewards for faithfulness will be handed out. The church will wrath of God” (Rom. 59); “Jesus . . . delivers us from the wrath to come” not be involved, however, in the separation of the sheep and goats at the (1 Thess. 1: 10); “God has not destined us for wrath” (1 Thess. 5:9).31 end of the millennium. Its status will have already been determined. Scripture makes it clear, however, that believers will experience tribula- tion. The overwhelming majority of the occurrences of the noun BA~+~S and the corresponding verb t%i/?w have reference to tribulation which Posttribulationism saints endure. The noun is used to denote persecution of the saints in the Posttribulationists maintain that the coming of Christ for his church last times (Matt. 249, 2 1, 29; Mark 13: 19, 24; Rev. 7: 14). This is not God’s will not take place until the conclusion of the great tribulation. They wrath, but the wrath of Satan, Antichrist, and the wicked against God’s avoid use of the term rupture because (1) it is not a biblical expression people.32 and (2) it suggests that the church will escape or be delivered from the Tribulation has been the experience of the church throughout the tribulation, a notion which runs contrary to the essence of posttribula- ages. Jesus said, “In the world you have tribulation” (John 16:33). Other tionism. significant references are Acts 1422; Romans 5:3; 1 Thessalonians 3:3; A first feature of posttribulationism is a less literal interpretation of the 1 John 2: 18, 22; 43; and 2 John 7. While posttribulationists do not deny a events of the last times than is found in pretribulationism.30 For instance, distinction between tribulation in general and the great tribulation, they while pretribulationists take the word yjzq (shabzuz’) in Daniel 9:27 to be believe that the difference is one of degree only, not of kind. Since the an indication that the great tribulation will be literally seven years in church has experienced tribulation throughout its history, it would not duration, most posttribulationists hold merely that the tribulation will be surprising if the church also experiences the great tribulation. last a substantial period of time. Similarly, pretribulationists generally Posttribulationists acknowledge that Scripture speaks of believers have a concrete conception of the millennium; in their view, many proph- who will escape or be kept from the impending trouble. In Luke 21:36, ecies will be literally fulfilled within the thousand-year period. Indeed, it for example, Jesus tells his disciples, “But watch at all times, praying that is to be inaugurated when Christ’s feet literally stand upon the Mount of you may have strength to escape all these things that will take place, and Olives (Zech. 14:4). The posttribulationist’s understanding of the millen- to stand before the Son of man.” The word here is &#+q which means nium is much more generalized in nature; for example, it will not neces- “to escape out of the midst of.” A similar reference is found in Revelation sarily be one thousand years in length. 3: 10: “Because you have kept my word of patient endurance, I will keep According to posttribulationism, the church will be present during and you from the hour of trial which is coming on the whole world, to try experience the great tribulation. The term elect in Matthew 24 (after the those who dwell upon the earth.” The preposition translated “from” (6~) tribulation, the angels will gather the elect-w. 29-31) should be under- actually means “out from the midst of.” Posttribulationists argue, then, stood in the light of its usage elsewhere in Scripture, where it means that the church will be kept from the midst of the tribulation, not that it

29. John F. Walvoord, The Return of the Lord (Findlay, Ohio: Dunham, 19X), p. 51. 3 1. George E. Ladd, The Blessed Hope (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1956), p. 122; Robert 30. George E. Ladd, “Historic Premillennialism,” in Meaning of the Millennium, pp. H. Gundry, The Church and the Tribulation (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1973), pp. 48-49. 18-27. 32. Gundry, Church and the Tribulation, p. 49. 1222 The Last Things Millennial and Tribulational Views 1223 will be kept away from the tribulation, which would ordinarily require where they came from. So our meeting the Lord in the air is not a case the preposition ai& .33 In this respect, we are reminded of the experience of being caught away, but of meeting him and then immediately coming of the Israelites during the plagues on Egypt. with him to earth as part of his triumphant entourage. It is the church, Of additional significance in Revelation 3:lO is the verb rqpkw (“keep”). not the Lord, that will turn around at the meeting.35 When a situation of danger is in view, it means “to guard.” It appears Posttribulationists have a less complex understanding of the last things with the preposition E)K in only one other place in the New Testament, than do their pretribulational counterparts. For example, there is in John 17: 15: “I do not pray that thou shouldst take them out of the world, posttribulationism only one second coming. Since there is no interlude but that thou shouldst keep them from the evil one.” Here rqpr’w is between the coming of Christ for the church and the end of the tribula- contrasted with &PO, which means “to lift, raise up, or remove.” The tion, there is no need for an additional resurrection of believers. There latter verb very accurately pictures what the pretribulationist holds Jesus are only two resurrections: (1) the resurrection of believers at the end of will do with the church at the time of the rapture. To be sure, Jesus here the tribulation and the beginning of the millennium, and (2) the resurrec- is talking about the situation of his followers in the period immediately tion of the ungodly at the end of the millennium. following his departure from earth, not the tribulation. The point, how- Posttribulationists also see the complex of events at the end as having ever, is that if John had desired to teach in Revelation 3: 10 that Jesus , a basic unity. They believe that this complex of events is imminent, would “rapture” the church, the verb crlppw was certainly available. The although they usually do not mean that the coming itself is imminent in apostle apparently had in mind here what he did in the latter half of the sense that it could occur at any moment. They prefer to speak of the John 17: 15, a guarding of believers from the present danger rather than second coming as impending. j6 Their blessed hope is not an expectation a deliverance of them from the presence of such danger.34 that believers will be removed from the earth before the great tribulation, The posttribulationist also has a different understanding of Paul’s but rather a confidence that the Lord will protect and keep believers reference in 1 Thessalonians 4:17 to our meeting the Lord in the air. The regardless of what may come.37 pretribulationist maintains that this event is the rapture; Christ will come secretly the church, catching believers up with him in the clouds and for Mediating Positions taking them to heaven until the end of the tribulation. Posttribulationists like George Ladd, however, in light of the usage of the term &&vrqars Because there are difficulties attaching to both pretribulationism and (“to meet”) elsewhere in Scripture, disagree. There are only two other posttribulationism, a number of mediating positions have been created. undisputed occurrences of this word in the New Testament (Matt. 27~32 Three major varieties may be noted. The most common is the midtribu- is textually suspect). One of these references is in the parable of the wise lational view. This holds that the church will go through the less severe and foolish virgins, an explicitly eschatological parable. When the bride- part (usually the first half, or three-and-a-half years) of the tribulation, groom comes, the announcement is made, “Behold, the bridegroom! but then will be removed from the world.38 In one formulation of this Come out to meet [&&~r)a~] him” (Matt. 256). What does the word view, the church will experience tribulation but be removed before the signify in this situation? The virgins do not go out to meet the bridegroom wrath of God is poured out. A second type of mediating position is the and then depart with him. Rather, they go out to meet him and then partial-rapture view. This holds that there will be a series of raptures. accompany him back to the wedding banquet. The other occurrence of Whenever a portion of believers are ready, they will be removed from the word (Acts 28:lS) is in a noneschatological historical narrative. Paul earth.j9 The third mediating position is imminent posttribulationism. and his party were coming to Rome. A group of the believers in Rome, hearing of their approach, went out to the Forum of Appius and Three 35. Ladd, Blessed Hope, pp. 58-59. Taverns to meet (&T&VT~UK) them. This encouraged Paul, and the group 36. Gundry, Church and the Tribulation, pp. 29-43. then continued with him back to Rome. On the basis of these usages, 37. Ladd, Blessed Hope, p. 13. Ladd argues that the word &&V~~CTLS suggests a welcoming party that 38. James Oliver Buswell, Jr., A Systematic Theology of the Christian Religion (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 1962-63); Norman B. Harrison, The End Re-thinking the Revelation goes out to meet someone on the way and accompanies him back to (Minneapolis: Harrison, 1941), p. 118. 39. Robert Govett, The Saints’ Rapture to the Presence of the Lord Jesus (London: 33. Ibid., p. 55. Nisbet, 1852); George H. Lang, The Revelation of Jesus Christ: Select Studies (London: 34. Ibid., pp. 58-59. Oliphant, 1945). 1224 The Last Things

While the return of Christ will not take place until after the tribulation, it can be expected at any moment, for the tribulation may already be occurring.4o None of these mediating positions has had large numbers of proponents, particularly in recent years. Accordingly, we will not deal with them in detail.41

Resohdng the Issues When all considerations are evaluated, there are several reasons why the posttribulational position emerges as the more probable: 1. The pretribulational position involves several distinctions which seem rather artificial and lacking in biblical support. The division of the second coming into two stages, the postulation of three resurrections, 0 and the sharp separation of national Israel and the church are difficult to sustain on biblical grounds. The pretribulational view that the proph- 59 ecies concerning national Israel will be fulfilled apart from the church and that, accordingly, the millennium will have a decidedly Jewish char- acter cannot be easily reconciled with the biblical depictions of the Final States fundamental changes which have taken place with the introduction of the new covenant. 2. Several specifically eschatological passages are better interpreted on Final State of the Righteous posttribulational grounds. These passages include the indications that The Term “Heaven” elect individuals will be present during the tribulation (Matt. 2429-31) The Nature of Heaven Our Life in Heaven: Rest, Worship, and Service but will be protected from its severity (Rev. 3:10), descriptions of the Issues Regarding Heaven phenomena which will accompany the appearing of Christ, and the reference to the meeting in the air (1 Thess. 417). Final-State of the Wicked 3. The general tenor of biblical teaching fits better the posttribulational The Finality of the Future Judgment The Eternality of Future Punishment view. For example, the Bible is replete with warnings about trials and Degrees of Punishment testings which believers will undergo. It does not promise removal from these adversities, but ability to endure and overcome them. Implications of the Doctrine of the Final States This is not to say that there are no difficulties with the posttribulational position. For example, there is in posttribulationism relatively little theo- logical rationale for the millennium. It seems to be somewhat superflu- OUS.~* But all in all, the preponderance of evidence favors post- tribulationism. vvhen we speak of the final states, we are in a sense returning 40. J. Barton Payne, The Imminent Appearing of Christ (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, to the discussion of individual eschatology, for at the last judgment every 1962). individual will be consigned to the particular state which he or she will 4 1. The reader who wishes a more thorough examination of these positions is directed personally experience throughout all eternity. Yet the whole human race to Millard J. Erickson, Contemporary Options in Eschatology (Grand Rapids: Baker, 1977), pp. 163-81. will enter these states simultaneously and collectively, so we are really 42. See, however, George E. Ladd, “The Revelation of Christ’s Glory,” Christianity dealing with questions of collective or cosmic eschatology as well. The Today, 1 September 1958, p. 14. subject of the future states is one on which there is a great deal of speculation and misinformation. Yet surprisingly there is relatively little 1225 1226 The Last Things Final States 1227 * said in systematic-theology texts on these matters, particularly on the expression ‘heavenly Father” conveys the same idea (Matt. 5:48; 6: 14, 26, matter of heaven.1 32; 15: 13; 18:35). Jesus is said to have come from heaven: “No one has ascended into heaven but he who descended from heaven, the Son of man” (John 3:13; see also 3:3 1; 6:42,5 1).5 Angels come from heaven (Matt. Final State of the Righteous 28:2; Luke 22:43) and return to heaven (Luke 2: 15). They dwell in heaven (Mark 13:32), where they behold God (Matt. 18:lO) and carry out the The Term “Heaven” Father’s wilI perfectly (h&t. 610). They are even referred to as a heavenly host (Luke 2:13). There are various ways of denoting the future condition of the right- It is from heaven that Christ is to be revealed (1 Thess. 1: 10; 4: 16; eous. The most common, of course, is “heaven.” Yet the term itself needs 2 Thess. 1:7). He has gone away to heaven to prepare an eternal dwelling to be examined, for P~Q? (shamayim) and oirpcllv& are used in basically for believers. We do not know the precise nature of this activity, but it is three different ways in the Bible. The first is cosmological.2 The expres- apparent that he is readying a place where believers will fellowship with sion ‘heaven and earth” (or “the heavens and the earth”) is used to him: “In my Father’s house are many rooms; if it were not so, would I designate the entire universe. In the creation account we are told, “In the beginning God created the heavens and the earth” (Gen. 1:l). Jesus said, have told you that I go to prepare a place for you? And when I go and “Till heaven and earth pass away, not an iota, not a dot, wiII pass from prepare a place for you, I wiIl come again and wiU take you to myself, the law” (Matt. 5: 18; see also 2435; Luke 16: 17). He referred to the Father that where I am you may be also” (John 142-3). as “Lord of heaven and earth” (Matt. 11:25). Heaven (03p(wvbs) is the As God’s abode, heaven is obviously where believers will be for all firmament in which the stars are set (Matt. 24:29), the air (Matt. 626) the eternity. For Paul said, “Then we who are alive, who are left, shall be place where lightning (Luke 17:24) and rain originate (Luke 4:25). Second, caught up together with [the dead in Christ] in the clouds to meet the ‘heaven” is a virtual synonym for God.3 Among examples are the prodigal Lord in the air; and so we sha.Il always be with the Lord” (1 Thess. 417). son’s confession to his father, “I have sinned against heaven and before We know that this Lord with whom we shall ever abide is in heaven, in you” (Luke 15:18, 2 1); Jesus’ question to the Pharisees, “The baptism of the presence of the Father: “I am ascending to my Father and your John, whence was it? From heaven or from man?” (Matt. 2 1:25); and John Father, to my God and your God” (John 20~17; see also Acts 1:10-l 1). He the Baptist’s declaration, “No one can receive anything except what is is now there: “For Christ has entered, not into a sanctuary made with given him from heaven” (John 3:27). Most notable is Matthew’s repeated hands, a copy of the true one, but into heaven itself, now to appear in the use of the expression ‘kingdom of heaven” where Luke in pamlIe pas- presence of God on our behalf” (Heb. 9:24). Consequently, to be with sages has “kingdom of God.” Writing to a Jewish audience, who would Christ is to be with the Father in heaven. The believer is to make prepa- not pronounce the name Yahweh, Matthew used “heaven” as a synonym ration for heaven: “Do not lay up for yourselves treasures on earth, where for God. moth and rust consume and where thieves break in and steal, but lay up The third meaning of the word heaven, and the one most significant for yourselves treasures in heaven, where neither moth nor rust con- for our purposes, is the abode of God.4 Thus, Jesus taught his disciples to sumes and where thieves do not break in and steal” (Matt. 6:19-20). Peter pray, “Our Father who art in heaven” (Matt. 6:9). He often spoke of “your writes that believers have been born anew “to an inheritance which is Father who is in heaven” (Matt. 516, 45; 6: 1; 7:ll; 18: 14) and “my Father imperishable, undefiled, and unfading, kept in heaven for you, who by who is in heaven” (Matt. 7:2 1; 10~32, 33; 12:50; 16: 17; 18: 10, 19). The God’s power are guarded through faith for a salvation ready to be revealed in the last time” (1 Peter 1:4-5). Paul similarly speaks of “the 1. E.g., Louis Berkhof in his Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1953), a tome of 738 pages, devotes only one page to heaven and two pages to hell (pp. 735-37). hope laid up for you in heaven” (Col. 1:5) and of a future time when all 2. Helmut Traub, otip(~v&, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, ed. Ger- things in heaven and on earth will unite in Christ: God has “a plan for the hard Kittel and Gerhard Friedrich, trans. Geoffrey W. Bromiley, 10 ~01s. (Grand Rapids: fuhress of time, to unite all things in [Christ], things in heaven and things Eerdmans, 1964-l 976), vol. 5, pp, 5 14-20. on earth” (Eph. 1: 10). 3. Ibid., pp. 52 l-22. 4. Francis Brown, S. R. Driver, and Charles A. Briggs, Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament (New York: Oxford University, 1955), p. 1030. 5. Leon Morris, The Lord from Heaven (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1958), pp. 26-29. 122X The Last Things Final States 1229

The Nature of Heaven Since glory is of the very nature of God, heaven will be a place of great glory.’ The announcement of Jesus’ birth was accompanied by the Heaven is, first and foremost, the presence of God. In Revelation 21:3 words: “Glory to God in the highest, and on earth peace among men the new heaven is likened to the tabernacle, the tent where God had with whom he is pleased!” (Luke 2:14). Similar words were spoken at his dwelt among Old Testament Israel: a great voice from the throne said, triumphal entry into Jerusalem: “Peace in heaven and glory in the high- “Behold, the tabernacle of God is with men, and he will dwell with them, est!” (Luke 19:38). The second coming of Christ will be in great glory and they shall be his people, and God himself shall be with them” (rev). (Matt. 24:30), and he will sit upon his glorious throne (Matt. 25:3 1). Jesus God’s intention from the beginning, to have fellowship with man, led first told the multitude that he would come “in the glory of his Father with to his creating the human race, then to his dwelling in the tabernacle and the holy angels” (Mark 8:38). Images suggesting immense size or brilliant temple, then to his coming in the incarnation, and finally to his taking light depict heaven as a place of unimaginable splendor, greatness, excel- humans to be with him (heaven). Sometimes, especially in popular pres- lence, and beauty. The new Jerusalem which will come down out of entations, heaven is depicted as primarily a place of great physical pleas- heaven from God is described as made of pure gold (even its streets are ures, a place where everything we have most desired here on earth is pure gold) and decorated with precious jewels (Rev. 2 1:18-2 1). It is likely fulfilled to the ultimate degree. Thus heaven seems to be merely earthly that while John’s vision employs as metaphors those items which we (and even worldly) conditions amplified. The correct perspective, how- think of as being most valuable and beautiful, the actual splendor of ever, is to see the basic nature of heaven as the presence of God; from heaven far exceeds anything that we have yet experienced. There will be his presence all of the blessings of heaven follow. no need of sun or moon to illumine the new Jerusalem, for “the glory of The presence of God means that we will have perfect knowledge. In God is its light, and its lamp is the Lamb” (Rev. 21:23; see also 22:5). this regard, the Catholic tradition has made much of the idea that in heaven we will have a beatific vision of God.6 While this concept may have been overemphasized, it does lay hold upon the important truth that for Our Life in Heaven: Rest, Worship, and Service the first time we shall see and know God in a direct way. Paul makes the comment that at present “our knowledge is imperfect and our prophecy We are told relatively little about the activities of the redeemed in is imperfect; but when the perfect comes, the imperfect will pass away.. . . heaven, but there are a few glimpses of what our future existence is to For now we see in a mirror dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in be. One quality of our life in heaven will be rest.8 The writer of the letter part; then I shall understand fully, even as I have been fully understood’ to the Hebrews makes much of this concept. Rest, as the term is used in ( 1 Cor. 13:9-l 2). John speaks of the effect which Gods presence will have Hebrews, is not merely a cessation of activities, but the experience of upon the believer: “Beloved, we are God’s children now; it does not yet reaching a goal of crucial importance. Thus, there are frequent refer- appear what we shall be, but we know that when he appears we shall be ences to the pilgrimage through the wilderness en route to the “rest” of like him, for we shall see him as he is” (1 John 3:2). the Promised Land (Heb. 3:11,18). Attainment of the Promised Land was Heaven will also be characterized by the removal of all evils. In being not the end of an ordinary labor, but the completion of an extremely with his people, God “will wipe away every tear from their eyes, and difficult and toilsome endeavor. A similar rest awaits believers: “So then, death shall be no more, neither shall there be mourning nor crying nor there remains a sabbath rest for the people of God; for whoever enters pain any more, for the former things have passed away” (Rev. 21:4). Not Gods rest also ceases from his labors as God did from his. Let us only these afflictions, but also the very source of evil, the one who tempts therefore strive to enter that rest, that no one fall by the same sort of us to sin, will be gone: “and the devil who had deceived them was thrown disobedience” (Heb. 49-l 1). The people being addressed here are the into the lake of fire and brimstone where the beast and the false prophet ‘holy brethren, who share in a heavenly call’ (3:l). Heaven, then, will be were, and they will be tormented day and night for ever and ever” (Rev. 2O:lO). The presence of the perfectly holy God and the spotless Lamb 7. Bernard Ramm, Them He Glorified A Systematic Study of the Doctrine of Glorifi- means that there will be no sin or evil of any kind. cation (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1963), pp. 104-X 8. We are here assuming that our life in heaven will be the personal, conscious, individual existence which appears to be presupposed in all the biblical references. For 6. Joseph Pohlc, Eschutology; or, The Catholic Doctrine of the Last Things: A Dog- the view that our future existence will be merely a living on in God’s memory, see tputk. 7i-eutke (St. Louis: B. Herder, 1917), pp. 34-37. David L. Edwards, The Last Things Now (London: SCM, 1969), pp. 88-91. I230 The Last Things Final States 1231 the completion of the Christian’s pilgrimage, the end of the struggle intended to exercise in the Garden of Eden. He was to serve as an against the flesh, the world, and the devil. There will be work to do, but underlord or vicegerent, carrying out God’s work on his behalf. We are it will not involve fighting against opposing forces. also reminded of the stewardship parable in Matthew 2514-30, where Another facet of life in heaven is worship? A vivid picture is found in the reward for work done faithfully is greater opportunity for work. Revelation 19: Because that parable occurs in an eschatological setting, it may well be an indication that the reward for faithful work done here on earth will After this I heard what seemed to be the mighty voice of a great multitude be work in heaven. Note also that Revelation 22:3 tells us that the Lamb in heaven, crying, “Hallelujah! Salvation and glory and power belong to will be worshiped by “his servants.” our God, for his judgments are true and just; he has judged the great There is also a suggestion that in heaven there will be some type of harlot who corrupted the earth with her fornication, and he has avenged on her the blood of his servants.” Once more they cried, “Hallelujah! The community or fellowship among believers: “But you have come to Mount smoke from her goes up for ever and ever.” And the twenty-four elders Zion and to the city of the living God, the heavenly Jerusalem, and to and the four living creatures fell down and worshiped God who is seated innumerable angels in festal gathering, and to the assembly of the f&t- on the throne, saying, “Amen. Hallelujah!” [vv. l-41 born who are enrolled in heaven, and to a judge who is God of all, and to the spirits of just men made perfect, and to Jesus, the mediator of a Then a voice from the throne exhorted the multitude to praise God (v. S), new covenant, and to the sprinkled blood that speaks more graciously and they did so (vv. 6-8). than the blood of Abel” (Heb. 12:22-24). Note also the reference to “the We find similar accounts elsewhere in Scripture. For example, Isaiah spirits of just men made perfect”-heaven is a place of perfected spiritu- recounts a vision which he had of the Lord sitting upon a throne, high ality.” and lifted up. One seraph called to another, saying, “Holy, holy, holy is the LORD of hosts; the whole earth is full of his glory” (Isa. 6:3). From these sketches of heaven it appears that its inhabitants regularly praise and Issues Regarding Heaven worship God. Consequently, we may expect that the redeemed will be engaged in similar activity following the Lord’s coming, the great judg- One of the disputed questions regarding heaven is whether it is a place or a state. On the one hand, it should be noted that the primary feature ment, and the establishment of his heavenly kingdom. In this sense, of heaven is closeness and communion with God, and that God is pure genuine believers will continue activity they engaged in while on earth. spirit (John 4:24). Since God does not occupy space, which is a feature of Our worship and praise here and now are preparation and practice for our universe, it would seem that heaven is a state, a spiritual condition, future employment of our hearts and voices. rather than a place. l2 On the other hand, there is the consideration that There will evidently be an element of service in heaven as welLlo For we will have bodies of some type (although they will be “spiritual bodies”) when Jesus was in the region of Judea beyond the Jordan, he told his and that Jesus presumably continues to have a glorified body as well. disciples that they would judge with him: “Truly, I say to you, in the new While placelessness may make sense when we are thinking of immortal- world, when the Son of man shall sit on his glorious throne, you who ity of the soul, the resurrection of the body seems to require place. In have followed me will also sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes addition, parallel references to heaven and earth suggest that, like earth, of Israel” (Matt. 19:28). Later, at the Last Supper, he said, “You are those heaven must be a locale. The most familiar of these references is, “Our who have continued with me in my trials; as my Father appointed a Father who art in heaven, Hallowed be thy name. Thy kingdom come, kingdom for me, so do I appoint for you that you may eat and drink at Thy will be done, On earth as it is in heaven” (Matt. 6:9-10).13 We must my table in my kingdom, and sit on thrones judging the twelve tribes of be mindful, however, that heaven is another realm, another dimension of Israel” (Luke 22:28-30). It is not clear just what is involved in this judging, reality, so it is &cult to know what features of the world apply as well but apparently it is service or work done on behalf of the King. There may well be a parallel here to the dominion which man was originally 11. J. A. Motyer, After Death: A Sure and Certain Hope? (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1965). pp. 74-76. 9. Ulrich Simon, Heuven in the Christian Tradition (New York: Harper, 1958), p. 236. 12. W. H. Dyson, “Heaven,” in A Dictionary of Chtit and the Gospels, ed. James 10. Morton Kclsq, A/terfife: The Other Side of @ing (New York: Paulist, 1979), pp. Hastings (New York: Scribner, 1924), vol. 1, p. 7 12. 182-83. 13. Alan Richardson, Religion in Contemporury Debate (London: SCM, 1966). p. 72. 1232 The Last Things Final States 1233

to the world to come, and what the term place means in relation to the ible. Some also argue that since children go to heaven, there must be eschaton. It is probably safest to say that while heaven is both a place growth in heaven so that they can attain maturity.18 and a state, it is primarily a state. The distinguishing mark of heaven will While there is an existential force to the contention that we cannot be not be a particular location, but a condition of blessedness, sinlessness, satisfied unless we grow, this is an extrapolation from life as now consti- joy, and peace. 14 Life in heaven, accordingly, will be more real than our tuted. But this extrapolation is illegitimate. Frustration and boredom present existence. OCCUT within this life whenever there is an arresting of development at a A second issue concerns the question of physical pleasures. Jesus finite point, whenever one has stopped short of perfection. If, however, indicated that there will be in the resurrection, presumably the life one were to fully achieve, if there were no feeling of inadequacy or hereafter, no marrying or giving in marriage (Matt. 22:30; Mark 12:25; incompleteness, there would probably be no frustration. The stable situ- Luke 20:35). Since sex is in this life to be restricted to marriage (1 Cor. ation in heaven is not a fixed state short of one’s goal, but a state of 7:8-l l), we have here an argument that there will be no sex in heaven. completion beyond which there can be no advance. The satisfaction The high value Paul places upon virginity (1 Cor. 7:25-35) suggests the which comes from progress occurs precisely because we know we are same conclusion.15 What of eating and drinking? Revelation 199 refers closer to the desired goal. Reaching the goal will bring total satisfaction. to the “marriage supper of the Lamb.” And Jesus said to his disciples at Therefore, we will not grow in heaven. We will, however, continue to the Last Supper, “I tell you I shall not drink again of this fruit of the vine exercise the perfect character which we will have received from God. until that day when I drink it new with you in my Father’s kingdom” John Baillie speaks of “development in fruition” as opposed to “develop- (Matt. 2629). In view of the fact that the references to Christ and the ment towards fruition.“19 church as bridegroom and bride are symbolic, the marriage supper of There also is the question of how much the redeemed in heaven will the Lamb is presumably symbolic as well. Although Jesus ate with his know or remember. Will we recognize those close to us in this life? Much resurrection body (Luke 2443; cf. John 21:9-14), it should be borne in of the popular interest in heaven stems from expectation of reunion with mind that he was resurrected but not yet ascended, so that the transfor- loved ones. Will we be aware of the absence of relatives and close mation of his body was probably not yet completed. The question arises, friends? Will there be an awareness of sinful actions taken and godly If there is to be no eating nor sex, will there be any pleasure in heaven? deeds omitted in this life? If so, will not all of this lead to regret and It should be understood that the experiences of heaven will far surpass sorrow? With regard to these questions we must necessarily plead a anything experienced here. Paul said, “‘What no eye has seen, nor ear certain amount of ignorance. It does not appear, from Jesus’ response to heard, nor the heart of man conceived, what God has prepared for those the Sadducees’ question about the woman who had outlived seven hus- who love him,’ God has revealed to us through the Spirit” (1 Cor. 2:9-10). bands, all of them brothers (Luke 20:27-40), that there will be family It is likely that heaven’s experiences should be thought of as, for example, units as such. On the other hand, the disciples were evidently able to suprasexual, transcending the experience of sexual union with the spe- recognize Moses and Elijah at the transfiguration (Matt. 17:1-8; Mark cial individual with whom one has chosen to make a permanent and 9:2-8; Luke 9:28-36). This fact suggests that there will be some indicators exclusive commitment.16 of personal identity by which we will be able to recognize one another.20 A third issue relates to the question of perfection. Within this life we But we may infer that we will not recollect past failures and sins and gain satisfaction from growth, progress, development. Will not, then, our t-r&sing loved ones, since that would introduce a sadness incompatible state of perfection in heaven be a rather boring and unsatisfying situa- with “he will wipe away every tear from their eyes, and death shall be no tion?” Must there not be growth if heaven is really to be heaven? This more, neither shall there be mourning nor crying nor pain any more, for assumption rests on process thought, the conception that change is of the former things have passed away” (Rev. 2 1:4). the essence of reality. A heaven without change is impossible or incred- A fifth question is whether there will be varying rewards in heaven. That there apparently will be degrees of reward is evident in, for example, 14. Austin Farrcr, Saving Belief (London: Hodder, Stoughton, 1967), p. 144. IS. Simon, Heaven, p. 2 17. 18. Edmund G. Kaufman, &sic Christian Convictions (North Newton, Kans.: Bethel 16. CL S. Lewis, Mirucles (New York: Macmillan, 1947), pp. 165-66. Lewis uses the term College, 1972). p. 289. trun.s-seruul with much the same meaning as we have here attached to “suprasexual.” 19. John Baillie, And the Life Everkafing (New York: Scribner, 1933), p. 28 I. 17. Alf~rcd, Lord Tennyson, “Wages.” 20. Motyer, After Death, p. 87. 1234 The Last Things Final States 1235 the parable of the pounds (Luke 19:l l-27).** Ten servants were each sub-Christian view.** It, together with angels and demons, is often one of given one pound by their master. Eventually they returned differing the first topics of Christian belief to be demythologized. Part of the amounts to him and were rewarded in proportion to their faithfulness. problem stems from what appears to be a tension between the love of Supporting passages include Daniel 12:3 (‘And those who are wise shall God, a cardinal characteristic of God’s nature, and his judgment. Yet, shine like the brightness of the firmament; and those who turn many to however we regard the doctrine of everlasting punishment, it is clearly righteousness, like the stars for ever and ever”) and 1 Corinthians 3:14- taught in Scripture. 15 (“If the work which any man has built on the foundation survives, he The Bible employs several images to depict the future state of the will receive a reward. If any man’s work is burned up, he will suffer loss, unrighteous. Jesus said, “Then [the King] will say to those at his left hand, though he himself will be saved, but only as through fire”). ‘Depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil The differing rewards or differing degrees of satisfaction in heaven and his angels”’ (Matt. 2541). He likewise described their state as “outer are usually pictured in terms of objective circumstances. For instance, darkness”: “the sons of the kingdom will be thrown into the outer dark- we might suppose that a very faithful Christian will be given a large ness; there men will weep and gnash their teeth” (Matt. 8:12). The final room in the Father’s house; a less faithful believer will receive a smaller condition of the wicked is also spoken of as eternal punishment (Matt. room. But if this is the case, would not the joy of heaven be reduced by 25:46), torment (Rev. 1410-l l), the bottomless pit (Rev. 9:1-2, 1 l), the one’s awareness of the differences and the constant reminder that one wrath of God (Rom. 2:5), second death (Rev. 21:8), eternal destruction might have been more faithful? In addition, the few pictures which we and exclusion from the face of the Lord (2 Thess. 1:9). do have of life in heaven evidence no real difference: all are worshiping, If there is one basic characteristic of hell, it is, in contrast to heaven, judging, serving. A bit of speculation may be in order at this point. As we the absence of God or banishment from his presence. It is an experience pointed out in chapter 3, speculation is a legitimate theological activity, of intense anguish, whether it involve physical suffering or mental dis- as long as we are aware that we are speculating. May it not be that the tress or both.23 There are other aspects of the situation of the lost difference in the rewards lies not in the external or objective circumstan- individual which contribute to its misery. One is a sense of loneliness, of ces, but in the subjective awareness or appreciation of those circumstan- having seen the glory and greatness of God, of having realized that he is ces? Thus, all would engage in the same activity, for example, worship, the Lord of all, and then of being cut off. There is the realization that this but some would enjoy it much more than others. Perhaps those who separation is permanent. Similarly, the condition of one’s moral and have enjoyed worship more in this life will hnd greater satisfaction in it spiritual self is permanent. Whatever one is at the end of life will continue in the life beyond than will others. An analogy here is the varying degrees for all eternity. There is no basis for expecting change for the better. of pleasure which different people derive from a concert. The same Thus, hopelessness comes over the individual. sound waves fall on everyone’s ears, but the reactions may range from boredom (or worse) to ecstasy. A similar situation may well hold with respect to the joys of heaven, although the range of reactions will pre- The Final@ of the Future Judgment sumably be narrower. No one will be aware of the differences in range of enjoyment, and thus there will be no dimming of the perfection of It is important to recognize the finality of the coming judgment. When heaven by regret over wasted opportunities. the verdict is rendered at the last judgment, the wicked will be assigned to their find state .24 Nothing in Scripture indicates that there will be opportunity for belief after a preliminary period of punishment. Final State of the Wicked To some the finality of the judgment seems contrary to reason, and even perhaps to Scripture. Indeed, there are some passages of Scripture Just as in the past, the question of the future state of the wicked has created a considerable amount of controversy in our day. The doctrine 22. Nels FerrC, The Christian Understanding of Cod (New York: Harper and Brothers, of an everlasting punishment appears to some to be an outmoded or 195 l), pp. 233-34. 23. Charles Hodge, Systematic Theology (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1952), vol. 3, p. 868. 2 I. S. D. F. Salmond, “Heaven,” in A Dictionary of the Bible, ed. James Hastings (New 24. J. A. Motyer, “The Final State: Heaven and Hell,” in Basic Christian Doctrines, ed. York: Scribner, 1919), vol. 2, p. 324. Carl F. H. Henry (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1962), p. 292. 1236 The Last Things Final States 1237 which seem to indicate that all will be saved. Paul, for example, wrote, The Eternal@ of Future Punishment “For he has made known to us in all wisdom and insight the mystery of his will, according to his purpose which he set forth in Christ as a plan Not only is the future judgment of unbelievers irreversible, but their for the fulness of time, to unite all things in him, things in heaven and punishment is eternal. We do not reject merely the idea that all will be things on earth” (Eph. 1:9-10). And speaking of the future, he declared saved; we also reject the contention that none will be eternally punished. “that at the name of Jesus every knee [shall] bow, in heaven and on earth The school of thought known as annihilationism, on the other hand, and under the earth, and every tongue confess that Jesus Christ is Lord, maintains that although not everyone will be saved, there is only one to the glory of God the Father” (Phil. 2:10-l I). On the basis of such class of future existence. Those who are saved will have an unending life; references, it is contended that those who in this life reject the offer of those who are not saved will be eliminated or annihilated. They will simply cease to exist. While granting that not everyone deserves to be salvation will, after their death and Christ’s second coming, be sobered saved, to receive everlasting bliss, this position maintains that no one by their situation and will therefore be reconciled to Christ.25 deserves endless suffering. Unfortunately, however, as appealing as thins view is, it cannot be B. B. Warfield maintained that there are three different forms of maintained. For one thing, the passages cited do not really teach what annihilation&m: pure mortalism, conditional immortality, and annihila- the universalist claims they teach. The reconciliation, the uniting of all tionism proper.27 Pure mortalism holds that the human life is so closely things, is not a restoration of fallen humanity to fellowship with God, but tied to the physical organism that when the body dies, the person as an a restoration of harmony within the creation by, among other actions, entity ceases to exist. This is primarily a materialistic view, although it putting sin into subjection to the Lord. It is not a matter of humans’ also is found at times in pantheistic forms.28 Pure mortalism has not accepting God, but of his quelling their rebellion. And while it is indeed been popular in Christian circles, since, in contradiction to the biblical true that every knee will bow and every tongue confess Christ as Lord, doctrine of man’s creation in the image of God, it makes man little more we must picture the wicked not as eagerly joining forces with the Lord, than an animal. but as surrendering to a conquering army, so to speak. There will be an The second form of annihilationism, conditional immortality, main- acquiescence in defeat, not a joyful commitment. tains that the human being is by nature mortal. Death is the end. In the Furthermore, Scripture nowhere gives indication of a second chance. case of those who believe, however, God gives immortality or eternal life, Surely, if there is to be an opportunity for belief after the judgment, it so that they survive death or are restored to life. In some understandings would be clearly set forth in God’s Word. of conditional immortality, God simply allows the unbeliever to pass out Beyond these considerations, there are definite statements to the con- of existence.29 Others hold that all will participate in the resurrection, but trary. A finality attaches to the biblical depictions of the sentence ren- that God then will simply allow the unrighteous to pass out of existence dered at the judgment; for example, “Depart from me, you cursed, into again. Eternal death is for them just that. Their second death will last the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels” (Matt. 2541). The forever. parable of the rich man and Lazarus (Luke 16: 19-3 l), although it relates The third form of annihilationism is most deserving of the title. It sees to the intermediate rather than the final state, makes it clear that there is the extinction of the evil person at death as a direct result of sin. Man is an absoluteness about their condition. It is not even possible to travel by nature immortal and would have everlasting life but for the effects of between the different states: ‘And besides all this, between us and you a sin. There are two subtypes of annihilationism proper. The first sees annihilation as a natural result of sin. Sin has such a detrimental effect great chasm has been fixed, in order that those who would pass from that the personality of the individual gradually dies out. Thus, “the wages here to you may not be able, and none may cross from there to us” of sin is death” (Rom. 6:23) is taken quite literally. Sin is self-destruction. (v. 26). We must therefore conclude that restorationism, the idea of a second chance, must be rejected.26 27. Benjamin B. War-field, “Annihilationism, ” in Studies in Theology (New York: Ox- ford University, 1932), pp. 447-50. 25. 0rig:en De principiis 1. 6. 2; 3. 6. 3. For a contempor,ary statement of universalism, 28. Ibid., pp. 447-48. sc’c John A. T. Robinson, In the End, God (New York: Harper and Row, 1968), pp. 119-33. 29. Edward White, Life in Christ: A Study of the Scripture Doctrine of the Nuture of 26. Leon Morris, The Bihlicul Doctrine of Judgment (Grand Rapids: Ecrdmans, 1960), Man, the Object of the Divine Incur-nation, und the Conditions of Human Immortulity, 3rd p. 66. ed. rev. (London: Elliot Stock, 1878). 1238 The Last Things Final States 1239

After a certain length of time, perhaps proportionate to the sinfulness of warrant to interpret the word O%VLOF differently in the two clauses. John the individual, those who are not redeemed wear out as it were. The A. T. Robinson comments: other type of pure annihilationism is the idea that God cannot and will not allow the sinful person to have eternal life. There is punishment for The genuine universalist will base nothing on the fact (which is a fact) that the New Testament word for eternal (aionios) does not necessarily sin. The punishment need not be infinite, however. After a sufficient mean everlasting, but enduring only for an indefinitely long period. For amount of punishment has been endured, God will simply destroy the he can apply this signification to “eternal punishment” in Matt. 25.46 only individual self. It should be noted that in both subtypes of annihilation&m if he is willing to give exactly the same sense to “eternal life” in the same proper, the soul or self would be immortal but for sir1.3~ verse. As F. D. Maurice said many years ago now, writing to F. J. A. HOI?: The problem with all of the forms of annihilationism is that they “I did not see how aionios could mean one thing when it was joined with contradict the teaching of the Bible. Several passages assert the endless- kolasis and another when it was joined with zoe” (quoted, J. 0. F. Murray, ness of the punishment of the wicked. Both the Old and New Testaments The Goodness and the Severity of God, p. 195). To admit that the two refer to unending or unquenchable fire. Isaiah 66:24, for example, says, phrases are not parallel is at once to treat them with unequal seriousness. “And they shall go forth and look on the dead bodies of the men that And that a true universalism must refuse to do.31 have rebelled against me; for their worm shall not die, their fire shall not be quenched, and they shall be an abhorrence to all flesh.” Jesus uses the A problem arises from the fact that Scripture speaks not merely of same images to describe the punishment of sinners: “Xnd if your hand eternal death (which one might interpret as meaning that the wicked will causes you to sin, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life maimed than not be resurrected), but of eternal fire, eternal punishment, and eternal with two hands to go to hell, to the unquenchable fire. And if your foot torment as well. What kind of God is it who is not satisfied by a finite punishment, but makes humans suffer for ever and ever? This seems to causes you to sin, cut it off; it is better for you to enter life lame than be beyond the demands of justice; it appears to involve a tremendous with two feet to be thrown into hell. And if your eye causes you to sin, degree of vindictiveness on the part of God. The punishment seems to pluck it out; it is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye be out of all proportion to the sin, for, presumably, all sins are finite acts than with two eyes to be thrown into hell, where their worm does not against God. How does one square belief in a good, just, and loving God die, and the hre is not quenched” (Mark 9:43-48). These passages make with eternal punishment? The question must not be dismissed lightly, for it clear that the punishment is unending. It does not consume the one it concerns the very essence of God’s nature. The fact that hell, as often upon whom it is inflicted and thus simply come to an end. understood, seems to be incompatible with Gods love, as revealed in In addition, there are several instances where words like “everlasting,” Scripture, may be an indication that we have misunderstood hell. “eternal,” and “forever” are applied to nouns designating the future state We should note, hrst, that whenever we sin, an infinite factor is invari- of the wicked: fire or burning (Isa. 33:14; Jer. 17:4; Matt. 18:8; 254 1; Jude ably involved. All sin is an offense against God, the raising of a finite will 7) contempt (Dan. 12:2), destruction (2 Thess. 1:9), chains (Jude 6), tor- against the will of an infinite being. It is failure to carry out one’s obliga- ment (Rev. 14:ll; 20:10), and punishment (Matt. 2546). To be sure, the tion to him to whom everything is due. Consequently, one cannot con- adjective ai&~oe may on a few occasions have reference to an age, that sider sin to be merely a hnite act deserving finite punishment. is, a very long period of time, rather than to eternity. Usually, however, in Further, if God is to accomplish his goals in this world, he may not the absence of a contrary indication in the context, the most common have been free to make man unsusceptible to endless punishment. God’s meaning of a word is the one in view. In the cases we have cited, nothing omnipotence does not mean that he is capable of every conceivable in the contexts justifies our understanding cri&~og as meaning anything action. He is not capable of doing the logically contradictory or absurd, other than “eternal.” The parallelism found in Matthew 2.546 is particu- for example. He cannot make a triangle with four corners.32 And it may larly noteworthy: “And they will go away into eternal punishment, but the well be that those creatures that God intended to live forever in fellow- righteous into eternal life.” If the one (life) is of unending duration, then ship with him had to be fashioned in such a way that they would the other (punishment) must be also. Nothing in the context gives us experience eternal anguish if they chose to live apart from their Maker.

30. Seventh-duy Adventists Answer Questions on Doctrine (Washington: Review and 31. Robinson, In the End, God, p. 13 1, n. 8. Herald, 1957), p. 14. 32. C. S. Lewis, The Problem of Pain (New York: Macmillan, 1962), p. 28. 1240 The Last Things Final States 1241

Man was designed to live eternally with God; if man perverts this his Implications of the Doctrine of the Final States destiny, he will experience eternally the consequences of that act. We should also observe that God does not send anyone to hell. He 1. The decisions which we make in this life will govern our future desires that none should perish (2 Peter 3:9). God created man to have condition not merely for a period of time, but for all eternity. So we fellowship with him and provided the means by which man can have should exercise extraordinary care and diligence as we make them. that fellowship. It is man’s choice to experience the agony of hell His sin 2. The conditions of this life, as Paul put it, are transitory. They fade sends him there, and his rejection of the benefits of Christ’s death pre- into relative insignificance when compared with the eternity to come. vents his escaping. As C. S. Lewis has put it, sin is man’s saying to God 3. The nature of the future states is far more intense than anything throughout life, “Go away and leave me alone.” Hell is Gods finally saying known in this life. The images used to depict them are quite inadequate to man, “You may have your wish.” It is God’s leaving man to himself, as to fully convey what lies ahead. Heaven, for example, will far transcend man has chosen.33 any joy that we have known here. 4. The bliss of heaven ought not to be thought of as simply an intensi- fication of the pleasures of this life. The primary dimension of heaven is the presence of the believer with the Lord. Degrees of Punishment 5. Hell is not so much a place of physical suffering as it is the awful loneliness of total and final separation from the Lord. We should observe, finally, that Jesus’ teaching suggests that there are 6. Hell should not be thought of primarily as punishment visited upon degrees of punishment in hell. He upbraided those cities which had unbelievers by a vindictive God, but as the natural consequences of the witnessed his miracles but failed to repent: “Woe to you, Chorazin! woe sinful life chosen by those who reject Christ. to you, Bethsaida! . . . For if the mighty works done in you had been done 7. It appears that although all humans will be consigned either to in Sodom, it would have remained until this day. But I tell you that it heaven or to hell, there will be degrees of reward and punishment. shall be more tolerable on the day of judgment for the land of Sodom than for you” (Matt. 11:21-24). There is a similar hint in the parable of the faithful and faithless stewards: ‘And that servant who knew his masters will, but did not make ready or act according to his will, shall receive a severe beating. But he who did not know, and did what de- served a beating, shall receive a light beating. Every one to whom much is given, of him will much be required; and of him to whom men commit much they will demand the more” (Luke 12:47-48). The principle here seems to be, the greater our knowledge, the greater is our responsibility, and the greater will be our punishment if we fail in our responsibility. It may well be that the different degrees of punishment in hell are not so much a matter of objective circumstances as of subjective awareness of the pain of separation from God. This is parallel to our conception of the varying degrees of reward in heaven (p. 1234). To some extent, the different degrees of punishment reflect the fact that hell is God’s leaving sinful man with the particular character that he fashioned for himself in this life. The misery one will experience from having to live with one’s wicked self eternally will be proportionate to his degree of awareness of precisely what he was doing when he chose evil.

33. Ibid., pp. 127-28. Concluding Thoughts

We have come to the end of a lengthy examination of ideas. Not only have we looked at many different to&, we have also noted a variety of conceptions on these different topics. It may be well to con- clude our study of systematic theology by putting such an endeavor into a proper context. Are ideas really that important? With some persons, a concern for immediate experience or a desire for instant application may tend to overshadow theoretical considerations. As a result, the value of a writing such as this may appear doubtful. To be sure, the reader who has come this far may well be assumed not to share such an estimation of the value of ideas. Yet a quick review of the role which concepts play may be in order. To a large extent, our world is what it is because of ideas which have been conceived, evaluated, and verified. The concept of instantaneously transmitting pictures over long distances, considered fantastic a century ago, has become a reality, and the nature of culture and society has been altered as a consequence. The idea of the equality of the various human races and the need for justice among them has greatly influenced the course of the last half of the twentieth century. The idea of the dialectic which Karl Marx borrowed from Georg Hegel and modified into his own scheme of dialectical materialism may have seemed abstract and irrele- vant to many people when he hrst propounded it. Nevertheless, it has 1243 1244 Concluding Thoughts Concluding Thoughts 1245 greatly affected not only the understanding but also the experience of There are certain dangers associated with the study of theology. There countless numbers of persons throughout the world. And who could are certain theological diseases to which one is exposed and which one have foreseen the influence which Charles Darwin’s strange conception may contract as a result of this endeavor. Helmut Thielicke has described of the origin of species would have upon the world? Adolf Hitler’s idea of several of them quite vividly in his Lit& Exercise for Young Theologians. the super race and of Aryan supremacy led to the death of approximately One of the most common and most serious is the sin of pride. When we six million Jews. have acquired a considerable sophistication in matters of theology, there More significant than the impact of these ideas is that of the concepts is a danger that we will regard that knowledge as something of a badge which form the central basis of Christianity. The idea that God entered of virtue, something that sets us apart as superior to others. We may use the world in human form, was crucified, and rose from the dead seems that knowledge, and particularly the jargon which we have acquired, to incredible to many. Yet the world is a far different place from what it intimidate others who are less informed. We may take advantage of our would be if there had not been millions who believed and proclaimed superior skills, becoming intellectual bullies.1 Or our knowledge of theol- this message. How many hospitals, how many institutions of higher ogy may lead us to a type of theological gamesmanship, in which the education have come into being because of the driving force of those arguing of one theory against another becomes our whole purpose in who went forth in the name of the one they believed to be God Incarnate! life. But this is to convert what should be the most serious of matters The impact which Christianity had upon the first-century world and the into a sport. subsequent development of history is directly related to the revolutionary In this connection we should remember the words of Jesus that we ideas which it presented about who Jesus Christ is and what the meaning are to become like little children; God has hidden his truth from the wise of life is. of this world and revealed it to babes (Matt. 11:25). We should not The issue of correct belief is ever so important in our time. We find underestimate the theological acumen and sensitivity of those who have numerous shadings of religious ideas. And we also encounter myriad not engaged in theological studies in a formal sense. There is what conceptions of Christian lifestyle, which are rooted in differing doctrinal Thielicke calls “the spiritual instinct of the children of God.“2 Many lay conceptions. Our particular understanding of basic concepts, for ex- persons, although unskilled in the official theological sciences, nonethe- ample, the relationship between grace and works, has a profound influ- less have experience in the Christian life which sometimes gives them ence upon what we do in our Christian lives and the spirit in which we insight far surpassing that of many professional theologians. When Jesus do it. Hence right belief is imperative. spoke of sending the Holy Spirit, who would guide believers into all truth Yet even if our beliefs are pure and correct, that is not enough in itself. (John l&13), he did not restrict his promise to seminary graduates. For correct belief and theological mastery are of no value in and of We should not conclude from this last point, however, that theology is themselves in the sight of the Lord. Imagine, if you will, a group of not an intellectual endeavor. It calls for rigorously logical thinking. To theological students and practicing theologians appearing before the construct a systematic theology, we must think systematically. That is to Lord on the day of judgment and, in echo of Matthew 7:22, pleading, say, we cannot proceed in an eclectic fashion. Although we will draw “Have we not studied Christian Theology in your name? Have we not upon insights wherever they may be found, we will always seek to think expounded the fundamental doctrines of Christianity in your name?” in a coherent fashion. We will not knowingly incorporate into our system The Lord will reply, “I never knew you; depart from me, you evildoers.” ideas which rest upon presuppositions which are contradictory to each Doctrine is important, but its importance lies in the contribution which other. There will, of course, be mysteries which we do not fully compre- it makes to our relationship with God. Without that, the finest theology, hend. But the systematic theologian, not readily accepting of opacity, will most eloquently enunciated, is merely “tinkling brass and clanging cym- endeavor to plumb them. bals.” The point being made here is that our beliefs (our official theology, Beyond the logical or rational character of theology, there is also its based upon objective teachings of Scripture) must be put into practice aesthetic character. There is the potential, as we survey the whole of (which is, so to speak, our unofficial theology). If we are to bring our God’s truth, of grasping its artistic nature. There is a beauty to the great actual practice into conformity with our beliefs, we will have to reflect

and even meditate upon those beliefs. Perhaps this is part of what Paul 1. Helmut Thielicke, A Little Exercise for Young Theologians (Grand Rapids: Eerd- meant when he spoke of being “transformed by the renewing of your mans, 1962), pp. 13-20. mind” (Rom. 12:2). 2. Ibid., pp. 25-26. I246 Concluding Thoughts Concluding Thoughts 1247 compass and the inter-relatedness of the doctrines. The organic character sense of his own unworthiness, his own sinfulness. Peter, too, when he of theology, its balanced depiction of the whole of reality and of human realized that he was in the presence of a perfect and powerful Lord, was nature, should bring a sense of satisfaction to the human capacity to struck with awe (Luke 5:8). If we have genuinely grasped the significance appreciate beauty in the form of symmetry, comprehensiveness, and of the truths which we have studied, we will have a similar reaction. coherence. Certain of the topics covered point us more directly and effectively to Theology is not simply to be learned, understood, and appreciated, what God is like and what he does, but all have that effect to some however. There is the additional issue of communication of the message. degree. The purpose of the author in writing will have been achieved What we have given in these three volumes is the basic content of the only if the reader has come to love the Lord more and is better able to Christian world-and-life view, and thus of the message that all human communicate that love to others. beings are called upon to accept. That content will need to be continually reexpressed, however. In attempting to walk the tightrope between the timeless essence of the doctrines and a particular contemporary expres- sion of them, we have leaned toward the former when a choice had to be made. This approach has left a need for restatement of the doctrines in ways that will make them accessible to more people. This need results in part from the fact that the author is an educated, middle-class, North American white male. Although he has ministered in a pastoral role to blacks, Hispanics, and the lower economic classes, the basic orientation of these writings is to the type of students who currently enroll in American evangelical seminaries. Much work needs to be done in tailor- ing the content of the theology to Third-World audiences. There is also a need for adaptation of this theology vertically. For it is written primarily for seminary students. It is encouraging to find lay persons studying these volumes. Yet real theology is capable of being expressed even to children. In part the communication of theology will be aided by the realization that theology need not always be expressed in discursive or didactic form. Sometimes a story communicates it better. Jesus demonstrated this repeatedly through his use of parables. In the twentieth century, C. S. Lewis has shown that theology can be placed in the form of winsome stories, even children’s stories. Narrative theology has commu- nicated profound truth with dynamic effect.3 Yet we need to bear in mind the difference between theological reflection and the communica- tion of the content of doctrine. The more precise categories of reflective discursive thought are still essential for the actual formulation of theol- ogy The author is convinced that real theology, good theology, will en- hance the reader’s awareness of the greatness and grandeur of God. When Moses met God in the burning bush (Exod. 3), he was filled with a

3. See Millard J. Erickson, “Narrative Theology in Translation or Transformation?” in Festschrift: A Tribute to William Horder-n, ed. Walter Freitag (Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan, 1985). Scripture Index

Genesis 1:27-294,329,497,505, 3:13-617 516,545,546 3:14-19-1001 l-139,506,511,512, 1:27-28-508 3:15-291 513,113l 1:28-177,474,510,556, 3:16-170,546,547 l-2-438 597,607 3:16-19-428 l-3-590 1:31-375,428,491 3:17-19-170 l:l-271,366,369,371, 2:1-438 3:19-483,611,612,1169 380,1226 2:2-3-438 3:20-5 16 1:2-303,372,380,858, 2:7-202,303,373,474, 3:22-725 866 481,483,1169 3:22-23- 1170 1:3-370 2:15-17-803 3:24-442 1:3-27-380 2:17-288,428,611 4-485 1:6-370 2: 18-546 4: l-486 1:9-370 2: 19-373 4: 13-575 1: 10-375 2:21-373 4:13-15-543 1:12-375 4:26-269 2:24-122,213,329,1132 1:18-375 5: l-497 3-270,428,448,655,961 1:20-373,483 5:1-2-505,516,546 1:21-375,483 3:2-3-428 5:2-497 1:24-373,483 3:3-l 170 5:3-486 1:25-375 3:4-S-598 6-609 1:26-328-29,486,498, 3:46-492 6-7-425,120l 501,508,510,512,546, 3:5-586 6:2-442-43 690,724 3:8-176 6:3-565 1:26-27-456,474,496, 3:11-616 6:4-442 500,507,545 3:12-617 6:5-622,626,628 1249 1252 Scripture Index Scrlpturc Index 1253

19: 18-229 37-395 29: l-438 78:57-574 119-687 Ecclesiastes 21:1-230,398 37: 10-391 30:3-774 79: l-574 119:67-565 1:9-27 21:5-229 38-349 30:5-604 80: l-442 119:71-610 3:21-522 38~2-347 31:5-522 81:12-13-400 119:72-1011 5:4-5-292 2 Chronicles 38:4-349 31:1415-396 82:6-210, 213 119:91-353 38:7-438,442,444 5:15-555 4: l-2-23 1 33:11-278, 347,353 84: 1 l-406 119:105-1011,1012 41: l-795 7:20-623 4:2-222,236 33: 15-398 86:5-296 121-348 42~2-348 7:26-626 7: 14-936 33:20-546 86: 15-296 123:1-313 42:3-347, 349 7:29-626 18:20-22-4 18 34:7-444 89:5-7-438 . 124: l-3-401 42:5-6-936 10:5-565 20:13-1094 35:19-210 89:11-12(12-13)-368 130:3-622 42:8-805 12:7-522, 1169 32:21-441 36: l-623 90: l-2-274 135:5-7-395 37-348 90:5-7-l 171 139:7-12-273 32:31-399 Isaiah Psalms 37:37-623 91-348 139: 13-15-553 Ezra 2: l-2-2 13 40:7-B-725 91:5-6-393 139:16-347,348, 351 1:2-572 2:7-725, 73 1 42:6-522 91:11-393,444 140:3-623 1:5-839 7:27-398 2: 12-604 45:6-326 91:16-552 143:2-622 1:18-641 lO:l--1031 5:5-575, 602 45~6-7-767 92:5(6)-347 143: lo-869 1:20-572 5:9-623 47-1207 94: l-609 145: 16-294 1:24-609 Nehemiah 6:8-575 47:7-B-396 95:&l l-609 147:5-275 5: l-7-765 8:2-1031 B-511,894 49:15-l 194 96:5-371, 372 147:8-15-395 5:8-894 9:6-388 8~4-6-472 51-623 97:7-213 148:2-444 5: 19-347 9:20-869 8:5-438 51:2-626 99: l-442 148:2-5-438 6-184, 1246 8:5-6-509 51:4-615 99:3-285 6: l-4-284 51:5-553,626,756 99:9-286 6:1-5-312 Esther 8:7-B-509, 512 Proverbs 9:4-955 5 1:6-626 100-1207 6:2-440 3:3-571 10:2-550 51:7-626 100:5-120 3:11-12-965 6:2-3-442 4: 14-397 10:7-623 51: lo-626 102:3-5-493 3: 19-20-349 6:3--1230 10:9-550 51: lO( 12)-368 102:25-326 6:16-17-602 6:5-285-86 Job 11:5-602 51:11-869 102:26-27-278 6:23-1011 6:8-328-29 l:l-982 14-622, 623 53-622,623 103:8-14-963 8:22-696 6:9-lo-925 1:6-438,442 14:1-232, 622 53: l-232 103: 13-296 12:8-574 7: 14-743 1:8-623,982 14:3-622, 63 1 53:3-63 1 103:19-22-397 15:3-275 8: 1 l-202 1:12-401,441 14:5-622 57: lo-296 103:20-44 1,444 15:26-626 8: 13-691 1:21-555 16:10-213, 773, 774, 58: 1 l-288 104:4-213 16: l-398 9:7-767 2: l-438,442 1183, 1195 61:5, 8-292 104:5, 10, 13-391 16:4-349 10:5-12-395 2:6-401,441 17:15-l 194 65~3-348 104: 14-395 16:33-349,396 10:13-395-96 3:11-555 18:40-603 66:7-396 104:20-21-391 17: 15-957 10:20-21-610 3: 17-575 19-164, 165, 166, 168, 66: 13-292 104:21-29-395 19: 1-551 11: l-5-869 5: 10-391 1011, 1016 68: 17-439 104:24-276 19:2-568 11:2-5-869 9:5-9-395 19:1-154, 373, 768 69:4-603 104:24-30-391 19:21-347, 349,398 11:6-7-1211 12: 16-566 19:1-2-170 69:21-349 104:29-30-303 19:22-551 12: l-604 12:20-552 19:3--166-68 69:25-202 104:30-372,858 20-622 14:12-15-586 12:23-396 19:4- 167 70:5-546 106: 13-347 20~6-622 14:24-347, 353 14:5-348 19:7-1011 72-1207 106:40-604 20:7-B-622 14:24-27-348 14: 16-17-623 19:7-9-286 72: 18-44 1 107:10-16-609 20:9-622 14:26-347 22-430 19:8-1011 73-289 107: 1 l-347 20:29-552 14:27-347, 353 25:3-440 19:10-1011 73:24-998 109:8-202 21:30-31-349 17:1-574 26:13-372,858,867 19:11-1011 73:24-25- 1195 llO:l-326 22: l-2-55 1 19: 12-347 27~3-302 19:13-399 73:26-939 113:5-6-313 23:14-l 195 19: 14-574 33:4-302,372 20:7, 9-269 75:6-7, 9-10-396 115:3-277 29: lo-603 19: 17-347 34: 12-285 22:26- 1032 78- 187 115:9-546 30:6-2 11 20: l-237 34:14-15-302-03 24~7-10-998 78:2-2 10 115:10-546 31:18-547 21:3-574 35:7-35 1 27: 10-l l-348 78:8-572 115:11-546 31:24-547 21:4-566 1254 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1255

22:11-347,348,351 55:10-11-1011 30:4-202 37:12-14-l 194 5:15,24-289 2: 15-349 23:9-347 57:15-284,312-13,981 31:9-965 44:7- 1094 6:3-576 2:22-8 13 24: l-574 57:20-21-575 31:33-625 44:9-1094 2:23-349 25:8- 1173 59:7-a-623 32: 15,17-276 Jonah 3:2-937, 1097 26:19-l 194, 1200 59:9-623 32: 19-347 Daniel 3:6- 1097 1:7-396 28:7-565, 566 59:10-12-623 34:18-571 3:7-8- 1096 2:21-395 3:5-348 28:11-12-210 59:20-623,936 36:3-347 3:l l-870 4:13,17,23-438 29:24-566 59:23-623 42:6-577 3: 16-870 4:2425-395 Micah 32:15-867, 869 61-869 44:15-1031 3:16-17-330,861 4:3435-397 32: 16-20-869 61:1-2-550, 871, 1060 46: lo-609 1:6-574 3: 17-292 7: 10-440 33:14-1238 61:1-3-869 49~20-347 2:3-347 4:1-775,871 7: 13-690 37: 16-371,372 61:2-609 50:45-347 3:8-303 4: l-l l-450 9:11-571 37:26-347,348 62:4- 1035 51:29-347 3: 12-574 4:2-707 9:21-440 39:7-555 63:4-609 4:4-202 4:3-448 9:27- 1220 40-765 63: lo-603,869 Lamentations 4: 12-347 4:4-7 11 10:6-440 40:9-764 63: 1 l-303 6:8-785 4:8-9-645 2:4-5-603 12: l-348 40: 12-349 65:25-1211 4: 14-349 2:8-347 12:2-1194,1200,1217, 40: 12- 13-372 66:24-1238 Habakkuk 4: 17-767,937 3:22-23-279 1238 40:13-352 4: 18-22-93 1 5:7-839 12:3-1234 1: 13-285 40:13-14-351 4~24-449 5:12-552 2~4-938 40:31-219 Jeremiah 5:13-16-979 41:20-368 Hosea 2: 15-622 1:5-555 5:16-352,647,1226 Ezekiel 42: l-4-869 l:ll-687 l:l-187 5:17-190,977 42:21-792 Haggai 3: 10-574 1:3-687 1:6-11-1043 5:18-203,1226 43: l-368 4:4-604, 976, 1094 1:6-440 1:9-10-1035 2:5-303 5:21-22-577,578,627, 43~7-368 7: 12-14-609 1:13-440 2:23-1035,1043,1207 687 44-45-40 1 9:24-287 2:2-867 4:15-577 Zechariah 5:21-28-972 44:3-5-869 9:25-26- 1094 2:3-572 5:5-575 5:23-24-g 15 1:6-348 44~6-274 2:4-98 1 5: 13-839 5:27-28-578,627,687 10:5, lo-290 1:9-850 44:24-37 1 lO:lO-11-271 8~3-867 6:7-57 1 5:29-30-905,1007 44:28-354 4:6-867 lO:ll-12-371, 372 ll:l-867 8:1-571 5:38-813 7:2-810,811 45:7-368 11:19-625 9:14-555 5:39- 1007 10: 12-13-349 8: 17-602 45: 12-368, 37 1 11:19-20-942,981 9: 15-602 5:43-45-969 10:23-24-349 8:22-810,811 45: 18-368 11:24-867 10:18-577 5:&L-592,1007 10:24-604 14:4-1220 45:22-930 12:1,8,17,21,26-187 ll:l-965 5:45-294,303,395, 11: 19-626 14:9-324 45:22-25- 1207 11:20-955 14: 13-574 13:14-l 173 401-02,1226 46:4-552 14: l(2)-575 5:48-285,607,910,97 1, 12:7-10-1035 15:8-574 Malachi 46: lo-353 12:8-602 17: 17-1032 973,1227 46:10-11-347, 348 17:4-1238 18:4- 1170 Joel 1:9-810,811 6:1-1226 48:11-352 18:20-803,117O 2: lo-962 17:9-617, 625 l:l-187 6:2-578 52:7-764, 1061 18:21-22-l 171 2:l l-574 6:5-578 18:1-187 2: 16- 1094 53-690,805, 806, 811 18:24-572 3:6-278 6:9-1226 18: 1 l-347 2:28-866,1043,1094 53:4-837, 839, 840, 841 18:30-32-933 6:9-lo-1231 20:9-1011 2:28-29-869 53:5-6-S 13. 20:15-1060 20:9-352 6:10-1227 2:31-32-691 Matthew 53~6-623, 805, 813, 830, 25: 14-609 6: 12-297 20: 18-555 3: 12-689 834 23~20-348 27:27- 1032 1:5-544 6: 14- 1227 29:1-212 1:18-870 53: 1 l-839 23:23-316 Amos 6: 16-578 53:12-568, 690, 806, 23~23-24-273 32:22- 1032 1: 18-25-743,747 6: 19-20-l 227 813,839,841 23:24-302 33:7-l l-933 l-3-764 1:20-69 1,870 6:24-646 55:1-919 23:29-1011 33:11-919 3:1-187,202 1:20-21-743 6:25-294,522 55:7-626 26:3-347 34:6-565 4:13-368,850 1:21-827 6:25-29-348 55:8-347 26: 18-574 36:25-26-98 1 5:11-12-590-91 1:22-349 6:25-30-303,395 55:8-9-3 12 29: 1 l-347 36:26-28-869 5:12-288,550 1~23-743 6:25-33-27 1 I256 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1257

6:25-34-492,964,975 11:15-187 16:13-19-28 21:11-763 24:45-51-l 193, 1219 27:32- 1222 6:26-294,324,390, 11:20-24-764 16:14-926 21:25-1226 24:50- 1188 27~42-940 1226,1227 11:21-24-1240 16:15-17-674 21:29-936 25-3 11 27~46-324 6:26-30-377 11:24-1201 16: 16-926 21:31-326 25:1-13-l 190 27~50-523 6:28-294 11:25-691,1226,1245 l&17-926,1226 2 1:32-936 25:5-l 193 27:54-191 6:30-32-324 11:28-355,832,919,930 l&17-20-21 1 21:33-41-765 25:6- 1222 28:2-1227 6:30-33-294,390 12:9-14-450 16:18-1031,1034,1041, 21:43-326 25:8-10-l 190 28:3-440 6:31-32-587 12:17-349 1044,1048 21:46-763 25:13-l 188,1219 28:18-1038,1052,1073 6:32-1227 12:22-449 l&18-19-1041,1183 22: 14-930 25: 14-30-597,123 1 28:1&20-121-22,1207 7:3-617 12:22-32-448,674 16:19-1044,1075 22:29-32- 1195 25:19-1193 28:19-327,698,831, 7:11-1226 12:24,27-448 16:22-250 22:30-438,439,443, 25:31-326,440,444, 859,860,1052,1089, 7:15-995 12:25-27-87 1 16:23-624 1198,1232 779,998,1186,1229 1094,1097 7: 16-20-996 12:28-326,330,450, 16:26-522 22~32-2 13 25:31-33-1202 28:19-20-211,273,329, 7:21-996,1015,1226 775,861,871 16:27-1201 22:36-40-510 25:31-40-309 1039,1073,1096 7:21-23-1203 12:31-862,871 16:28-710 22:37-40-490 25:31-46-685,689,1000, 28:20-766,779,949, 7:22-996,1244 12:32-871,118l 17:1-B-1233 22:44-2 13 1013,1047,1058,1190, 1040,1052,1055,1122, 7:22-23-1015 12:33-35-627 17: 12-807 23:8-1081 1201,1203 1189 7:23--570,996 12:37-956 17:15-18-449 23:10-12-122 25:32-1202 Mark 8-449 12:45-439,449 17:19-20-450 23:23-629 25~34-368 8:5-13-405,450,544 12:50-1226 18: l-5-624 23:28-570 25:34-40-614 1:8-870 8:11-12-544 13-764,1208 18:3-638,1103 24-1219 25:37-39-1013 1: lo-870,1104 8:12-1020,1021,1235 13: l-9-996 18:6-940,1092,1103 24-25-l 186,1193 25:40-310,1013 l:ll-731 8:13-939 13:13-15-248 18:8-1038,1238 24:2-203,1193 25:41-451, 1020,1021, 1: 12-87 1 8: 16-439 13:1415-925 18:10-445,1226,1227 24:3-l 186,1219 1235,1236,1238 1:14-1061 8:17-349,836,837,839 13: 16-926 18:14-1226 24:3-14-989 25:44-1013 1:14-15-1060 8:20-550 13: 18-23-996 18:15-17-1055, 1082 24~4-989 25:45-1013 1:15-940,1092 8:29,31-449 13: 19-448 18:17-567,1031,1038, 24:9-1221 25:46-614,1020,1021, 1: 16-20-93 1 9: 15-807 13:20-22-996 1048 24:11-13-989 1203,1235,1238,1239 1:24-449 9: 18-22-405 13:23-996 18:19-1226 24: 12-570 26:6-13-548 1:25-450 9: 19-20-450 13:24-30-448,1047, 18:20-l 122 24: 12- 13-996 26:10-13-548 1:26-449 9:20-22-547,838 1048 18:23-35-297 24:13-1060 26:20-779 1:34-449 9:27-30-450 13:35-210,349,368 18:35- 1227 24:14-831,1193,1207 26:24-349,102O 1:41-296,515 9:28-939 13:36-43- 1047 19:4-368 24:15-l 190 26:25-709 2:5-684 9:35- 1060 13:37-43-1201 19:4-S-213 24:15-31-390 26:26-l 118 2:7-684 9:35-36-296 13:38-448 19:4-6-122 24:21-368,1190,1221 26:26-28-95 1,1109 2:8-9-685 9:36-296,514,708 13:39-448 19:5-l 132 24:27-l 186,1192 26:29- 1232 2:8-lo-326 9:38-69 1 13:39-42-444 19:8-368,399 24:29-l 190,1221,1226 26:34-709 2: 19-20-807 10: l-450 13:41-326,570,684, 19:13-15-l 103 24:29-31-1220,1224 26:36-707 2:27-28-685 10:6-514 768,1203 19: 14-326,638,1092 24:29-35- 1201 26:37-708 3-749 10:8-297,449 13&I-764 19:16-25-858 24:30-326,998, 1186, 26:39-5 15 3:5-708 10:9-lo-229 13:46-764 19:16-30-1014 1190,1229 26:40-41-707 3:19-862,1020,1021 10:22-996 13:47-SO-764 19:23-26-324 24:31-444,1203 26:42-403 3:20-30-674 10:28-393,522,527, 13:55-750 19:24-326 24:34-710 26:53-440 3:21-748,749 534,536,1169,1183 13~57-763 19:26-277,758,858,946 24:35- 1226 26:56-349 3:22-448 10:28-30-390 14: 14-296,708 19:28-768,943,1202, 24:36-438,44 1 26:63-686 3~22-30-448 10:28-31-471,975 14~22-23-678 1230 24:36-39- 12 19 26:63-65-326 3:27-1206 10:29-235,294,377 14:22-33-277,405 20:13-15-916 24:36-M- 1187 26:64- 1186 3:29-862,1020,1021 10:29-30-275,303 14:35-36-450 20:20-28-624 24:37-l 186,119O 26:65-66-687 3:31-748,749 10:30-403 15:2-3-57 1 20:27-122 24:37-39-775 26:68-772 3:33-35-749 10:30-31-294 15:13-1227 20:28-793,807,8 13, 24:39- 1186 27:3-936 3:35-969 10:31-235 15:18-19-627 828,830,1067 24:42- 1186 27:4-7 19 4:35-41-277 10:32-390,1226 15:32-708 20: 34-708 24:43-1219 27:5-230 4:39-395 10:33- 1226 16-926 21:4-349 24:44-l 186,1188 27:19-719 5-449 1258 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1259

5:2-4-449 12:25-1232 2:22-40-770 9:3-229 17:24-1226 John 5:5-449 12:26-710 2:24-550 9:23-938 18:15-17-l 103 l:l-332, 700-01 5:7,9,10-449 12:26-27- 1195 2:36-38-548 9:26-440 18:16-17-1092 1: l-3-366 5:36-567,939 12:28-31-510 2:49-350 9:27-7 10 18:17-1014, 1103 1:3-371, 372, 598, 768, 6:3-746,750 12:28-34-490 2: 52-707 9:2&36- 1233 18:18-30-1013, 1014 850 6:5-6-450 12:30-580 3: l-2-2 12 9:39-449 18:22-1014 1:9-4 1, 765 6:6-405,709 13:5-6-566 3: 16-870 9:46-48-624 19:1-10-931 l:lO-11-645 6:8-229 13:7-350 3: 19-20-1058 9:47-709 19: lo-787 1:12-940, 961, 962 6: 13-449 13:10-350,106O 3:22-870 9:52-437 19:11-27-1193, 1234 1:12-13-943, 944 6:17-29-1058 13: 13-996 4: 1-871 10:8-9-1156 19:38-1229 1:13-751) 757 6~34-296 13:19-369,122l 4: 1-2-871 10: 17-872 20:27-40- 1233 1:14-712,715,722,725, 7:24-30-544 13:20-326 4: 14-871 10: 17-20-448 20:34-38-l 195 769 8:18-248 13:24-1221 4: 16-7 11 10:18-450, 1159 20:35-1200, 1217, 1232 1:18-267,734, 737, 764 8:31-806 13:26-l 186,119O 4: 18-550 10:21-872,893 20:36-439 1:29-807,813, 830 8:32-33-94 13:30-710 4: 18-19-1060 10:25-37-1058 21:1-4-547 1:32-870 8:35-471,1066 13:32-696,710,772, 4: M-21-869,871 10:26-27-510 21:20-22-349 1:33-34-33 1 8:36-905 1227 4:21-550 10:27-288,522,784 21:27-l 186, 1190 1:35-51-931 8:38-441,1229 13:32-33-l 187 4~22-750 10:27-28-490 21:36-1221 1:47-48-709 9:1-710 13:35-l 187,1188 4~25-1226 10:29-37-1053 22:3-448 2: 1 l-940 9:2-8- 1233 14:21-349 4:40-41-449 ll:l-13-975 22:19-20-951, 1109 2:23-940 9: 17-449 14:22-24-95 1,1109 4:43-350 ll:&lO-406 22:22-347,349,354,361 2:25-709 9: 19-94 14:26-72-94 5-300,407 ll:ll-813 22:25-27- 108 1 3-943 9:20-449 14:32-42-709 5:8-191,286, 1246 ll:ll-13-964 22:28-30-1202, 1230 313-873, 943, 1103 9:21-710 14:62-326 5:24-409 11: 1423-448 22:30-954 3:4-943 9:23-24-450 15:34-709 6:8-709 11: 1425-674 22:31-769 3:5-624, 1008, 1098, 9:24-588 16:5-440 6:9- 1169 11:15, 19-448 22:31-34-450 1103 9:25-449,450 16:7-297 6:12-711 11:20-450 22:32-769 3:5-6-757, 873 9:29-450 16:9-20-1098 6:20-550 11:26-439 22:42-514 3:5-8-858, 943 9:33-37-624 16:16-1098 6:27-1007 11:50-368 22:43- 1227 3:6-945, 1098 9:34-94 6:29- 1007 12:4-523 22:44-720 3:7-70, 943 9:43- 1183 Luke 6:35-1007 12:4-S- 1169 23~34-832 3:7-8- 1098 12:8-441 23:35-773 9:43-48-l 183,1238 1: 13-20-444 6~43-45-627 3:8-327, 873,944 9:48- 1183 12:8-g-326, 684 23~37-772, 806 1:15-870, 1092 7:9-709 3:13-686,726,764,1227 12:47-48- 1240 23:40-250 10:6-369 1: 17-573 7:13-515 3:14-15-350 12:50-709 23:41-719 10:13-16-1091,1103 1:26-44 1 7:19-675, 941 3:16-292,731, 734, 832, 10:14-708,1092 13: 16-448 23:43-527, 1177, 1183 1:26-38-444,743 7:21-439 833, 1020, 1021 10:15-l 103 13:32-449 23:46-522, 523, 1172, 3:16-17-830 1:34-743 7:22-550, 1060 14:14-1200, 1217 1177 3: 17-806 10:17-31-551,1014 1:35-330, 756, 858, 870 7~24-437 10:21-708 14:23-930 23:49-548 3: 18-940 1:38-757 7:29-957 10:25-550 14:26-l 169 23:55-56-548 3:19-1159 1:41-42-2 12 7:35-957 15-293, 547 24:1-11-549 3:19-21-647 10:29-30- 1060 1:41-44-554 7:36-SO-1013 10:35-39-954 15: l-7-566 24:4-440 3:23-l 104 1:41-45-548 7:44-48-1013 10:35-45-624 15:3-7-403, 471 24: 19-764 3:27- 1226 1:46-47-552 7~47-938 10:37-40-779 15:10-326,441,444,684 24:25-27-2 10 3:31-1227 1:46-55-548,757 7:50-1013 10:39-954 15:18-1226 24:28-31-l 199 3:36-573, 605, 1160, 1:52-396 8-449 10:45-767,793,807, 15:21-1226 24:36-43-7 18 1221 1:59-79-212 8:2-439 813,828 16:17-1226 24:38-39- 1197 4-544, 547 2: l-403 8:11-1011 10:46-52-838 16:19-31-527,775, 1017, 24:39-268,7 12 4:3, 6-401 2:9-440 8:14-551 12:13-17-515 1177, 1183, 1236 24:43-l 232 4:6-707 2:11-691 8:25-395 12: 17,24-27-324 16:22-444,445 24:44-45-2 10 4:9-1053 2:13-438, 1227 8:27-449 12:23- 1198 16:25-550-51 24~46-47-937 4: 18-709 2:13-14-444 8:28, 30-449 12:24-l 195 16:26-1236 24:49-330 4:20-24- 1047 2:14-1229 8:50-939 12:24-27-566,1195 17:11-19-838 24:50-51-777 4:21-268 2:15-1227 9: l-449 1260 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1261

4~24-267, 1231 9-407 14:3-l 186, 1188 15:26-249, 331, 332, 19:36-349 2:33-36-779 4:34-514 9:2-3-430, 838 14:6-772 852, 860,874 19:39-934 2~34-35-2 13 5:2-18-688 9:4-515, 872 14:7-9-685 15:26-27-250 20: 14-18-548 2:36-400, 696, 697 5:21-687 9: 17-764 14:8-11-251 16:5-777 20:17-777, 1227 2:37--1047, 1099 5:22-1202 10-994 14:9-186, 191, 332, 703, 16:7-249, 331, 779, 860, 20:21-22-33 1 2:37-41-1097 5:24-l 159 10:3-249 764 873, 1039, 1040 20:22-23-1008, 1075 2:38-330, 861, 932, 937, 5:25--l 160, 1195 10:3-6-403 14:12-249, 765, 777, 16:8-250,862, 1039 20:24-29-7 18 1008, 1047, 1094, 1099 5:25-29- 1183 lO:lO-943 779,873,950, 1039 16:&11-327,858,872, 20:25-94 1 2:39-1094 5:26-27 1 lO:ll-403, 827 942 20:25-27-777 2:41-1040, 1091, 1093 5:27-1202 14:13-14-765 10: 14-403 16: lo-777 20:27-l 197, 1199 2:44-45- 1040 5:27-29-1201 14:15-964,978, 1052 10: 15-827 16:11-450 20:28-326,691,941 2:47-691, 1040, 1047 5:28-29-1020, 1195, 14:16-249,331,860 10:17-18-817 16: 13-249, 250, 858, 20:29-94 1 3: 12-26- 1047 1200 14: 16- 17-874 10:18-799 859, 1040, 1245 20:31-89 3:13-15-998 5:29-1021, 1203, 1217 14:17-250,644,779 10:26-27-827 16:13-14-332, 860, 874 21:9-14-1232 3:17-565 5:30-5 14 14:18-1040 10:27-403 16:13-15-331 21:9-15-1199 3:17-26-1099 5:39-42-629 14: 18-24-765 10:27-30-390, 988, 992 16:13-18-766 21:18-l 193 3: 18-202 5:56-58- 1009 14: 19-644 10:28-943, 992 16: 14-250,847,860 21:25-90, 200 3:19-934, 1099 6: 14-764 14:21-964, 1052 10:28-29-992 16:23-766 3:19-21-l 187 6:32-808 14:22-644 Acts 10:30-332, 685,698 16:28-33 1,777 3:21-202 6:37-354, 916, 926, 927, 14:23-686, 949, 951, 10:34-35-210 16:33-647, 1221 l-1081 3:22-764 942 1040, 1122, 1189 10:35-203,213 17-514,769,833 1: l-766 4- 1099 6:38-514, 806 14:24-33 1 10:36-806 17:1--514 1:45-873 4-5-2211 6:39-40- 1195 14:26-249, 33 1, 766, 11-1195 17: l-5-998 1:6-1219 4:7-12-1047 6:42-1227 853, 860, 861, 874, 982, 11:3-708 17:2-354 1:6-l l-777 4:8-12-1099 6:44-354, 915, 916, 926, 1040 ll:ll--1177 17:3-290,696,697, 808 1:7-l 188 4:12-1094 927, 942, 1195 14:27-765 11:14-709,1177 17:4-514,860 1:8-122, 273, 831, 866, 4:24-37 1 6:45-926, 942 14:28-696,698 11:24-25-l 195 17:§-514 874, 950, 1039, 1052, 4~25-202, 213, 867 6:50-808 14:30-450,645 11:25-687 17:6-354 1073 4~27-28-350, 354 6:51-808, 1227 14:31-292 11:25-26-1200 17:9-354, 827, 828 1:9-10-I 189 4~28-347 6:52-58-808 15-975 11:33-709 17: 12-349 l:lO-11-1227 4:31-1040, 1099 6:53-95 1 15:1-11-988, 1037 11:35-709, 1171 17:13-708,769 l:ll-1186, 1188, 1189 4:32-1040, 1086 6:53-56- 1118 15:1-17-251 11:38-709 17:14-644 1: 14-745 4:32-33- 1133 6:54- 1195 15:3-1012 11:42-828, 988 17:15-769, 1222 1:16-202, 350, 867 4:33-1040 6:56-58- 1008 15:4-953 11:49-50-807 17:17-290, 1012 1:18-230, 237 4:34-35-1040 6:62-726, 777 15:4-5-949, 974 11:50-814 17:19-290,807 1:23-26-397, 1075 5-857, 1047, 1048, 1055 6:63-943, 948 15:4-7-l 122 12-184 17:20-769 1:24-69 1 5:1-11-991, 1201 6:65-9 16 15:5-766, 975 12:6-995 17:20-23-l 130 2-880, 1040 5:3-448, 857 6:68-69-996 15:7-975 12:27-522,709 17:21-332, 698, 769, 2~4-2 12 5~3-4-326-27, 862 6:69-7 19 15:8-352 12:28-179 1133 2:5-1043 5:4-857 6:70-996 15:9-17-292 12:31-450,647, 1160 17:21-22-514, 725 2:16-17-l 159 5:11-1032 15:10-719,974 7:5-750 12~32-33-647 17:24-352, 368, 514, 2:16-21-350, 866 5: 19-444 7:7-644 15:11-293, 708, 975 12:38-349 828, 998 2: 17- 1043 5:31-779, 998 7~40-764 15:12-297 12:48-1203 17:25-645 2:20-21-691 6-1081, 1085 7:52-764 13:14-16-122 15:13-293, 419, 515, 18:4-709 2:22-7 11, 1043 6:3-1073, 1075 8:23-3 13, 646 13:21-522 807, 817, 827 18:9-349 2~22-36-9 1 6:6-1073, 1074 8:29-7 19 13:23-708 15:14-978, 1052 18: 14-807 2:23-347, 350, 354, 356, 7-234 8:40-7 11 13:37-38-l 169 15:14-15-962, 964 18:36-767 361, 398, 570 7:4-2 14 8:41-746 14-16-212, 249, 250, 15:15-602, 975 18:37-787 2~24-28-350 7:6-229, 234 8:44-X18, 44 I, 448 251, 338, 847 15:16-357, 916, 926 19:7-326, 686 2:24-32- 1195 7:38-1048 8:46-7 19 14: l-3-765 15:18-647 19:24-349 2:27-31-774 7:51-862,981 8:48--- I OS3 14:1-7-251 15:18-19-644 19:28-349, 707 2:28- 1008 7:53-444 8:58-685, 734, 764 14:2-777 15:20-954 19:30-523 2:31-l 183 7:56-l 172 8:59-686 14:2-3-778, 874, 1227 15:25-210 19:34-707 2:33-330, 861, 998 7:59-l 172, 1177 1262 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1263

7:60--l 172, 1177 13:34-35-774 19:4--940 2-172,1016 5:8-lo-604 8:9-875,970 8-880 13:36-l 177 19:9--573 2:1-16-173 5:9-809,811, 1221 8:9-lo-1040,1119 8:1-1032, 1033 13:48-354, 916, 926 19:11-12-212 2:3-689 5:9-10-999 8:9-ll-952,1119 8:7-449 14:2-573 19: 12-439,449 2:3-16-l 183 5: lo-963 8: lo-628 8:12-1097 14:15-371 19:32-1031 2:4-296 5:12-611,612,625,631, 8:11-859,875,1196 8:17-1008 14:15-17-169 19:39-1031 2:5-605,811,1020, 636,637,652 8:13-628,875,970,971 8:26-444 14: 16-399 19:41-1031 1201,1235 .5:12-19-635,636 8: 14-875,970 8:36-l 104 14: 17-294 20:17-1075, 1080 2:8-8 11 5:12-21-l 18,476,635 8:14-16-964 8:36-38-1091 14:22-1221 20:19-691 2: 12-570,1203 5: 13-977 8:15-17-875 8:38-39-l 104 14:23-1032, 1073, 1075, 20:28-827, 1075, 1081 2:14-172 5: 14-57 1 8: 16-970 8:39-691 1081, 1082 21:14-691 2:14-15-169 5:15-632,636,637,711, 8:16-17-964 9:1-19-931 14:27-1033, 1081 21:21-578, 1094 2:14-16-168 1021 8: 17-949,975 9:4-7-934 15-1077 22:16-1008, 1101 2: 15-628 5: 16-632 8: 18-426,998 9:5-788 15:1-2-1084 22: 19-940 2:16-1063 5:17-632,636,637,638, 8:18-23-613 9:9-934 15:2-3-1081 23:3-57 1 2:23-57 1 711,756,1021 8:18-25-170,652,655, 9:17-18-934 15:22-1081, 1086 23:6- 1196 2:2§--57 1 5: 18-632,832,1020, 891,997,lOOl 9:18-19-l 101 15:26-522 23:8-9-438 2:27--57 1 1021 8:19-l 182 9:31-691, 1033 15:28-861 24:14-15-1200 2:28-29-98 1,1043 5:19-567,632,711,1021 8: 19-23- 12 11 9:42-940 15:38-41-212 24:21-l 196 2:29-249,1036,1100 5:20-977 8:19-25-841,1193 10-880 15:41-1033 24:25-1201 3-171,172,173,622, 6: l-2-959 8:20-655 10:3-7-444 16:5-1033 27:23-444 623,925 6:1-ll-944,1091,1100 8~20-23-837 10:9-16-544 16:14-691, 931, 934 28:15-1222 3:1-23-915 6:3-1091 8:21-1001 lO:ll-13-1040 16:15-1091, 1102 8:21-22-655 Romans 3:9-l l-925 6:3-4-818, 1101 10:14-1040 16:25-34-1064 3:9-20-942,1011 6:3-5-1091,1101,1104 8:22-23- 1197 10: 17-33-544 16:30-934, 1047, 1099 l-164,172,1016 3: 12-63 1 6:4-614,949,998,1095 8:23-999 10:17-48-1041 16:31-121, 932, 940, l-2-168,171 3:19-210 6:5-1091 8:26-449,862,988 10:22-44 1 1047, 1099 l:l-4-1063 3:20-977 6:6-628,llOS 8:26-27-875,970 10:34-35-544 16:31-33- 1093 1:3-751 3:21-26-809 6:6-8-822 8:28-347,35 1,40 1,402, 10:36-69 1 16:31-34-1091, 1102 1:3-4-1062,1063 3:21-8:1-331 6: 1 l-898 426,833,912 10:38-448 16:33-l 102 1:7-930 3:23-622,624 6: 12-628 8:28-29-827 10:42-347, 1202 17:16-34-1065 1:13--565 3:25-809,810,1012 6:17-616,629 8:29-347,351,355,356, 10:43-940, 1094 17:22-31-169 1:15-165,1065 3:25-26-g 11 6:23-288,611,614,616, 402,426,497,51.5,696, 10:44-48-544, 1103 17:23-172, 544, 1016 1:15-16-168 3:26-818,956 803,959,1171,1237 920,926,970 10:48-1091, 1102 17:24-268,371,544,691 1:16-169,1062,1063, 3:28-30-1012 7-972 8:29-30-997 11:13-444 17~2425-273 1065 3:29-1043 7:5-627 8:30-347,930 11:14-1091, 1102 17:24-29-962 1:16-17-168 3:31-977 7:7-977 8~31-34-822 11:17-940 17:25-271, 544 1:16-27-1012 4:3-1012,1014 7: 12-977 8:31-39-987 11:21-691 17:26-277, 347, 350, 1:18-605,809,811,1221 4:5-940,956 7: 14-977 8:32-808,809,814,827, 11:22-1032 396, 544 1:18-23-925 4:9-1012 7: 18-598 833 11:30-1074 17:27-28-302 1:18-32-163, 165, 168, 4:11-!043 7: 18-19-972 8:33-827 12:1-1032 17:28-170,497 628 4:12-1012 7:22-977 8:33-34-956,1000 12:5-1032 17:29-962 1: 18-3:20-33 1 4:13-18-1094 7~24-628 8:35-390 12:6-11-444 17:30-565,624,831,937 1:19-169 4:15-571,811 7:25-977 8:38-438 12:7-11-441, 444 17:30-31-919 1:19-20-170 4:16-1043 8-428,875,999 8:38-39-390,649,lOOO 12: 15-445 17:31-347, 1201 1:20-l 54,369 4: 17-369 8: l-822,953 9-912,914,916,922 12:20-23-490n 17:32-34-171 1:21-170,248,607,618, 4:18-1043 8: l-17-960 9-11-350 12~23-444 17:34-435 628 5-487 8:2-616,875 9:6- 1036 9:6-18-912 13:1--1032, 1033 18-1055 1:24-399 5: l-963 8~2-30-33 1 9:7-8- 1043 13:1-3--10x1 18:8-1091, 1097, 1102 1:26-399 5:1-5-1086 8:3-808 9: 1 l-347 13:10-12-691 18:18--1091 1:26-27-628 5:3-1221 8:3-4-977 13:16-41-182 18:26-691, 1055 1:27--566 5:6-8-g 14 8:4-875,970 9:11-13-356 9:15-16-917 13:32-37- 1 195 19-880 1:28-399 5:6-lo-293 8:5-875,970 9:18-356 13:34-213 19:1-7-1097 1:30--573 5:8-808,809,832,963 8:7-604 1264 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1265

2: 1 l-448 9:20-21-Y 16 16: 12-549 5:1-5-1048, 1125 11:22-1034 14:28-882 2:12-1063 9:20-23-350 16:13-549 5:3-522 11:23-188 14:33-36-549 3:3-18-1036 9:20-24-357 16:17-1038 5:5-522 11:23-29-l 109 14:39-882 3: 13-249 9:22-296,605,811,1020 16:20-450 5:7-809 11:24-25-1110 14:40-1085 3:1415-628 9:23-347 16:25-26- 1063 5:12-13-1038 11:26-1110,1111,112~ 15-91,223,537,693, 3: 16-249 9:24-1036 6:2-647 11:27-577,1111 1062,1168,1171,1181, 1 Corinthians 3:18-249, 497, 516 9:24-25- 1043 6:2-3- 1202 11:27-28- 1124 1195,1196 4:2-291 9:24-26- 1035 1:2-968,1032,1033, 6:9-566,570 11:27-32-l 123 15:1-1062 4:3-4-915, 925 9:33-940 1082 6: 12-20- 1197 11:27-34-1112 15:1-4-1063 4:4-170, 248, 448, 628 10-173 1:45-948 6:13-1197 11:2&29-1111 15:1-11-670 4~6-369 10:9-lo-29 1:7-1187,1192,1193 6:14-l 197 11:29-1111,1124 15:2-1064 4:7-757 10: 1 l-940 1:8-1000 6:15-l 197 11:30-1123 15:3-1063 4:11-523 10:13-691,lOll 1:9-291,930 6:19-1039,1197 15:3-B-1062 11:32-647 4:11-12-1169 10:14-171 l:lO-17-1038 6:19-20-327,857,1041 12-859,876,1037,1086 15:6-l 177 4: 16-953 lO:P4-15-1011,1022 1:16-l 102 6:20-793,1197 12-14-872 15:12-14-1196 4: 17-426, 999 10:16-1062 1: 18-249,970 7:5-448 12:3-931 15:12-19-718 5-24n, 223, 1181 11:2-356 1:20-644 7:7-557 12:46-330,859,861 15:15-1021 5:1-5-1001 11:7-10-1022 1:20-21-248 7:8-557 12:4-ll-327,396,876 15:17-123,612 5:1-10-1168, 1183, 1195 11:8,10-248 1:21-644 7%11-1232 12:7-876 15:17-18-1021 5:2-4-537 11:13-15-400 1:23-75,249 7:25--557 12:11-861,877,881, 15:18-l 177 5:3-4-527 11:15-815,1043 1:23-24-930 7:25-35- 1232 1041,1056 15:19-1021 5:4-1001 11:21-22-1022 1:24-249 7:26-557 12:12-880,1037 15:20-692,1063,1177 5:8-523, 527, 1183 11:25-400 1:26-930 7:27-557 12:12-13--1038,1132 15:21-477,711,1171 5:10-523, 689, 1202 11:25-26- 1038 1:27-644 7:32-35-557 12:13-880,952,1037, 15:22-477,53 1,948, 5: 14-808 11:26-1043 1:28-644 7:39-40-557 1039,1091,1146 1020,1021 5:14-15-830 11:28-1062 2:6-16-931 7:40--188 12:14-21-876 15:22-24-1217 5:15-814 11:29-930 2:7-249,347,352 8:4,6-324 12:1425-1037 15:23-1187,1217 5: 16-708 11:32-1019,1021, 1038 2:8-691,725 816-371-72 12: 18-350 15:24-438,652,1217 5:17-943, 944, 948, 949, 11:33-275-76 2:9-lo-1232 8:11-831,833 12:22-26-877 15:26-421,652,1171 11:34-351 1160 2:10-11-858 9:12-1063 12:26-1038,1055 15:37-l 198 5:18-1017 11:36-351-52 2: 1 l-248 9:14-1062 12:27-1037 15:38-350 5:19-733,787,808,931 12-1086 2: 12-644 9:16-1065 12:27-31-1037 15:38-50-1001 5:21-719, 803 12: l-2-97 1 2: 13-249 9:21-570 12:28-1034,1075 15:42-l 198 6:9-565 12:2-953,1244 2:13-14-255 9:23- 1062 12:28-30-876 15:44-521,777,1197, 6: 147: l-286 12:3-6-396 2: 14-248,249,644 9:27-990 12:31-878 1198 6: 15-448 12:6-a-876 2:14-3:4-521 10:8-236 13-293 15:45-477 6:16-1035 12:9-97 1 2: 16-249,352 10:12-451,989 13:1-3-882 15:47-49-7 11 6:17-18-978 12:16-17-971 3:1-2-1011 10:13-390,401,451, 13:8-878,881 15:50-523,1198 7: lo-645 12:19-288,609,811 3: l-9- 1038 973,988 13:9-lo-878 15:51-l 177 8:18-1062 13: l-7- 1068 3:2-1011 10:15-17-l 112 13:9-12-1228 15:51-52-1001,1195 9:13-1063 13:4-S-8 11 3:14-15-1234 10:17-1115,1126 13:12-766,1000 15:54-l 160 10:6-567 13:8-lo-977 3:15-l 181 10:32-1034 14-876,1056 15:54-56-l 168 10:14-1063 14:4-988 3: 16-449 11-l 124 14:1-878 15:54-57-652,822,1172 11:4-1062 14:8-53 1 3:16-17-327,569,850, 11:5-549 14:3-4-1056 15:55-l 173 11:7-1062 14:10--1202 857,1039 11:7-497 14:45-1037,1054 15:55-56-612 11:13-1073 14:11-691 3: 19-248,644 11: 10-444 14:5-876 16:2- 1057 11:14-15-448 14:15-831,833 3:22-6 13 11:13-813 14:12-876,1037,1055 16:19-1033 12:1-lo-841 15:16-330,861 4:5-l 183,1202 11:15-813 14:15-17-1057 16:22-70 1 12:7-448 15:19--858, 1063 4:6-7-3Y6 11:17-19-1038 14:17-1055 12:9-954 16:2--54Y 2 Corinthians 4:9-44 1,444 11:17-22-l 112 14:18-878 12:9-lo-406 16:3-4--549 4:15-1062 11:18--1111 14:21-210 l:l-1032,1033 13:11-292 16:5-m IO.33 5-1082 11:20-1111 14:26-1055 1:18-22-291 13:14-327, 329, 330, 16:6--54Y 5:1-2-1055 11:21-1111 14~27-882 1:21-22-330,X61 698, 859, 860 1266 Scripture index Scripture Index 1267

Galatians 4:4-S--350, 804, 961 1: 13-14-999 4: 18-565 2:10-11-244, 779, 1019, 2: 14-649 4:5-770 1:2- 1032 1:14-860 4:18-19-628 1021, 1236 2:15-438, 649 4:6-330, 861 1:6- 1064 1:18-249, 930 4:23-24-497 2:11-691 2:16-19-650 4:8-g-645 1:6-g- 1063 1:20-777 4:27-449 2:12-13-734, 971 2:19-1037 4:8-S: 15-33 1 1:7-1063 1:20-22-779 4:29- 1054 2: 13-278 2:20-649, 949 4:21-22-210 1:8-1064 1:22-23-1034, 1036, 4~30-862 2:15-646 3: l-949 S-875,970 1:8-9-1074 1133 4:32-963 2:22- 1062 3:4-l 182 5:1-12-1099 1:9-1064 2:1-776, 943, 944 5:2-809 3:3- 1036 3:6-573, 811 5:2-6-1094 l:ll-1062 2:1-2-631, 1170 5:6-573,811 3:&10-954 3:9-10-970 5:3-977 l:ll-24-1079 2:1-3-915 5: 14-933 3:&l 1-975 3: lo-498 5:13-15-959 1:12-1062 2:1-lo-944 5:18-622, 881 3:10-178 3:11-1038 5:13-16-964 1:15-217, 350 2:2-573,645 5:23-1034 3:11-1200, 1217 3:14-15-1132 5: 16-875, 970 1:15-16-396 2:3-623,645, 811 5:24-1034 3: 14-930 3~25-570 5:16-17-450 1:15-17-1074 2:5-631,776, 943, 944, 5:25-827, 1034 3:20-21-1001, 1182, 4:15-1033 5:16-24-598 1:22--565 949 5:25-27- 1036 1187, 1196 5:16-6:10-331 2:2- 1062 2:5-6-944 5:26-969, 1008 3:21-998 5: 17-627 2:3-S-1094 2:6-943 5:27-286, 1034 4:3-1062 1 Thessalonians 5:19-21-578, 627, 875 2:7-g-295 2:5-1062 5:31-l 132 4:5-l 193 l:l-1032 5: 19-23-94s 2%9-63 1,959, 960, 2:6-1038 5:32-952, 1034 4:11-13-391 1:4-1035 5:22-875 1012, 1181 2: 1 l-545 6:1-3-552 4: 13-953 1:5-211, 251 5:22-23-875, 970, 973, 2%lo-352 2:11-12-212 6:2-977 4:15-1062 1:9-271, 290 1039 2:10-347, 354, 94.5, 948, 2:14-1062 6: 10-20-450 4:19-391, 964 l:lO-811, 1218, 1221, 5:22-25-970 960 2:14-21-212 6: 1 l-448 1227 5:24-628 2: 13-809 2:16-940 6:12-438, 439, 449,650 Colossians 2:2-1062 5:2425-944 2: 14-545 2:18--571 6:15-1064 2:4-1062 5:25-970 2:14-16-l 133 1:5-1062, 1227 2:20-733,814, 898, 944, 6:17-1012 2:9-1062 6:1-1038, 1048 2:15-1038 1:9-249 948,949,950,954,1037 6:19-1062 2: 12-930 6:2-1038, 1055 2:16-18-725 1: 13-14-725 3: l-5-65 1 2:13-211, 251 6:7-565 2:19-l 132 Philippians 1:13-23-l 132 3:1-14-l 181 2:16-811 6:7-g-431, 610, 803 2:20-22-l 132, 1133 1:15-696, 697, 1037, 3: l-29-33 1 1:5-1062 2: 18-448 6:8-803 2:21-22-1039 1196 3:6-959, 976, 1014 2:19-1187 6:12-13-1094 1:6-945, 970,988 1:15-16-l 132 3:6-g-172, 545 3:9-37 1 1:7-1062, 1064 1: 15-20-689 3:2-1063 3:8-350 6:14-648,718,944 3:10-441, 1034 1:9-11-1000 1:16-352, 371, 438, 439, 3:3-1221 3:9- 1064 6:15-1094 3:11-347,351 1:12-1062 650, 1037 3: 5-448 3:10-977, 1064 6: 17-393 3:1417-861 1:16-1062, 1064 1:17-388,598,768,1132 3:13-286, 1197 3:10-11-172, 959, 964 3:1419-251,330 Ephesians 1:19-26-l 168, 1183 1:18-692, 768, 1034, 4-l 153 3:10-14-172 3:21-274, 1034 1:20-23-l 172 1037, 1132, 1196 417-286 l-922 4-l 130 3:13-809, 813, 814, 822, 1:23-l 183 1:19-350 4:13-l 153 1172 1:3-4-948 4:1-969, 1130 1:27-1062, 1063 1:19-20-1020, 1021, 4:13-15-l 177 3:13-18-1094 1:4-351, 368, 1000 4:3- 1130 1:29-940 1132 4:13-16-1195 3:16-213 1:4-5-916 4:4- 1034 2-768 1:20-809 4:15-16-1187 3:19-435,441, 444, 571, 1:5-278, 347, 961 4:4-6-1038, 1130, 1133 2:2-1131 1:21-23-989 4:15-17-l 191 977 1:5-6-352 4:5-l 133 2:3-122 1:22- 1000 4:16-438, 441, 948, 3: 19-29- 172 1:5-g-295 4:6-316 2:3-4-l 131 1:23-1062, 1064 1188, 1190, 1217, 1227 3~22-623 1:6-g-948 4:8- 10-773, 774, 777 2:3-5-619 1:24- 1034 4:16-17-444, 1182 3:23-24- 172 1:7-809 4:l l-875, 876, 1055 2:5-8-1068, 1131 1:26-27-952 4:17-1218, 1222, 1224, 3:26-27- 109 1 1:9-278, 347 4:11-12-1075 2:5-l l-325, 689-90 1:27-948, 1037, 1189 1227 3:27--548, 1103 1:9-lo-1236 4:11-14-l 133 2:6-690 2:8-645, 649 4:18-22, 1153, 1220 3:28--545, 548, 558, l:lO--1037, 1227 4:11-16-1038 2:6-7-734, 735, 770 2:9-689, 734, 735 5:2-3- 1190 1038, 1065 l:ll-347,353,397 4:12-1054 2~7-732, 735, 1067 2:9-10-1037 5:9-811, 1218, 1221 4: l-7-33 I l:ll-12-350 4:13-971, 973 2:8-1067 2:11-12-1095, 1100 5:10-809 4:4-712, 725, 747, 751, 1:12-14-352 4: 14-566 2:9-lo-768 2: 13-630, 776 5: 12- 1077 770 1:13--1064 4:16-1054, 1130 2:9- 1 l-778 2:13-15-651 5: 19-862 1268 Scripture Index Scripture Index 1269

5:23-52 1, 522, 969, 972, 2 Timothy l:l-3-198, 765 6:11-12-990 1:14-399 2:6-940 1147 1:6-1009 1:2-326, 689 6:13-18-1094 1:14-15-596 2:8--573 5:24-291 1:8- 1062 1:3-388, 689, 765, 778 6: 18-278, 290 1:17-278, 962 2:9-968, 1131 1:9-347, 351, 930 1:4-765 7:9-10-554 1:18-943,944 2:13-17-1068 l:lO-351, 1064 1:4-2:9-689 7:21,24-25-123 1:23-25-1011 2:21-784 1:5-326, 439, 731 2 Thessalonians 1:12-988 7:25-769, 779, 988 1:27-646,978, 1058 2:22-7 19 2:2-1056 1:5-2:9-439 7:26-7 19 2:1-11-1058 2:24-785, 813, 841 1:5-2:12-l 183 2:8-1063 1:6-7-213 9:1-lo-123 2:4-S-55 1 3: l-573 1:6-7-l 192 2: 12-954 1:8-326, 689, 767 9:6-15-811 2:9-289, 558, 571 3:15-691 1:7-l 187, 1227 2:13-291, 1192 l:lO-326, 369, 372 9:7-565 2: lo-577 3:18-19-773,774,775, 1:8-1063, 1221 2:16-18-991 l:lO-12-858 9:10-1095 2:11--571, 977 776 1:9-1020, 1235, 1238 2:17-18-995 1:13-439 9:12-123,812 2:15-17-1058 3:20-296, 573, 77.5 1:10-l 187 2:18-995, 1197 1:14-438,439,444, 850 9:14-630,719,858 2: 17-960 3:21-1095, 1098 2:1-l 187 2:19-995, 1047 2: I-990 9:15-571 2:18-1014 3:22-779 2:1-12-571 2:25-26-629 2:2-444, 57 1 9:23-10:25-95 1 2:18-26-1010, 1013, 4:46-773,776 2:3-573 2:26-448 2:2-3-567 9:24-778, 1227 1014 4:6-776 2:8-570, 1187, 1192 3:2--573 2:3-4-878 9:26-368 2: 19-324 4: 1 l-875-76 2:9-12-566 3~2-4-628 2:9-814,830,1020,1021 9:27-393,491, 531,611, 2:20-1014 4:12-13-391 2:10-12-398 3:2-5-628 2: 14-15-450 614, 841, 1168, 1178, 2:21-23-1014 4:13-954, 1192 2: 13-368 3: 13-566 2:26- 1169 1201, 1202 2:26-960, 1169 4:17-573 2:13-14-330, 861, 1035 3: 15-202 3:1-930, 1229 9:28-812,813, 1187 3:9-497 4:19-291 2: 14-930 3:15-17-1011 3: l-6-689 10:5-712, 812 3:9-10-513 5: l-999 3:16-202,207n, 210, 3:2-696 10:5-18-812 4:1-2-619 5:4-999 220n, 859,867 3:3-6-765 lO:lO-812 4:3-646 5:5--552 1 Timothy 3: 17-202 3% 16-573 lO:ll-812 4:4-604, 646 5:8-448 1:5-711 4:1-689, 1187, 1202 3:10-566 10:12-779,812 4:7-449 10:22-989 1:6-995 4:2-618 3:11-1229 5:7-8- 1187 2 Peter 10:25-1057 1:6-7-995 4:8-1183, 1187, 1192 3: 12-573 5:8-9-l 193 10:26-27-990 l:lO-930, 989 1:9-570 4: 10-991 3:12-14-990 5:14-15-882 10:27-1201 1:16-1187 1: 16-940 4: 1 l-209 3:18-573, 1229 5:14-16-1008-09 10:29-83 1 1:19-1011 1: 17-267 4:3-368 5: 16-405 10:30-609 1:19-21-210 1: 19-20-99 1, 995 Titus 4:7-347 5:17-18-899 1 l-973 1:20-21-201, 220n 2:3-4-919 4:9-11-1229 1:2-290 11:3-366, 369 1 Peter 1:21-202, 859, 867 2:5-778, 1086 4:12-521, 612, 1011 1:5-1082 11:6-28, 271, 939 2:1-831, 834 2:5-6-324 1:5-9-1084 4: 13-275 l:l-2-330, 920, 926 11:17-19-69 2:1-2-991 2:6-814, 830 1:6-557 4: 14-778 1:2-327, 356, 859, 860 11:19-402, 1195 2:4-447, 1203 2: 14-57 1, 756 4:14-16-122, 1086 1:7--1075 11:31--573 1:3-943,944, 1066 2:5-1039 3-l 124 4: 14-5: lo-689 1:15-628 12:2-426, 708 1:3-5-987, 999 2:8--570 3:1-2-1075 2:11-295, 831 4:15-208, 209, 515, 719, 12:5-9-962 1:3-9-l 196 2:9-22-447 3:1-13-1084 2:13-998, 1187, 1192, 720, 721 12:5-l 1-965 1:4-5-1227 2:11-441 3:2-557 5:2-3-566 1193, 1220 12:6-l l-402 1:6-390 3:3-4-l 190 3: 12-557 2: 14-969 5:5-73 1 12:7-965 1:6-7-426 3:4-369, 1187 3:16-712, 725, 733, 773, 3:3--566 5:12-13--1011 12: 17-936 1:6-9-402 3:7-1201 774, 778, 998 3:3-7-295 5:12-14-1011 12:22-440 1:7-391, 1187, 1192 3:9-296, 361, 832, 919, 4:1--566, 573 6-992,994 3:5-858, 943, 1008, 12:22-24- 123 1 1:8-940 1240 4:10-830, 834, 1019, 1095, 1099 6: l-630 12:23-1034, 1202 1:12-441 3:12-1187 1021 6:4-992 1:13-l 187, 1192 Philemon 13-812 3:15-296 4: 14- 1074 6:4-6-990, 992, 993, 13:10-13-812 1: 14-565 3:16-211 5:17-1077 13-1062 1020 13:17-1077 1:20-356, 368 5:21-444, 850 6:6--574 1:21-998 Hebrews 13:20-21-969, 972 1 John 6:10-S.51 6:9-993 1:23-943, 944, 1011 6:14-l 187, I I92 l-325 6: lo-994 James 1:25-1011 l-973 l:l--191, 368, 707 6:15-16-267 l:l-2-187, 190 6:l l-989, 994 1:13-230, 285, 596, 720 2:5- I I32 1270 Scripture Index

1:8--566 5: 18-448, 450 14:10-11-1235 1:8-lo-972 5: 19-645 14:11-1238 1:9-279 5:20-249, 290 15:4-286 2: l-860 16:1-17-444 2: 1-2-725, 830 2 John 16:14-439 2:2-834 7-566, 1221 16:19-1221 2:6-784 17:8-368 2:7- 1 l-297 Jude 19:1-4-1230 2:13-448,450, 1092 19:5-1230 3-1065 2:13-14-368 19:6-8-1230 6-447,492, 1203, 1238 2:15-16-646 19:9-1232 7-1238 2~16-399, 597 19:11-14-444 9-214,438,441 2:18-1221 19: 12-440 14-214 2:22- 122 1 19:15-1221 20-21-330-31, 860-61 2:28- 1187 19:16-691 21-l 193 2:29-943,944 19:20-6 14 24- 1000 3: l-963 20-1208, 1212, 1213, 25-274 3:2-571,766, 1000, 1228 1215, 1216, 1217 3:4-571) 974 Revelation 20:2-451, 1213 3:46-974 l-3- 1032 20:3-566 3:6-974 1:5-l 196 20:4-1202, 1210, 1213, Name and Subject Index 3:7--566 1:8-274 1214 3:8-368, 448, 450 1:14-440 20:4-6-l 196, 1210, 1212, 3:8-lo-441 2-3- 1082 1214 3:9-988 3:7-290 20:5-1210, 1215 3:11-18-297 3:10-1221, 1222, 1224 20:6-534, 614, 1170, 3: 12-448 3: 14-369 1214 Abbott-Smith, G., 238n,567n, 840n, 924n, 474-77; sin of, 429,586,598; effects of 3:17-18-1058 3:21-779, 1202 20:7-10-1000 925n, 939n, 968n, 969n the sin of, 602,603,613,614,616-17 4: l-939 4:8-440 20~8-448 Abel, 486,513,543 Adaptability, 1068 4:2-33 1, 725 4:11-352, 366, 371, 691 20: lo-448,451, 1228, Abelard, Peter, l57,785,796,815n Addison, James, 1175n 4:2-3a-700, 701, 712 5:9-545 1238 Abomination, 575 Adequacy, 145 4:2-3-29 5:11-440 20:11-15-1201 Abortion, 553-56 Administration as a gift of the Spirit, 4:3-l 160, 1221 5:11-12-444 20:13-l 196 Abraham,69,181,214,291,402,615,623 867-68 4:4-45 1 5:13-371 20:13-14-614 Absence of God, hell as the, 1235 Administrator of the sacrament, 1009, 4~45-647 6: lo-290 20:14-614, 1173 Absolute attributes, 266-67,77 1 1113-14,1124 4:6-2 11, 566 6:16-17-1221 21:1-2-1001 Absolute inerrancy, 222 Adoption, 905,961-65 4:8-292 7: 1 l-444 21:3-1228 Absolute theism, 416 Adoptionism, 727,731,738; instant, 755 4:10-293, 818, 823 7:14-1221 21:3-4-l 173 Abstract approach to apparent Adult baptism, 1096,1102 4:13-14-331 8: l-4-444 21:4-1228, 1233 discrepancies, 230 Affirmation, inerrancy of, 234 4: 14-725, 830 8:6-9:21-444 21:5-1002 Accidental occurrences, 396-97,401 Age: of creation, 380-82; of man, 484-87 4:15-725 9:1-2-1235 21:6-274 Accommodated revelation, 223-24 Aged, biblical teaching on the, 551-52 4: 16-292 9:11-1235 21:8-1020, 1170, 1235 Action, sin as external, 577,625 Age-day theory, 381,382 5:1-943,944 10:6-37 1 21:18-21-1229 Acts of God: as permanent element in Agitation, 575-76 5:4-943, 944 12-450 21:23-1229 Christianity, 108-09; as modes of Alexander, 991,995 5:4-S-647 12:3-448 22: l-779 special revelation, 18 l-87; connection Alford, Henry, 1210 5:5-725 12:9-448, 566 22:3-1231 between the attributes and, 299 Alienation, 1005 5:7-327 12: lo-448 22:5- 1229 Acts on the virgin birth, silence of, 751 All-inclusiveness: of God’s plan, 348-49, 5: 10-940 13:8-368 22:9-440 Adam, 381; headship of, 635-38; meaning 353; of creation, 370-7 1,376 5: 12-623 14:6-440 22: 13-274 of the term, 476,486; sin of, 427, Allis, Oswald T., 82n, 615n, 979 5: 13-940, 98Y 14:10-441.1221 22:18-19-211 476-77,631-39,652-53 Alston, William P., 18n Adam and Eve, 176,270,373; status of, Althaus, Paul, 670,672,691,693 1271 I272 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1273

Altizer, Thomas J. J., 114, l16,309,678n, A posteriori statements. See Synthetic 613n, 633,636,793,795,796,797,798, Baptism and Confirmation Today, 1102 901 statements 828,848,908-11,915,94ln, 1043,1150, Baptists, 1078, 1097 American Council of Christian Churches, Apostles, 1073 1170n, 1181,1206-07,1209,1212 paJctl

Bcrkouwer, G. C., 62,389n, 392n, 393n, Brothers of Jesus, 749-50 Causation: cosmological proof, 158, Atonement); relationship between the 404n, 508n, 726n, 762-63,994n Brown, Raymond E., 74ln, 742n, 743-46, 160-62; forms of, 372 Spirit and, 952; relationship between Bernhardt, Karl-Heinz, 368 748n, 752n, 870n Causes of sin, terms emphasizing, 564-67 study of the person and work of, 675-77, Bruce, A. B., 728n Bethune-Baker, J. F., 694n, 7 13n, 7 14n, Cedarleaf, J. Lennart, 552n 699-700,702-03,762; revelatory role of, Bruce, F. F., 82n, 94,1065n 715n,726n,729n Celsus, 746,748 763-67; rule of, 767-68; union with, 647, Bruner, Frederick Dale, 880n Beyondness, dimensional, 316 Central-state materialist theory, 533,535 818-19,948-54,958-59,960,974-75, Brunner, Emil, 47,62,163-64,184x-i, 192, Beza, Theodore, 9 13 Cerinthus, 748 988, 1037,1100-01. See also Jesus 194-95,224n, 474-76,499n, 502-04, Bible. See Scripture; Special revelation Certainty, need for, 247-48 Christenson, Laurence, 878n .507-08,5 11,593,665,666-67,673,70On, Bible Presbyterians, 1140-41 Chafer, Lewis Sperry, 980,1042n, 1046n Christian life, 974-83 782,94On, 1176n Biblical definition of the church, 1030-34 Chalcedon, Council of, 729-30 Christian Science, 420-2 1,1168 Buber, Martin, 164 Biblical theology, 23-25,63-64,66,108, Chambers, Robert, 481n Christology: from above, 66567,668, Buis, Harry, 91ln, 912n 109,143,186,525,528-29,701; “pure,” Chance, man at the mercy of, 467-68 671-72,673; anhypostatic, 732; from Bulman, James M., 1080n 24,70,71 Chance occurrences, 396-97,401 below, 667-7 1,672,673,69 1; Bultmann, Rudolf, 47,60_61,62,67,87n, Bicknell, E. J., 710n Change: as the basic reality, 51-53; functional, 698-703; and history, 88,89,94,102,106-07,123,436-37,446, Bingham, Rowland V., 837n cultural, 64,113; a heaven without, 662-75 665,666,667,669,676,678,691,708, Bishop, 1070-74,1075,1082,1084 1232 Chronology, problems with, 214,229,234 717-18,773,895-98,939n, 1159-61, Blacks, 542-43 Changelessness of God. See Constancy of Church: as authority, 245,246; biblical 1188n Black theology, 893,894 God images of the, 1034-41; character of the, Burial: as mark of man, 484,485,486; Blake, William, 116 Chaos, creation out of, 370 1067-68; definition of the, 1026-34, baptism as, 1104-05 Blik, 136-37 Character of sin, terms emphasizing the, 1143; functions of the, 1051-59; time of Burney, C. F., 765 Blindness, spiritual, 170,248,925,942 567-75 the inception of the, 1044, 1048; Bushnell, Horace, 785-88 Blizzer, J., 741n Charismatic gifts, 877-82 invisible and visible, 1043-48,1083, Buswell, James O., Jr., 1223n Bloch,Ernst, 1151,116l Charismatic movement, 244,252,836, 1135; and Israel, 1042-43, 1046, Buswell, James O., III, 486n Bloesch, Donald, 63n, 1013 851,856 1048-49,1163-64, 1211,1219,1224; and Blood of Christ, 809 Charismatic phenomena in the life of the kingdom, 104 l-42,1043; marks of Cadbury, Henry J., 22n, 24n, 63n, 529, Body, 520-39 passim; glorification of the, Jesus, no report of, 872 the, 1034,1045,1046-47; membership, 703 1000-01; instantaneous reception of the Charnock, Stephen, 264n, 265n 903,1047-48; as permanant element in Cain, 486,513,543 heavenly, 118 l-83; nature of the Cheap grace, 74,938 Christianity, 108; role of the, 1051-68; Caird, George B ., 1 OOn resurrection, 777; resurrection of the, Cherubim, 440,442 and the sacraments, 1010; and state, Cairns, David, 499n, 50ln, 512n, 515,516 1175-76, 1181-82,1195,1196-99,123l; Children: status of, 637-39; of God, 1068; unity of the, 1038,1040,1129-46; Calling, effectual, 930-33,946 spiritual, 1198, 1231 961-65,969 universal nature of the, 1034,1038 Callistus I, 335 Body, The (Robinson), 525 Childs, Brevard, 24,25,64n, 65,528-29, Church of Christ Uniting, 1136 Calvin, John, 60,77,167,170-71,207,226, Body of Christ, the church as the, 701 Circular reasoning: regarding the Sitz im 233n,256,257,434-35,501,516,762, 1036-39,1132 Chiliasm, 1209 Leben, 102-03; regarding inspiration, 834,853,913,917,993n, 1008,1044, Boettner, Loraine,715,826n, 915n, 917, Choice: as essence of man, 468-69; of 201 1104,1119-20,1212 919,987,1016n, 1175n, 1208n, 1209n Adam’s act, 638-39 Circumcision, 1036; of the heart, 976,981, Calvinism, 354-62,423,611,634-36,826, Boman, Thorleif, 528 Christ: the church as the body of, 1036-39, 1036, 1100; baptism as the substitute 829,834,835,914-18,920-21,922,925, Bonhoeffer, Dietrich, 74,115,900,938 1132; deity of, 324-26,337,668,669, for, 1094-95, 1100, 1104 927,928,932,971,986-89,991, 1016, Bornkamm, Gunther, 96,670,691 671,673,683-706,714,716,717,723-38, Clark, Gordon Haddon, 144,417-19,422 1118-19 Bowne, Borden I?, 304n, 305n, 477-78, 740,753,75.5,770-72,794,804; doctrine Clarke, William Newton, 522-23, 524, Camus, Albert, 468,1065 741n of, and the doctrine of atonement, 1188 Canaan, 542-43 Bradley, Walter L., 381n 782-83; event, 109; exaltation of, 768, Classis, 1076 Bread, 1113, 1115, 1125-26 Cappadocian theologians, 335-37,341 776-79; of faith, 662-75 passim; after Clayton, G. H., 1123n Carnap, Rudolf, 34n’, 49,129n, 13ln, 132 Breath of God, 302-03,372 the flesh, 667; in the flesh, 667; Cleage, Albert, 591 Brent, Charles, 1139 Carnell, Edward J., 33n, 62,155,193,194, functions of, 762-69; historic, 665; Clement of Alexandria, 521, 1209 231_32,233,234,416n,417n,482n, Bride of Christ, 1132 humiliation of, 769-76; imputation of Clement of Rome, 849 742n, 940n, 979n, 1012n Bright, Bill, 579n the righteousness of, 635,638-39, Clowney, Edmund, 1055n Bright, John, 976n Carpocrates, 748 8 18-19; likeness to, 970; man as clue to Cobb, John B., Jr., 51,279n, 280n, 370 Carroll, Lewis, 32 Brightman, EdgarS.,54-55,41517,421 the human nature of, 456-57; and the Coelestius, 633 Bromiley, Geoffrey W., 1097n, 113ln, Carter, James E., 1055n powers, 651-52; preexistence of, 685-86, Coenen, Lothar, 924n, 103ln, 1032, 1033 Categorical imperative, 159 1132n 690,753,764; presence of, in the Lord’s Cognitively meaningful propositions, Brotherhood of creation, 376-77; of man, Category transgression, 134, 148,339 Supper, 1112-13, 1119, 1120, 1121-23; 128, 135, 137, 140, 141, 146, 149,228 489-90 Causality, method of, 299 reconciling role of, 768-69 (set also Coherence, 144 1276 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1277

“Coinherence,” 335 Contact with unbeliever, point of, 173, Culture on theological thinking, influence Denotata, 144 Cole, George L., 837n 312 of, 26 Dependability of God, 279, 299 Collective sin. See Social dimension of sin Contemporization, 21-22, 64, 70, 73-77, Cur Deus homo? (Anselm), 797 Depravity, total, 256, 539, 627-31 656, Commemoration, the Lord’s Supper as a, 100, 105-25 Cyclical view of history, 27, 362 803, 822, 905,914-15, 927, 932 1120, 1122-23 Contextualization, 75-76, 78, 1246 Cyril of Alexandria, 727-28 Descartes, RenC, 159 Commercial theory. See Satisfaction Contingent immortality, 117 1 Descent into Hades, 773-76 theory of the atonement Continuous creation, 39 l-92, 393 Dahl, M. E., 1199n Designata, 144 Commitment, theological language as a Conversion, 600,872,932-42,946; theory Dana, H. E., 993, 1096n Desires as potential source of sin, means to discernment and, 146-49 of universal, 1015-16 Danell, G. A., 748n legitimate, 596-98 Commoner, Barry, 362n Conviction, 872,94 1 Daniel, 389 Detail: absence of unnecessary, 89, 176; Communicable attributes of God, 266, Conzelmann, Hans, 96,670 Darby, John Nelson, 1162 degree of, 2 15- 17 514 Cook, Thomas C., Jr., 553n Darwin, Charles, l62,479n, 582, 1244 Determinism, 46 Communication of theology, 1246 Copernicus, 106 Darwinism, 363. See also Evolution Deterrence, punishment as, 609, 791 Communism, 363,466, 1151 Copies of the Bible, inerrancy and, 239-40 David, 202, 398,430-31,610, 615, 617 Development: within creation, 382-84, Comparative-religions criticism, 84 Coppieters, Honore, 2 11 n Davidson, A. B., 866n 385; in heaven, no need for, 1232-33 Comparison, technique of significant, 134 Corporate persontility, biblical concept Davies, W. D., 24n, 223, 1109, 1181-83 Dewey, John, 42,43-44 Compassion of God. See Mercy of God of, 652-55 Day of the Lord, 1159 DeWolf, L. Harold, 523-24, 742n, 1188n Compatibilistic freedom, 357n, 424 Correlation, method of, 73, 308,458-59 Deacon, 1082 Diachronic approach to historical Compensation to the Father, the Corruption, 904 Death, 393,476-77,491, 530-31, 533-34, theology, 25 atonement as, 796-99 Cosmic eschatology, 997, 1155, 1167, 538, 611-15, 624-25, 636-37, 652-53, Dialectical materialism, 363, 466, 115 1, Competition, 618-19 1186-1204, 1225 795-96,960-61,1168-74,1184; denial of, 1243 Competitiveness as source of sin, 593-95, Cosmological proof (causation), 158, 420-2 1, 616; effects of, 1172-74; as Dibelius, Martin, 86, 88n 599 160-62 conquered enemy, 1172-73, 1184; of Dichotomism, 521-24, 530-36 Complexity of Jesus, 738 Cottrell, Jack, 555-56 infants, 637-39; of Jesus, 772-73 (see Dictation, 217-19; theory, 207 Conciliar unity, 1136 Covenant, 976, 1036; baptism as a sign also Atonement); nature of, 1169-70; Didactic material, 204, 208-09, 2 14- 15, Conclusions, inductive, 80 and seal of the, 1093-95, 1100, 1104 reality of, 1168-69; second, 534, 614 233 Concursive inspiration, 187 Covenant College and Seminary, 1141 Death of God theology, 61, 74, 114-16, Didactic passages, 68 Conditional immortality, 613, 1237 Creation,43,139,189,303,365-86; ageof, 309-10, 678, 901 Diem, Hermann, 670 Conditional imputation of guilt, 639 380-82; continuous, 391-92, 393; Deception, 448; of Satan, 793-95 Dimensional beyondness, 3 16 Conditional unity, 536-39 development within, 382-84, 385; Decision to ratify Adam’s sin, 638-39 Dionysius of Alexandria, 1209 Cone, James H., 590-92, b93n, 894 elements of the doctrine of, 367-73; Decretive will, 417-19 Dionysius the Areopagite, 435 Confirmation, 1009 God’s later work of, 373-74; Deductive approach, 204 Dioscorus, 728 Congar, Yves, 903 implications of, 385-86; out of nothing, Degrees: of church membership, 903; in Dipolar theism, 280 Congregational Church, 1136 367-70; renewal of, 1001; and science, heaven, 1233-34; in hell, 1240; of Direction of movement in salvation, Congregational form of church 378-84, 386; the Spirit and, 866; ordination, 1070 890-9 1 government, 1078-82, 1084, 1086 theological meaning of, 374-78; Deism, 31,41, 391,392 Discernment, theological language as a Congruism, 359,423 theological meaning of human, 487-93; Deissmann, Adolf, 950n means to, 146-49 Conscience, 584, 585; insensitivity to, 617 uniqueness of God’s work of, 374, Deistic evolution, 480-81 Disciples of Christ, 1139 Conscious, 1126 384-85 Deity of Jesus, 324-26,337,668,669,671, Discipline, 965, 1055, 1082; punishment Consequences of sin, terms emphasizing Creationism: fiat, 479-80; progressive, 673,683-706,714,716,717,723-38,740, as, 609-10 the, 575-77 481-84 753, 755, 770-72, 794, 804 Discrepancies, apparent, 69, 222, 229-31 Creationist view of the origin of the soul, Consequentialist view of ethics, 427 Delitzsch, Franz, 166n, 520n, 521n, 556 Disease, 436; Christian Science view of, 632,635 Democracy in the congregational form of 420-2 1 Consequent nature, 280 Creative evolution (Bergson), 367, 536 Conservative Baptist Association, 979 church government, 1078, 1080, 1084 Disembodied existence, 525, 530-36, Cressy, Martin H., 1134n Consistency, 143-44 Demodernized eschatology, 1157-58 1184, 1214-15. See also Intermediate Criteria: for evaluating propositions, 58; Demon possession, 449-50 state Consistory, 1076 internal and external, 143-45 Constancy: across cultures as criterion of Demons, 106, 107, 445-51; origin of, Disfavor, divine, 602-05 Criticism, 58, 81-104, 185-86 permanence, 12 1; of God, 274, 278-8 1, 447-48; destiny of, 450-51. See also Disobedience, 572-73 Crucifixion, 398,400 299 Angels, evil Dispensationalism, 1042, 1046, 1152, Cullmann, Oscar, 77,27Sn, 699-703, 1100, Constantine the Great, 82 Demythologization, 60, 89, 106-07, 1153, 1162-64, 1191, 1209, 1211, 1219 1103 Constantinople, Council of, 335, 716 Cultural mandate, 5 10 436-37, 446, 665, 669, 678, 895, 898, Displacement of God (essence of sin), 580 Consubstantiation, I I17 Cultural setting, inerrancy in context of, 1159-60, 1235 Disposition of the recipient of the sacrament, 1009, 1010 Consultation on Church Union, 1136 235-36 Denial of sin, 616-17 Name and Subject 1278 Index Name and Subject Index _ I279 Economic struggle as source of sin, Dissimilarity, 103 Encounter with man, God’s special, 114, Ethics, religion as a matter of, 19 Distance of God. See Transcendence 590-93, 599 184-85, 192, 194, 195-96, 224, 244,253 ‘Ewayy&ov, 1061-62 Economic view of the Trinity, 332-33 Distinction between God and man, English, E. Schuyler, 12 19n Eucharist, 1009. See also Lord’s Supper Ecumenical Missionary Conference, 1138 qualitative, 315-16 Enlightenment. See Illumination Eusebius of Caesarea, 333n, 334n, 850 Ecumenical movement, 1027, 1069, Distinctiveness, 103 Enmity of unbelievers toward God, 603, Eusebius of Dorylaeum, 727 1137-42; evangelicals and the, 1142-45 Dittemore, John V., 421n, 1168n 604,644,646 Eutychianism, 728-30, 738 Divine racism, 542 ‘Edah, 1031-32 Enoch, Book of, 214,234 Evangelical Alliance, 1138 Eddy, Mary Baker, 420-2 1, 1168 Divine speech as special revelation, Enslavement, 61.5-16 Evangelical and Reformed Church, 1136 Eddy, Richard, 1017n 187-90 Ephesus, Council of, 727,728,911 Evangelical concepts: of salvation, 889, Edersheim, Alfred, 446n Divinity of man (liberalism), 305 ‘Ex@dcveta, 1189,1191-92 890,904-1022; of the means of Edification, 1037-38, 1054-56, 1057 Docetism, 29,376, 712-14, 738 Episcopal form of church government, salvation, 1011-15 Edinburgh (1910 conference), 1138, 1146 Doctrine: as the essence of religion, 18, 1070-74, 1081, 1084, 1086 Evangelical Lutherans in Mission, 1137 Education: as the cure for sin, 595,599; as 112; identifying the essence of a, 71; as Epistemological importance of inerrancy, Evangelicals, 656; and ecumenism, a function of the church, 1055-56 a mark of the church, correct, 1047 227-29 1142-45; growth among, 1066-67; and Edwards, David L., 1229n Doctrines: stratification of, 78-79; as Equality with God, Jesus’, 325 social concern, 1059 permanent element in Christianity, Effectual calling, 930-33, 946 Equivocal language, 179 Evangelical United Brethren, 1136 Efficaciousness of God’s plan, 348,353, 110-11 Erasmus, 913 Evangelism: and the Calvinist doctrine of 354 Documentary hypothesis, 83 Erickson, Millard J., 27n, 172n, 724n, predestination, 361, 921, 927; as a Efficiency, 1134 Dodd, C. H., 190, 810-11, 1017n, 1105, 943n, 1224n, 1246n function of the church, 1052-54, 1057; Egoism as the source of sin, excessive, 594 1158-59 Erigena, Johannes Scotus, 911 as the purpose of ecumenism, 1137-38, Ehrlich, Paul R., 362n Dominion, exercise of, 5 16, 517; viewed Error, 710-I 1; sin as, 565-67 1144, 1146 Eichrodt, Walter, 269n, 328,496n, SlOn, as the image of God, 508-10, 511-12, Error in Scripture: possibility of, 205; Evans, Robert E, 632n 513, 514 512,939n definition of, 239. See also Inerrancy Eve, 428-29. See also Adam and Eve Einstein, Albert, 538 Domino theory, 227 Eschatological verification, 140-41 Evidence and faith, 941 ‘Exxhnala, 1031-33,1048 “Donation of Constantine,” 82 Eschatology, 997, 1149-1241; Evil, 576; problem of, 115, 162-63, 289, Donlon, S. E., 24% Elan vital, 536 classification of, 1153-55; cosmic, 997, 375-76, 41 l-32; denial of, 420-21; as Elder, 1074-78, 1082, 1084; ruling, 1077; Doomsday philosophies, 362 1155, 1167, 1186-1204, 1225; necessary accompaniment of the Doty, William G., 82n teaching, 1076, 1077 demodernized, 1157-58; creation of man, 423-25; reevaluation Elderly, biblical teaching on the, 551-52 Double predestination, 911,913,917,923 existentialized, 1159-61; individual, of what constitutes good and, 425-27; in Dowey, Edward A., Jr., 226n Eldredge, Laurence, 24n 997, 1155, 1167-84, 1194, 1225; in general as result of sin in general, Dread, 586-87 Elect, 825-35 passim; during the liberation theology, 1004; modernized, 427-29; as result of specific sins, 430-3 1; tribulation, 1219, 1220-21, 1224 Dreams, 179, 187 1156-57; politicized, 1161-62; realized, God as victim of, 432; heaven as the Dualism, 414, 416, 446; Christian, 54, Election, 346,835,908,920,924,987; and 1158-59; status of, 1149-53; removal of, 1228 423; rejection of, 371,374, 37.5. See also atonement, 828-29,834; of Jesus Christ, systematized, 1162-64 Evolution, 162, 304-05, 367, 382-84, 922-23; unconditional, 9 16- 17, 920-2 1; Dichotomism “Eschato’mania,” 1152 478-84, 581-85, 599, 899; creative, 367, Duns Scotus, 912 universal, 923-24 “Eschatophobia,” 1152-53 536 “Dust,” 481, 482, 483 Elemental spirits, 645, 649 Essence: of the doctrine, 71, 119, 120-25, Ewald, George, 167 Elert, Werner, 669-70, 691 Dynamic definition of the church, 259; of God, 265-66 Exaltation of Christ, 768, 776-79, 1190 Elijah, 274, 395 1028-30 Essential experience as criterion of Example, the atonement as, 783-85, 791, Dynamic incarnation, 733-34 Elizabeth, 554 permanence, link with, 123 8 19-20 Elliott, Harrison Sacket, 593-95, 599 Dynamic monarchianism, 333-34 Estep, William, 1142-43, 1145 Ex cathedra, 1072 Dynamic theory, 207 ‘Elohim, 328 Estrangement, 1005; existential, 588-90, Excommunication, 1038, 1055 Dyson, W. H., 1231n Emanant attributes, 266 599 Exegesis, 66-69 “Dysteleological” elements in the Emanation, 377 Eternal death, 614-15, 960, 1170, 1171, Existence, God as basis of, 307-09 universe, 162-63 Eminence, method of, 299 1174, 1239 Existence of God, 271-72; establishing Emotions of Jesus, 708-09 Eternal dimension of man, 471 the, 30-33, 41, 158-63, 171 Eastwood, Cyril, 1085n Emotive language, 49, 13 l-32 Eternal life, 989 Existential estrangement, 588-90, 599 Eating in heaven, the question of, 1232 Empathize, inability to, 619 Eternity (attribute of God), 267,271,318, Existentialism, 45-48, 55,74, 363,467-68, Ebionism, 694, 713, 738,748 Empirical definition of the church, 337-38 508, 511, 1168-69 Ecclesiological issue (evangelicals and 1028-30 Ethical teaching: without doctrine, 111; Existentialized eschatology, 1159-61 ecumenism), 1143-44 Empirical statements. See Synthetic as offense to modern man, 117 Existential theology, 895-98 Eclecticism, 65 statements Ethic as permanent element in Ex nihilo creation, 367-70 Economic being, man as an, 466-67 Empowering work of the Spirit, 873-74 Christianity, a particular, 112 Exodus, 108-09 _ 1280 Name and Subject Index Name aud Subject Index 1281

Ex opere operato, 1009, 1010, 1090 Feinberg, Paul D., lOln, 325n Forgiveness, 296-97, 963; of‘ sins (.lcsus Gaussen, Louis, 230-3 1,233,238 Expedient, truth defined as the, 44 Feine, P., 879n claim), 684-85 Geden, A. S., 840n Experience: relationship between truth Fellowship: of believers, 1037-38, 1055, Formal aspect of the image of God Gedney, Edwin K., 381n and, 29; as the permanent element in 1135; with God as element of essential (Brunner), 502-04, 5 11 Gee, Donald, 877n Christianity, 109-10; as criterion of humanity, 514,515-16; in heaven, 1231 Form and matter, 525, 528 Gehenna, 1183 permanence, link with essential, 123 Feminine imagery depicting God, 547 Form criticism, 83, 84-95, 97, 99 Geisler, Norman, 3 In, 422 Expiation, 810-l 1 Ferguson, John, 632n, 633n Formgeschichte, 85 Geldenhuys, Johannes Norval, 1Ol4n Explicit opportunity, theory of universal, FerrC, Frederick,48n, 50n, 132n, 133,134, Form of expression (in contrast to essence Genealogies, 124,200 1016-17 141-46, 148, 149 of truth), 119, 120, 121, 124, 259 General Assembly (Presbyterian), 1076 Expressive language, 49, 131-32 FerrC, Nels, 77,297n, 608n, 719n, 1018-20, “Form” of God, 689-90, 734-35 General Association of Regular Baptists, Extent of salvation, 891, 1015-22 1021,1235n Forms. See Ideas, Platonic 979 Extrabiblical sources of illumination, Fetus, status of the, 553-56 Fosdick, Harry Emerson, 109-10, 111, General revelation, 72-73,80, 153-74, 72-73 Feuerbach, Ludwig, 194 123, 524,74On, 1175, 1176n 176-77,186,257,305, 1016; loci of, Extreme unction, 1009 Fiat creationism, 479-80 Fowler, James, 591 154-55; reality and efficacy of, 156-7 1; Eyewitnesses, 92, 93, 94 Fichte, Johann, 42n France, R. T., 82n, 101 and human responsibility, 171-73; Ezorsky, Gertrude, 43n Fideism, 146,228 Frankl, Viktor, 115 1, 1152n implications of, 173-74 “Filioque” controversy, 852 Freedom: tenet of existentialism, 46; of Gentiles, ministry to, 543-45 Fairbairn, Patrick, 442n F&on, Floyd V., 1203n God, 278,351-52, 359; human, 355, Genuineness of God, 289-90 Faith, 68-69, 172-73, 872, 890, 934, Final cause, explanations in terms of, 138 357-61, 397-98, 429, 468-69, 921, 927, Geology, 380 938-42, 1010-l 1; as assent and trust, Final judgment, 1000, 1200-04, 1220, 991; moral, limited by social realities, “Germ theory” of sin, 429 191, 193-94; baptism as an act of, 1101; 1235-36; subjects of the, 1202-03 653-54; tension between finitude and, Geschichte, 99, 104,123,665,669,717, and evidence, 941; in existential Final position within progressive 585-87, 599 718 theology, 897-98; and healing, 405, revelation as criterion of permanence, Freewill,415-16,423-24,632-33,909-10, Gess, Wolfgang Friedrich, 770n 838-39; and history, 662-75, 717-18; 123-24 912,917 Gibbon, Edward, 703n implicit, 1092, 1100; and reason, Final states, 1225-41 Freud, Sigmund, 34,464-65, 1126 Gibson, Edgar C. S., 775n 103-04, 673-74, 941; and revelation, Finiteness: of man, 247, 377, 491-93; Friedman, Milton and Rose, 469n Gifts of the Spirit, 248,875-82,1037, 940; salvation of Old Testament anxiety of, 585-88, 599 Friedrich, Gerhard, 106 1,1062,1063 1041,1054-55,1056 believers by, 976, 980; the connection Finitism, 414-17 Friend, Jesus as, 292-93 Gilkey, Langdon, 74,109,180,186,375n, between the accounts incorporated in ,Fink, Eugen, 2 18 Friendship with God, 964,975 376n, 378-79,47On, 629-30,653n, 899n, Scripture and, 89-90; spectacles of, 171, Finnegan, Ruth, 92n Fruit of the Spirit, 875,882,945,970,982, 1057n 256; vicarious, 1092, 1100; and works, Finney, Charles G., 972n, 973n 996,1039 Gill, Jerry H., 58n, 135 959-60, 1012-15 Fish, miraculous catch of, 407,408 Fuller, Daniel, 223n, 255-56,777n Gingrich, E Wilbur, 649n, 998n Faith and Order, 1139 Fiske, John, 305n Fuller, Reginald, 103, 108n, 325n, 690, Glorification, 905,985,997-1002 Faithfulness, 267, 291-92, 296-97; Flesh: 525-29,579,598,604,708,712,714, 703n Glory of God, 78,373,998,1229; as the exhortations to, 990 808; life in the, 875; the new birth as Full inerrancy, 222,234 supreme objective, 288,300,352 Faith Theological Seminary, 1140, 1141 death to the, 944; works of the, 578,627 Functional analysis, 49-50,133-35 Glory of heaven, 1229 Fall of man, 170, 176, 427-28, 582, 585, Fletcher, Joseph, 298, 465 Functional Christology, 698-703 Glossolalia, 855-56,877-82, 1054 586, 588, 612-13, 650, 655, 836, 837; Flew, Antony, 131, 136, 357n, 424, 530 Functionalism, 56 Gnosticism, 1197 coincident with creation (Tillich), Flexibility, 1068 Functional subordination, 338 Gnostics, Valentinian, 753n 589-90 Flight from reality, 616 Functional view of the image of God, God: acts of, as permanent element in Family influences fostering evil, 654 Flood, 189; theory, 380-81, 382 508-10,511-12,513,514 Christianity, 108-09; acts of, as modes Farr, E K., 486n Florence, Council of, 1180 Functions of Christ, 762-69 of special revelation, 18 l-87; anger of, Farrer, A. M., 1073n Florovsky, Georges, 1026 Fundamentalism, 65,251,304,1142 604-05,809-l 1,817-18; attributes of, Farrer, Austin, 1232n Focus, 215-16 Futurism, 115 1 182-83,263-300,302,353; as authority, Father: deity of the, 324, 337; as Creator, Foerster, Werner, 369 Futuristic view of eschatology, 1 154 244; beatific vision of, 1228; 366, 371-73 Footwashing, 118, 122 benevolence of, 292-94; breath of, Fathers, church, 258 Forbearance of God. See Persistence of Gabler, Johann Philipp, 24,70,71 302-03,374; constancy of, 274,278-g 1, Fcdcral headship, 635, 637 God Gabriel, 44 1,444 299; dependability of, 279,299; Feeling: as the essencca of religion, 19, Force, 242-43 Gadamer, Hans-Georg, 68 displacement of (essence of sin), 580; 855; language expressing, 13 l-32 Foreknowledge, 355-56,360,912,920,926 Gacbelein, A. C., 837n doctrine of, and the doctrine of the Feigl, Herbert, 49 Forensic righteousness, 955-59 Gandhi, Mahatma, 657 atonement, 782,802; doctrine of, and Feinberg, Charles L., 1218n Foreordination, 346, 360, 908, 920, 926. Gap theory, 380,382 the doctrine of sin, 562; essence of, Feinberg, John, 412-13, 422,424n, 427 See ulso Calvinism Gardc>ner, parable ot’thtt, 130-3 I, 136, 139 265-66; ctcrnity of, 267,271,318, 1282 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1283

337-38; existence of, 30-33,4 1,158-63, Good: definition of, 402; reevaluation of Griffin, David Ray, 51 n, 279n, 280n, 370 Headship, Adam’s, 635-38 171,271-72;faithfulnessof,267,291-92, what constitutes evil and, 425-27 Gromacki, Robert Glenn, 878n Healing, physical, 836-41 296-97; feminine imagery applied to, Goodall, Jane, 485 Grotius, Hugo, 789-92 Heaven, 1179,1226-34,124l; degrees of 547; freedom of, 278,351-52,359; Goodall, Norman, 1139n, 1140n Ground of being, 307-09 reward in, 1233-34; knowledge in, 1228, genuineness of, 289-90; glory of, 78, Goodness: of God, 78,267,277,283-300, Group of believers, the Gospels as 1233; life in, 1229-31; nature of, 288,300,352,373; goodness of, 78,267, 401-02,412,414,417-19; of creation, products of the, 90 1228-29; perfection in, 1232-33; 277,283-300,401-02,412,414,417-19; 375-76 Group sin. See Social dimension of sin physical pleasures and, 1228, 1232; as a grace of, 294-95; greatness of, 78,173, Good news. See Gospel Growth in heaven, no need for, 1232-33 place, 123 l-32; remembrance in, 1233; 267-81; as ground of being, 307-09,588; Goodspeed, Edgar, 94 Guardian angels, 435,445 as a state, 1231-32; the term, 1226-27 heaven as the presence of, 1228; hell as Goodwin, D. W., 654n Guilt, 563,576-77,585,605-07,634,896, Hebblethwaite, Brian, 681 the absence of, 1235; holiness of, 267, Good works, 960,1012-15 904,954; imputation of Adam’s, 635, Hebert,A. G., 810,1070n, 1074n 284-86,318,802,816,818,821; image Gordon, Cyrus, 82n 638-39,915 Hebrew and Greek mentalities, 525-29, of, 72,173,294,329; immanence of, Gore, Charles, 733n, 771n Gundry, Robert, 102n, 1221n, 1222n, 699,701 116,273,301-13,316,318-19,393;478, Gospel: as the heart of the church’s 1223n Hegel, Georg, 41-42,45,159,268,363, 678,680,681,741; immensity of, 273; ministry, 1059-67; defense of the, Gunther, Walther, 568n, 570n 679,1243 “inabilities” of, 277-78; 1064-65; spread of the, as the major Gunton, Colin, 303n Heidegger, Martin, 45,46n, 370,469x-t, incomprehensibility of, 180,266,338; tenet of postmillennialism, 1207 Gutbrod, W., 976n 895-96, 1160 independence of, 27 l-72,303; infinity Gosse, Philip H., 381n Guthrie, Donald, 1109n, 1210n Heilsgeschichte, 108,204,669,699-700, of, 267,272-78; integrity of, 289-92; Gottschalk, 911 Gutierrez, Gustavo, 591,657n, 892n, 702 justice of, 288-89,295,297-98; Government: church, 1069-87; 1004,1006 Heim, Karl, 391-92,404n knowledge of, 180,181,267,275-76, providence as, 388,389n, 394-405 Heinecken, Martin, 315,316n 280; lifeof,271-72,289; loveof, 180, Governmental theory of the atonement, Habel, Norman C., 82n Hell,432, 1018-19,1178,1234-41; descent 266,267,280,292-98,347,390,767, 788-92,820-21 Hades, 1183; descent into, 773-76 into, 773-76; degrees of punishment in, 817-18,821,832; magnificence of, 78; Govett, Robert, 1223n Haering, Theodore, 1150n 1240 man as clue to the nature of, 456; mercy Grace, 633,928; cheap, 74,938; Hahn, Traugott, 1206n Helm, Paul, 534-35,1184 of, 266,267,295-96; misconceptions continuance of the Christian life by, Ham, 542-43 Helpmeet, 546 concerning, 263-64; name of, 269; 977; as that which unites man with Hamilton, Floyd, 1213n Hendriksen, William, 1213n omnipotence of, 266,276-78,318,400, God, 164; of God, 294-95; irresistible, Hamilton, William, 114-l5,116n, 309, Hendry, George, 33 1 412,413-17; omnipresence of, 266,267, 914; Judaism’s emphasis on works and, 901n Henley, William Ernest, 469 273,318; omniscience of, 275-76,280, 977; and nature, 902; in the Old Handy, Robert, 1145 Henry, Carl, 54,62,240,655n, 755n, 290; oneness of, 323-24,337,341; Testament, 982; paradox of, 733-34; Hannah, 115 1141n persistence of, 296-97; personal nature prevenient, 634,914,920,925,931; Hanson, Stig, 1131n, 1133 Heraclitus, 5 1 of, 139-40,177-78,268-71,310,347; salvation by, 959-60, 1181; sanctifying, Hare, R. M., 136 “Hermeneutical circle,” 1004-05 power of, 267,276-78,347; purity of, 1044 Harmonistic approach, 230-3 1,233 Hermeneutics, 257 284-89; righteousness of, 286-88; lack of Graham, Billy, 437n Harmonization, moderate, 23 1 Herrmann, Wilhelm, 163 self-centeredness in, 287-88,293-94; Grant, Robert, 92 Harnack, Adolf von, 22n, 90,‘111,124, Herzog, Frederick, 3 17n sin’s effects on man’s relationship with, Gratsch, Edward J., 1073n 163,663-64,684n, 685,747,767n, 1156, Hewitt, Thomas, 993n 602-15; and space, 268,273-74,313-14; Gray, Robert M., 552n 1157n, 1207n Hick, John, l41,417n, 422,677n, 680n, spirituality of, 266,267-68,273; as Great Commission, 12 1,273,329, Harris, C., 1175n 1199n starting point of theology, 30-33; and 1052-54,1055 Harris, R. Laird, 805n, 1074n, 1077n, Hierarchy, 435 time, 274-75; transcendence of, 116, Greatness of God, 78,173,267-81 1078n, 1082n Hinduism, 269,362 120,178,247,273,275,280,301-02, Great tribulation, 1190-92,1193,1206, Harrison, Everett, 82n, 23 1,232,233, Hippolytus, 332 303,307,310,312-19,478,695,713, 1211-12;viewsofthe, 1217-24 240n Hirsch, E. D., 235n 722,74 1; uniqueness of, 284,323-24; Greek and Hebrew mentalities, 525-29, Harrison, Norman B., 1223n Hiscox, Edward T., 1079n, 1082n, 1096n unity of, 323-24,337,341; the 699,701 Harrison, Roland K., 82n Historical authoritativeness, 217,259 Unknown, 314; veracityof,290-91; as Green, Michael, 1052n Hartshorne, Charles, 5 1,52,53,159,280 Historical criticism, 83-84 victim of evil, 432; wisdom of, 275-76, Greenslade, S. L., 1074n Hatch, Edwin, 807n Historical events: revelation as, 63; as 277 Gregory of Nazianzus, 335,434,795,851 Hatred of sin, God’s, 602-05 permanent element in Christianity, “God in Revolution” (Moltmann), 1006 Gregory of Nyssa, 335,336,521,793, Hauck, A., 73 In 108-09; as modes of special revelation, Gogartcn, Friedrich, 670 794-95 Hawthorne, Gerald, 102n 181-87,228 Golden Rule, 111 Gregory the Great, 795,796 Headlam, Arthur C., 957n. 958 Historical references in the Bible, 222-23, Gonzalez, Justo and Catherine, 590n, 592, Grensted, L. W., 789n, 796n, 797n Head of the church, Christ as the, 1037, 227,237 893,894n, 895 Crier, W. J., 1213n 1132-33 Historical theology, 25-27,71, 118, 125 1284 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1285

Historical view of eschatology, 1154 Hope, 115 1; of the gospel, 1065-66; modern movcn~~~nts emphasizing, Inferences drawn by biblical writers, 183 Historie, 99,104,123,665,717,718 theology of, 264,275,316-17,1161-62 304-10; implicationsof, 31 l-12 Infinite value of the atonement, 822,826 History: and Christology, 662-75; cyclical Hordern, William, l13,117n, l29,134n, Immanent attributes, 266 Infinity (attribute of God), 267,272-78 view of, 27,362; the early church’s 137-40,149,193n, 194n, 239,766n, Immediacy in creation of man, Influential presence, 1119, 1122 interest in, 91-92; as locus of general 940n, 1059n conservative emphasis on, 477-78 Infralapsarianism, 826,918 revelation, 154-55; God’s governance Horne, Charles M., 934n, 963n, lOOOn Immensity of God, 273 Infusion of love, 852 of, 277,395-96 (see also Providence); Howard, Wilbert Francis, 957n Immersion, 1095,1097,1104-05 Inheritance, glorification as, 999 identifying, with God’s working, 163, Hubbard, David, 224n Imminence of the second coming, Iniquity, 572. See also Sin 3 10,404; and providence, 388; Hughes, James A., 1214-15 1192-94,1219-20,1223 “Inner light,” 1083 revelation in, 182-83,189; revelation Human action and God’s plan, 353-61, Imminent posttribulationism, 1223-24 Insecurity, efforts to overcome, 586 through, 183-86; revelation as, 186-87, 403 Immortality, 109-10; conditional, 613, Insensitivity, 6 17- 18 692; various understandings of, 362-63 Humanism, Christian, 516 1237; contingent, 1171; of the soul, 524, Inspiration, 94, 187-88,199-220,225,230, Hitler, Adolf, 44,163,310,1244 Humanity: essential, 456,506,514,721, 525,530,537,1175-76 232,848; definition of, 199-200; fact of, Hitzig, Ferdinand, 167 736; importance of the doctrine of, Immutability. See Constancy of God 200-03; issues in formulating a theory Hodge, A. A., 208 455-62; of Jesus, 29,190,376,506,698, Impassibility, divine, 7 13,737 of, 203-06; theories of, 206-07; method Hodge, Charles, 208,436,742n, 766n, 705-38,752,753,755,770-72,778,804; Imperial authority, 242 of formulating a theory of, 207- 10; 828-29,915n, 1076n, 1093n, 1095n, origin of, 473-93; universality of, 541-58 Impiety, 569-7 1 extent of, 210-12; intensiveness of, 1119n, 1120,1208n, 1235n Human nature, God’s power over, 277 Implications of Scripture, 79-80 212-14; modelof,214-20 Hodgson, Leonard, 7 11 Human responsibility, 46,171-73,376, Imputation, 635,638-39,818-19 Instantaneity in creation of man, Hoekema, Anthony, 42 In, 878n 1150n, 419 “Inabilities” of God, 177-78 conservative emphasis on, 477-78 1176-77,1213n Human will and God’s plan, 353,355 Inability, total, 915,925,933,942 Instantaneous resurrection, 118 1-83 Hoekendijk, 3. C., 1051n Hume,David, 161-62,408n,412 Inattention, 567 Institution as permanent element in Holiness, 967-69; of God, 267,284-86,318 Humiliation of Christ, 769-76 Inauthentic existence, 46,469,896-98, Christianity, 108 Holm, Bernard, 852n Humility, 122,894 1168 Instruction as a function of the church, Holmes, Arthur, 54,58n Husserl, Edmund, 2 18 Incarnation, 116,164,179,190-91,376, 1055-56 Holy orders, 1009 Hymenaeus, 991,995,1197 432,677-81,706,723-38,742,754-55, Instrumentalism, 43-44 Holy Spirit, 245,756,757,845-83; Hypostases, 335-36,337 769-72,797-99; dynamic, 733-34; Integrating motif, 77-78 association of the, with the Father and Hypothetical theory (Heb. 6:4-6), 993-94 continuing, 778 Integrity: of God, 289-92; lack of, 572 Son, 859,860-61; and the Christian, Incommunicable attributes, 266 Intellectual structures, evil effects of, 970; the church as the temple of the, Idealism, 54-55; personal, 415 Incomprehensibility of God, 180,266,338 653-54 1039-4 1; and churches without Idealist view of eschatology, 1154 Independence: in doing theology, 65-66; Intention of writer, 234-35 governmental structure, 1083; and Ideal language philosophy, 49 of God, 27 l-72,303 (see also Intercessory ministry, Jesus’, 706,769, creation, 371-73; deity of the, 326-27, Ideal-time theory, 381,382 Transcendence) 827-28,833 337,849-51,857-59,862 (see also Three- Ideas: importance of, 1243-44; Platonic, Individual as the unit of morality, 656 Intercessory role of the Spirit, 874-75 in-oneness); equality of the, with the 41,254,374,375 Individual eschatology, 997, 1155, Interconnectedness of believers, 1037 Father and Son, 338,859; eternality of Identity: of man, 471,488,53 1,534; in the 1167-84,1194,1225 Interdependence, 279 the, 858; fruit of the, 875,882,945,970, resurrection, personal, 1199,1233 Individualism as source of sin, 593-95, Intermediate state, 525,527,536-38, 982,996, 1039; gifts of the, 644,836, Ideological theologians, 591-92 599 1174-84,12 14- 15. See also Disembodied 875-82,1037,1041,1054-55,1056; Ideologies, evil effects of, 654 Individualistic approach to the church, existence indwelling of the, 874,1039,1040-41; Idols,268,271,290,323,324,372,378 1045-46 Intermittent nature of inspiration, 211-12 nature of the, 857-62; omniscience of Ignatius, 714,747-48 Individuality (tenet of existentialism), International Council of Christian the, 858; personality of the, 859-62; Ignorance, 564-65,566,710-l 1; regarding 45-46 Churches, 1140 person of the, 845-63; power of the, 858, the virgin birth, 748-52 Inductive approach, 204 International Missionary Council, 1140 1039-40; relationship of Christ and the, I-it relationship, 192,196 Indwelling of the Spirit, 874,1039, Interpretation: of Scripture, 68, 70, 71, 952; and Scripture, 853,859,867; work Illness, 836-4 1 1040-4 1 257; distinguished from the message, of the, 94, 148,199,206-07,211-12,215, Illumination, 41, 148,247,249,252-56, Inerrancy, 101,22 l-40; various 118; as special revelation, 188-90 218,247-52,255-58,766,779,846, 874,931; extrabiblical, 72-73; theory, conceptions of, 222-24; importance of, Interpretics, 143 858-59,860,865-83,931,941,945,952, 206 225-29; and phenomena, 229-33; Interpretive motif, central, 77-78 970,1039-41,109l Image: of Christ, 970; of God, 72,173,294, definition of, 233-38 Intransitive attributes, 266 Homoiolrsios-homootlsios, 697, 703 329,47 1,495-5 17,737 Infallibility,papal, 1072 Intuition theory, 206 Honesty, 290-91 ImmanenceofGod, 116,273,301-13,316, Infant baptism, 1009, 1091-92, lOY3-95, Inverted theology, 300 Hook-and-bait imagery, 794-95 318-19,393,478,678,680,681,741, 1100, 1102-04 invisibility of God, 267-68 Hooker, M. D., 103n 1027-28; biblical basis for, 302-03; Infants, status or, 637-39 lnvisiblc church, 1043-48, 1083, 1135 Name and Subject Index 1286 Name and Subject Index 1287

KBhler, Martin, 664-65,7 17 LaBerge, Agnes N., 855n Irenaean theodicy, 422 as priest, 769, 772, 783, 812, 827, 833 Kaiser, Walter, 235n Ladd, George E., 82n, 89n, 91n, 687n, 701, Irenaeus, 500, 714,747, 793,849, 1209 (see also Atonement); as prophet, Kant, Immanuel, 19,42n, 112,155,159, 766n,809,810,931,940n,941n,942n, Irrationalism (tenet of existentialism), 45 763-67,772; reconstructions of the life 160,177 953n, 955n, 964n, 975n, 976,977,978n, Irreligion, 569-71 of, 22n, 90-91, 111; relationship Karma, 611 1041-42,1043,1189n, 1191,1192n, Irresistible grace, 914 between the Father and, 514, 685-86, Kasemann, Ernst, 60-61,97,665,667,691 1198n, 1210,121 In, 1217n, 1220n, Isaac, 69, 181, 291,402 687-88, 698, 806, 808-09, 8 17; as Kaufman, Edmund G., 1233n 1221n, 1222,1223n, 1224n Israel: and the church, 1042-43, 1046, revelation, 190-91; as the sole Kaufman, Gordon D., 63n Lake, Kirsopp, 65 1048-49, 1163-64, 1211, 1219, 1224; revelation of God (Barth), 164-66; Kaufmann, Walter, 42n, 82n, 103n Lammerts, Walter E., 480n God’s faithfulness to, 291,296; literal sayings of, 85, 86, 88, 97, 101-02, 104; Keil, Carl F., 556 Lang, George H., 1223n (national), 1042-43, 1162, 12 11; as the search for the historical, 60-61, 88, Kelley, Dean M., 1067 Langone, John M., 553n people of God, 543, 1035-36; 663-65; self-consciousness of, 684-88; Kelly, J. N. D., 589n, 633n, 713n,714n, Language: meaning of, 48-49; functions preservation of, 154-55, 181,389; sinlessness of, 208-09, 718-21, 742,. 715n, 716n, 726n, 727n, 729n, 849n, of, 49-50; theology and, 127-49; games, spiritual, 1042-43; unity of Old 755-56; supernaturalness of, 91,246; . 909n 133-34,137; as mark of man, 484, Testament, 1131 teachings of, as basis of Christianity, Kelsey, David, 183 485-86 I-Thou relationship, 139-40,192,196,505, 36-37; temptation of, 598, 720; and Kelsey, Morton, 1230n Last things. See Eschatology 507 women, 547-48. See also Christ Kendrick, Klaude, 855n, 856n Late Great Planet Earth (Lindsey), 1152 Jesus-God and Man (Pannenberg), 668, Kenosis, 735 Jacobs, Paul, 924n, 925n, 926n Latourette, Kenneth Scott, 1066, 1137, 691 Kenoticism, 732-33 James, 745, 1073 1138n Jewett, Paul King, 223, 329n, 545, 1097n Kerygma, 87,91,666,668-69,673-74,747 James, William, 43,44, 55 Laubach, Fritz, 934n, 937n Job, 401 Kierkegaard, S&-en, 45,46-47,104,164, Jaspers, Karl, 45, 1169n Law, 210,288-89; condemnation of the, John, 89 192,315-16,586-87,673,716,896n 821-22; as expression of God’s nature, Jehovah’s Witnesses, 695, 1176, 1189 John XXIII, 1140 Kik, J. Marcellus, 1135n 286-87,802-03; guilt as violation of, Jenkins, W. S., 543n John of Antioch, 728 “Kind,” 383,480 Jepsen, Alfred, 939n 606-07; role of the, 172,975-78; as John of Damascus, 795-96 King, Jesus as, 767-68,772 unifying factor, 1131; upholding of the, Jeremias, Joachim, 104,665,765, John on the virgin birth, silence of, 751 King, Martin Luther, 657 789-92,820-21; violation of universal, 1102-03, 1109n, lllOn, 1183 Johnston, Francis E., 543n Kingdom: and thechurch, 1041-42,1043; 570-71; works of the, 959 Jerusalem, 1053 Jonah, 373,396 ofGod,646,1156,1158,1159,1163, Jesus: as atonement, 298; baptism of, 330, Legalism, 959,978 Jones, Rufus M., 1083n 1226; of God as present reality Legends, 86 335,694,731; complexity of, 738; as the (postmillennialism), 1208; of heaven, Legislative authority, 257,258 content of the gospel, 1061-63; and Jones, William, 542, 591 1163,1226; immanence of the, 1188-89 creation, 371-73; and preservation of Joseph (Old Testament), 181, 361, 389, Legitimacy, questioning of Jesus’, 746-47 Kirk, Kenneth E., 1071n Leibniz, Gottfried von, 358-59,422 creation, 388; crucifixion of, 398,400; 400 Kittel, Gerhard, 67 Levels of meaning, 146-48 in the Death of God theology, 309; deity Joseph (New Testament) as source of Klein, Ralph W., 82n Lewis, Arthur, 98 1,982n of, 324-26, 337,668,669,671, 673, tradition, 744-46 Kleinknecht, Hermann, 976n Lewis, C. S., lO3,155,289n, 408n, 425n, 683-706,714,716,717,723-38,740,753, Joyce, G. C., 391n Knight, G. A. F., 328 432n,465-66,95On, 1232n, 1239n, 1240, 755, 770-72,794, 804; election of, Judaism and belief in a virgin birth, 744, Knowledge: explosion, 62; of God, 180, 1246 922-23; emotions of, 708-09; as the 753 181,267,275-76,280; in heaven, 1233; Lewis, Gordon, 1219n establisher of the Lord’s Supper, 1109; Judas, 230-31, 237-38, 936-37, 991, 995, of Jesus, 709-10,735; medium of, 254; Lex talionis, 555-56 as the first-born of the dead, 1196; as 996 objective and subjective, 895-96; Liberal approach to eschatology, 1156-57, friend, 292-93; of history, 662-75 Judea, 1053 perfect, 1000,1228 1175-76 passim, 717-18; and the work of the Judge, Jesus as, 685,689 KoLvwvia , 1055 Liberalism, 60,113,163,197,205,206, Holy Spirit, 249-50, 870-72; humanity Judgment, final, 1000, 1200-04, 1220, Koornhert , Theodore, 9 13- 14 228,304-06,478,489,522-24,537, of, 29, 190, 376, 506, 698, 705-38, 752, 1235-36; subjects of the, 1202-03 Kraus, Bertram S., 485 663-64,740-4 1,766 753,755, 770-72,778,804; as judge, Judicial authority, 257, 258 Krentz, Edgar, 82n Liberation theology, 590-93,599,657, 685,689,1202; as the key to knowledge Judicial nature of union with Christ, 952, Krienke, Hartmut, 924n, 925n, 926n 889,890,891-95,1004-07 of human nature, 506, 507, 514-15; as 953 Kromminga, Diedrich, 12 12n Liberty of the children of God, 963-64 king, 767-68,772; knowledge of, 709-10, Julian of Eclanum, 633 Kuhn, Harold, 64n Life (attribute of God), 271-72,289 735; liberalism’s view of, 306, 1156; Justice: of God, 288-89, 295, 297-98; the Kuhn, Helmut, 45n Life and Work, 1139 monarchianism’s view of, 333-34; new atonement as a demonstration of Kuiper, R. B., 827,833 Life-span of theologies, 60-61 search for the historical, 665,667-68; as divine, 788-92, 820-2 1 Kiing, Hans, 903-04 Lights displaying God’s glory (Barth), 165 the central point in the doctrine of Justification, 903-04, 954-61, 969, 1008, Kuypcr, Abraham, 203n Likeness: to Christ, 970; of God predestination (Barth), 922-23; 1012-14 Kyle, M. G., 597n (distinguished from the image), 500-01 preexistence of, 685-86, 690, 753, 764; Justin Martyr, 329, 332, 435, 694n, 1209 1288 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1289

Limbus infhntium, 1092, 1179 Lowe, Walter, 888n Marcion, 295 Methodist Episcopal Church, 1136 Limbus patrum, 774,1179 Lower criticism, 83 Marcionism, 713,714 Methodological issue (evangelicals and Limitations: of man, 491-93,653-54; of Luke, 8.5,96 Mark, 85,96,209; on the virgin birth, ecumenism), 1144-45 the incarnate Christ, 735-36 Luther, Martin, 40,77,167,226,501,675, silence of, 750 Michael, 44 1,450 Limited atonement, 826-29,833-35,914, 852,912-13,955,1008,1044,1092, Mark, missing the, 567-69 Michalson, Carl, 1029 918,1016 1104,1113,1114,1117-18 Marriage, 122; supper of the Lamb, 1232 Michel, Otto, 936,937n Limited inerrancy, 222-23 Lutherans, 1078 Marshall, I. Howard, 990n, 992n, 994n, Midtribulationism, 1223 Lindsell, Harold, 222n, 231,1059n, 1144 Lutheran views: of baptism, 1090-93, 1014n Miley, John, 789n, 792 Lindsey, Hal, 1152 1097-l 100,1104; of the Lord’s Supper, Martin, Ralph, 32% Milhaven, John G., 427n Literary-framework theory, 381,382 1117-18,112l; of 1 Peter3:18-19,775 Martineau, James, 206n Mill, John Stuart, 42 Literary-source criticism, 83,84-85,95 Lyell, Charles, 380 Marty, Martin, 1134n Millennium, 1042,1164; views of the, Logic: to all truth, applicability of, 55-56; Lyman, Eugene W., 918n Marx, Karl, 42n, 363,466n, 1243 120517,1220,1224 within creation, 312 Marxism,592,658,1151,1161 Miller, J. Maxwell, 82n Logical empiricism, 135 McClellan, Robert W., 553n Marxsen, Willi, 96,lOZn Miller, Park Hays, 1076n Logical positivism, 49, 128, 131-33, 135, McClintock, Stuart, 40n Mary, 713-14,741,749-50,757; as source Milligan, George, 973n 137,149,228,239 MacCulloch, J. Ai, 545n of tradition, 744-46 Minear, Paul S., 1034n Logos, 334,714,755,765 Macedonians, 85 1 Mascall, Eric, 951n Ministry, conduct of, 462,539,562-63 Logotherapy, 115 1 McGiffert, A. C., 19n, 252n, 747n, 773n, Material aspect of the image of God Miracles, 67,87, 106,107,247,277,304, Lohmeyer, Ernst, 325n, 689-90 940n (Brunner), 503,s 11 318,388,406-09,663,740-41,753-54, Lombard, Peter, 9 12 Machen, J. Gresham, 110-l 1,355n, 747n, Materialism, 54,363 84 1,87 1; purposes of, 409 Longacre, Robert E., 529-30 748,979 Mathematical-type statements, 49,128, Miracle stories, 86,93 Loofs, Friedrich, 727n, 775n Machine, man as a, 463-64,470,471 131 Miscarriage, 554-55 “Lord,” 690-91 McIntire, Carl, 1140 Matter: and form, 525,528; as evil, 713 Missing the mark, 567-69 Lord’s Supper, 1107-27; administrator of Mackintosh, Hugh Ross, 679n, 733n Matthew, 85,94,96 Missionary endeavor and the Calvinistic the, 1113-14,1124; as a McKnight, Edgar V., 82n, 85n, 86n Matthias, 396 doctrine of predestination, 92 1,927 commemoration, 1120,1122-23; Maclean, A. J., 445n Maves, Paul B ., 522n Mitchell, T. C., 487n efficacy of the, 1113,1123-24; elements McNutt, William Roy, 1080n May, Rollo, 308n Mixter, Russell L., 384n of the, 1115,1125-26; establishment of Macquarrie, John, 47n, 63n, l30,773n, Meaning: of language, 48-49; of biblical Moberg, David O., 552n, 656n, 1059n the, by Christ, 1109; frequency of the, 1027 teachings, analysis of, 70; levels of, Modalistic monarchianism, 334-35,336, 1126-27; Lutheran view ofthe, 1117-18, Magnification, 215-16 146-48 337,340 1121;presenccofChristinthe, 1112-13, Magnificence of God, 78 Meaninglessness, accusation of, 128-33, Models, contemporary synthetic, 74-75 1119,1120,1121-23;asaformof Man: age of, 484-87; brotherhood of, 135-49 Modernism, 74, 113 proclamation, 1111; recipients of the, 489-90; constitution of, 519-39; divinity Means of salvation, 1003- 15 Modernized eschatology, 1156-57 1114, 1124-25; Reformed view of the, of (liberalism), 305; doctrine of, and the Mediator (Bnmner), 666 Modernizing, peril of: Jesus, 22; the 111 B-20; necessity of repetition of the, doctrine of the atonement, 783; Medium: of knowledge, 254; of salvation, Bible, 69 1110; restricted to believers, 1112; doctrine of, and the doctrine of sin, 562; conceptions of the, 889-90 Moede, Gerald F., 1071n Rornan Catholic view of the, 111516, finiteness of, 49 l-93; as locus of general Meeting in the air, 1222-23, 1224 Mohammed, 245 1121;assacrifice,1116,1117;asa revelation, 155; greatness of, 493; Melanchthon, Philipp, 37,675 Moltmann, Jiirgen, 62,66,27Sn, 1005-06, spiritual benefit, llll-12,1118; as a identity of, 471,488,531,534; image of Mellert, Robert B., 52n 1152n, 1161-62 symbol of the relationship between God in, 471,495-517,737; images of, Membership, church, 1047-48; degrees of, Monarchianism, 333-35 believers, 1111, 1112; symbolism of the, 462-72; kinship of, with other 903 Monism, 377,421,422,524-27, 1176, 1123-24; Zwinglian view of the, 1120-21 creatures, 488-89; limitations of, Memory as criterion of identity, 531-32, 1177; contingent, 536-39. See also Love: of God, 180,266,267,280,292-98, 49 l-93,653-54; as the measure of truth, 534-3s Dichotomism 347,767,817-l8,821,832;ofGodasa 114,116; uniqueness of, 489; value of, Menninger, Karl, 563n, 6 16 Monotheism, 323-24,337 contradictionofhell, 1018-20, 1235, 471,487-88,490,516.Seealso Mennonites, 1097 Montanism, 851-52 1239-40; of God, atonement as Humanity Mercy of God, 266,267,295-96 Montgomery, John Warwick, 1142,1143n demonstration of the, 767,78588,820; Manducation, 1118 Message distinguished from Moody, Dale, 32,63n, 612n, 741-42,752, as element ofesscntial humanity, Manichaeism, 375,414 interpretation, 118 763,87ln, 990n 514-l 5; inability to, 619; infusion of, Manifestations, the Trinity as three, 333, Metaphysical, view of union with Christ Moon, Sun Myung, 245 852; inseparability from God’s, 3YO; as 337 as, 949 Moore, G. E., 48,128 the cssc~ncc of the law, 977-78; of Manley, G. T., 269n “Metaphysical Club,” 42 Moore, G. F., 977n neighbor, 1058; as an analogy of the Mantey, Julius, 993 Metaphysical synthesis, theological Moral attributes, 267,771 Trinity, 339 Marburg Colloquy, 1 117 languagcas, 141-46 Moral consciousness. awakening of. 584, Lovclact>, Richard, 226n Marcel, Gabriel, 45 Methodist church, 1070, 1071 585 1290 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1291

Moral evil, 412,428 Naturalistic evolution, 478-79 Nordholt, H. G. Schulte, 657n 746n, 793-94,848,849,911,1015,1017, Moral imperative, 155,159 Natural law and the virgin birth, 753-54 Normative authoritativeness, 2 17,259 1018n, 1199n, 1209, 1236n Moral-influence theory of the atonement, Natural laws and miracles, 406-09 Nothing, creation out of, 367-70 Origin: meaning of the term, 473-74; of 767,785-88,815,820 Natural sciences, 72 Novatianism, 852 humanity, 473-93 Moral purity of God, 284-89 Natural selection, 162,478-79 Nowell-Smith, Patrick, 407n Originals, inerrancy of, 239-40 Mormonism, 268,498 Natural theology, 27,32,72,156-71,299, Numbers, problems with, 229-30,236 Original sin, 583,629-39,915, 1091, 1179 Morris, Charles W., 143,144 314 Nygren, Anders, 77 Orr, James, 20,54n, 223n, 232,304n, 711, Morris, Leon, 325n, 685-86,71On, 720, Nature: of Christ, relationship between 741n, 742n, 744n, 848n, 1150 782,810,814,1070n, 1071n, 1074n, study of the work and, 675-77,699-700, Obedience as element of essential Orthodox Presbyterian Church, 1140, 1082n, 1098n, 1227n, 1236n 702-03,762; as locus of general humanity, 5 14 1141 Mortalism, pure, 1237 revelation, 154,156; God’s relation to, Objective dimension of authority, 251-53, Osborne, Grant, 95, 100, 102n Moses, 82-83,184,284,389; Assumption 303; God’s preservation of, 391; God’s 257 Ott, Ludwig, 1044n, 1045n, 1072n, 1073n of, 214,234 governance of, 394-95; and grace, 902 Objective knowledge, 895-96 Ottley, Robert L., 731n Motif, central interpretive, 77-78 Nauta, D., 1045n Objective theories of the atonement, 786, Otto, Rudolf, 19, 318 Mott, John R., 1138 Nearness of God. See Immanence of God 789,791,796 Ousia, 335-37 Mott, Stephen, 649n Necessity concerning the future, sense of, Objective truth, 46,55,104. See also Ozman, Agnes, 855 Motyer, J.A., 1231n, 1233n, 1235n 350 Propositional view of special revelation Moule, Charles, 681n Need met by salvation, conceptions of Objectivism, 55 Packer, J. I., 208n Moulton, James Hope, 957n, 973n the, 889 Objects of salvation, conceptions of the, Paley, William, 247n Moulton, W. F., 840n Negation, method of, 299 891 Palmer, Edwin H., 914n Mouw, Richard J., 648n, 650n Neighbor, love of, 1058 Obsolescence, 105-07 Panentheism, 307 Movement in salvation, direction of, Neill,Stephen,91,677n,681n Ockham, William of, l67,287n, 419,422 Pannenberg, Wolfhart, 62, 186, 228, 890-9 1 Nelson, Herbert J., 51n Oden, Thomas C., 470n 668-71, 672, 691-93, 753, 777n Mowinckel, Sigmund 0. P, 509 Neolithic elements in Genesis 4,486-87 Oehler, Gustave F., 574n, 805n, 939n Pantheism, 303,377, 420, 949 Miiller, Gustav Emil, 42n Neoorthodoxy, 23,24n, 60,114,183-86, Offices of Christ, 762-63 Paradigm-case technique, 134 Mullins, Edgar Y., 267n 191,194,196,197,228,244,252-53, Oldham, Joseph H., 1138 Paradise, 1183 Muncy, W. L., Jr., 935n 525,537,940,1123,1176 Old Testament, inspiration of the, 201-03 Paradox of grace, 733-34 Murch, James DeForest, 1135n, 1141n, Neo-Pentecostalism, 836,856,877 Old Testament believers: salvation of, Paraphrases of the Bible, 117 1142n Neo-Platonism, 375 976,980-82; status of, 1048-49 Pardon, theory of universal, 1017 Murk, James W., 485 Nestorianism, 726-28,730,732,738 Old Testament sacrificial system, 804-06, Parham, Charles, 855 Murray, John, 815n, 817,835,932-33, New birth. See Regeneration 812 “Parish” view of the church, 1046-47 948n, 952,96ln, 987n, 997n New England Fellowship, 1141 Olsen, Roger, 381n Parmenides, 5 1 Mutations, 162,383 New hermeneutic, 64 Omnipotence, 266, 276-78, 318, 400, 412, Hapovala, 1189,1191-92 Mutuality of believers, 1037-38 Newman, Albert Henry, 245n 413-17 Partial rapture, 1223 Mysterium tremendum, 318 New Testament, inspiration of the, 2 11 Omnipresence, 266,267,273, 318 Participle, adverbial, 993 Mystery, 359n; the Trinity as a, 338,341 Nicea, Council of, 695,698,714 Omniscience, 275-76, 280, 290; of the Particular atonement, 826-29, 833-35, See Mystical, view of union with Christ as, Nicholas of Cusa, 82 Holy Spirit, 858 also Limited atonement 950 Nicodemus, 873,943,1098 Oneness: with Christ, 948-54,958-59,960, Particularism, 891 Mythology, incarnation viewed as, 677-81 Nicole, Roger, 222n, 810n 974-75, 988, 1037, 1100-01; of God, Patience of God. See Persistence of God Myths, 86,106,107; and the virgin birth, Niebuhr, H. Richard, 856 323-24, 337, 341 Patripassianism, 335 pagan, 744,752-53 Niebuhr, Reinhold, 47,579,585-88,589, Ong, Walter, 1029 Patte, Daniel, 82n 595,597n, 599 Ontological argument, 159-60, 272 Paul, 169, 212,223, 544-45; on women, Name of God, 269 Nielsen, Kai, 146 Opportunity, theory of universal, 10 16 548, 549; silence of, on the virgin birth, Narrative passages, 69 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 45,116 Oppression as sin, 591, 599, 642 751 National Association of Evangelicals, Nineveh, 279 Oral traditions, 83, 85-87, 92-93, 94, 200 Paul of Samosata, 333-34, 849 1141-42 Noah, 380,542-43,622,775 Orange, Synod of, 911 Paulus, H. E. G., 1109 National Council of Congregational Noetus of Smyrna, 334 Order as principle of church government, Pawn of the universe, man as a, 467-68 Churches, 1139 Nominalism, 287 1085, 1086 Payne, Buckner H., 543n National Council of the Churches of Nonbeing, 370 Orders, holy, 1009 Payne, J. Barton, 1193n, 1224n Christ, 1136, 1140, 1141 Nonbiblical disciplines, illumination Ordinance, baptism as an, 1096 Pearce, E. K. Victor, 486n Natural attributes, 267,771 from, 72-73 Ordinary language philosophy, 49 Pecock, Reginald, 82 Natural evil,412,428 Nongovernment, 1082-83 Ordination, 107 I ; dcgr-ecx of, 1070 Pedcrsen, Johannes, 528 Natural headship, 635-38 Nonpropositional revelation, 191-96,224 Organic unity, 1136-37 Pence, Charles Sanders, 43, 44 Naturalism, 54,304 Nonviolence, 657 ()rigen, I IO, 434, 500, 52 I, 589, 694n, Pelagianism, 61 l-12, 632-33, 635, 784

. _. .._-.. ._... ._.._. . 1292 Name and Subject Index Name arid Subject Index 12Y3

Pelagius, 632-33, 908- 11 Physical death, 611-13, 961, 1169-71, Preceptive will, 417,419 Progressive revelation, 123, 197-98 Pelikan, Jaroslav, 25n, 729n 1172, 1173-74 Precision, degree of, 2 15- 16 Properties, 265 “Penal substitution” (Grotius), 790 Physical pleasures and heaven, 1228, Preconscious, 1126 Prophecy, 210, 1215; fulfilment of, 246, Penal-substitution theory of the 1232 Predestinate, 346 349-50; as the work of the Spirit, 867 atonement. See Satisfaction theory of Pictorial-day theory, 381, 382 Predestination, 907-28; vocabulary of, Prophesying as a function of the church, the atonement Pieper, Franz, 1078n, 1079n, 1090n, 924-25 1056 Penance, 1009 1091n, 1092n, 1113n Pre-Easter claim to authority, Jesus’, Prophet, Jesus as, 763-67, 772 Penelhum, Terence, 531-32, 534 Pietistic approach to the church, 1045-46 669-70, 692 Prophets, authority of, 245 Pentateuchal criticism, 83 Pike, Kenneth, 197,215-16 Preexistence of Jesus, 685-86, 690, 753, Propitiation, 809-11, 812, 817-18 764 Pentecost, 880, 1048 Pinnock, Clark, 91n Propositional view of special revelation, Premillennialism, 1205, 1206, 1209-12, Pentecostalism, 836, 855-56, 877 Piper, Otto, 753n 191-97 1214, 1215, 1216-17 People of God, 903; the church as the, Pittenger, Norman, 5 1 Protestant Episcopal Church, 1139 Presbyterian conception of baptism, 1035-36 Pity of God. See Mercy of God Protevangelium of James, 745 1093-95, 1100, 1104 Perfection, 1000, 1232-33; of God. See Place, heaven as a, 1231-32 Providence, 387-410; as preservation, Presbyterian form of church government, Holiness of God Plan, God’s, 345-63; efficaciousness of, 388-94; as government, 394-405; and 1074-78, 1081, 1086 Perfectionism, 97 l-74 348, 353, 354; all-inclusiveness of, sin, 398-401; and prayer, 405-06; and Presbytery, 1076 Perichoresis, 335 348-49, 353; nature of, 351-54. See also miracles, 406-09 Presence: of Christ in the Lord’s Supper, Permanence: locus of, in Christianity, Providence Psychological oneness, view of union with 1112-13, 1119, 1120, 1121-23; of God, 107-12; criteria of, 120-24. See also Plantinga, Alvin, 413 Christ as, 950-51 heaven as the, 1228 Psychology, 72 Constancy of God Plato, 41, 254, 374n, 375, 713, 1033 Preservation, providence as, 388-94 Psychosomatic illness, 407 Permanent truths, 7 1 Pleasures and heaven, physical, 1228, Presuppositions, 26, 56-57, 66-67, 68, 90 Psychosomatic ministry, 539 Perrin, Norman, 82n, 95,97,99,102n, 103 1232 Preterist view, 1154, 1159 Punishment, 607-I 1, 791; degrees of, in Perseverance, 905, 914, 985-997 Plural: quantitative, 328; of majesty, Pretribulationism, 1191-92, 1206, hell, 1240; eternality of future, 1237-40; Persistence of God, 296-97 328-29 1217-20, 1224 indirect, 610-l 1; liability to, 803, 915, Personal idealism, 415 Plutarch, 752 Preunderstanding, awareness of personal, 954, 961; love of God as contradictory Personalism, 4 15 Plymouth Brethren, 1045, 1083, 1162 26 Personality, human: God as ground of, Pneumatomachians, 851 Prevenient grace, 634, 914, 920, 925, 931 to eternal, 1018-20, 1235, 1239-40 308; as analogy of the Trinity, 339-41 Pohle, Joseph, 775n, 902n, 1007, 1008, Price, George McCready, 38 1 n Purgatory, 1178-8 1 Personal language, theological language 1009n, 1113n, 1116n, 1150n, 1178n, Price, James, 90n, 92, 93n, 94n Purification as central concept of as, 137-40, 149, 194 1179, 1180n, 1228n Price, Robert M., 1059n baptism, 1095 Personal nature: of God, 139-40, 268-71, Poles, 73, 280 Pride, 894, 1245 Purity of God, 284-89 3 10, 347; of God’s government, 402-03; Political activity as religious, 305-06 Priest, Jesus as, 769, 772, 783, 812, 827, Purpose: explanation in terms of, 138; of special revelation, 177-78, 185, Political realities, 653 833. See also Atonement knowledge of God’s, 139; in universe as 191-96 Political reform, 656-57 Priest, Josiah, 542n proof of God (teleological argument), Personal relationship with God, 139-40 Politicized eschatology, 116 l-62 Priesthood of all believers, 122, 1080, 158, 161, 162-63; inerrancy of, 223; Person of Christ, relationship between Poor, biblical teaching on the, 549-51 1084, 1085-86 inerrancy in terms of, 236-37 study of the work and, 675-77,699-700, “Poor God” syndrome, 272 Primordial being, death of the, 116, 309 Purtill, Richard L., 1184 702-03, 762 Pope, 1070, 1072; infallibility of, 242,246 Primordial nature, 280 Perversion, 574-75 Postmillennialism, 1205-09, 1210, 1211, Principalities, 649-50 “Q,” 85, 204 Peter, 94, 212, 286, 296-97, 544, 545, 995, 1212, 1213, 1215, 1216 Probability, 58, 104 Qahal, 103 l-32 1040-4 1 Posttribulationism, 1206, 1217, 1220-23, Process, liberal emphasis on creation of Quakers, 1083 Pfleiderer, Otto, 583 1224; imminent, 1223-24 man as a, 478 Qualitative distinction between God and Pharisees, 184, 197, 202 Power of God, 267,276-78,347 Process of revelation, 185, 196, 198 man, 315-16 Phenomenal language, 222,237 Powers, 648-52 Process philosophy, 51-53, 55, 280, 367, Quantitative plural, 328 Phenomena of Scripture, 204, 208-09, Practical dimension of theology, 22 1232 Quebedeaux, Richard, 856n, 979n 2 14; inerrancy and, 229-33 Pragmatics, 143 Process theology, 264, 279-81, 370 Quenstedt, Johanncs, 436 Phenomenology, 56 Pragmatism, 42-44 Procksch, Otto, 97On, 97ln Question-and-answer approach to Philctus, 991, 995, 1197 Praxeas, 334 Prodigal son, 293 theology, 73, 308 Philipps, J. B., 263, 265 Prayer and providence, 405-06 Product 01 rcvclation, 185, 197 Quest of the Historical Jesus (Schweitzer), Philological definition of the church, Preaching of the Word: as a mark of the Progress: doctrine of, I 157; in heaven, no 664 1030-34 church, 1047; as a function of the need for, 1232-33 Races in the image of God, all, 542-45 Philosophical theology, 27-28 church, 1056 Progrcssi\,c creationism, 367, 383-84, Philosophy and theology, 39-58 Pre-Adamite theory, 486, 487 48 l-84 Racial sin, 427 1294 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1295 Rahner, Karl, 902,903 Relational views of the image of God, Ramm, Bernard, 33n, 178n, 179n, 187n, 502-08,510-11,513-14 persons of the Trinity, 336. See also Sacramental, view of union with Christ l95,196n, 198n, 242n, 251,349n, 382n, Relationship with God: personal, 139-40; General revelation; Special revelation as, 951 408n, 997n, 998n, 999n, 1001,1012n, sin’s effects on, 429,602-15 Revelatory role of Christ, 763-67 Sacramentalism, 889,1007-l 1,1114 1229n Relationship with others, sin’s effects on, Reverence, need for, 3 18 Sacramentalist view of baptism, 1090-93, Ramsdell, Edwin, 54 618-19 Reversal, law of, 400 1097-l 100,1104 Ramsey, Ian, 146-48,681 Relative attributes, 267,771 Revivalism, 855 Sacraments, 1008-10,1144; as a mark of Randall, John Herman, Jr., 43n, 305n, Relevance, 114 Revolution, 657-58,1006 the church, 1047. See also Baptism; 582n, 740 Religion: nature of, 17-21; pragmatism’s Reward in heaven, degrees of, 1233-34 Lord’s Supper; Sacramentalism Ransom, 807,828; theory of the view of, 44; worldwide phenomenon of, Rice, John R., 207n, 978n Sacrifice, 121,123,807,809,811-12,827; atonement, 792-96,797,821-22 174 Richards, Le Grand, 498n the Lord’s Supper as, 1116,1117; Old Rapture, 1190-92,1218,1219,1220,1222; “Religion, Revelation, and the Future” Richardson, Alan, 123 1 n Testament, 71,804-06,812 partial, 1223 (Moltmann), 1005 Ridderbos, N. H., 381n, 382n Salmond, S. D. F., 1234n Rashdall, Hastings, 785-86 “Religionless Christianity,” 900 Right and wrong, 287,419 Salvation, 29,172-73,317-18,352,757, Rast, Walter E., 82n Religious form of the problem of evil, 413 Righteousness: forensic, 955-59; of God, 887-1022; conceptions of, 887-905; Rationalism, 854,1066 Remedial nature of special revelation, 286-88; imputation of Christ’s, 635, continuation of, 967-83; completion of, Rationalist theodicy, 422 176-77 638-39,818-19 9851002; extent of, 891,1015-22; and Rauschenbusch, Walter, 112,306n Remission and satisfaction, 791-92 Right hand, session at the Father’s, 779 God’s grace, 295; history, 204,699-700, Raven, J. H., 866n Remonstrants, 829,989 Ritschl,Albrecht, l9,112,163,585,817n, 702; means of, 1003-15; objective Realism, 55,287 Renan, Ernest, 663 1156 aspects of the beginning of, 947-65; of Realistic headship, 635-38 Repeated reproduction, 92 Robber Synod, 729 Old Testament believers, 976,980-82; Reality, flight from, 6 16 Repentance, 872,934,935-38,941-42, Robertson, A. T., 249n, 813-14 doctrine of sin and the doctrine of, 562; Realized eschatology, 1158-59 946; and baptism, 1099 Roberts-Thomson, E., 1145 subjective aspects of the beginning of, Reason, 157-58,255-57; as means of Representative language, 13 1 Robinson, D. W. B., 1098n 929-46; by works, 633,118 1 establishing the divine origin of the Reprobation, 346 Robinson, H. Wheeler, 526-27,528 Samaria, 1053-54 Bible, 246-47; emphasis on, 854; and Responsibility, human, 46, 171-73,376, Robinson, John A. T., ll4,313n, 525-29, Samarin, William J., 879n faith, 103-04,158,673-74,941; viewed 419 901,1236n, 1239 Samaritan woman, 401 astheimageofGod,499,501,512;need Rest in heaven, 1229-30 Robinson, William Childs, 691,701n Sanctification, 256,853,875,903,905, to naturalize, 672 Restlessness, 575-76,618 Rogers, Jack, 26n, 223n 945,967-74,1008; complete or Rebellion, 572-73 Restoration, theory of universal, 1017-18 Rohde, Joachim, 97n incomplete, 971-74; in the Old Rebirth. See Regeneration Restorationism, 1236 Roman Catholic Church, 82,853, 1070, Testament, 982 Reconciliation, 8 14- 15,963; theory of Results of sin, terms emphasizing, 575-77 1071,1072 Sanctifying grace, 1008,1044 universal, 1017 Resurrection, 29,123,186,223,612, Roman Catholic conceptions: of Sanday, William, 957n, 958 Reconciling role of Christ, 768-69. See 670-71,691-93,718,755n, 776-77,783, authority, 245,246; of baptism, Sandys-Wunsch, John, 24n also Atonement 1194-1200; of the body, 109-10,524, 1090-92, 1097-l 100,1104; of the Santayana, George, 27 Redaction criticism, 83,95-102 525,531,536-38,1175-76,1181-82, church, 90 l-03,1044; of the Lord’s Sarah, 115,276,291 Redaktionsgeschichte, 96 1195,1196-99,123l; instantaneous, Supper, 1115-16,112l; of permanent Sargent, William, 879n Redlich, Basil, 85n, 86n, 90n 1181-83; of unbelievers, 1200 element in Christianity, 108; of 1 Peter Sartre, Jean-Paul, 45,46,48,468,1065 Redpath, Henry A., 807n Resurrections: two, 1210-l 1,1214-15, 3:18-19,774-75; ofpurgatory, 1178-81; Sasse, Hermann, 644n Reform, 656-57,658 1216-17,1223; three, 1218,1224 of salvation, 889,901-04,979,1007-l 1 Satan, 400-01,428-29,44ln, 448-49, Reformed conception: of baptism, Retribution, 791; punishment as, 608-09 Romanticism, 854 450-51,645,648,793-95,797,798, 1093-95,1100,1104; of the Lord’s Revelation, 673,762; accommodated, Ross, Alexander, 10 14n 821-22, 1206-07 Supper, 1118-20 223-24; amillennial interpretation of Ross-Hinsler, F., 75n Satisfaction and remission, 791-92 Reformed system of church government, the Book of, 12 13; Barth’s view of, 508, Rostow, Walt W., 892n Satisfaction theory of the atonement, 1076 7 17; Christ’s coming with the saints in Rutinus, 795 790,791,796-99; objections to the, Regeneration, 171,249,256,600,655-56, the, 1190-92; of the dead, 1182; and Rule of Christ, 767-68 8 1 S- 19; in relation to the other theories, 658,873,905,932-33,942-46,954,988; faith, 940; as historical events, 63; as Ruling elder, 1077 8 19-22; implications of the, 822-23 baptismal, 1090, 1097-98,1099-l 100; history, 186-87,692; in history, 182-83, Russell, Bertrand, 48, 128,467 Saul, 990-9 1,995 and the Old Testament believer, 980-81 189; through history, 183-86; Ryrie, Charles C., 1163n Sayers, Dorothy, 5 15 Rehabilitation, punishment as, 609 distinguished from inspiration, 200; Sayings of Jesus, 85,86,88,97, 101-02, Reichenbach, Bruce, 530-3 l,533n, 538 liberal definition of, 305; progressive, 104 Reign of God, 112 123,197-98; as self-manifestation of the Sabatier, Auguste, 207n Schaeffer, Francis, 48n, 74, 155,378n Rejection of authority, 619 personal God, 138; as basic source of Sabbath, 685 Schaff, Philip, 730n “Relational theology,” 889 theology, 53; as one action of the three Sabellius, 334 Schanz,Paul,Zl In Sacerdotalism, 1114,11!6,1117 &helling, Fricdrich, 42n. 1201 12% Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index I297

Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 19,60,304, 1188-89; physical nature 01. the, I 1 Xc); Shelton College, I 140 Smart, James, 23n 305,306n, 475,578,676,803,854-55 unexpected nature of the, 1190, 12 19; Shema, 323 Smeaton, George, 869n Schlick, Moritz, 49, 128 unity of the, 1190-92; visible nature of Sheol, 524,774 Smith, Charles Ryder, 498n, 566n, 567n, Schmid, Heinrich, 854n, 1046n, 1047n the, 1189-90 Sic et non (Abelard), 157 568,57On, 571,572n, 573n, 574n, 576n, Schmidt, Karl, 1031,1033 Second death, 1170,1214 Sickness, physical, 836-4 1 603,604n, 608,624,625n, 626 Schoen, Barbara, 46 1 n Secularism, 74 Significant comparison, 134 Smith, Henry Preserved, 230,232 Scholarship as a function of the church, Secularization in evangelical circles, 979 Sign of the covenant, baptism as a, Smith, William, 380 1056 Secular theology, 116,898-901 1093-95,1100,1104 Smith, W. Robertson, 306,740 Scholasticism, 299,500,675; Protestant, Security, man’s attempt to gain, 897-98 Signs: of the second coming, 1190; theory Snaith, Norman, 509 854,940 Seebass, Horst, 969n of, 143 Snowden, James, 1168n Scholz, Heinrich, 35 Seeley, Paul H., 484n, 486n Silence on the virgin birth, 748-52 So-Called Historical Jesus and the Historic Schrenk, Gottlob, 957, 1201n Segundo, Juan Luis, 1004-05 Simon, Ulrich, 1230n, 1232n Biblical Christ (KZhler), 664-65 Schuller, Robert H., 563n Selby, Henry A., 543n Simpson, A. B., 836,838-39 Social action as religion (liberalism), Schweitzer, Albert, 664, 1158-59,1188n Self-centeredness, 287-88,618; God’s lack Sin, 904,905; Jesus’ claim to forgive, 305-06 Schweizer, Eduard, 867n, 871n of, 287-88,293-94 684-85; consequences of, 288,960-61, Social being, man as a, 470 Science: theology as, 33-36; natural, 72; Self-consciousness of Jesus, 684-88 1173-74; views of the cure for, 599-600; Social concern as a function of the behavioral, 72,378; and theology, 367, Self-deceit, 6 17 denial of, 6 16- 17; difficulty of church, 1057-59 378-79; creation doctrine and, 378-84, Self-esteem, 1066 discussing, 563-64; effects of, 170,173, Social dimension of sin, 590-93,6 18- 19, 386,478-84; and providence, 388 Self-examination beforc the Lord’s 176-77,247,255-56,428; essential 64 l-58; difficulty of recognizing, Scientific advance as background of Supper, 1111,1112,1116,1124 nature of, 577-80; in general, evil in 642-43; strategies for overcoming the, secular theology, 899 Selfishness, 287-88,643; viewed as the .general as result of, 427-29; specific evil 655-58 Scientific data and biblical teaching, essence of sin, 579-80 as result of specific, 430-3 1; extent of, Social-gospel movement, 890,1208 378-84,386,478-84 Self-orientation, 896-98 621-25; “germ” theory of, 429; and Social righteousness, 112 Scientific language, limitations of, Semantics, 143 God’s will, 361; God as “cause” of, 361, Society, doctrine of sin and the problems 137-38,149 Semantics of‘Biblica1 Language (Barr), 399,418-19; asseekingtobe of, 563 Scientific method, 34 527,701 independent from God, 377,432; and Socinians, 509, 1176 Scientific refcrenccs in the Bible, 222-23, Semi-Arians, 697,703 God’s governing activity, 398-401; Socinian theory, 783-85,79 1,8 19-20 227,237 Semi-Pelagianism, 911 inescapability of, 972; intensiveness of, Socinus, Faustus, 783,784n, 785n, 8 16n Scientific-type statements. S~>CJ Synthetic Sense data, verifiability by, 49,128-32, 625-31; magnitude of, 621-39; man’s Socinus, Laelius, 783 statements 137 responsibility for, 376; methods of Sociological definition of the church, Scoficld Rcfcrence Bible, 1 162, 1 163n Sensuality, 587; viewed as the essence of studying, 564; offering, 568,576,812; 1030 opportunity for, 598; original, 583, Scotland, Church of, 1103 sin, 578-79 Socrates, 48 Scott, Jack B., Y39n Sententia Remonstrantium, 989 629-39,915, 1091,1179; racial, 427; Siiderblom, Nathan, 1139 relationship between doctrine of, and Scripture: as the starting point of Separation, 978-80 Son of God, 687-88 other doctrines, 562-63; results of, theology, 32-33; as the primary source Seraphim, 440,442 Son of man, 693,726 601-19; and sickness, 838-39; as of theology, 36-37; as revelation, 196-98; Serial remembering, 92-93 “Son of Mary,” 746,750 sickness, 625,786; social dimension of, didactic material and phenomena Sermon on the Mount, 111 “Sons of God,” 442-43 590-93,618-19,641-58; source of, illuminating the nature of, 209; Servanthood, sense of, 108 1 Sophocles, 1065 58 l-600; terms for, 564-77; universality establishing the meaning and divine Serve, willingness to, 1067-68 Soul, 520-39 passim; glorification of the, origin of, 246-47; as objective Service in heaven, 1230-3 1 of, 583,585,621-25; venial, 1179,llBO; 1000; .immortality of the, 1175-76; victory over, the atonement as, 792-96, authority, 251-53,256-57; authority of, Session, 1076 origin of the, 481,554,635; sleep, 797,821-22.SeealsoEvil 853 Session at the Father’s right hand, 779 1176-78 Sinfulness, 491,578,579,626; denial of, Sea, molten, 222,231,236 Setting as criterion of permanence, Souls, disembodied, 12 14- 15 593-94 Seal : of t hc covenant, baptism as a, universal, 121-22 Source, error in original, 23 l-32 Singleness, 556-58 1093-95, I 100, 1104; the Lord’s Supper Seventh-day Adventism, 1176-77,1238n Source criticism, 83,84-85,95 Sinlessness: of Jesus, 208-09,7 18-2 1,742, as a, 1 1 19 Sexes created in the image of God, both, South India, Church of, 1136 755-56; in this life, possibility of, 910, Starch for the historical Jesus, 663-65; 545-49 Sovereignty of God, 915-l 6, Y28 971-74 IIC’\V, 665, 667-68 Sex in heaven, the question of, 1232 Space, God’s infinity in terms of, 268, Sinner, effects of sin on the, 615-l 8 Sc>cond cial Luke, 85 in~mincncc’ol the. 1 lY2-Y4, 12lY-20, Shaner. Donald W., 548-4’3 Slaves, status of, 124 Special Matthew, 85 1223; illrl~lir~it~~~~ssol the timeol the, Shedd, William G. T., 265n, 298n Sleeper, R. W., 43n SpcL‘cial rcvclation, 3 l-32,72-73,80, I 187-88; pc*r”“nal IIaturt~ of the. Sheep, parable of the one lost, 293,403 12% Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1299

153-54, 165,169-98,305; definition and Sublapsarianism, 360n, 826,829,835,918 Tennant, Frederick R., 582-85, 593, 599 as a factor in evaluating good and evil, necessity of, 175-77; styleof, 177-81; Subordination: of the Son, 514,698,735; Tenney, Merrill C., 1154n 426-27 modes of, 181-91 within the Trinity, functional, 338 Tennyson, Alfred, Lord, 1232n Time dimension: of conversion, 934; of Specificity, degree of, 215-17,236,238 Substance, the Trinity as one identical, Tertullian, 40, 295n, 332-33, 334,335n, eschatology, 1154; of salvation, Spectacles of faith, 171,256 333, 336-37 342, 713n, 714,742n 747,755n, 849, conceptions of the, 888-89 Speculations, 80 Substantive view of the image of God, 851, 908n, 1180 Tindal, Matthew, 854n Speech as special revelation, divine, 498-502, 512, 513 Textual criticism, 83 Todt, Heinz Eduard, 691 187-90 Substitutionary atonement, 805, 807, Thayer, H. S., 42n Token of salvation, baptism as a, 1096-97, Spencer, Duane Edward, 9 14n 809, 812-14, 816-17, 958 Theism, absolute, 416 1101,1104-05 Spencer, Herbert, 363 Suffering as part of union with Christ, Theistic evolution, 383, 480, 481, 482-84 Toland, John, 41n Spinoza, Benedict, 420 954 Thelen, Mary Frances, 593n Tongues, speaking in. See Glossolalia Spirit, 520-24. See also Holy Spirit Summers, Ray, 1214 Theodicies, 413-32; classifications of, 422 Tool-making as mark of man, 484,485 Spirit (breath) of God, 302-03,372 Superchurch, 1145 Theodoret, 728 Topics, stratification of, 78-79 Spiritists, 244 Supernaturalism, 304 Theodotus, 333,334 Torbet, Robert G., 979n “Spirit of God,” 866 Supper of the Lamb, marriage, 1232 Theological form of the problem of evil, Total depravity, 256, 539, 627-31, 656, Spirits, elemental, 645,649 Supralapsarianism, 826, 913, 918 413 803, 822, 905, 914-15, 927, 932 Spiritual body, 1198,123l Surd evil, 415 Theological issue (evangelicals and Total inability, 915, 925, 933, 942 Spiritual death, 612,613-14,1170,1174 Swete, Henry B., 873n ecumenism), 1143 Toussaint, Stanley D., 878n Spirituality of God, 266,267-68,273 Sylvester I, 82 Theologies, life-spans of, 59-61 Tradition: criticism, 83, 95; and Spiritual nature of union with Christ, Symbol, baptism as a, 1096-97, 1101, Theology: aesthetic nature of, 1245-46; authority, 258. See also Oral traditions 952-53 1104-05 dangers associated with the study of, Traducianism, 554, 635 Spiritual unity, 1135, 1146 Symbolic view of eschatology, 1154 1245; definition of, 21-23; inverted, 300; Transcendence, 116, 120, 178,247, 273, State, heaven as a, 1231-32 Symbolism of the Lord’s Supper, 1123-24 and language, 127-49; liberation 275,280, 301-02, 303, 307, 310, 312-19, Stauffer, Ethelbert, 400,665,746n Sympathetic oneness, 950-51 theology’s view of the nature of, 1004; 478, 695, 713, 722, 741; biblical basis Staupitz, Johann von, 912 Synchronic approach to historical need for logical thinking in the study of, for, 312-13; models of, 313-17; Stein, Robert, 684,688n, 1125n theology, 25 1245; method of, 36, 59-80; narrative, implications of, 317-19 Stendahl, Krister, 24 Synergism, 9 11 1246; need for, 28-30; and philosophy, Transformers, 113-16, 1030 Stonehouse, Ned B., 100, 979n Synod, 1076 39-58; schools of, 61; as science, 33-36; Transgression, 57 1 Stories, 86 Syntactics, 143 and science, 367,378-79; starting point Transitions: in the Gospels, 85; in Strahan, James, 945n Synthesis, theological language as of, 30-33; systems of, 61. See also language usage, 134 Stratification: of topics, 78-79; of forms, metaphysical, 141-46 Biblical theology; Historical theology; Transitive attributes, 266 86-87, 93, 95 Synthetic statements, 49, 128-32 Systematic theology Translations, inerrancy and, 239-40 Strauss, David, 663, 1109 Systematic theology, 21, 22-28, 109; Theonomist theodicy, 422 Translators, 113, 116-20 Stringfellow, Thorton, 542n impediments to, 62-63 Theophanies, 268 Transubstantiation, 43, 1115-16, 1117 Strong, Augustus H., 30, 207n, 266n, Systematized eschatology, 1162-64 Theotokos, 727 Traub, Helmut, 1226n 267n, 285n, 287n, 341, 353n, 383n, Talmage, James E., 268n Thesis (antithesis, synthesis), 42, 363 Treachery, 573-74 Thielicke, Helmut, 225, 782n, 1245 389n, 399n, 442,48ln, 524n, 579,628n, Tatian, 332, 753n Trench, Richard, 250n, 860n Thiessen, Henry C., 355n, 826n, 830n, 920 630n, 771n, 826n, 829n, 834,83.5,915n, Tatlow, Tissington, 1139n Trent, Council of, 904, 1008, 1009, 1115, 918n, 945n, 962n, 972n, 988n, 1016n, Taylor, A. E., 41n, 720 Third World, 892, 1151 1180 1045n, 1080n, 1081n, 1082n, 1096n, Taylor, Vincent, 92n, 190, 958 Thiselton, Anthony, 64n, 147n Trials, preservation among, 390-91 Thomas, John Newton, 196 1097n, 1113n, 1121n, 1150n, 1170n, Teaching: elder, 1076, 1077; as a function Tribulation, great, 1190-92, 1193, 1206, Thomas Aquinas, 26, 31, 34,40,4 1, 60, 1198n of the church, 1055-56; role of the 1211-12; views of the, 1217-24 Structural criticism, 84 Spirit, 874 157-59, 160, 161, 162, 170, 246,414, Trichotomism, 520-2 1, 522 422, 434, 435-36, 499n, 912, 1092n, Structural view of the image of God. See Teilhard de Chardin, Pierre, 949n Trinity, 42, 118, 148, 204, 265, 292, 1116, 1179, 1180, 1199n Substantive view of the image of God Teleological issue (evangelicals and 321-42, 371-73, 846; biblical teaching Thorson, James A., 552n-53n Subjective dimension of authority, ecumenism), 1145 on the, 322-32; historical constructions Thoughts, sin as internal, 578, 625-27 251-53, 257 Teleological proof (design), 158, 161, of the, 332-37; essential elements of the Subjective idealism, 55 162-63 Three, the deity of, 324-27, 337 doctrine of the, 337-38; analogies Subjective knowledge, 895-96 Temple: as a unifying factor, 1131; of the Three-in-oneness, 327-32 elucidating the, 338-41; the Subjective theories of the atonement, Holy Spirit, the body as the, 857; of the Three-story view of the universe, 106-07, resurrection of believers as the work of 789, 791 Holy Spirit, the church as the, 1039-41 436 the, 1196 Sub,jcctivism, 193, 195 Temple, William, 192 Tillich, Paul, 47, 61, 62, 73, 77, 306-09, Tritheism, 336, 340 Subjectivity, 104, 192-93, 672; tenet of Temptation, 598, 720; of Jesus, 598, 720, 446, 458-59, 588-90, 599, 676 Triumph over evil, the atonement as, existentialism, 46, 47; in criticism, 103 871 Time: God’s infinity in terms of, 274-75; 792-96, 797, 821-22 1300 Name and Subject Index Name and Subject Index 1301

Troeltsch, Ernst, 163 Universal conversion, theory of, 101 S- 16 Virgin birth, 304, 694, 713, 739-58; Wieman, Henry Nelson, 417 Tropici, 850 Universal election, 923-24 significance of the, 739-43; evidence for Wiles, Maurice, 679n Trouble, 577 Universal evangelism, 1054 the, 743-48; objections to the, 748-54; Wiley, H. Orton, 61 In, 634, 83 In, 920n, Trust, faith as, 191, 193-94 Universal explicit opportunity, theory of, theological meaning of the, 754-58 932n, 1016n Truth: relationship between experience 1016-17 Virgin conception, 741-42 Wilkenson, Elizabeth, 547n and, 29; pragmatism’s view of, 43, 44; Universal grace. See Prevenient grace Visible church, 1043-48, 1135 Will: man’s, 255; God’s plan and man’s, existentialism’s subjectivizing of, 46, Universal intent of salvation, 919 Visser, A. J., 1209n 353, 355 (see also Freedom, human; 47, 192-93; unitary nature of, 55; man Universal invitation, 919, 927, 930 Visser’t Hooft, W. A., 1144, 1145n, 1146 Free will); God’s, 277-78, 361, 417,419 as the measure of, 114, 116; God as the Universalism, 832, 835, 891, 1015-22, Vital nature of union with Christ, 953 Williams, Colin W., 1026n, 1027, 1029 measure of, 117; Spirit of, 250; 1236, 1239 Vitringa, Campegius, 167 Williams, Daniel Day, 280n dimensions of, 289-92; divine nature of Universality: of the image of God, 507, Vocabulary of biblical writers, 217-18 Willingness to serve, 1067-68 all, 305; objective. See Propositional 511, 513, 516-17, 541-58; of sin, 583, Voluntary character of Jesus’ sacrifice, Wilson, Archdeacon J., 583 view of special revelation 585, 62 l-25 817 Wilson, Donald R., 484n Truths of revelation, 192, 195, 253 Universal opportunity, theory of, 1016 Von Campenhausen, Hans, 755n Wilson, John Macartney, 437n, 443n, Tucker, Gene M., 82n Universal pardon, theory of, 1017 Von Rad, Gerhard, 496n, 568 446n TULIP, 914 Universal reconciliation, theory of, 1017 Vos, Geerhardus, 1041, 1150n Wilson, Robert Dick, 979 Twisted relationship with God, sin as, 429 Universal restoration, theory of, 1017-18 Vriezen, Theodorus, 328 Wine, 1113, 1115, 1125-26 Tyconius, 1206 Universal salvation, belief in, 832, 835. Winer, G. B., 814 Tyrrell, George, 22n, 664 See also Universalism Wainwright, Arthur, 33 1, 1034 Wirt, Sherwood, 1057n Universal setting as criterion of Wakefield, Samuel, 832n, 919n, 921n, Wisdom: literature, 188-89; of the world, Unbaptized infants, 1091-92 permanence, 121-22 990n, 991n 248; of God, 275-76, 277 Unbelief as the major factor in sin, 580, Universe: age of, 380-82; man as a pawn Walker, William, 98 Wisdom, John, 130, 136 587 of the, 467-68 Wallis, Jim, 648n Wissenschaft, criteria of, 35 Unbelievers, resurrection of, 1200 Univocal language, 179-80 Waltke, Bruce, 555n Witness, united, 1133-34, 1146 Unborn, status of the, 553-56 Unknown God (Barth), 3 14 Walvoord, John, 1162n, 1164n, 1191n, Wittgenstein, Ludwig, 48, 49, 132, 133, Unchangeableness of God’s plan, 354. See Unlimited atonement, 829-35 1193n, 1218n, 1219n, 1220n 134n, 532, 535 also Constancy of God Unmarried, the, 556-58 War, 619 Women, status of, 124,223, 545-49 Unconditional nature of God’s plan, Unrighteous, resurrection of the, 1200 Warfield, Benjamin B., 176n, 177n, 208, Wood, Leon, 866n, 867n, 868n 355-57 Unselfishness. See Benevolence of God 230,232,233,346,347n, 348n, 359,484 Woolley, Paul, 1140n, 1141n Unconditional predestination, 914, Ussher, James, 81, 380 878n, 908n, 915n, 916n, 917n, 918n, Word-flesh Christology, 727 916-17, 920-21 Utopianisms, 363 1212, 1213, 1237 Word-man Christology, 727 Unction, extreme, 1009 Watson, John, 532 Word of God, 32,77, 164, 165, 185, 199, “Unio-mysticism,” 950n Valla, Laurentius, 82 Watson, Richard, 920n 244, 252-53, 334; Arian conception of Union with Christ, 647, 818-19, 948-54, Van Buren, Paul, 114-15, 899n Way of life as permanent element in the, 695-97; as a means of salvation, 958-59, 960, 974-75, 988, 1037, 1100-01 Van Gemeren, Willem A., 443n Christianity, 112 1011-12; preaching of the, as a mark of Uniqueness: as criterion of authenticity, Van Lawick, Hugo, 485n Wealth, biblical teaching on, 550-51 the church, 1047. See also Jesus; 94, 103; of God, 284, 323-24; of God’s Vatican I, 1072 Weiss, Johannes, 1157 Scripture; Special revelation creative work, 374,384-85; of man, 489 Vatican II, 901, 902,903, 1072, 1140 Weitz, Moritz, 48n Words: inspiration of individual, 2 13- 15; United Church of Canada, 1136, 1144 Venial sins, 1179, 1180 Wenger, John C., 1097n and thoughts, 215 Work: ethic, 516; in heaven, 123 1; of United Church of Christ, 1136 Veracious authority, 242-43 Wenham, Gordon, 82n Christ, relationship between study of United Methodist Church, 1136 Veracity of God, 290-91 Wesley, John, 60,634,853,914,920,92ln the person and, 675-77, 699-700, Unity: of biblical materials, 69-70; of Verbal inspiration, 207, 213-15,219 971n 702-03, 762 Christ and the believer, 647, 818-19, Verduin, Leonard, 478, 509-10 Westcott, Brooke Foss, 993n, 994n Works: faith and, 959-60, 1012-15; and 948-54, 958-59, 960, 974-75, 988, 1037, Verifiability principle, 129, 13 1, 132-33, Westminster Confession of Faith, 986n grace, Judaism’s emphasis on, 977; 1 100-O 1; of deity and humanity in 141,228,239,532, 535 Westminster Seminary, 979, 1141 salvation by, 633, 1181 Christ, 723-38 (SW also Incarnation); of Verification, eschatological, 140-41 White, Andrew Dickson, 378n World-and-life view, 18, 142, 145; the church, 1038, 1040, 1129-46; Verificational analysis, 128-33 White, Edward, 1237n Christianity’s, 54-55 conciliar, 1136; conditional, 536-39; of Verkuyl, Johannes, 657n Whitehead, Alfred North, 51, 280, 367, World (antithesis of the kingdom of God), God, 323-24,337,34 1; organic, 1 136-37; Victory over evil, the atonement as, 386n 643-48 spiritual, 1135, 1146; of witness, 792-96, 797, 821-22 Whitcley, D. E. H., 957 World Council of Churches, 1139-40, 1133-34, I146 Villain, Maurice, 1138, 1139n Whort, Ben,jamin Lee, 530n 1144,1145 Univ~ersal atonement, 829-35, 1016, 1021 Vindication of the believer, 999 Why Consmu tiw C’hrrrclws Are Grmzjing World Missionary Conference, 1138, 1 146 Clniversai Christian Council for Life and Violence and liberation theology, 591, (Kcllev), 1067 World’s Student Christian Association, Work. I 139 592, 1006, 1007 Wicked,‘prosperity 01 the, 289 1138 1302 Name and Subject Index

Worship, 1056-57; in heaven, 1230, 1234 Young, Paul, 464n Wrath of God, 604-05, 809-l 1, 817-18, Youngblood, Ronald, 381n 1221 Young Men’s Christian Association, 1138 Wrede, William, 111 Young Women’s Christian Association, Wright, G. Ernest, 108n, 182-83, 185, 1138 188-89 Wrongness of sin, 606 Zeisler, J. A., 955n, 956n, 958n, 960 Wynkoop, Mildred Bangs, 921 Zephyrinus, 335 Zoroastrianism, 109,414 Yoder, John H., 648n, 650-51 Zwingli, Ulrich, 913, 1008, 1113, 1117, Yom, 72,380,381,482 1119,112o Young, Edward J., 230 Zwinglian view of the Lord’s Supper, Young, Frances, 680n 1120-21