Africa

Africa. The growth of the church in Africa is one Coptic patriarch. By Ezana’s death in 400 Chris- of the most surprising facts of twentieth-century tianity was firmly rooted at court but had made church history. From an estimated 4 million pro- little impact on the countryside. That changed in fessing Christians in 1900 African Christianity the sixth century with the coming of a new mis- has grown to over 300 million adherents by the sionary force from Syria. The tesseatou Kidous- year 2000. What accounts for such growth? The san (“nine saints”) established monasteries in the common notion that nineteenth-century mis- rural areas and engaged in widespread evange- sionary efforts explain African Christianity’s re- lism. Linked with the Egyptian Coptic Christian- cent explosion is an oversimplification. The true ity and armed with the Scriptures in the vernac- story behind these statistics reaches back to the ular the Christians of Ethiopia entered the very earliest centuries of Christian history. Middle Ages, where they “slept near a thousand Beginnings. The roots of African Christianity years, forgetful of the world, by whom they were are to be found in the four regional churches of forgotten” (Gibbon). Africa in the Roman era—Egypt, North Africa, Nubia. Like Ethiopia, Nubia (modern Sudan) Nubia, and Ethiopia. The origins of Christianity was never part of the Roman Empire. The Chris- in Egypt are obscure. The first documentary evi- tianity that infiltrated Nubia began a religious dence of the existence of an Egyptian church revolution in Nubia that transformed both peo- dates from a.d. 189 with Bishop Demetrius. Per- ple and prince by the sixth century. Archaeologi- secution in the third century caused the faith to cal evidence that came to light only in the 1960s spread down the Nile into rural Egypt among the has revealed the vigor of Nubian Christianity. Coptic-speaking population, where it found a Two sixth-century missionaries from Byzantium, new champion in Antony, the father of monasti- Julian and Longinus, are credited with officially cism. After a period of syncretism in the fourth introducing the Christian faith, in its Mono- century, mature Coptic churches emerged in the physite form, to this kingdom along the Blue fifth century under the leadership of inde- Nile. pendently minded monastic leaders such as She- The African Middle Ages. These four original nout. The signs of an indigenous Christianity sources of African Christianity faced their great- rooted in the language and life of the people est challenge during the African Middle Ages. were everywhere evident, including Cop- The first challenge, which inaugurated the Afri- tic-speaking clergy and Coptic liturgies together can Middle Ages, came from a new religion— with Scripture translations. Islam. The second challenge, which brought the North Africa. While Egyptian Christianity was African Middle Ages to an end, came from the a testimony to the importance of a contextual- kingdoms of European Christendom represented ized Christianity, North Africa was a sober re- minder of the fragility of a faith insufficiently by the Portuguese and the Dutch. rooted in the life of the people. The Roman seg- North African and Nubian collapse. The rise ment of North Africa embraced the gospel with and spread of Islam across Africa’s northern vigor but the Punic and Berber peoples were shore in the seventh and eighth centuries was never adequately reached. The brilliance of followed in the tenth and eleventh centuries by a North African Christianity cannot be doubted. southward expansion led by the merchant and The genius of Tertullian, Cyprian, and Augustine the missionary. North Africa was most dramati- is well known, yet even their brilliance could not cally affected by this expansion of Islam. The de- prevent the decline of a church troubled by sepa- cline of North African Christianity was nearly ratism and persecution. Despite the failure of total by the sixteenth century. Attempts by the North African Christianity to contextualize the fourth crusade (1215) to liberate North Africa faith, Augustine’s observation that the story of politically and Franciscan attempts to revive it the African church is the story of the clash of spiritually ended in failure. A faith only lightly two kingdoms, the City of God and the earthly rooted in the life of the people faded into mem- city, continued to illuminate African church his- ory. tory. Nubia proved more resistant. During the Ethiopia. Solid evidence for the conversion of eighth through tenth centuries, while Islam con- Ethiopia appears in 350, when King Ezana be- tinued to expand in Africa, Nubian Christianity gins to ascribe his victories to the “Lord of All reached its height. But in 1272 Muslim Turks . . . Jesus Christ who has saved me” rather than sent by the legendary Saladin overthrew north- to the traditional gods. Crucial to this change ern Nubia. In 1504 the southernmost kingdom, was the ministry of Bishop Frumentius, who had Alwa, was conquered by a tribe from the south been commissioned by Athanasius of Alexandria recently converted to Islam. The last word from as a missionary to Ethiopia. The precedent set by Nubian Christianity occurs in 1524 when they Athanasius became entrenched and the Ethio­ wrote to the Coptic patriarch of Egypt for help to pian Orthodox Church continued to receive its meet their critical shortage of clergy. The lack of abun (bishop) by appointment of the Egyptian indigenous church leaders combined with the 1 Africa failure to evangelize the peoples to the south Dutch Expansion. In 1652, one hundred repre- conspired to undermine Nubian Christianity. sentatives of the Dutch East India Company Egyptian and Ethiopian survival. Christianity landed on Africa’s southernmost tip and pro- survived the onslaught of Islam but not without ceeded to establish a way station for the com- losses. Caliph Umar had forbidden new churches pany ships traveling from Amsterdam to Batavia or monasteries but under the Umayyids (661– in the Pacific. From this modest beginning came 750) this law was not enforced. Other forms of Cape Town and the beginnings of the nation of pressure, however, were applied. In 744 the Mus- South Africa. The first church established was lim governor of Egypt offered tax exemption for that of the Dutch Reformed Church but by 1900 Christians who converted to Islam. Twenty-four Lutherans and Moravians had also begun their thousand responded. Throughout the African work. The churches of the settlers soon came Middle Ages the Coptic church suffered from a into conflict with a missionary Christianity lack of trained leadership, discriminatory laws, spawned by the wave of Great Awakenings that and a stagnant ritualism in worship. Nonethe- were sweeping North America, England, and Eu- less, it survived. By 1600 Egypt was a “country of rope in the eighteenth century. An early repre- dual religious cultures.” sentative of this new evangelical movement was Ethiopian Christianity also followed the path the Moravian Georg Schmidt, who began work of survival. After a crisis in the tenth century among the Khoisan of the Cape in 1738. He soon when the pagan Agau nearly toppled the king, came into conflict with the established church Ethiopian clergy began to work for reform and and was stopped from further mission work in revival of the national faith. One movement of 1748. renewal brought a new dynasty to the imperial African Christianity in the Nineteenth and throne of Ethiopia. The most popular leader of Early Twentieth Centuries. The Antislavery cru- the Zagwe dynasty, Lalibela, strengthened Ethio- sade. While Schmidt was struggling with the pia’s religious patriotism by building a New Jeru- stubbornness of his Dutch hosts, English evan- salem in the Ethiopian highlands and strength- gelicals began to struggle with the issue of slav- ening the belief that Ethiopians were the new ery. John Wesley condemned slavery in a pam- phlet of 1774, and a number of his followers took Israel through whom God would bring light to up the cause. Early opposition to slavery came the nations. Under the missionary monk Tek- from Granville Sharp, Thomas Clarkson, and la-Haymanot Ethiopian Christianity experienced William Wilberforce through the support of his revival. New missionary efforts among the Shoa upper-class evangelical friends (the Clapham of the south met with success. Emperor Zara-Ya- Sect). The first breakthrough came in 1807 with qob (d. 1468) brought Ethiopia to new heights of the passage of a bill prohibiting the slave trade glory but by 1529 the kingdom was in decline. but allowing ownership. By 1833 legislation was Ahmad Gragn, a Muslim, successfully overthrew passed abolishing slavery everywhere in the Brit- the Christian kingdom of Ethiopia but his reign ish Empire. British evangelicals had opposed was short-lived. Within a few years Christian slavery both on humanitarian grounds as well as Ethiopia was restored, this time with the help of missiological ones. They realized that their de- a new player on the African stage—the Portu- sire to engage in missions in Africa would be se- guese. riously thwarted by the existence of slavery. The The Portuguese. Inspired by their visionary missionaries that English societies sent out to leader, Prince Henry, the Portuguese embarked Africa were therefore equipped with the dual on a campaign of aggressive expansion between message of “Christianity and commerce.” It was 1450 and 1700. This expansion led to the Euro- thought that Western-style commerce would pean “discovery” of Africa and the establishment make slavery economically unnecessary, thus of a trading empire that spread from Lisbon to permitting the message of Christianity to make India. Christian communities were established its way deep into the lives of the hearers. in West Africa and in port cities along the south- The growth of Christianity in Western Africa. In ern and eastern coasts but Portuguese missions 1787, 411 freed blacks left London to found a enjoyed its greatest success in the ancient king- community called Freetown in what is now Si- dom of Congo, where the king Afonso I pro- erra Leone. It became a haven for freed slaves moted the new faith aggressively. Yet the mis- and an outpost for the spread of the gospel. Like sionary efforts of the Catholic missionaries were the Puritans who settled New England, these eventually undermined by the commercial inter- early settlers burned with religious zeal. Free- est of Portuguese merchants who quickly saw town became a Christian commonwealth that potential for a profit in the slave trade. Hatred of inspired similar Christian communities farther the Portuguese trader soon was directed at the down the coast in the Nigerian towns of Abeo- Portuguese priest. By the time of Livingstone’s kuta and Badagry. “Recaptives” (slaves liberated travels in the mid-nineteenth century few ves- by the British Navy) added to the population of tiges of Portuguese Christianity could be found. Freetown. Many converted to the Christian­ faith 2 Africa and found an opportunity for training at Free- fame exceeded that of all other nineteenth-­ town’s Fourah Bay college, established in 1827. century missionaries despite his failure as evan- One of the most outstanding graduates of the gelist (he saw only one convert, who eventually college was a young recaptive named Samuel fell away). His achievements as an explorer, an Ajayi Crowther. Crowther was ordained in 1843, antislavery crusader, and missions promoter es- and in 1864 became Africa’s first Anglican tablished his place in history. bishop. The Church Missionary Society (CMS) Though missionary Christianity tended to em- recognized in Crowther the leader they needed to phasize an inward piety and a broadly evangeli- further the spread of Christianity in Africa. cal theology that stood in contrast with the more Under Henry Venn, an aggressive program of Af- reformed Afrikaners by the late nineteenth cen- ricanization was adopted that called for the im- tury, attempts were made to bridge the gap. Most mediate building of self-supporting, self-propa- successful was Andrew Murray Jr., moderator gating, and self-governing local churches. of the DRC and champion of both evangelical Crowther was asked to implement this strategy piety and missions. His emphasis on “Absolute in the Nigerian interior. Through the failure of Surrender” and the formation of new agencies some members of his team and through the hos- such as the South Africa General Mission (now tility of white missionaries opposed to Venn’s African Evangelical Fellowship) acted as a cor- policies, Crowther was forced to resign. Leader- rective to the Afrikaner Christianity. ship of the CMS work in West Africa fell into A third expression of South African Christian- white hands. This led to a number of African-ini- ity was that of the social gospel championed by tiated churches. In addition to Nigeria, work people like the Anglican bishop John Colenso went on in Liberia, Ghana, Cameroon, Gabon, and John Jabavu. The emphasis of this form of Senegal, and Zaire, which was the main arena Christianity was upon economic and political for Catholic missions. justice. Colenso opposed the Afrikaner and En- Southern Africa. While West Africa was evan- glish messianic nationalism, which he saw at the gelized largely by Africans returning to their root of injustice in South Africa. His clash with motherland, South Africa from the very earliest Bishop Robert Gray of Cape Town ended with days of Christianity was dominated by the white the formation of an independent Anglican com- expatriate. Despite the common denominator of munion in South Africa. Like Colenso, John Ja- white domination, there was little unity in South bavu regarded politics as an appropriate arena African Christianity, which saw three distinct for Christian involvement. A tireless campaigner and mutually hostile expressions of Christianity for African rights, he founded his own indepen- emerge in the nineteenth century. dent newspaper. This third expression of Christi- The first expression was that of Afrikaner anity would become a major force in the years Christianity and the Dutch Reformed Church. following South Africa’s Sharpville massacre of After England gained control of South Africa in 1960. 1815, conflicts between Boer farmers and En­ Despite the fragmented witness to the king- glish administrators multiplied, which led to dom of God provided by South African Christi- mass migrations of Afrikaner families to north- anity, this region entered the twentieth century eastern regions of South Africa. One small party as one of the most Christianized regions in all of of “voortrekkers” encountered an army of Zulu Africa. Yet white domination of the churches warriors. Their surprising victory at the battle of would eventually spawn a vigorous movement of Blood River in 1838 coupled with the tradition “Ethiopianism”—separatist churches that de- that the trekkers had made a special covenant manded respect from the Westerner and a with God prior to the battle fueled the belief that greater share of church leadership. Afrikaner Christians were an elect nation en- Eastern Africa. The nineteenth century wit- dowed by God with both a right to rule the land nessed the reintroduction of Christianity into the and a right to resist the nonelect. This religious former Nubia (Sudan) and in Mombasa (Kenya). tradition became a political and cultural force Ethiopian Christianity was also revitalized during that found expression in the formation of the Af- the century. Additionally the lands of Tanzania rikaner Nationalist Party. and Uganda saw the initial introduction of this A second expression of South African church ancient African faith among their own people. life in the nineteenth century was that of “mis- Ethiopia and Sudan. In 1830 the CMS arrived sionary Christianity,” which made major inroads in Ethiopia. Originally working within the Coptic into the Xhosa community and produced out- church, Protestant missionaries such as J. Ludwig standing believers such as the hymn writer Krapf clashed with Coptic church authorities, Ntsikana and the African Presbyterian leader, leading to expulsion in 1843. Under Emperor Me- Tiyo Soga. Such African leaders encouraged the nelik II, Ethiopian Christianity experi­enced a new missionary-dominated churches to engage in surge of life and entered the twentieth century programs of training, including Lovedale College carefully guarding its dearly won political and re- and Fort Hare University. David Livingstone’s ligious independence. In Sudan, Catholic work 3 Africa under the leadership of the Verona Fathers was tumn of colonialism in 1950 the number of Afri- swept away by the Islamic Mahdist movement. can Christians had reached 34 million. Kenya. Krapf began work in Kenya in 1844 The missionaries of the colonial era were, on after his expulsion from Ethiopia. Together with the whole, a remarkable lot. Like Rowland Bing- his colleague Johann Rebmann, Krapf envi- ham of the Sudan Interior Mission (SIM; now sioned a chain of mission stations across the Society for International Ministries), they continent, linking up with Freetown in West Af- were a tough-minded breed who often buried rica. His vision would guide numerous mission their colleagues and kept going. Like George agencies for the next century. Though he at- Grenfell of the Baptist Mission Society of tempted to establish the eastern link of this Congo, they were tireless explorers and enemies chain at Rabai Mpyia, it was the later formation of the slave trade. Like Albert Schweitzer of of Freetown in 1874 as a refuge for runaway Gabon they were often humanitarians. Like slaves that gave Christianity its firmest foothold Mary Slessor of the Calabar mission many were in British East Africa. Outstanding Christian single women who gave their entire lives to the leaders came from the community at Freetown, work. Like P. A. Bennett, acting secretary of the including David Koi, Kenya’s first Protestant CMS in Nigeria, they were sometimes incorrigi- martyr. These missionary efforts on the coast ble racists. But like Archdeacon Dennis, also of were soon augmented by a new thrust inland. the CMS in Nigeria, they more often opposed James Stewart, a Presbyterian missionary at racism with equal vigor. Like Father Shanahan Lovedale College, was recruited by Livingstone of Nigeria they aggressively founded schools. to establish an industrial mission in the Kenyan Most important, like Carl Christian Reindorf of interior in 1891. The CMS began work among Ghana, they mastered the vernacular languages the Kikuyu of Kenya’s central highlands in 1901. of the people and like George Pilkington of Uganda, they translated the Scriptures and Peter Cameron Scott and his newly founded Af- trained indigenous evangelists. This last factor, rica Inland Mission began churches among the Kamba people in 1895. The Holy Ghost Fathers vernacular translations and the training of na- began work in Nairobi in 1899. tional evangelists, accounts for the remarkable church growth that took place during the colo- Tanzania. Catholic missionary efforts centered nial decades. around the formation of a “Christian Village” at Independent religious movements. One reaction Bagamoyo (1868), where three hundred freed to the missionary factor was the birth of the Afri- slaves found a place of refuge. Protestant work can Initiated Church Movement. The indepen- was conducted by the Universities Mission to dent churches that were founded tended to fall Central Africa (UMCA), who were vigorous in into distinct groupings. Some were primarily their opposition to the Arab slave trade that was concerned with African leadership and only sec- decimating the inland peoples of Africa’s Great ondarily concerned with changing missionary lake region, where the LMS and CMS had estab- theology or worship. A second grouping empha- lished a presence. Through the intervention of sized healing and the supernatural. Armed with Germany the Arab slave trade was broken and a Scriptures in their own languages they struck out number of German mission agencies introduced on their own, like William Wade Harris of Libe- Lutheranism. ria, whose preaching in West Africa between Uganda. More dramatic than in any other part 1913 and 1915 claimed over one hundred thou- of East Africa was the response to the gospel in sand adherents. Others like Simon Kimbangu of Uganda. Christianity was introduced by the CMS Zaire catalyzed separation from missionary in 1877 and flourished under the zealous leader- churches into new denominations. In some cases ship of Alexander Mackay. White Fathers intro- these prophet churches moved clearly outside the duced Catholicism in 1879. Despite the indiffer- bounds of orthodoxy. Such was the case with Isa- ence of King Mutesa I and the violent hostility of iah Shembe and his Church of the Nazarites in his son Mwanga, Protestant and Catholic Christi- South Africa. After his death in 1935 his follow- anity eventually produced a religious revolution ers proclaimed that he had risen from the dead in Uganda that spilled beyond the borders of the and was in fact the true Christ for Africa. A third kingdom of Buganda into the smaller kingdoms category covers movements of revival within es- that make up the modern-day nation of Uganda. tablished denominations. The passion in these The missionary factor. The colonial era (1885– types of movements was the discovery of a vital 1960) brought sweeping changes to African Christianity to replace a numbing nominalism in Christianity. The most notable change was the the church. The outstanding example of this third proliferation of missionaries and agencies from type of movement is the East Africa Revival that the West and the corresponding growth of Afri­ swept much of East Africa from 1930 onwards. can Christianity. In 1900 there were an estimated Christianity in Independent Africa. In 1960, 4 million Christians spread throughout the conti- fourteen African nations achieved selfhood and nent compared to 60 million Muslims. By the au- inaugurated a new era within African Christian- 4 African Initiated Church Movement ity. Henry Venn’s vision of an African Christian- ies in order to foster “selfhood” within the ity that was self-governing, self-propagating, and church. The outcome of this debate has been a self-supporting was at last realized. In denomi- decrease in “mainline” missionaries (5,000 in nation after denomination African leaders re- 1959 to 3,000 in early 1970) At the same time placed missionaries. The new leaders faced a there has been a resurgence of missions in three number of new challenges in the modern era. other groups. In 1974 a Synod of Bishops at Five challenges in particular have dominated Af- Rome rejected the call for moratorium and rican Christianity in the closing decades of the pledged 100,000 new missionaries by the year twentieth century. 2000. Evangelical missionaries from the faith Church and state. The overarching fact of mod- missions grew from 11,000 in the 1970s to over ern African life since the late 1960s was wide- 16,000 in the late 1980s. In addition dozens of spread disillusionment with the nation-state. As new African mission agencies emerged in the the promise of the new African ruling elite 1970s, 1980s, and 1990s. The most dramatic turned sour, criticism began to mount. The com- story of church growth in Africa, however, was mon response of the ruling elite to the growing the expansion of Pentecostal and charismatic chorus of criticism was tightened control, pro- preachers, evangelists, and missionaries in the motion of personality cults and messianic na- closing decades of the twentieth century. The tionalism, and growing conflict with the church. gospel of health, wealth, and wholeness ac- Kwame Nkrumah’s tragic rise and fall in Ghana counted for much of the appeal of this form of was all too typical. Zaire’s Mobutu Sese Seko, Li- Christianity. beria’s Samuel Doe, Uganda’s Idi Amin, and Ethi- Discipleship, leadership, and nominalism. The opia’s Mengistu Haile Mariam were typical of greatest challenge facing African Christian lead- leaders who saw the church as a dangerous inde- ership was the challenge not of the unreached pendent voice. Church responses have varied but of the undiscipled. If one accepts the statis- from silent partnership with the ruling elite tics that African Christianity has grown from an (Roman Catholicism in Rwanda, DRC in South estimated 4 million professing Christians in 1900 Africa) to critical protest of state injustice (Des- to some 300 million adherents today then one is mond Tutu in South Africa, NCCK in Kenya). forced to ask how these huge numbers of people Occasionally the state has lashed out violently can be discipled. Though the promise of African against the church as in the cases of the mar- Christianity is great, the church of Africa must tyred Archbishop Janani Luwum of Uganda and wrestle with the dilemma of a Christianity that the numerous imprisoned pastors of Mengistu’s may be “expanding at the periphery” even while Ethiopia. it is “collapsing at the center” (Roland Oliver). Unity and diversity. Over six thousand different Leadership development and the training of the independent churches were documented in Af- laity seem to be the crucial needs of this conti- rica by the late 1960s. Organizations like the All nent “shaped like a question mark” (Ali Mazrui). Africa Conference of Churches (AACC), the Orga- Mark Shaw nization of African Instituted Churches (OAIC), Bibliography. J. Baur, 2000 Years of Christianity in and the Association of Evangelicals in Africa Africa; J. de Gruchy, The Church Struggle in South Af- (AEA) have sought to bring some unity to the rica; R. Gray, Black Christians and White Missionaries; fractured body of Christ in Africa. A series of C. P. Groves, The Planting of the Church in Africa; Pan-African Christian Leadership Assemblies A. Hastings, The Church in Africa, 1450–1950; E. Isi- (PACLA) have sought additional harmony by chei, A History of Christianity in Africa; L. Sanneh, West bringing leaders of the AACC and AEA together. African Christianity; M. Shaw, The Kingdom of God in Parachurch agencies have also played their part Africa. in bridging denominational dividing lines, some by working with the independent churches. African Initiated Church Movement. Originally Theology and culture. In Roman Catholic as an unanticipated product of the modern mission- well as Protestant circles great effort has gone ary movement in Africa, the African Independent into the formation of a Christian theology that Churches (AICs) today number 55 million church would adequately address the modern African members in some 10,000 distinct denominations context. The varieties of theologies within the Af- present in virtually all of Africa’s 60 countries. rican context range from theologies of identity to This title is the most frequent descriptive term in traditional evangelical formulations to radical the current literature of some 4,000 books and ar- liberation theology. African evangelical theology ticles describing it. However, because Western is still emerging, but important voices include denominations and Western-mission related Tokunboh Adeyemo, Kwame Bediako, Byang churches in Africa regard themselves also as “in- Kato, Lamin Sanneh, and Tite Tiénou. dependent,” African AIC members have since African missions and church growth. In the 1970 promulgated the terms African Instituted 1970s Kenyan Presbyterian leader John Gatu Churches, or African Indigenous Churches, or called for a Moratorium on Western missionar- ­locally founded churches. Some Western scholars 5 African Mission Boards and Societies still use the older terms African Separatist the work to date has taken place in the Anglo- Churches or New Religious Movements. phone countries, particularly West Africa (Nige- These movements first began with a secession ria and Ghana). In Eastern and Central Africa, from Methodist missions in Sierre Leone in largely Christian churches seem to assume either 1817. Spreading rapidly across Africa by means that most people have already heard the gospel of virtually unrelated but similar schisms and se- or that Western missionaries are the only ones to cessions, by 1900 there were a hundred thousand tackle the job. For the Francophone church, Afri- members of these churches, by 1935 two million, can missionaries crossing international boundar- by 1968 six million, and by 1997 55 million. ies in large numbers remains a dream to be ful- Countries most heavily involved are, in order of filled in the future. number of members, South Africa, Congo-­ Perhaps most notable for zeal for internal Kinshasa, and Nigeria. The largest distinct de- cross-cultural evangelism is Zaire, a country nominations are: Zion Christian Church (12 mil- which could legitimately claim to be “too poor” lion in 10 countries), Church of Jesus Christ on to afford international missions. However, Chris- Earth through the Prophet Simon Kimbangu (8 tians not hindered with a vision of missions re- million), Cherubim and Seraphim (3 million), quiring a four-wheel-drive vehicle and a salary Deeper Life Bible Church (2 million in 40 coun- seem to be accomplishing the most for the king- tries worldwide). Earlier movements closely cop- dom, much of it undocumented. ied their parent bodies in name, polity, titles, As an outstanding example of an indigenous dogmas, liturgies, and ecclesiastical dress, and missionary movement, Nigeria’s Evangelical were frequently seen as merely Pentecostal imi- Churches of West Africa (ECWA) church and its tations. But from 1980 onward, newer bodies be- Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS, headed by came much more dynamic, postdenominational- Panya Baba), is premier. A mighty mission force ist, charismatic, and apostolic, with a majority of with 541 couples and 15 single missionaries, their leaders being highly educated professionals EMS has been instrumental in the growth of the avoiding ecclesiastical dress and similar trap- church. One of the more successful campaigns of pings, often leading megachurches with thou- Muslim outreach is Uganda’s version of Here’s sands of enthusiastic young people as deeply Life, adapted from Campus Crusade for Christ in committed members. America. In Mozambique, the Deeper Life Chris- After decades of fruitlessly trying to join ecu- tian Ministry, led by Nigerians, has been espe- menical councils of churches, evangelical coun- cially successful. It works in thirty countries cils or alliances, or Western confessional bodies, across Africa. almost all of which rejected such applications, Chad deserves imitation for its successful im- the AICs began their own conciliar movement plementation of saturation mission. Association and today have over 100 AIC councils of of Evangelicals of Africa (AEA) Secretary for Mis- churches across the continent and in several sions and Evangelism Bayo Famonure reports cases even worldwide. In 1978 the major conti- that 24,000 Chadian Christians were mobilized to nent-wide body was formed, OAIC (Organization reach 2,193 villages in a six-day period, aiming to of African Independent Churches, later renamed plant a church in every village. Costs were virtu- Organization of African Instituted Churches), in ally limited to food and transport for the volun- collaboration with the Coptic Orthodox Church teers. of Egypt as the original African independent Most African mission boards are run separately church. By 1998, however, the sheer weight of from Western agencies. There seems to be space numbers, Christian commitment, and credibility to operate without the need to cooperate, though had become such that OAIC was invited to be- a few boards are experimenting with partnering come, and became, an associate council of the such as Timo Teams, jointly sponsored by Africa World Council of Churches, as well as a member Inland Church (AIC) and Africa Inland Mission council of the All Africa Conference of Churches. (AIM). Some boards are modeled after Faith Mis- Bibliocentric and christocentric throughout sions with no guaranteed salary or retirement their history, these churches are now producing fund, no special schools for their children, and radically new Christian theology and practice. A no work account funds. A few, like Sheepfold, notable example is earthkeeping, a blend of theo- Kenya’s largest interdenominational board, pool logical environmentalism or caring for God’s cre- their income so that all missionaries get an equal ation, especially in relation to land, trees, plants, share of whatever comes into the mission that natural resources, and in fact the whole of God’s month. Others receive directly whatever comes in creation. from their supporters. One trend can be seen ev- David B. Barrett erywhere: sinking local currencies have greatly hurt development of the international element of African Mission Boards and Societies. A study the African missionary movement. of the general landscape of African mission Generally speaking, accountability and super- boards and societies reveals that the majority of vision structures in African mission societies are 6 Allen, Roland loose. Financial support is typically low, erratic, ford University, and was ordained in the Angli- and often based on only one or two special offer- can Church in 1892. He went to China with the ings a year. Fragmentation of efforts is the norm. Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in For- Each denomination or group sets its goals with- eign Parts in 1895, but returned for health rea- out any overall plan or sometimes even aware- sons in 1904 to serve as a parish priest. He re- ness of where the unreached are, according to signed in 1907 in a dispute over baptism, but the AEA. Sometimes the dominant motivation served as a chaplain on a hospital ship during seems to be the desire to plant a denominational World War I. church in an urban center rather than to take the From the 1920s on he was something of an in- gospel to those who have not yet had an opportu- ternational missions consultant, working with nity to hear. groups trying to revive missionary vision. He vis- Language learning is often done informally at ited churches in Canada, India, Kenya, Zimba- the destination, and with much less trauma and bwe, and South Africa. Allen finally settled in fuss than for Western missionaries undergoing Kenya in 1931 and lived there until he died. After Language School. Children of missionaries are observing what he considered the drawbacks of educated in the local schools until high school traditional missionary work, he revived the age, sometimes to their detriment educationally. teachings of Rufus Anderson and Henry Venn Some mission boards and missionary training and became a strong proponent of the so-called colleges belong to a particular denomination, Three-Self theory, which holds that churches such as the AIC Mission Board in East Africa or started by foreign agencies should become Nigeria’s ECWA-EMS. Some denominations once self-governing, self-supporting, and self-propa- had a missionary sending agency which has sub- gating (see also Indigenous Churches). Allen’s sequently died out, such as the Church of the somewhat iconoclastic approach to missions at- Province of Kenya (Anglican) Diocesan Mission tracted wide interest among evangelical mission Association. Others are interdenominational and agencies. Largely because of his book, Mission- indigenous, such as Agape Missions, Calvary ary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours (1912), he ranks Ministry (CAPRO, with over 300 full-time mis- among the most influential when it comes to ap- sionaries), and Christian Missionary Fellowship plying biblical principles to missionary work. (CMF). Together, these form the three largest in- Allen was a prolific writer of letters and arti- terdenominational mission agencies in Nigeria, cles. His second most influential book was The but there are also seventy other smaller mission Spontaneous Expansion of the Church and the boards there (see Nigerian Mission Boards and Causes Which Hinder It (1927). There his deep Societies). Some African mission boards have commitment to the work of the Holy Spirit in virtually become church denominations, such as missions came to full flower. He is credited with the CMF. being the first to develop the connection between But probably the most remarkable contribu- the Holy Spirit and missions. tion of Africans to the missionary movement has In that context he challenged what he saw as been the migration of Christian traders, business- an overreliance on professionalism, money, and men, and professionals, such as university pro- organization in mission. For example, he wrote: fessors and doctors, to other countries or neigh- “There is a horrible tendency for an organization boring tribes where Christianity is not yet firmly to grow in importance till it overshadows the end established. These men and women leave home of its existence, and begins to exist for itself” because of economic privations, but by the work- (p. 98). This system rooted in the material and ing of the Holy Spirit have become church plant- the professional actually squelches propagation ers in their host countries. The fellowships they of the gospel, he believed. His brief summation, end up planting are not always denominational Missionary Principles, expounds the principle or ethnic and become broad-based churches. that the presence of Christ in the missionary is Their secular jobs support them, and they have the source from which all ministry springs. “The no professional missionary training apart from missionary spirit of Christ in us cannot rest until the modeling of healthy churches they have seen it finds an expression in some form of service,” while growing up in their home country. At this he wrote (p. 105). time, economic translocation rather than the for- Allen was an unusual blend of the pragmatist mation of formal mission boards appears to be (trying to loose the church overseas from foreign the most widespread and effective means of control) and the preacher, driving missionary spreading the gospel currently practiced by the work back to first principles of biblical disciple- African church. ship. Sue DeVries Jim Reapsome Bibliography. D. Paton, ed., The Ministry of the Allen, Roland (1868–1947). English missionary Spirit: Selected Writings of Roland Allen; idem, Reform to China and Africa and missions theorist. Ro- of the Ministry: A Study in the Work of Roland Allen; land Allen was born in England, studied at Ox- H. J. B. Allen, Roland Allen: Pioneer, Priest, and Prophet. 7 Amsterdam Assembly

Amsterdam Assembly (1948). On August 23, Bibliography. R. Rouse and S. Neill, eds., A History 1948, the World Council of Churches came into of the Ecumenical Movement 1517–1948; W. A. Visser ‘t being by action of its first general assembly. This Hooft, The Genesis and Formation of the World Council gathering, held from August 22 to September 4 of Churches; idem, ed., The First Assembly of the World in Amsterdam, culminated a process initiated in Council of Churches; World Council of Churches, Man’s Disorder and God’s Design: The Amsterdam As- 1937 to bring together two streams of ecumeni- sembly Series. cal life, the Faith and Order Movement and the Life and Work Movement, into a fully represen- tative global assembly of churches. A total of 351 Asia. Asia covers thirty independent nations in delegates from 44 nations and 147 denomina- the vast areas of land from Japan in Northeast tions participated. The assembly adopted as its Asia, numerous other nations in Southeast Asia basis: “The World Council of Churches is a fel- and South Asia, and up to Turkey in West Asia. lowship of churches which accept our Lord Jesus Asia represents three major cultural blocs (Mes- Christ as God and Savior.” Deliberations focused opotamia, India, and China) and the birthplaces on the church as the agency through which God of the major living World Religions of Christi- would accomplish his purposes. anity, Islam, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The re- The theme of the Amsterdam Assembly, “Man’s gion’s population of approximately three billion Disorder and God’s Design,” was considered in represents 60 percent of the world’s total popula- four sections: the universal church in God’s de- tion. Its five thousand years of history have made sign; the church’s witness to God’s design; the it a continent of rich cultural heritage. The major church and the disorder of society; the church wars of the past four decades have been fought and the international order. The second section in Asia, bringing much suffering to millions of in particular addressed issues related to mission Asians but also awakening them to their need for and evangelism. Recognizing the existence and spiritual values. growth of the younger churches, it called for the Historian Arnold Toynbee once stated, “The whole church to set itself to the task of winning changing events of Asia will decide the future of the whole world for Christ. Also, it stressed the the world tomorrow.” With the rapid moderniza- close relationship between unity and inner re- tion and economic dynamism of Asian nations, newal, and declared invalid the distinction be- particularly in the Asia-Pacific basin (Japan, Tai- tween Christian and non-Christian nations. wan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China), many The third section developed the concept of the are saying that “the 21st Century will be the Age responsible society, one which seeks to maintain of Asia.” the balance between justice and freedom. It cri- Changing Patterns of Asian Societies: Politi- tiqued the assumption of laissez-faire capitalism cal Changes. Politically, there are three major that justice will follow automatically the exercise factors affecting Asia and the Asian church. of free enterprise, and the communist assump- First, every nation in Asia except Japan and tion that freedom will come once economic jus- Thailand have experienced bitter foreign colonial tice is established. Since no civilization can domination, especially from the Western nations. avoid the judgment of God’s Word, none is to be But today all nations in Asia are politically inde- accepted uncritically. pendent. National independence from political At Amsterdam, the assembly, which is the su- Colonialism has brought enormous changes in preme legislative body of the World Council of the political structures of the national govern- Churches, adopted a constitution, set conditions ments as well as many internal conflicts and for membership, outlined programs, defined wars among different ethnic groups in many structures and policies, made decisions about Asian nations. Related to independence and how to relate to other ecumenical bodies, estab- strong Nationalism is the withdrawal of Western lished offices in Geneva, and elected a central powers, finalized for Britain in July of 1997 committee, which in turn named W. A. Visser ‘t when Hong Kong reverted back to China. The Hooft as the first general secretary. Apart from mass exodus of British troops from the former highlighting the vital role of the laity in the ongo- colonies in South and Southeast Asia, the French ing witness of the church, the Amsterdam As- defeat in former French Indo-China (Vietnam, sembly did not contribute substantial new mate- Cambodia, and Laos), and the American military rial to the reflection on mission. It did, however, withdrawal from South Vietnam, Taiwan, and create a new context in which common concerns the Philippines have created a political vacuum could be discussed. While the World Council of in many regions. Churches and the International Missionary In the past it was the foreigners who con- Council were considered to be in close associa- trolled the internal as well as foreign affairs of tion with each other, emphasis fell upon the es- their colonies. The expatriates regulated mis- sential unity of the church as distinguished from sionary activities according to their own national its missionary obligation. interests. In contrast today an increasing num- Ken Mulholland ber of Asian nations have used political pres- 8 Asia sures against foreign missionary activities in generations. Young people today care much less their countries, especially in the communist about traditional culture, have no memory of the (China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kampuchea, and wars and the sufferings of their parents’ genera- Laos) and Islamic (Indonesia, Pakistan, Bangla- tion, and readily accept new ideas and practices. desh, Malaysia, and Central and Middle Eastern) Religious Resurgence. There are three large nations. Hindu nations (India and Nepal) and non-Christian religious groups which constitute Buddhist nations (Sri Lanka, Thailand, and the majority of Asia’s three billion people: one Myanmar) also bring pressure against Christian billion Muslims, 700 million Hindus, and 300 activities. In 1997 more than 83 percent of the million Buddhists (see Islam, Hinduism, Bud- Asian population resided in countries where the dhism). There has been a resurgence of major re- acquisition of a missionary visa was very limited. ligions in Asia and religions are used by the na- A creative access strategy is needed in order to tional governments to promote unity among facilitate alternative ways of carrying on mis- different tribes, cultural groups, and languages. sionary activities (see Creative Access Coun- The influence of Islam, seen in the reintroduc- tries). tion of ­Shari’a and the rise of Islamic fundamen- Second, as a result of this self-control, Asian talism, is growing. Malaysia exemplifies this. The nations are experiencing a resurgence of nation- Federation of Malaysia consists of West Malay- alism and traditional values. This resurgence sia, Sarawak, and Sabah. It has 22.3 million peo- which derives from chauvinistic, patriotic pas- ple, 52.5 percent of whom are Malays, 30 percent sion has been expressed in cultural, linguistic, Chinese, 8.1 percent Indians, and 8.9 percent tri- and religious ways. A common motto throughout bals. The Federation is trying to unite these dif- Asia is “Import Western technology, but retain ferent races through the unification of language your own traditional culture.” and religion. The Malaysian government en- Third, the rise of the communist threat was forced the Bahasa Malaysian program in which real throughout Asia during the Korean War the Malay language is used, instead of the ver- (1950–53) and the Vietnam War (1964–75). Com- naculars. Consequently, there has been a gradual munist ideology still controls over two billion assimilation of the Chinese and Indians into the people in China, North Korea, Vietnam, Kampu- Malay Islamic culture. chea, and Laos. In these countries the activities Buddhism, too, has been revived in Thailand, of national churches and of foreign religious Myanmar, Taiwan, Sri Lanka, and other Bud- workers are restricted. dhist nations. Throughout urban cities and rural Economic and Social Changes. One word communities one can observe thousands of de- that describes Asia the best is “changes,” for Asia vout Buddhists worshiping the statues of Bud- is rapidly changing in social and cultural pat- dha and offering food and burning incense in terns as well as in economic living standards. Buddhist temples. New building construction sites for high-rise In India, Hinduism was also revived through apartments, department stores, and government its reform movements such as Brammo Samaj, offices are commonly observed in major cities of Arya Samaj, and Rama Krishna Mission of the Asia. Rapid Urbanization, traffic congestion, air, nineteenth century. Radical Hindu followers of noise, and water pollution, drugs, prostitution, the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and and crime have marred the dreams of many the Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP) contributed Asians. The lifestyle of the urban cities is getting significantly to rejuvenate Hinduism and Hindu more materialistic, secularistic, and Western- nationalism in India and make minority commu- ized. However, rural people are still living as they nities of Muslims and Christians feel threatened always have for hundreds of years. There is a and insecure by insisting that a true Indian must widening gap between urban and rural and be- be a Hindu. tween rich and poor. With the increase in eco- In Japan, there is a renewed interest in tradi- nomic power, many Christians in Asia are not tional religious traditions, including some signs only able to manage their churches financially of increasing links between the state and Shinto- but also to support their own missionaries ism. Nevertheless, with rapid church growth in within and outside their borders. many nations in Asia, there has been an increas- With the rise of living standards and the rapid ing confrontation between Christianity and other Modernization of Asian society, Asians are fac- traditional religions of Asia. Therefore, it is cru- ing many social and cultural changes. The influx cial for the Asian church to learn how to deal of Western cultures into Asia through mass with the traditional religions of Asia. media by introducing Hollywood movies into Asia: The Least Evangelized Continent. Asia theaters and TV, rock music, fashion shows, and is the least evangelized continent in the world, other secular and hedonistic events along with with approximately 3 percent of the three billion fast food chains have made a tremendous impact people following Christ. Johnstone provides sta- upon Asian lifestyles. Consequently, there is an tistics of seven large Asian nations which have increasing gap between the older and younger small Christian populations, including China, 9 Asia

Taiwan, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Japan, and in the city of Sian in central China in 1625, a Thailand. The vast majority of the unreached Nestorian missionary from the Syrian church, people today reside in these countries. Alopen, went to China in a.d. 635. During the The AD2000 and Beyond Movement has em- Mongolian Empire of the twelfth to thirteenth phasized the evangelization of unreached peo- centuries, several Roman Catholic friars such as ples in the 10/40 Window. These countries cover John of Plano Carpini, John of Montecorvino, the whole continent of Asia from Japan to India, and William Rubruck went to China as mission- and from Central Asia to North Africa. The aries. Adopt-a-People Campaign of the U.S. Center for With the historic voyage of Vasco Da Gama to World Mission in Pasadena reports that there are Capetown, South Africa, in 1498 and to Malabar, approximately two billion people in 11,000 un- India, two years later, the Western colonial age reached people groups (out of a worldwide total known as “the Vasco Da Gama Age” began in of 24,000). Asia, Africa, and South America. Francis Xavier, The vast majority of these two billion are a Jesuit missionary, came to Kagoshima, Japan, found in four major blocs. The Islamic world in 1549 and ministered to the Japanese for more contains over one billion Muslims, most of than two years, moved to South China in 1552, whom reside in Asia, with over 4,000 unreached and died there after four months. Since then, Muslim people groups in the world. The Hindu thousands of other Roman Catholic missionaries world of India and Nepal represents more than have been commissioned to Asia. 700 million Hindus in 2,000 unreached groups. The beginning of the Protestant missions in Most of the 300 million Buddhists are found in the early eighteenth century heralded another Southeast and Northeast Asia, representing ap- era in Asia’s mission history. In 1706 the first proximately 1,000 unreached people groups. The Protestant missionaries arrived in South India Chinese in China today represent by far the larg- from Europe. The Danish-Halle Mission sent est number of unreached peoples in the world Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Henrich with 1.2 billion people, living in some 1,000 un- Plutschau to Tranquebar to work among the reached people groups. There are millions of Tamil-speaking Indians. In 1792 the Baptist Mis- other people who belong to 3,000 small individ- sionary Society in England­ commissioned Wil- ual tribes. Therefore, Asia still presents the great- liam Carey to Calcutta, India. He did missionary est challenge to Christian missions today and in work in India for forty-one years. In 1807 Rob- the next century. ert Morrison of the London Missionary Society Most nations in the 10/40 Window do not eas- came to Macao and translated the Bible into the ily grant visas for foreign missionary work. Ap- Chinese language. In 1813 Adoniram Judson proximately 20 percent of the total missionary from the United States arrived in Rangoon, force in the world works in these restricted na- Burma, and ministered to the Burmese for thir- tions in Asia. This means that the future focus of ty-seven years. Since then, thousands of other world missions in the twenty-first century must Protestant missionaries from Europe, North be on the two billion unreached peoples of Asia. America, and Australia/New Zealand have fol- With the development of modern transportation lowed these pioneers to work in different parts of and mass media through television, film, radio, Asia. telephone, fax, and e-mail service, we can now Church Growth in Asia. The amazing church know the background of these unreached peo- growth in Asia since the end of World War II has ples in Asia (see also Information Technology, been widely reported throughout the world. Sev- Media, and Mass Communication). The Global eral countries have experienced dramatic rates C onsultation o f Wo r l d E vangelization of church growth. The Christian population in (GCOWE ’95) which met in Seoul, Korea, with South Korea has reached 12 million Protestants 4,000 participants from 186 nations in May 1995 (25% of the population) and 2.4 million Roman adopted a motto, “A church for every people and Catholics (6% of the population) among 47 mil- the gospel for every person,” and challenged all lion people since the arrival of the first Protes- participants to pray especially for the unreached tant missionaries in Korea in 1884. China, the peoples of the world within the 10/40 Window. most populous nation in the world, had never Expansion of Christianity in Asia. The his- exceeded one percent Christian population until tory of Christianity in Asia goes back to the first the Peoples’ Republic of China was established century. According to the Acts of Thomas, St. in 1949. Since the modernization of China began Thomas came to the Malabar coast of Kerela, in 1979, the Christian population has sharply in- South India, to preach the gospel to the Indians creased. Some China watchers in Hong Kong re- and became a martyr near Madras in a.d. 72. The port that there are between 50 million and 70 Christian message penetrated into the regions of million Christians and 50,000 house churches Media, Persia, Parthia, and Bactria (modern (see Chinese House Church Movement), even Iraq, Iran, and Afghanistan) by a.d. 150. Accord- though the Three Self Patriotic Movement ing to the Nestorian Tablet which was discovered (TSPM) and the Communist Party only acknowl- 10 Asia edge the growth of the church from one million ing from social injustice and discrimination; and Protestant members in 11,470 churches in 1949 (7) spiritual renewal within the church is desper- to 7,000 state churches with 6 million Christians ately needed to bring spiritual revival among the and 20,000 registered home meetings in 1995. members of the church. There must be a discern- The Philippines, which is the only Roman ible difference between the lifestyles of Chris- Catholic nation in Asia, has a growing number of tians and their non-Christian neighbors. Protestant believers. Indonesia, with the largest The Asian Missionary Movement. It is en- Muslim population in the world, has also experi- couraging to observe that many Asian churches enced rapid church growth. After the communist particularly since 1970 have been sending their coup failed in Indonesia in 1966, President Su- own cross-cultural missionaries. Many Asian harto’s government guaranteed religious free- church leaders who attended the international dom to five major religions (Islam, Hinduism, missions congresses were deeply challenged for Buddhism, Protestantism, and Roman Catholi- the task of world evangelization, and as a result cism) according to the “Pantasila” policy in the organized their own national and regional evan- Constitution. Singapore, known as the cross- gelism congresses and missions consultations roads of Asia with a multiracial and multireli- (see Asian Mission Boards and Societies). gious background, has Protestant and Roman Consequently, the Asia Missions Association Catholic populations of 8 percent and 5.7 per- (AMA) was organized in 1973 to coordinate mis- cent respectively, particularly among educated sions agencies throughout Asia. In 1990 the First Chinese and Indians. Nepal, the only Hindu Asian Missions Congress was held in Seoul, kingdom in Asia, was very hostile to the gospel Korea, sponsored by the Missions Commission until a multipolitical party system developed in of the Evangelical Fellowship of Asia (EFA) with 1991. It has experienced remarkable church 1,200 participants from different parts of Asia. growth from only a handful of believers to over The theme of the congress was “World Missions: 52,000 Protestant members (0.56% of the popu- The Asian Challenge.” The Second Asian Mis- lation) and 2,100 Roman Catholics (0.02% of the sions Congress was held in Pattaya, Thailand, in population) today. 1997 with 350 participants with the theme, “Into Slower growth has been seen in countries the 21st Century: Asian Churches in Missions.” such as Japan, Taiwan, Thailand, and India. In 1997 approximately 30,000 Asian missionaries Minimal growth has been experienced in na- from India, Korea, Japan, Taiwan, Hong Kong, tions where there are tremendous struggles and Singapore, Malaysia, the Philippines, Indonesia, resulting pressures from unsympathetic govern- and others joined their hands with Western mis- mental and religious leaders, such as Pakistan, sionaries for world evangelization. Two nations Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, and the Mid- in Asia which sent out the largest number of dle Eastern nations. cross-cultural missionaries were India and South Seven Basic Issues of an Asian Church. Korea with 20,000 and 5,500 cross-cultural mis- Many Asian church leaders and theologians have sionaries respectively. discussed various issues of the Asian church Challenge of Asia to Christian Missions through different consultations. With the rapid Today. As Paul had his missionary concern for growth of the church in different parts of Asia, the Jews and Gentiles in Palestine, Asia Minor, the Asian churches are facing seven important Macedonia, Achaia, and Rome in the first cen- issues: (1) grassroots evangelism must be em- tury, so Asian Christians today must have their phasized in order to reach the vast number of deep prayerful concern to reach their own peo- non-Christians in Asia; (2) leadership training ple with the gospel of Christ on the grassroots for both full-time Christian workers and lay lead- level. How Paul evangelized the largest city of ers is needed since there is a tremendous short- Ephesus in Asia Minor in the first century pro- age of trained leaders at the local church level; vides a very significant missiological lesson to (3) since lay Christians play a very important the Asian church today. There are a number of role in church growth, there has been an increas- similarities between the Ephesus of Paul’s time ing demand for lay training programs; (4) na- and urban cities in Asia today and between the tional Christians must seriously evaluate their Ephesian church then and the Asian church in own contextual situation in order to find the our time. If Paul were to come to Asia today and most effective indigenous ways to communicate walk on the streets of Bombay, Singapore, Ja- the gospel of Jesus Christ (see Contextualiza- karta, Bangkok, Hong Kong, Shanghai, Taipei, tion); (5) theological issues emerging from vari- Seoul, and Tokyo, what kind of ministry would ous kinds of Asian theologies, religious Dia- he launch to bring the good news of the gospel of logue, Religious Pluralism, and Human Rights Jesus Christ to Asians? have created theological confusion in the Asian The city of Ephesus of the first century and theological arena; (6) Christian social responsi- Asian cities today have three main similarities. bility with its holistic approach must be empha- First, Ephesus, which was the largest city in Asia sized to help the poor and to alleviate the suffer- Minor with a population of 500,000, had a great 11 Asian Mission Boards and Societies harbor, emporium, library, commerce, educa- wonderful light. Once you were not a people, but tion, and culture. Likewise, Asian cities are now you are the people of God; once you had not crowded with the masses of people and many received mercy, but now you have received high-rise buildings developed in modern sur- mercy.” In centuries past God has used the roundings. Second, as Ephesus was the religious churches in Europe and North America to bring city with the temple of Artemis (Acts 19:23–41), the gospel to Asia, Africa, and South America. so is Asia today filled with spirits, idols, and su- Asia, known spiritually as the darkest continent perstitious beliefs of traditional religions of Hin- in the world with the least Christian population duism, Buddhism, Taoism, Shintoism, and of any continent, is experiencing God’s spiritual Islam. Third, Ephesus was a sinful city, as Paul awakening among its peoples. God has chosen described it as “having lost all sensitivity, they Asia and the Asian church in the twenty-first have given themselves over to sensuality so as to century to proclaim his wonderful light to mil- indulge in every kind of impurity, with a contin- lions of Asians and around the world. ual lust for more” (Eph. 4:19). Likewise, Asian Bong Rin Ro cities are filled with sin, crime, drugs, sexual im- morality, bribery, and injustice. Bibliography. S. Athyal, ed., Church in Asia Today; When Paul faced the great task of evangelizing D. E. Hoke, ed., The Church in Asia; S. H. Moffett, A History of Christianity in Asia; M. Mohamad and Ephesus and many other cities in Asia Minor S. Ishihara, The Voice of Asia; B. R. Ro, ed., Christian and Europe in his time, he concentrated on the Suffering in Asia; P. T. Welty, The Asians. leadership training of the Ephesian church by emphasizing the spiritual gifts: “It was he who Asian Mission Boards and Societies. General gave some to be apostles, some to be prophets, Description. Though Asian missionary activity is and some to be evangelists, and some to be pas- recorded as early as 1884, it was not until the tors and teachers, to prepare God’s people for works of service, so that the body of Christ may 1970s that the rest of the Christian world began be built up” (Eph. 4:11–12). There is a Chinese to notice this activity. In 1972, there were over proverb that teaches a similar lesson, “Give a 100 mission agencies in Asia. Growth continued man a fish and he will eat for a day. Teach a man so that out of the 1,541 Non-Western Mission to fish and he will have food for a lifetime.” It Boards and Societies known in 1995, more than was imperative, therefore, for Paul to train the 825 were Asian. The most active countries are leaders of the Ephesian church in order that they India (with an estimated 281 agencies in 1995), would be able to train others to bring the gospel Korea (113 agencies in 1994), Japan (63 agencies to 500,000 people in the city of Ephesus. Like- in 1995), and the Philippines (20 agencies in wise, the training of national church leaders in 1995). Well-known agencies include the Indian the Asian church today is also imperative in Mission Association, which in 1995 included 81 order to reach three billion Asians with the gos- member mission boards with some 10,000 In- pel. These spiritual leaders will be able to mobi- dian missionaries (with as many as 200 other In- lize the laity of the church at the grassroots level dian mission agencies not yet part of the Indian in order to penetrate into the non-Christian Mission Association). These numbers do not in- Asian society with the gospel of Christ. clude workers who operate independently within Therefore, three important proposals need to their own country. In the Philippines alone, it is be stressed for the evangelization of Asia. First, estimated that 2,000 nationals serve in this ca- the burden of communicating the gospel and pacity. making disciples in Asia today must rest primar- Characteristics. One important characteristic ily with the national Christians. Therefore, the of Asian missions is the phenomenon of mission- national church must implement the concept of aries crossing cultural boundaries within their “Christianization of the nation” among the na- own country. Following Caste divisions, some tional Christians. Second, effective church estimate that India has at least three thousand growth in Asia depends on the creative and spir- People Groups. The vast bulk of Indian mission- it-filled leadership of pastors and lay leaders. ary work is carried out within India. This is also Third, and finally, the top priority of the Asian seen in other major Asian missionary-sending church in the twenty-first century must be the countries such as Indonesia and Myanmar. training of national church leaders in order that A second characteristic is that Asian mission they would be able to mobilize the laity of the boards cannot be equated with Western agen- church. cies, which have elaborate structures and man- God has always worked through his chosen agement systems. Many of the Asian boards are people in the history of redemption. Peter says in still simple with inexpensive systems, relying 1 Peter 2:9–10, “But you are a chosen people, a more on faith than man-made management royal priesthood, a holy nation, a people belong- structures. This is especially true with the mis- ing to God, that you may declare the praises of sion agencies that send people within their own him who called you out of darkness into his country. Administrative overhead expenditures 12 Asian Mission Boards and Societies are therefore very low in comparison with West- (OMF) were pioneers in this endeavor. Pate esti- ern agencies. mates that somewhat more than 6 percent of the A third characteristic is that Asian boards are total Third World mission force serves with in- focusing their deployment into the 10/40 Win- ternational organizations. One of the advantages dow. Indian mission boards have sent approxi- of utilizing international agencies is the enjoy- mately five hundred missionaries into Nepal, ment of the benefit of already well-established Bhutan, and Uzbekistan. Most of the Myanmar field structures. missionaries stay within their own country, At the same time, however, there are prices to which is part of the 10/40 Window. There are ex- be paid for these inconveniences. The high cost ceptions, such as Korea, Japan, and Hong Kong, of supporting missionaries to equalize pay scales where the boards have greater financial re- between Westerner and non-Westerner is one. sources to send missionaries into non-Asian con- Additionally, the cultural differences within a texts and out of the 10/40 Window. multinational team (and organization) can be a Fourth, with some exceptions, there seems to source of problems. Finally, the fact that the be tremendous creativity in Asian mission non-Western missionaries often have to learn the boards. With very little support, for example, Ko- organization’s language (often English) in addi- rean missionaries are being sent to remote tion to the vernacular of their field of service places in China. Their boards, lacking the elabo- raises an extra barrier to the development of true rate communication and management structures partnership. of Western boards, have no choice but to allow a Conclusion. The Asian missionary movement great deal of freedom to the missionaries. This is still young. For the time being, Asian mission means that the missionaries must be more able boards can afford to be simple without elaborate to stand on their own and be willing to suffer support systems, such as retirement plans, a more than the average Western missionaries. Ad- complicated pastoral care system, and large ditionally, without senior missionaries on hand schools for missionary children (MK). The hon- to provide supervision, oversight, and pastoral eymoon period, however, is rapidly disappearing. care, the new missionaries are forced to exercise Missionaries from countries such as Korea, great creativity sometimes just to survive the rig- Japan, and India are struggling with the educa- ors of the field. tion of their children. The cases are so complex Fifth, there is a surprisingly high rate of finan- for Korean mission boards that it has taken al- cial autonomy among Asian mission boards. Re- most a decade to get a consensus on the objec- cent estimates indicate that 91 percent of the tives for MK education. Additionally, field struc- Asian boards are funded by indigenous sources. tures also present tremendous challenges. So far, This is particularly true of Japanese and Korean a scattered effort without much teamwork boards, and most missionaries from these coun- among the Asian missionaries satisfied some tries are well supported by sponsoring churches Asian churches. Currently there is a need for and agencies. Missionaries from India, the Phil- field structures to coordinate and encourage a ippines, and Indonesia have generally not fared team effort. It will take time and effort to cre- as well. atively formulate infrastructures that are new, The final characteristic is the mix of denomi- affordable, and flexible enough for the ev- national and parachurch sending agencies. In er-changing world. countries such as Korea and Japan denomina- Maintaining the momentum of the Asian mis- tional boards are the major contributors to the sionary movement is a heavy burden that Asian mission board scenario. In Korea, both Hap mission boards must carry. Logically this burden Dong and Tong Hap Presbyterians are the two should be borne by the Asian church. However, largest sending agencies. Between them they the Asian church is being bombarded with secu- send out more than one-fourth of the missionar- larism and is threatened by major traditional ies from Korea. By way of contrast, the vast ma- Asian religions. Can the Asian mission boards jority of the members of the Indian Mission As- still afford to do missions, even when it is be- sociation are parachurch organizations. coming more costly and risky? Probably not Relationships with International Agencies. without the initiative taken by Asian churches. Some of the early attempts to send out Asian The well-being of the Asian mission movement missionaries were through indigenous mission and the future of Asian mission boards will agencies. An Indian Methodist was sent to Ma- greatly depend on how the Asian church tackles laysia in 1884. The Korean Presbyterian Foreign these challenges. Mission Board sent out the first team of David Tai Woong Lee cross-cultural missionaries to Shantung, China, Bibliography. L. Pate, From Every People: A Hand- in 1913. International mission agencies began to book of Two-Thirds World Mission with Directory/Histo- formulate sending bases in Asia during the ries/Analysis; Korea Research Institute for Mission, 1960s. The Christian and Missionary Alliance Korean Mission Handbook; L. Keyes, The Last Age of (CMA) and the Overseas Missionary Fellowship Missions; H. Y. Kim, From Asia to Asia: A Study on Mis- 13 Australian Mission Boards and Societies sion History of the Presbyterian Church in Korea (1876– A second bittersweet change has been the 1992). change in relationships with emerging national churches. It has been satisfying to see the young Australian Mission Boards and Societies. churches come of age, but it has also been pain- Overview. Australian churches have been send- ful for the mission to deal with the transition in ing and supporting missionaries for more than a relationships from parent to partner. Problems century. Each of the ten evangelical denomina- have surfaced regularly around requests from tions have mission boards and/or societies. In ad- the new church for workers and funding which dition, Australia has at least ninety interdenomi- appear to the society to be unwarranted. national agencies. Thirty of these are either new Other areas of change include the struggle to or small and are not registered as members of keep up with available technology; the inroads of Missions Interlink, the national missions associa- modernity; the frustration of having to process tion. and prepare candidates who come from dysfunc- The Australian missions family is diverse. tional families or immature churches; the reali- Some missions have a long, rich heritage; others zation that the gospel has a holistic application carry the zeal of a new vision. Some have strong (see Holistic Mission); the need for Contingency international linkages; others have only a small Plans to safeguard missionaries in an increas- local committee of volunteers. Some have more ingly hostile world; the need to prepare tentmak- than one hundred missionaries; others support ers for ministry in creative access countries (see indigenous church workers. In 1995, Australian Tentmaking Mission); and the urgent need to re- missions who were members of Missions Inter- cruit people under thirty years of age as career link supported 1,850 overseas workers and 1,485 missionaries and board members. home staff. These figures do not include overseas Contemporary Challenges. Underlying most indigenous church workers who are also sup- of the contemporary challenges facing Australian ported by Australian churches and societies. mission boards and societies is the need to The Path to the Present. Australia is an island understand the thinking of young people under nation. Before the days of relatively cheap and thirty years of age, in order to recruit them as fast jet travel, most Australians did not venture long-term career missionaries and board mem- out of the country. They lived in a country where bers. Missions Interlink has set a goal of identify- the churches exercised considerable influence ing one thousand young people who have de- and where every child was taught religion in cided to become missionaries in the future and school. The Second World War ended the isola- to nurture them toward meaningful involvement tion. Young Australians fought in a war far from in the missionary movement. home. While some returned home embittered A second challenge relates directly to the need and sad, others brought with them a new under- to recruit young people. At least 20 percent of standing of the needs of the world and of other Australian societies cannot remain viable with peoples and cultures. This awareness strength- their current level of staff or finances. Some have ened the missionary cause and resulted in a new reduced home staff in order to lessen expendi- wave of voluntarism. In the fifty years since the ture. The way societies finance their operations war, the advent of television, overseas travel, and is under review by those societies who have the access to modern technology have further re- expertise. The concept of team support will be duced the insularity of many Australians. Mo- challenged and reviewed. Some larger churches dernity has brought a negative side as well, are challenging the concept now, by fully sup- which hinders the efforts of both churches and porting their own workers but not allowing for mission societies. the societies’ costs. Some societies are in dia- Along the path to the present, the mission soci- logue with possible compatible partners with a eties have been forced to change and adapt to view to amalgamation. Unless the size of the re- ensure their long-term viability. Some changes source base can be enlarged, it seems inevitable have been of great significance. Formerly, mis- that some societies will soon cease to exist. sionaries received financial support by one of One way of increasing the level of support for three methods—a salary from the mission, a the missionary task is to mount an effective edu- share of gifts made to the general fund of the cation program in the churches about the bibli- mission, or whatever the Lord supplied through cal basis for the mission of the church and the churches and friends. While some denomina- ways in which the church can be involved in tional boards still pay salaries, most boards have changing the world. Many pastors cannot under- introduced a system of team support for their take this task, so the missions must. The small missionaries. The change has meant a better in- number of missions who already have church come for most missionaries, but it has negatively education programs cannot meet the demand. impacted their time for rest during home assign- Proper care of the missionary family will be a ment, as well as the general funds of their mis- prime responsibility, especially for the younger sion. generations who demand this. Care begins with 14 Bible Translation proper candidate processing, orientation, and that language was not adequate for communica- training. Care continues to be a responsibility tion, the Word was translated so it would have through a term of missionary service, and ex- maximum impact (Ezra, Nehemiah, and Acts 2). tends through debriefing and reentry to the In the Greek-speaking world of the intertesta- home scene (see Member Care in Missions). mental period it became evident that the Hebrew Finally, Australian boards and societies will Torah was not understood by the Jews of the Di- face the dual challenges of completing the task aspora (nor by the Romans and barbarians), so with the churches they have already started and the Septuagint (LXX) came into being. The ne- finding the keys to successful church planting in cessity of understanding what God had to say the more resistant Hindu, Buddhist, and Islamic was most evident in the Holy Spirit’s enabling cultures. the apostles to declare the wonders of God in the John Tanner languages of those who heard (Acts 2:11). Fur- thermore, the apostle Paul and the other New Beaver, Robert Pierce (1906–87). American mis- Testament writers used the language of the day sions scholar and missionary to China. Born, not only to communicate their message to their raised, and educated in Ohio, he went on to Cor- particular audiences, but also to clarify Old Tes- nell University and obtained a doctorate in his- tament passages. tory in 1933. After pastoring several Evangelical In the first four hundred years of Christianity, and Reformed churches, he and his wife, the for- translations of the Scriptures into Syriac, Cop- mer Wilma Manessier, went to China in 1938 tic, Gothic, and Latin contributed to reaching under the Evangelical and Reformed Church, the peoples of the Near East, Egypt, northern where he taught at the Central China Union Europe, and the Roman Empire respectively. Theological Seminary in southern Hunan Prov- More recently, the impact of the Reformation ince. This service was cut short by the Japanese can be traced in part to the availability of Scrip- invasion of China; ultimately, Beaver was in- ture in the languages of the people (Old En- terned in Hong Kong for seven months. Follow- glish, German, French, and Italian). The con- ing his repatriation, he taught at the Lancaster cept of the translatability of Scripture is central Theological Seminary until 1948. Beaver’s great- to understanding biblical history as well as est contributions to missiology came from his modern missions. leadership of the Missionary Research Library in At the turn of the nineteenth century, William New York from 1948 to 1955 and his teaching at Carey was instrumental in the translation of the University of Chicago from 1955 to 1973. Scripture into many of the languages of India. De- From these two strategic posts he gathered im- spite incredible odds, Robert Morrison was able portant mission papers and documents, created a in sixteen years to translate the entire Bible into mission research center, taught future missionar- Chinese. Bible societies were formed at the begin- ies and mission scholars, wrote on crucial mis- ning of the nineteenth century to provide funds sion topics, and motivated his own denomination for the printing of vernacular Scriptures. Their and others to implement God’s mission in the work continued in the twentieth century under world. Following three years as director of the the Wycliffe Bible Translators, an organization Overseas Ministries Study Center in Ventnor, that has been central to the story of mission ex- New Jersey, he retired in 1976 to Arizona, where pansion to unreached peoples through­out the he died in 1987. world. In short, translation has been part of God’s Ralph R. Covell communication to human beings from the time Bibliography. R. P. Beaver, All Loves Excelling: Amer- of creation. God wants all people (whom he cre- ican Protestant Women in World Mission; idem, ed., ated) to know what he says and to understand his American Missions in Bicentennial Perspective; F. D. Word within their particular context, wherever Lucking; ML, pp. 452–58. and whenever that may be (see Translation The- ory). Bible Translation. The primary objective of Translation as Mission Strategy. Bible trans- Bible translation is to make God’s Word available lation as a mission strategy greatly impacted to all the people of the world in the language evangelization, church planting, and growth in they know best—their mother tongue. Transla- both numbers and maturity during the last half tion has been central to communicating God’s of the twentieth century. In 1950, the entire Bible Word from the beginning of time. was available in 105 languages and the New Tes- Translation Throughout History. In the be- tament in 229. The decade of the 1960s saw the ginning God spoke, and what he said was mani- number of languages in which the whole Bible fest in the creation—the first translation (Gen. 1; was available more than double, while the de- Rom. 1). Throughout the ages, whenever God cades of the 1970s and 1980s saw a steady 50 interacted with human beings, he used their lan- percent increase in the number of languages into guage within a particular cultural context. When which the New Testament had been translated. 15 Bible Translation

By 1995 the numbers had grown to 349 and 841 translator, and those who received the transla- respectively, with at least one book of the Bible tion. In this way people came to understand God available in 2,092 different languages. from the perspective of the missionary-transla- tor—and Scripture, for them, was often foreign. The Growing Number of Languages with Ironically, the majority of people around the Complete Translations world understand the cultural contexts in the The Entire The New Bible much better than do Western missionaries. Year Bible Testament Their kinship and social structures, as well as economic, political, and religious concerns, are 1950 105 229 much more similar to the biblical context than to 1960 123 260 the context of translators impacted by the En- 1970 249 329 lightenment. The growing awareness of the im- 1980 275 495 portance of both language and culture raises the 1990 318 726 questions of who should be translators and what 1995 349 841 is the role of consultants in this process. There has been a rising interest in training national The availability of the Scriptures has enabled translators. people to build the church on the foundation of Translation Training. People with expertise in God’s Word, to apply it to their own theological their own cultural context are asking to be in- development, and to guard against heresy in volved in the translation process. For too long, their particular context. While not a tool kit for translations have been viewed as the end product church growth, vernacular translation does help of a highly technical process that can be mastered to create an environment for church growth. only by linguistically and theologically trained ex- Never before in the history of humankind have perts. This perspective is changing to a focus on people had the freedom to search the Scriptures translation as being the responsibility of the for themselves in their own language. A vernacu- church and an ongoing work in the process—a lar Scripture provides nurture and witness that part of over four thousand years of biblical his- impacts the way people live—it is a tool for con- tory. version and relevant Christian living, not a colo- With the increase in education, self-awareness, nial formula for coercion. and sophistication, nationals want to be involved The Impact of Linguistics and Anthropology. in the translation process to ensure local aware- During this same period, the science of Linguis- ness of what God in fact said. On the other hand, tics and the work of anthropologists brought the exegetical and linguistic skills necessary for new insight to the translation effort. Eugene Ni- understanding what God said in the original da’s landmark work Toward a Science of Transla- texts and contexts are not quickly learned and tion (1964) paved the way for the development of passed on. Accordingly, there is an increasing translation as an academic discipline in its own emphasis on making translation a team enter- right. New understandings of Communication prise implemented from within the church. The theory and its applicability to translation theory Bible societies have long encouraged utilizing became evident. And just as translations must national translators, while missionaries super- “talk right” to be understood, translators came to vise the projects and international consultants realize that the people whose lives are presented ensure the exegetical faithfulness of the transla- in the translations must also “act right.” There- tion. Wycliffe and other translation-oriented or- fore, studies of the social context and cultural ganizations are developing aids that will facili- activity are important to translators as they seek tate the understanding of source texts. Programs to communicate in a particular language and are being designed to train nationals to translate culture. Studies indicate that the inferences peo- into their own languages or into another lan- ple make about what is being said come out of guage spoken in their country. This provides op- their cultural expectations. Unless they are told portunity for all segments of the church to con- otherwise, these basic assumptions constrain tribute to the process and to collaborate to them to associate the meaning of a text with the benefit the entire Christian and non-Christian behavioral forms therein, thereby biasing their community. understanding of what God intended. The Impact of Translation. With national in- The basic problem in translation throughout dependence, a political phenomenon throughout the colonial period was that well-intentioned the world in the latter half of the twentieth cen- missionaries brought their own theological and tury, has come a growing sense of religious inde- cultural biases to the interpretation of Scripture. pendence. Rather than do things the way the co- Often they inadvertently passed on their misun- lonialists did, people increasingly desire to derstanding of the original linguistic and cul- express themselves in ways appropriate to their tural setting. This resulted in a clash of world- own values and beliefs. As they read Scripture in views between the contexts of the Bible, the the major languages of the world, or a regional 16 Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies trade language, they may come to think of God cultural conscience (Rom. 2:14–16). Jesus af- as foreign to their vernacular context. However, firmed that he came to give abundant life (John when God’s communication to human beings is 10:10), which is possible only as people live up to couched in their own language and culture, its their own cultural expectations. Further, trans- power and authority come to them directly. lated Scripture provides authority for Christian Desmond Tutu maintains that the Bible is a doctrine and the development of theology within revolutionary text because it helps people under- the church and the community. It also becomes stand that God created all human beings for rela- the standard for both determining appropriate tionship with him and with each other. The Bible discipline and avoiding heresy. empowers the powerless and forces the powerful God’s Word, available in the cultures and lan- to recognize their own weakness before God. guages of the world, has resulted in changed life- Such knowledge enables people to exercise per- styles and new allegiance to him who created, sonal freedom while at the same time recogniz- loves, sustains, and speaks to all human beings. ing the plurality of contexts in which God inter- This provides the basis for that wonderful scene acts—with all peoples. Hence vernacular described by the apostle John: “a great multitude Scripture provides people with spiritual under- that no one could count, from every nation, standing and encourages harmony. It promotes a tribe, people and language, standing before the celebration of differences rather than a focus on throne and in front of the Lamb . . . And they difference—unity in plurality, not division based cried out in a loud voice: ‘salvation belongs to on contrast (Gal. 3:28–29). Thus no people group our God who sits on the throne and to the lamb’” can be truly independent, but needs to recognize (Rev. 7:9–10). It takes the multiplicity of views its interdependence with others, even as they ex- expressed in all the languages of the world to ad- press mutual dependence on God. Through trans- equately give honor and praise to God. To that lated Scripture people are able to develop an end may we diligently seek to make the sparks of awareness of God and understand their relation- divine truth known to the nations through the ship to him. Because of the Word they are able to availability of translated Scripture. Through the establish their own Christian priorities and re- Word made known, through creation, church sponsibility for nurture, growth, and witness. No history, and the application of cultural, exegeti- longer bound by what others say, they can de- cal and linguistic tools, people can grasp the sig- velop their own theology and apply it to daily liv- nificance of God in their midst and use that ing. understanding to build his body, the church. Inasmuch as God speaks every language re- R. Daniel Shaw gardless of the number of its native speakers, we must apply God’s message to each language and Bibliography. K. Barnwell, Introduction to Seman- culture. Translators must utilize the entire as- tics and Translation; J. Beekman, J. J. Callow, and M. Kopesec, The Semantic Structure of Written Com- semblage of communication style and genres munication; D. S. Gilliland, The Word among Us: Con- necessary for people to appreciate God’s message textualizing Theology for Mission Today; M. L. Larson, to them. This suggests that translation must go Meaning-Based Translation; P. Newmark, Approaches to far beyond the print media utilized by transla- Translation; E. A. Nida, Toward a Science of Translation; tors from the West and employ a multiplicity of L. Sanneh, Translating the Message; R. D. Shaw, Trans­ media (audio, video, drama, mime, etc.) with a culturation; idem, Notes on Translation 8 (1994): 44–50; plurality of formats (stories, comedy, art, musi- E. R. Wendland, The Cultural Factor in Bible Transla- cal presentations and dance) recognized and tion; R. Winter, Reaching the Unreached, pp. 17–44. used by the people of the society. External ex- perts must combine their skills with internal ex- Brazilian Mission Boards and Societies. Bra- perts to produce a translation that effectively zilian Protestants, established in the early nine- communicates to a particular community. To teenth century, were slow to undertake mission this end translation organizations have estab- work overseas. Brazil, with its vast territory, was lished an international consortium with the ex- seen as a mission field. There are numerous his- press purpose of training translators and making torical reasons for the lack of indigenous mis- God’s Word available to every people group. sionaries: churches were supported by foreign Once a translation is available, it takes on in- mission boards; when money was available it carnational identity within the target commu- was enough only to pay a local pastor; there was nity. God’s truth and the truth of the culture in- no knowledge of mission fields outside Brazil; teract to establish Christian truth for that the missionaries failed to see the Brazilian particular context. Vernacular Scripture both af- churches as capable of participating in the mis- firms local behavior and traditions and critiques sionary enterprise; some denominations were other behaviors and practices with which God directed by missionaries and they did not see the would not be pleased in any human context. It need for sending missionaries from Brazil since also critiques cultural practices that the people their mission board at home was doing exactly themselves often recognize as going against their that; and the thought that there were so much to 17 Canadian Mission Boards and Societies be done in Brazil before venturing overseas was selves as such. Most Brazilians serve under prevalent (and to some extent still is) among structures that identify themselves as either “in- Brazilian church leaders. terdenominational” (34%) or “traditional/ The rise of indigenous missionary efforts non-Pentecostal” (40%). Clearly the potential of started around 1911, when the Presbyterians the Pentecostal wing of the Brazilian church has sent Mota Sobrinho as their first missionary to not yet been realized in missions. Portugal with the intent to revitalize the Portu- A common “meeting point” for Brazil’s struc- guese Presbyterian Church. This first effort was tures has been the AMTB (Association of Brazil- supported by Presbyterians from Brazil, Portu- ian Cross-cultural Missions). This association is gal, and Scotland. The Baptists organized their Brazilian-led and seeks to assist Brazil’s missions Missions Board in 1907 and Chile and Portugal by promoting consultations, missions publica- were among the first counties to receive their tions, and partnerships among its constituency. help. The major indigenous boards and agencies With some regularity AMTB sponsors a Bra- among the denominations are the Assemblies of zil-wide national missions congress. God and the Baptist Convention. They are totally Preferred Fields of Service. There are Brazil- supported by Brazilian funds. ians developing all kinds of missionary work on Faith Missions started to appear in the late six continents, including evangelism, theological 1960s as a result of an awakening for missions, and secular education, planting churches, and when many local churches started to have their medical services. As might be expected, Brazil’s own missions conferences. Books, articles, and younger agencies tend to begin by sending their many lectures were given, challenging the Brazil- missionaries to fields relatively close to Brazil. ian churches to participate in mission. Kairós The great majority (64%) of Brazil’s missionaries and Missão Antioquia are the major autochtho- are serving in Latin America, Spain, or Portugal. nous agencies and support for their missionaries However, what is surprising to note is the signif- is raised in and out of Brazil. icant growth in the number and percentage of The sending of Brazilians as missionaries into Brazilians serving in resistant countries and cross-cultural ministry contexts (both inside and among peoples of the 10/40 Window. In 1989 outside Brazil) has grown rapidly in recent years. only 5 percent of Brazil’s missions force served Figures from a 1998 missions census show some in the 10/40 Window. By 1998 that percentage 2,200 Brazilians deployed in 84 counties around had grown to 13 percent. the world. Most consider the 1987 Ibero-Ameri- Brazil is expected, with Korea, to be one of the can missions congress held in São Paulo (see CO- principal countries sending out missionaries MIBAM) to be the watershed event. From that over the next decade. Training for the mission- date the number of Brazilians serving cross-­ ary, his or her character, loyalty in sending the culturally has more than doubled, the number of promised support, and partnership with receiv- Brazilian boards and agencies has significantly ing churches are areas that need attention in the increased, and the Brazilian evangelical church future if the Brazilian churches want to grow in has seen itself as a potential “mission force” their ability to participate meaningfully in the rather than a “missions field.” missionary task. The Structures. Brazilians are being sent by Antonio C. Barro and Ted Limpic the following different types of missions struc- tures: denominational boards (34%), interde- Canadian Mission Boards and Societies. Sam- nominational Brazilian agencies (33%), interna- uel de Champlain, who founded Quebec city tional agencies with Brazilian leadership (19%), (1608), declared, “The salvation of a single soul international agencies with non-Brazilian leader- is worth more than the conquest of an empire.” ship (12%), and local churches (1%). Nearly 90 He was sympathetic to the French Calvinistic percent of Brazil’s missionaries are serving under Huguenots, several of whom accompanied him Brazilian leadership. and settled in Acadia/Novia Scotia (1605) and The interdenominational Brazilian agencies Quebec (1608). However, the early influence of have been the fastest growing over recent years. these Protestants was snuffed out by the Jesuits, These agencies are most often simple structures; who arrived in 1611, and gained control of “New a board and an executive director. Office staffs France” by 1620, blocking further Huguenot im- are typically small and minimally resourced. The migration. agencies see themselves as “servants” to the Jesuit, Franciscan, and other Roman Catholic church and seek to partner with local congrega- missionaries suffered much physical hardship tions in training, deploying, and maintaining the and, in some cases, torture and death at the missionaries. hands of those they sought to win to the Church. Although 80 percent of the Brazilian evangeli- Outreach to the far West was carried on chiefly cal church identifies itself as Pentecostal or char- by the Oblates of Mary Immaculate (OMI). ismatic, only 7 percent of the sending structures An early Protestant pioneer was Johann Chris- (sending 22% of the missionaries) identify them- tian Erhardt, a Moravian who visited Labrador 18 Caribbean in 1752 but was killed by the Inuit. Other Mora- 1960s, Canadian foreign missionaries numbered vians arrived in 1764 and established self-sup- over four thousand. The highest proportion of porting Christian settlements (see also Moravian these came from Associated Gospel (AGC), Mission). English medical missionary Wilfred T. Brethren, and Fellowship of Evangelical Bap- Grenfell drew world attention to the plight of tists churches, although the majority served out- the native peoples of Labrador by his work 140 side their own denominational missions—most years later. under missions are linked with the Interdenom- John Eliot’s 1661 translation of the New Tes- inational Foreign Missions Association (Can- tament for the Algonquins (who extended into ada Branch). Most evangelical denominational Upper Canada) was the forerunner of Bible missions are linked with the Evangelical Fel- translations that spurred Protestant mission in lowship of Mission Agencies (USA) through Canada. The first non-English publication of the their member bodies in America. Other global British and Foreign Bible Society was the Gospel evangelistic associations registered in Canada of Mark, translated by a Mohawk chief (pub- include AD 2000, Lausanne Committee on lished 1804). The Church Mission Society un- World Evangelism (LCWE; see Lausanne Move- dertook the evangelization of the west and north. ment), and World Evangelical Fellowship. A Methodist missionary invented a syllabic script As to media-related global outreach from Can- for a Cree translation. Presbyterians and others ada, Bible Stories Alive (“A Visit with Mrs. G.”) joined in the outreach. By 1914 those efforts had produces and records dramatized Bible stories in resulted in an estimated three-quarters of native 30 languages and ships tapes to 170 countries. Canadians becoming Christian. However, since These are also broadcast by international mis- then, native peoples have suffered the impact of sionary radio stations (ELWA, FEBC, HCJB, social vices and face great spiritual and physical TWR) and are on 500 radio stations in America problems. Today native churches and missions alone. A high-tech counterpart is Galcom Inc., a continue pastoral and missionary outreach radionics mission which has developed so- among their own people. lar-powered, pocket-sized, fix-tuned radio receiv- Increasingly, Canadians responded to the call ers and distributes them around the world—es- of missions overseas. Among the pioneers were pecially significant in “limited access” countries. Baptist Samuel Day (India 1835); Presbyterians In 1996 the Evangelical Fellowship of Canada George L. MacKay (China 1888); Salvationist revived the EFC Task Force on Missions, which Rowland V. B ingham (Africa 1893); Baptists Ar- works with church and agency leaders seeking to chibald and Jean Reekie (Bolivia 1898). Pente- maximize the effectiveness of Canadian evangel- costal missions began developing early in the icals in global mission. As well, EFC has recom- 1900s, with four Canadians taking part in a pro- missioned Vision Canada 2000 to promote evan- ject in Liberia (1908). gelization within the nation. Two Canadians who launched global missions Acceptability of Canadian missionaries is en- were close friends and fellow gospel entrepre- hanced in certain sensitive nations, because they neurs. Albert B. Simpson began as a Canadian see it as a tolerant, conciliatory country that is Presbyterian before moving to pulpits in the not a major world power. The country’s multicul- United States. Trainer of missionaries, editor, turalism and pluralism have led some non-Cana- and author, he founded the Christian and Mis- dian missions to use its ethnic communities as a sionary Alliance in 1897. Bingham, Simpson’s base for orientating candidates headed for other friend, pioneered the Sudan Interior Mission (see lands. Canada’s missionary heritage and its Society for International Ministries) in 1893, human and financial resources position it to play opened Canada’s Keswick spiritual life confer- an active part in the cause of world missions. ence as a mission-sending base, and initiated a mission-focused­ magazine, a publishing house, W. Harold Fuller and a mission to the armed forces. Bibliography. A. J. Austin, Evangelical Studies Bulle- In 1928, another Presbyterian minister, Os- tin. Spring 1997; J. W. Grant, ed., The Churches and the wald J. Smith, started Peoples Church, a non-­ Canadian Experience; A. Motz, ed., Reclaiming a Na- denominational work that gained international tion; G. A. Rawlyk and M. A. Noll, Amazing Grace; B. C. missions fame. Traveling to 80 countries, Smith Stiller, From the Tower of Babel to Parliament Hill. contributed to missiology through slogans, the “faith pledge,” many of his 1200 hymns, poems, Caribbean. The nations of the Caribbean have a and gospel songs, and his 35 books (six million diverse population of 40 million people who oc- copies, 128 languages). cupy twenty-five major islands and hundreds of World War II exposed Christian members of smaller ones. The region has long been referred Canada’s armed forces to the spiritual and phys- to as a “Naboth’s vineyard,” an unspoiled natural ical needs of other lands. Reports influenced paradise whose serenity, resources, and vulnera- groups such as the Mennonites to become active bility have led frequently to political interven- in missions and development projects. By the tion, economic exploitation, and cultural intru- 19 Caribbean sion. Three hundred years of competition which the United States purchased from Den- between the Spanish, French, Dutch, and British mark in 1917. empires, a later hegemony by the United States, The Caribbean population is ethnically 35 per- international commercial and tourist develop- cent Afro-Caribbean, 31 percent Creole-mulatto, ment, and ideological tensions—the most recent 30 percent European, and 4 percent Asian. The of which have been caused by Fidel Castro’s few thousand Amerindians who survive are the communist Cuba—have given the Caribbean a remnants of the native Carib and Arawak popu- colorful but often tragic history. The religious lations that probably numbered at least picture that follows from these conditions is a 300,000—if not as many as one million—at the blurred mosaic of churches, social movements, time of European intrusion. Linguistically, 60 and cults that to a large extent recapitulate the percent of the population speak Spanish, 20 per- region’s turbulent past. cent French, 17 percent English, and 3 percent The nature of Christianity in the Caribbean Dutch. follows from three basic facts of the region’s so- The Religious Profile. The religious prefer- cial history. First, its ethnic composition is the ences of the Caribbean peoples correspond result of the virtual elimination of the indige- roughly to their ethnic and national origins. nous peoples within decades of the discovery of Roman Catholics make up 60 percent of the pop- the islands in the late fifteenth century and the ulation, Protestants 20 percent, spiritists 9 per- introduction of perhaps as many as 5 million Af- cent, and members of Eastern religions—Hin- rican slaves over a period of three centuries to d u s , B u d d h i s t s , S i k h s , M u s l i m s , and support production of sugar, the region’s main Baha’is—about 3 percent. An estimated 9 percent cash crop. Second, the Caribbean has a frag- of the inhabitants are considered nonreligious. mented religious and cultural character as a re- The Jehovah’s Witnesses, with some members in sult of European imperial rivalry, its proximity most of the islands, claim 50,000 in the French to mainland North and South America, and the territories of Haiti, Martinique, and Guadeloupe. importation of indentured workers, including The Roman Catholic traditions of the peoples East Indian laborers in the nineteenth century. of Cuba, the Dominican Republic, and Puerto Rico, who together account for more than half of Third, notwithstanding the high mortality rates the total Caribbean population, are a product of in the region from endemic disease and unhy- the early missionaries and a colonial administra- gienic conditions, the Caribbean in the twenti- tion that lasted in the case of Cuba and Puerto eth century had continuing appeal as a paradise, Rico for four hundred years, from 1492 to the not only for tourism and commercial exploita- Spanish-American War of 1898. Consequently, tion, but for political and social experimenta- the Roman Catholic Church in the region bene- tion. Besides Cuban socialism, the region has fits from deep religious loyalties, even in Puerto had a long history of social uprisings, progres- Rico, where an evangelical minority has as- sive labor unions, and populist parties, the most sumed an important role, and in Cuba, where recent led by Maurice Bishop in Grenada and Atheism prevails officially. Michael Man­ley in Jamaica. The picture is quite different in the colonies As a consequence, the insular Caribbean, in- and former dependencies of the British Empire, cluding the Greater Antilles (Cuba, the island of including Jamaica, the Bahamas, Bermuda, Bar- Hispaniola [occupied by the Dominican Repub- bados, Trinidad, and several of the Lesser Antil- lic and Haiti], Jamaica, and Puerto Rico) and the les. There Anglicans and Methodists, dating from Lesser Antilles, the archipelago that extends British colonial days, tend to predominate. On from the Bahamas in the north to Trinidad off the island of Anguilla, for example, the Protes- the Venezuelan coast, offers a complex social tant population reaches 90 percent, and on sev- profile. While the islands are distinguished by eral others, Antigua and Barbuda, the British their geologic origins and their location (e.g., the Virgin Islands, the Cayman Islands, Montserrat, northern Lesser Antilles are known as the Lee- Saint Kitts and Nevis, and the Turks and Caicos ward Islands and the southern as the Wind- Islands, the proportion is above 80 percent. Nev- wards), more often the islands are grouped ac- ertheless, observers sometimes conclude, nomi- cording to their former or actual colonial status: nal adherence with little commitment character- the former Spanish possessions of Cuba, the Do- izes the faith of many Caribbean Protestants. minican Republic, and Puerto Rico; the several In contrast, Roman Catholic influence predom- British islands of Jamaica and the Lesser Antil- inates in the island societies that formed under les, the Bahamian and Cayman clusters, and French cultural influence—even those like Domi- Trinidad and Tobago; the French possessions of nica, Grenada, and Saint Lucia, which later came Haiti, Guadeloupe, Martinique, Saint Martin, under British jurisdiction—although without the and Saint Bathélemy; the Dutch possessions of status and public support that the Catholic Aruba, Bonaire, Curaçao, Saint Martin, Saba, Church has enjoyed in the former Spanish posses- and Saint Eustatius; and the Virgin Islands, sions. Although Haiti’s evangelical population is 20 Caribbean substantial—as much as a quarter of that coun- than 15 percent. Nevertheless, on some islands try’s 7 million—prolonged and sometimes inten- the better-established churches and various Bap- sive effort at Protestant evangelization has not al- tist, Holiness, and Pentecostal groups appear to tered the essential character of Haitian culture, be making headway. In several of the islands the and the Protestant community in the other largest or second largest Protestant group is the French areas is generally much smaller, as low as Seventh-Day Adventists. only 4.1 percent of the inhabitants of Guadeloupe. Pervasive Spiritism. The mainly Afro-Carib- Two other patterns are observable in the Carib­ bean and Creole-mulatto character of the island bean’s religious configuration. In the Dutch is- population has important religious and cultural lands of Aruba, Bonaire, and Curaçao, nominally overtones. While Europeans of Spanish descent Catholic societies, the evangelical population is make up substantial proportions in Cuba and quite small, as it is also in the Virgin Islands of the Puerto Rico, the other European populations are United States, the Cayman Islands, and the Baha- but a small minority of their respective island so- mas, where also the process of Secularization is cieties. From the Afro-Caribbean cultural major- well advanced. In contrast, in Trinidad, along ity have emerged strong religious influences, with the mainland states of Guyana and Surinam, such as Afro-Cuban Santería, Jamaican Rastafar- substantial numbers of East Indians form Hindu ianism, and Trinidadian Shango and Obeah. and Muslim communities that retain distinctive Spiritists (Voodoo, Vodun) acquired political im- religious practices and compete with the previ- portance in Haiti during the years of the dictator ously established Afro-Caribbean communities François “Papa Doc” Duvalier, and Rastafarian- for recognition and control. ism, which identified in the post–World War II These descriptive categories, however, indicate period with Emperor Haile Selassie, has gained little about the human aspirations and the reli- support in Jamaica. These, however, are only the gious dynamics of the area. The religious frame- more formalized traditions among the many folk work must be understood within the context of practices deeply embedded in the traditional cul- an exploitative slave and racial caste system, a ture. Not atypically, half of the people of the Do- stratified white society, large numbers of white minican Republic are believed to engage in oc- indentured (often Irish Catholic) servants, an im- cult practices. While spiritist cults may not posed, accommodating, dominant religion, always be a defiant obstacle to evangelical Chris- whether Protestant or Catholic, a tradition of au- tianity in the region, they fortify latent resistance thoritarian government, ongoing struggles for to forms of Christianity that were once the reli- freedom and identity, and in more recent decades gion of the colonial, slaveholding European mi- considerable overpopulation and consequent em- nority. Only where evangelical Protestantism has igration and, often, a sense of hopelessness and accommodated popular cultural forms has it futility. The religious recourse has often been Af- taken root and grown, such as in the case of the ro-Caribbean spiritism. More than merely a per- nineteenth-century revivalist movement in Ja- sonal cult or cultural relic, spiritism at times has maica and twentieth-century Pentecostalism in given rise to organized political-religious move- Puerto Rico. ments of protest and rebellion (see Latin Ameri- Scholars who have investigated spiritist move- can New Religious Movements). On a smaller ments throughout the region see them appealing but not unimportant scale, indigenous Holiness, not only to the Afro-Caribbean peasants and re- Pentecostal, and charismatic movements have cent migrants to the cities, but to established emerged in several of the islands; and some urban residents as well. As survival mechanisms mainland missionary ventures, notably those of that thrive in small underground groups, they the Seventh-Day Adventists, have established im- satisfy the need for reassurance in an uncertain, portant religious beachheads. often hostile world. Spiritism and Christianity The relative lack of spiritual inertia of the con- are not mutually exclusive for many adherents. temporary Caribbean region stands in contrast to The eclectic sponge-like quality of spiritism en- the vitality of evangelical Christians in the nine- ables it to survive among the various competing teenth and early twentieth centuries. In earlier religions, explains anthropologist Joan D. Koss. decades the Caribbean Protestant churches ex- In comparing Haitian Vodun and Pentecostal- hibited considerable vision for evangelizing their ism, Luther P. Gerlach finds many structural own peoples and sending missions to West Af- similarities between the two. Both religions con- rica. Nowhere in the Caribbean except in Puerto ceive of a world of powerful supernatural forces Rico and Jamaica is there presently an island and practice spirit possession. Both are charac- population whose evangelical (as contrasted with terized by tight-knit local cells linked together in nominal Protestant) Christians demonstrate no- polycephalous overlapping networks. This de- table evangelistic fervor. In only five of twenty-six sign, Gerlach argues, is eminently suited to sur- jurisdictions do evangelical Protestants account vival. These groups keep a low profile and are for more than a quarter of the population. In tolerated by political authorities because, on the twelve of these island units the proportion is less one hand, they appear to be harmless and, on 21 Caribbean the other, may be useful as a counterforce among An Assessment. The extremely diverse and the masses to the more powerful established reli- often opposing cultural and religious traditions gions. But despite some similarities, the two con- of the Caribbean preclude easy generalization sider each other to be implacable enemies. Spir- about the spiritual needs. With the exception of itists attempt to manipulate the spirit world, several of the larger islands, the evangelical asserts Gerlach, while evangelical Protestants churches have not acquired the strength and au- exorcise evil spirits and submit to the Holy tonomy that would permit them to radically in- Spirit. fluence the lives of their own peoples or send Anthropologist William Wedenoja has pointed missionaries abroad. In this respect Puerto Rico out that the conditions that gave rise to evangeli- and Jamaica stand apart, having developed cal groups in Jamaica, notably Pentecostalism, strong evangelical communities, benefiting orig- have also produced a growth in Rastafarianism, inally from Holiness and Pentecostal missionary with many of the same tendencies to individual- efforts but now entirely independent and contex- ism and egalitarianism. But Rastafarianism ap- tualized. It is estimated that 30 percent of the peals most to the chronically unemployed black total population of Puerto Rico considers itself urban youth who appear to be the victims of evangelical, the majority identified with one or Modernization. While the movement has height- another Pentecostal denomination. While 165 ened social consciousness and created pride in foreign Protestant missionaries serve in Puerto Jamaican indigenous culture, unlike Pentecostal- Rico, the island churches send 65 missionaries— ism it does not cut across racial, class, and cul- and a number of effective short-term evange- tural lines. lists—abroad. In contrast, Protestants account The Evangelical Presence. Most of the evan- for only 5 percent of the Dominican Republic’s gelical missionary focus has been on the larger population of 8 million and 2.5 percent of Cuba’s islands, where Protestant evangelicals remain in 11 million people. the minority. On a limited scale, elements within Protestant evangelicals on Jamaica, on the the established Protestant denominations have other hand, make up an estimated 18 percent of provided the mechanism for kindling evangelical the population, the Protestant churches are well sentiments. Often overlooked in the discussion established, and forty missionaries have been of the Caribbean evangelical picture have been sent out to other countries. In the wake of Af- the homegrown Pentecostal groups, many of ro-Christian revival cults that emerged among them receiving at least token support from North the Jamaican masses from the 1860s to World American denominations such as the Church of War II, Pentecostalism has in the period of mod- God (Cleveland, Tennessee) and the Church of ernization from a peasant to an urban society, God in Christ, but others like the Iglesia de Dios become the most dynamic Protestant movement Pentecostal in Puerto Rico are essentially autoch- on the island. William Wedenoja identifies sev- thonous religious expressions with little relation eral contrasting features of these groups, despite to any mainland organization. In several island their many similarities. While for the revivalists societies these largely independent and often so- God and the angels are key deities, the Pentecos- cially marginal Pentecostal and Holiness tals are christocentric; while the revivalists con- churches have provided the only assertive evan- centrate on the Old Testament, the Pentecostals gelical leadership. focus on the New Testament; while revivalists The North American missionary force in the tend to authoritarian structures, Pentecostals Caribbean includes 1,128 career (four years or tend to be more congregational. Wedenoja found longer) Protestant missionaries, one missionary that the trends were away from large, formal, for each 35,000 inhabitants. Europe has sent cold congregations in favor of churches that are fewer than 100 Protestant missionaries. The fervent, smaller, and more intimate. North American denominations supporting the In a time of modernization and political inde- largest numbers of overseas personnel are the pendence, as the old values and ways of life are Christian Churches/Churches of Christ with 86 disintegrating, the majority of the Caribbean missionaries (with the largest contingents in peoples are caught in a bewildering transition. Puerto Rico and Haiti) and the Southern Baptist The labor unions and populist movements that Convention with 96 missionaries (27 in the Do- formed after World War I and the political exper- minican Republic and 17 in the Trinidad and To- iments like those of Cuba, Trinidad, Grenada, bago). By comparison, the Roman Catholic per- and Jamaica have sometimes given island inhab- sonnel at work in the Caribbean total 5,210 itants nominal control, but with little sense of religious, five times the number of Protestant power, given the islands’ spare resources, stag- missionaries. Not to be overlooked, however, are nant economics, and growing populations. the many missionaries sent from one Caribbean Self-governing nations of the size of Antigua island to another, and, increasingly, the expatri- (64,000), Grenada (84,000), and Dominica ate West Indians in the United Kingdom who are (86,000) are far too small to deal with the bur- returning to evangelize their homelands. geoning problems. With only Trinidad in the Ca- 22 Charismatic Missions ribbean producing substantial quantities of pe- Hagen, and others were affiliated with Pentecos- troleum, and with their single-export (mainly tal denominations but maintained independent sugar) economics having collapsed, these coun- ministries which attracted charismatic audiences. tries have turned increasingly to tourism and off- They were joined by independent charismatic shore banking—and the laundering of drug ministries such as the Christian Broadcasting money—to support their peoples. As a result Network, started by Pat Robertson, and the Trin- many young people have emigrated to mainland ity Broadcasting Network of Paul Crouch to dom- countries or, having resigned themselves to a life inate Christian media and claim the allegiance of with little promise for the future, are living sim- a large part of Christian America. Renewal move- ply for the present. The high numbers of unmar- ments are evangelistic by nature, and most of ried mothers and alarming increases in crime these mega-ministries sought international visibil- document as much. For the Caribbean peoples ity to extend their influence. A conservative esti- who have embraced it, however, evangelical mate of the number of charismatics worldwide Protestantism offers the spiritual resources ei- is 150 million, including more than 3,000 new ther to ease the transition to modern life or to ­denominations. provide consolation for the sectors that the mod- Charismatics who remained in their denomi- ern world has simply passed by. national churches had the benefit of established Everett A. Wilson mission boards. As the renewal gained strength within a given denomination, the number of Bibliography. L. P. Gerlach, Religious Movements in charismatic missionaries and mission leaders in- Contemporary America, pp. 686–96; S. D. Glazier, ed., Perspectives on Pentecostalism: Case Studies from the creased. Independent charismatics, on the other Caribbean and Latin America; P. E. James and C. W. hand, lacked formal links to mission agencies. Minkel, Latin America, 5th ed.; J. D. Koss, Caribbean They sometimes joined nondenominational mis- Studies 16 (April 1976): 43; A. Lampe, The Church in sion organizations but often met with suspicion Latin America, 1492–1992, pp. 201–15; J. Rogozinski, A due to their charismatic beliefs. There was a Brief History of the Caribbean: From the Arawak and the trend toward unity and evangelistic urgency in Carib to the Present; W. Wedenoja, Perspectives on Pen- the 1980s and 1990s, with charismatic churches tecostalism: Case Studies from the Caribbean and Latin working together and forming associations of America, p. 44. churches. The movement had a prolonged internal focus Charismatic Missions. The charismatic move- due to the denominational structures it sought ment, also known as the charismatic renewal to reform. This carried over into the indepen- and Neo-Pentecostalism, is a worldwide revival dent churches. When the leaders considered movement, an extension of the Pentecostal re- mission outreach, they looked for new strategies vival that began around the turn of the century and approaches rather than relying on estab- (see Pentecostal Movement). While charismat- lished agencies which were perceived as rigid ics tend to emphasize the gifts of healing, proph- and lifeless. They eschewed organizational ecy, and words of knowledge over tongues, the structure yet lacked the internal structure to distinction between the two movements remains support missionaries. blurred. Walter Hollenweger refers to the charis- Independent charismatic churches want direct matic movement as “Pentecostalism within the involvement in missions. They become what are churches,” while his student, Arnold Bittlinger, known as “sending churches,” with as many as includes Pentecostalism within his definition of 125 missionaries receiving the majority of their charismatic. Pentecostal healing ministries ac- support from one congregation. Effective con- tive in the 1950s, such as those led by Oral Rob- gregations are characterized by having a mis- erts, T. L. Osborn, and Jack Coe, attracted public sions director or pastor, missions-minded senior attention and developed their following indepen- pastor, missions spending of over 10 percent of dent of the Pentecostal denominations which the budget, regular exposure of the congregation spawned them. They were influential along with to missions, relationship to missionary struc- the Full Gospel Business Men’s Fellowship, In- tures, and contact with charismatic churches ternational, founded by Demos Shakarian, and and ministries on the field. David Du Plessis, an ecumenical Pentecostal The Vineyard Christian Fellowship, under the leader from South Africa, in bringing Pentecos- direction of John Wimber, introduced the con- talism into mainline Protestant churches. By cept of “power evangelism” in which a believer 1975, a strong charismatic influence was present is instructed by the Holy Spirit to initiate con- in all mainline American Protestant denomina- tact with an unbeliever and Signs and Wonders tions, and the renewal was well under way accompany the encounter (see also Power En- within the Roman Catholic Church. counter). The Vineyard is an example of an as- The charismatic movement grew dramatically sociation of churches that has recently devel- in the 1980s and 1990s. Jimmy Swaggert, Jim and oped missions awareness and international Tammy Bakker, Kenneth Copeland, Kenneth outreach. 23 Charismatic Missions

A few charismatic mission agencies were pare North Americans for the international formed that have experienced unusual success. meeting the following year. Enthusiasm was at a Youth With a Mission (YWAM), which gained its high pitch but did not translate into significant popularity as a short-term missionary venture, is participation at Brighton the next year. the largest sending agency, with 6,000 full-time Brighton ’91 was the International Charis- missionaries. Its founder, Loren Cunningham, matic Consultation of World Evangelization. began with a vision to send young people from With the working title “That the World Might Be- North America around the world but quickly ex- lieve,” this consultation was designed to prepare panded to include young people from every coun- the worldwide charismatic movement for the try. Another organization, Christ for the Nations, “decade of evangelism.” Although the geographi- founded by Gordon Lindsay, claims to have cal representation was uneven, this is thought to planted over 8,500 congregations around the have been the first truly global meeting for world world. evangelization held by the movement. Many The Association of International Mission prominent American leaders were not in atten- Agencies (AIMS) provides a much-needed struc- dance nor did they endorse the gathering. Thus ture for charismatic mission outreach. Estab- Brighton ’91 symbolizes not only the lack of in- lished in 1985 to link churches, mission agen- ternational unity but also the lack of cohesion cies, and training institutions, AIMS facilitates among charismatics in North America. Orlando cooperation among charismatic agencies. In ad- ’95, the fourth North American Congress, was dition to bridging diversity ranging from church well attended but fell short of expectations. planters to short-term professionals to tentmak- It is hard to judge the impact of these con- ers, the Association provides for the ongoing in- gresses on the charismatic movement, yet they formation needs of its constituency. Under the did serve as a visible demonstration of charis- direction of Howard Foltz, the Association has matic interest in missions. They also provided a grown to nearly 200 member organizations. means to inform large segments of the movement The Pentecostal World Conference, held that evangelism is a priority. The movement it- every four or five years since 1944, attempted self, however, remains fragmented in its ap- to unify Pentecostals/charismatics worldwide. proach to world evangelization. By nature, the These meetings focused on self-identification. constituency is pulled in several directions. Ec- With the rise of the renewal within the Roman clesiastical allegiance, participation in larger ecu- Catholic Church, separate charismatic confer- menical networks, local priorities, special inter- ences were held to allow for the participation ests, and extensive diversity are just some of the of Roman Catholics in leadership roles. These factors which account for the current fragmenta- large gatherings gradually took on the evange- tion. listic priorities of evangelical Christianity but The theoretical framework of the charismatic never attained the numerical strength or broad movement includes a working theology or theol- representation of the movement that the lead- ogy of ministry. This in part led to an incomplete ers had envisioned. Theology of Mission as it was viewed as a sim- The 1977 Kansas City Charismatic Confer- ple extension of the local witness of the church. ence was an ecumenical North American con- Prompted by an awareness of what was happen- ference with an emphasis on the lordship of ing within the rest of Christendom, charismatics Christ. It was at this historic meeting that the wanted to join in Cross-Cultural Evangelism. three major streams of the North American Their Pentecostal heritage included an anti-intel- Pentecostal/charismatic movement—classical lectual bias often equating supernatural experi- Pentecostals, Protestant charismatics, and ence with sufficient preparation to be effective in Roman Catholic charismatics—formed a coali- a Third World setting. Involvement of the laity tion. Together they began to realize their re- is paramount as opposed to dependence on a sponsibility to fulfill the Great Commission. trained clergy. These factors delayed the develop- The first North American Congress on the ment of an effective mission strategy and, in the Holy Spirit and World Evangelization was held early days of the movement, produced many in 1986 in New Orleans. The second and largest missionaries who lacked appropriate prepara- of the two was held the next year, also in New tion for Cross-Cultural Ministry. As with the Orleans. These conferences are credited with Pentecostal movement, this trend has been cor- making world evangelization a central focus of rected, and charismatic missiologists are poised the charismatic movement. The participants ad- to make a significant contribution to world evan- opted the Lausanne Covenant and identified gelization in the twenty-first century. with the evangelistic goals of evangelical Christi- While the actual number of charismatic Chris- anity. tians in the world is a source of constant debate, The 1990 North American Congress on the the fact that together with the Pentecostals they Holy Spirit and World Evangelization at India- represent the largest segment of Christianity napolis, the third in the series, was held to pre- today is well documented. The flexibility of char- 24 Chinese House Church Movement ismatic belief and practice facilitates its Incul- Century in Christian Mission, pp. 41–53; idem, OPCM, turation in Third World countries. The Holy pp. 610–25; L. G. McClung, Pneuma, 16 (1994): 11–21; Spirit is expected to directly guide the local lead- K. Poewe, ed., Charismatic Christianity as a Global ership as they establish local patterns of practice Culture; E. Pousson, Spreading the Flame: Charismatic and Apologetics. Churches and Missions Today; D. Shibley, A Force on Missionary churches were strongly influenced the Earth: The Charismatic Renewal and World Evange- by the renewal following the assumption of con- lization. trol by natural leaders. Following World War II, the transfer of control to national leadership Chinese House Church Movement. As a form spread rapidly throughout the countries of the of ministry, the house church movement in Third World. Western Christian denominations China is a contextual response to political pres- realized the need to do the same within their sure. In the 1950s, after the expulsion of mis- mission churches. As the transfer of power was sionaries from China, those who refused to join in progress, the influence of the charismatic the Three-Self Patriotic Movement (TSPM) were movement was growing internationally. There not allowed to worship in their churches; so they was a new openness to the priorities of Third started a movement that recaptured the worship World Christians and recognition that the result of the early Christians at home (Acts 2:46; 5:42; was rapid church growth. 1 Cor. 16:19). This form was viable because The renewal introduced the option for rhyth- meetings could be moved from one place to an- mic clapping and dancing and vocal expressions other at any time and could not be easily de- during the worship service. It encouraged the tected by local authorities. During the Cultural use of local folk or popular music in church ser- Revolution, when all churches were closed down vices. Charismatics recognized satanic forces at by the government, all Christians could meet work in the world requiring prayer for God’s su- only in Christian homes. The movement grew pernatural intervention. They also prayed for tremendously despite the hostile environment healing and miracles, expecting God to demon- because it provided a true Christian community strate his power. The dramatic international growth of charismatic Christianity made a sig- of commitment and love where many experi- nificant impact on the Western world, as it be- enced the power of the Holy Spirit in miracles came a force too large to ignore. and radical life changes. Today the movement is While global unity has yet to be realized, the massive in scope, with estimates ranging from charismatic renewal has had the effect of a 30 to 80 million participants as compared to a grassroots ecumenism. The common spiritual total Christian population of less than 1 million experience became a catalyst for a broad-based before the communist takeover in 1949. Christian unity. It contained an evangelistic The term “house church” refers to those who thrust that assumed every Christian was a wit- refuse to join the TSPM and to register with the ness for Christ. Cooperative evangelistic efforts government. The movement is not a denomina- include pentecostal, neo-fundamental, Roman tion or ecclesiastical fellowship like what is Catholic, and mainline Protestant Christians. found in the West. More accurately, it comprises Charismatic interest in world evangelization individual house churches. There is no common matured in the 1980s although financial support statement of faith, no formal fellowship or de- for missions remains below the average for nominational structures. It is, simply, a model of evangelical churches. Charismatic missiologists Christian community for places where structural and agencies are emerging. expression is not possible. The most important Some feel the charismatic movement is God’s feature of the house church movement is not a plan to energize the church for evangelistic out- theological system, but a common stand defined reach. The belief that the gifts of the Spirit are by relationship to the TSPM and the Chinese for evangelistic purposes is especially true for government. This having been said, there are, Third World charismatics. Protestant charismat- however, certain common theological convic- ics are active in creating new ministries and pro- tions among the house churches. One is obedi- moting evangelistic concern. Roman Catholic ence to the Word of God even to the point of charismatics have established programs to fur- ther world evangelization including the Catholic risking one’s life; another is the belief in the ab- Evangelization Training Program at the Francis- solute separation of church and state, as the can University of Steubenville (Ohio) and Evan- movement’s adherents are convinced in the light gelization 2000. of Scripture that government control is not ac- Kenneth D. Gill ceptable. Che Bin Tan Bibliography. D. B. Barrett, IBMR, July 1988, pp. 119–21; A. Bittlinger, ed., The Church is Charismatic; Bibliography. D. Adeney, China: The Church’s Long W. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals; idem, OBMR, April March; R. Fung, Households of God on China’s Soil; 1980, pp. 68–75; G. B. McGee, Toward the Twenty-first M. D. Wong, Spiritual Food. 25 Chinese Mission Boards and Societies

Chinese Mission Boards and Societies. Chi- for Christ has responded to those who have nese mission history on a wide scale began with “come” to America. In this sense it has linked the founding of the Chinese Foreign Missionary with the Chinese churches as a total mission Union in 1928 by Leland Wang. It represented force. an outreach to the scattered Chinese in the The Chinese Overseas Christian Mission was South Seas of Asia and to outposts including founded in 1950 by Stephen Y. T. Wang, then a Borneo, Sarawak, Bali, Sumatra, and the Cele- student at Cambridge, England. His concern was bes. Later it expanded to include efforts in New directed to the four thousand Chinese in En- Guinea, Fiji, Tahiti, and New Zealand. It was an gland and Europe, the primary task being evan- indigenous faith effort focusing on church plant- gelism and church planting. With Wang’s death ing and church growth. in 1971, Mary Wang and co-workers continued In 1947 Evangelize China Fellowship was es- the mission. Today over thirty workers are based tablished by Andrew Gih. A faith mission with in the United Kingdom and Europe in over one indigenous leadership, it labored in Hong Kong, hundred cities, ministering to over fifty churches Macao, and Taiwan, and later to the Chinese di- and many more fellowships. With the opening of aspora in Southeast Asia. Primary schools for Eastern Europe and Russia, the mission ex- girls and orphanages for the homeless demon- tended its pioneering efforts. strated Gih’s concern for the marginalized. Over With a population of eight hundred thousand fifty churches were planted as the mission re- Chinese in greater Europe today and only 2.5 flected social and evangelistic concern. percent of them reached for Christ, emphasis is Chinese mission activity on a broad scale directed to the huge numbers of Chinese restau- shifted to the United States with the founding of rant workers. A new thrust now prevails among the Chinese Christian Mission in October 1961, Chinese scholars from mainland China, Taiwan, in Detroit, Michigan, under Thomas Wang. Soon and Hong Kong. Correspondence courses, lay after, the mission moved to its present site (Peta- seminars, and Theological Education by Exten- luma, California) continuing its effort to reach sion (TEE) undergird the mission. Literature in- both mainland and Chinese diaspora. Its global cludes Chinese and English journals along with dimension includes work in Hong Kong, Taiwan, videos and cassettes. Singapore, the Philippines, Australia, and Can- Chinese mission history, as recounted, was in- ada, plus new thrusts to Siberia, Latin America, digenous and intracultural in nature, as first-­ and the Chinese mainland. A staff of thirty full- generation Chinese reached out to their own. and part-time workers undergird the work of With over one thousand Chinese evangelical twenty Chinese missionaries abroad. Its publish- churches in North America alone, it appears that ing house and San Francisco book room reach a steady supply of American-raised and Ameri- out to both believers and nonbelievers, contextu- can-born Chinese will bear the brunt of Chinese alizing the gospel within Chinese traditional cul- mission in the twenty-first century. ture. Hoover Wong Another U.S. founded mission is Ambassadors for Christ. Established on May 6, 1963, by Church Growth Movement. Church growth is co-founders Ted Choy and Moses Chow, its focus that discipline which investigates the nature, ex- is on the Chinese students. Its call was “to reach pansion, planting, multiplication, function, and our kinsmen for Christ,” with the hope that these health of Christian churches as they relate to the persons might someday return to China and be effective implementation of God’s commission to “a force for the kingdom.” The campus ministry “make disciples of all peoples” (Matt. 28:19–20). centered around Bible study groups, where over- Students of church growth strive to integrate the seas Chinese students were won to Christ. Such eternal theological principles of God’s Word con- students were then channeled into local Chinese cerning the expansion of the church with the churches for discipling. best insights of contemporary social and behav- Ambassadors for Christ undergirds its mission ioral sciences, employing as the initial frame of with a variety of publications to students, schol- reference the foundational work done by Donald ars, and believers in the Chinese churches. It pro- McGavran. vides leadership and resources for the growth of This is the classical definition of church Chinese Christian families and American-born growth, although it has been altered and adapted Chinese through seminars and conferences. It by several leaders since it was first formulated sponsors a triennial convention for North Amer- and incorporated into the by-laws of the Ameri- ica, calling Chinese Christians to engage in world can Society of Church Growth. It is important evangelism. The five previous conventions have to note that the defining focus of the church seen attendees rise from an initial 300 to 1,800 in growth movement is evangelization. The most number, with hundreds having responded to the restrictive clause, which separates the church mission call. Unlike other Chinese mission ef- growth movement from other affinity groups, is forts, which emphasized “going,” Ambassadors the explicit recognition of the founder, Donald A. 26 Church Growth Movement

McGavran. Not all church growth advocates ad- with the missiological base being the School of here to the entire corpus of McGavran’s teaching, World Mission and the application to American but all work out of the research paradigm that he churches in the church growth major of the established. Fuller Doctor of Ministry program initiated by Donald McGavran, after spending thirty years Wagner in 1975. as a field missionary to India with the India Mis- The major contributions of the church growth sion of the United Christian Missionary Society movement to twentieth-century missiology can (related to the Disciples of Christ), experienced a be summarized under four sets of principles. growing frustration with the progress of the mis- Theological Principles. McGavran’s field ex- sionary enterprise as he was able to observe it. perience came at a time when liberal Christian- He was appalled, for example, when he reviewed ity was in its heyday. Mission was seen as fulfill- the records for his mission in the early 1950s ing the Cultural Mandate, giving a cup of cold and found that they had spent $125,000, but they water in the name of Jesus, promoting social jus- had added only a total of fifty-two members to tice, and helping Muslims and Buddhists to be- the churches. He began to think that there must come better citizens. Advocating Conversion to be a better way to do missionary work. Christianity was widely frowned upon as being After a vigorous process of research and analy- manipulative Proselytism. McGavran countered sis, McGavran published The Bridges of God in this by advocating that the central purpose of 1955 (see Bridges of God), which became the missions was to be seen as God’s will that lost Magna Carta of the church growth movement. Its men and women be found, reconciled to himself, empirical background had been initiated by and brought into responsible membership in Methodist Bishop Wascom Pickett’s research on Chris­tian churches. Evangelism was seen not what were called in those days “Christian mass just as proclaiming the gospel whether or not movements” in India. McGavran was the person something happened, but as making disciples for who used the label “church growth” to describe the Master. the missiological paradigm he was developing. Ethical Principles. McGavran’s results-­ The accepted date for the beginning of the oriented approach provided fodder for debate on church growth movement is 1955, the year of the a number of ethical issues, some of which con- publication of The Bridges of God. tinue today. He became alarmed when he saw all Over the next fifteen years (1955–70), Mc- too many of God’s resources—personnel and fi- Gavran took several very important steps to solid- nances—being used without asking whether the ify the movement. (1) He entered into volumi- Kingdom of God was being materially advanced nous correspondence with the leading by the programs they were supporting. Mc- missiologists of the day, dialoguing in depth on Gavran demanded more accountability in Chris­ the cutting edge missiological issues of the day. tian stewardship. He wanted efforts evaluated by (2) He continued his research and published the their results. His attitude reflects these words of first edition of Understanding Church Growth Wascom Pickett: “It is disturbing to read book with Eerdmans in 1970. This remains an irre- after book about modern missions without find- placeable textbook for serious study in the field ing so much as a hint about either what helped of church growth, and it is already acclaimed as a or what hindered church growth. In many books missions classic. Eerdmans published a revised the author seems eager to prove that the mis- edition in 1980, and in 1990 the current edition, sionaries have done everything according to revised and updated by McGavran’s disciple, God’s leading and that if no church has come C. Peter Wagner, was published. It has been in into being it means only that God’s time for sav- print for almost thirty years. (3) McGavran relo- ing souls has not come.” ‘The disciples’ duty is to cated from India to the United States and en- sow the seed and leave it to God to produce.” gaged in extensive itinerant teaching, communi- How different this is from the command of cating the principles of church growth to Jesus, “Make disciples of the nations!’” thousands of leaders. (4) Recognizing that an ed- Missiological Principles. McGavran’s major ucational institution would be necessary to solid- missiological principle is people movement the- ify the movement, McGavran founded the Insti- ory (see also Peoples, People Groups and People tute of Church Growth in 1961 at Northwest Movements). Before the days of the conscious Christian College in Eugene, Oregon. By 1965 application of Cultural Anthropology to Missi- McGavran and his church growth movement had ology, McGavran intuitively recognized the fact been so widely recognized as a historic innova- that Decision-Making processes are frequently tion in missiological principles and practice, that quite different from one culture to the next. he was invited to become the founding dean of Whereas most Western missionaries and their the Fuller Theological Seminary School of World converts were preaching an individualistic gos- Mission and Institute of Church Growth in Pasa- pel and expecting unbelievers to come to Christ dena, California. Fuller Seminary, therefore, be- one by one against the social tide, McGavran came the institutional center of the movement, concluded that this was not the way that multi- 27 Colonialism and Missions tudes could or would come to Christ. Important sionaries found themselves in conflict with Euro- decisions, according to the Worldview of many pean settlers or colonial governments; at other non-Westerners, were community decisions. times they believed that European control Therefore, the best way to approach many of the brought the best hope for peace, stability, and world’s people with the gospel had to be through protection of the native populations. the encouragement of multi-individual, interde- The missionary movement had its roots in the pendent conversions whereby members of fami- eighteenth- and nineteenth-century revivals. lies, extended families, clans, villages, and tribes Consequently, its primary concern was evange- would often become Christian at the same time. lism, but it also had a powerful humanitarian This process was labeled a “people movement” focus, with especially strong opposition to slav- (see Mass Movements). An important corollary ery (see Abolitionist Movement). At the same of McGavran’s people movement theory is the time the revivals affirmed the values of liberal Homogeneous Unit Principle. democracy and Western culture, seeing them as Procedural Principles. The distinction be- basically Christian, and believing with most Eu- tween what McGavran called “discipling” and ropeans and Americans that the tide of history “perfecting” is his key procedural principle. He was taking Western institutions to the rest of the observed that discipling is best seen methodolog- world. Thus most missionaries, even the most ically as a distinct stage of Christianization as vociferous critics of the abuses of colonialism, over against perfecting. While the terminology believed the system to be consistent with the has been updated by some, the principle remains Christian faith. In this they shared the naiveté of intact. Discipling brings an unbelieving individ- their contemporaries. ual or group to initial commitment to Christ and The complexity of the relationship may be commitment to the body of Christ, which is the seen in the case of William Carey, Adoniram church. Perfecting is the lifelong process of spir- Judson, and the East India Company. The Com- itual and ethical development in the lives of be- pany denounced Carey’s venture in the British lievers (called “discipleship” by some). Mc- Parliament and refused him residence in Cal- Gavran warned that too many mission activities cutta, forcing him to live in Serampore, a Danish had been diverted to perfecting when the origi- colony. When Judson was not allowed to remain nal mission charter demanded discipling. He in Calcutta he went to Burma, where after a few never tired in pointing out that a full 70 percent years he was imprisoned during the Anglo-Bur- of the world’s population had not been discipled, mese War as an English spy. Thus the missionary and he constantly urged Christian churches was often caught between two opposite forces, worldwide to get on with sending out more la- distrusted by both. borers into the harvest fields. Two dominant motifs appear in this complex The church growth movement has spread relationship. First, to the missionaries, evange- worldwide through McGavran’s disciples and lism was most important. This concern for the through the graduates of the Fuller Seminary advance of the gospel determined varying politi- School of World Mission where courses in cal responses by the missionaries in widely differ- church growth have been mandatory. Courses in ent contexts: sometimes they favored colonial- church growth are now taught at major institu- ism, sometimes they did not, depending on what tions where evangelistically oriented missiology seemed to be most advantageous for their mis- is a major component of the curriculum. sion. Second, most missionaries defended the in- C. Peter Wagner digenous peoples against the exploitation of Eu- Bibliography. D. A. McGavran, Understanding ropean commercial and political forces. This, Church Growth, 3rd ed.; J. W. Pickett, Christian Mass too, led them to a variety of attitudes in different Movements in India; T. S. Rainer, The Book of Church situations. But it is clear that colonial govern- Growth: History, Theology, and Principles; W. R. Shenk, ments and European settlers were interested in ed., Exploring Church Growth.; C. P. Wagner, Church stability and profits, while the missionaries had Growth and the Whole Gospel. different goals. To further complicate the picture, at times the European traders and settlers were Colonialism and Missions. Some have accused at odds with their own governments, which in the missionary movement of simply serving as some cases attempted to curb the worst exploita- the religious side of nineteenth-century colonial- tion of indigenous populations. And often differ- ism, as an attempt to impose “Western religion” ent mission groups found themselves on oppos- on Asia and Africa along with political and eco- ing sides of issues. For example, Anglicans, nomic domination. But the truth is far more coming from the established church in England, complex. At times missionaries arrived before were more apt to favor imperialism than were the colonists, at times with them, and at times English non-conformists.­ American missionaries, later. But it is clear that the missionary move- espousing the separation of church and state, ment lived in uneasy tension with colonialism, were often naive in thinking they were nonpoliti- having very different goals. Hence, at times mis- cal. They usually supported American policies, 28 Colonialism and Missions especially in the Philippines after the Spanish others. Livingstone’s belief in “commerce and American War, despite the brutality against the Christianity” represented an antislavery ideology, Filipino independence movement. But they often the hope that commerce would introduce pros- encouraged the aspirations of nationals for inde- perity and thus end the slave trade. In the 1820s pendence in colonial lands. In India the British LMS missionary John Philip, working in a con- required American missionaries to sign a pledge text of violence between settlers and native peo- promising no involvement in Indian political af- ples, became an advocate of the Xhosas, his in- fairs. fluence being decisive in a reform giving them The attitudes of colonial governments varied. legal status. This incurred the rage of both En­ The British refused to allow missionaries to work glish and Boer settlers. The Wesleyans had dif- in northern Nigeria, fearing it would antagonize ferent views at some points but both missionary the Muslim rulers. The Dutch encouraged mission groups wanted British rule because they believed work among animists in parts of Indonesia (hop- it would bring security and the benefits of Brit- ing it would aid in their control) but refused to ish law to the native peoples. In midcentury an- allow work among Muslims in Java. On the other other LMS missionary, John Mckenzie, working hand, the British gave grants for education in farther north, advocated British rule because he India and nearly every mission school benefited. believed it to be better than either of the possible The clash between colonialism and missions alternatives in that fluid and chaotic situation: can be seen in the case of India. When Carey white supremacist Boer rule or the imperialism campaigned against infanticide and suttee, the of Cecil Rhodes. Hindu practice of burning widows with the bod- At times the missionaries expressed strong op- ies of their husbands, the East India Company position to colonial policies. At the turn of the opposed him, believing that interference with century two American Presbyterians published such customs would threaten stability and put articles condemning the exploitation of African profits in peril. Other missionaries criticized the rubber workers in the Congo, calling it “twenti- British government for collecting taxes from eth century slavery.” The case brought interna- Hindu pilgrims, which were then used to sup- tional attention, the missionaries were sued for port Hindu temples. But the ambiguity of the re- libel, and the suit was finally dismissed. Some lationship is seen in the fact that Carey eventu- improvement in the treatment of the African re- ally accepted an appointment to lecture in sulted, but the case created tension between the Indian languages at the Company’s college, using Belgian and American governments. After World the income to support Bible Translation and War I, with nearly all the land in Kenya in the distribution. When direct British control was hands of English settlers, Africans were forced to substituted for Company rule the Serampore work two months each year on settler lands, missionaries and others expressed their belief leaving their own crops unattended and families that it would bring great temporal benefits. The unprotected. While some missionaries believed fact that it opened India to evangelization and the Africans should be compelled to work as part Western education and ended certain inhumane of the “civilizing” process, others disagreed. practices were no doubt factors in this evalua- Strong protests came from two Anglican bishops tion. and the Church of Scotland mission, reinforced Baptist missionaries to Jamaica were told to by J. H. Oldham, a leader in the International have nothing to do with political affairs (i.e., Missionary Council, who denounced the prac- slavery) but their experience with the plantation tice as immoral. As a result the government system led them to call it the “offspring of the order on native labor was withdrawn in 1921. devil.” Thus the planters perceived the evangeli- Two years later, Oldham’s influence was decisive cal missionaries as a threat to the stability and in a declaration of the Colonial Office, that the power of their society. Missionary Christianity “interests of the African natives must be para- was a challenge to colonial oppression. Some mount,” over against settler demands. Yet Old- missionaries urged slaves to be obedient to their ham and others were not opposed in principle to masters, believing that the progress of Christian- white rule or settlement, but idealistically if na- ity would lead to the end of slavery. But after a ively believed the empire could be justified on slave revolt, Baptist missionary John Smith was the basis of a harmonious partnership between blamed and condemned to death on scanty evi- all groups. In contrast, the Scottish mission in dence, dying in prison before a pardon from the Malawi worked for its independence, and was king arrived. The situation became worse and in noted by an African writer as perhaps the only 1832 fourteen Baptist and six Methodist chapels case of pursuit of equity in a colonial cause by a were destroyed by enraged whites over the issue. group who were members of the imperial power. The ambiguity may be seen further in Central The case of the “Opium Wars” with China also Africa, where missionaries encouraged British illustrates the ambiguity. The opium trade and control, believing it was the greatest protection the two wars of economic aggression (1839–42 against the slave trade by Arabs, Portuguese, and and 1858–60), were strongly criticized by the 29 Commonwealth of Independent States missionary community as unjust. Yet when Russian Empire, and it was long taken for China was opened to Europeans, and thus mis- granted that to be Russian or Ukrainian was, by sionary residence, as a result, and Christians definition, to be Orthodox. Protestantism had lit- were promised protection, nearly all missionar- tle impact until the latter half of the nineteenth ies saw this as a providential act of God, who century, when increasing numbers of Slavs had used the “wrath of man” for his purpose. began coming to Christ through the influence of They naturally believed that the greatest blessing German Mennonites and Baptists and, especially that could come to China was the gospel and in St. Petersburg, of the Plymouth Brethren. Two soon sent large numbers of missionaries under main denominations emerged, the Baptists and the umbrella of the “unequal treaties” which had the Evangelical Christians; but under the czars been imposed on the Chinese. Protestants were allowed little freedom. They ac- Thus it is clear that most missionaries sup- tually experienced greater freedom during the ported colonialism even as they fought against first twelve years of communist rule, between its abuses. They recognized its achievements. 1917 and 1929, when their number swelled to One wrote, “Gone is the slave trade and inter- 500,000, including a growing number of Pente- tribal wars. A new era of civilization has dawned costals. But then, under Stalin, repression be- for Africa.” But if they often failed to see the neg- came intense, driving the church largely under- ative aspects of colonialism, they contributed to ground. In 1944, after being forced to form a its destruction by refusing to accept the idea that single church union, Protestants were again non-Westerners were genetically inferior, believ- given very limited permission to function. They ing there was no obstacle to their reaching the experienced no real freedom, however, until the standards of any other people if evangelical late 1980s, when communism began to crumble. Christianity was accepted. And the liberal educa- After the Soviet Union finally collapsed in tion and new ideas introduced in mission 1991, changes of monumental proportions schools were an important factor in generating emerged on the religious scene. At least on paper, nationalistic movements in a number of Asian for the first time ever, most people in the CIS and African countries, leading to their indepen- were granted religious liberty. National believers dence and thus, the end of colonialism. organized hundreds of indigenous mission soci- Paul E. Pierson eties. Although most are quite small and limited in their geographical focus, a few, such as the Bibliography. S. C. Neill, Colonialism and Christian Rovno, Ukraine-based Light of the Gospel Asso- Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible and the Flag. ciation, regularly send evangelists and church planters thousands of miles to initiate Christian Commonwealth of Independent States. The witness in some of the least evangelized areas of Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) is a the former Soviet Union. A wide variety of other loose, fragile federation linking twelve of the indigenous parachurch organizations has also now-independent republics of the former Soviet emerged, focusing on such areas as publishing, Union—all but the three Baltic republics. Mem- prison ministry, children’s work, and humanitar- ber states include Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, ian assistance. Georgia, Kazakstan, Kyrgystan, Moldova, Rus- Local evangelical congregations began to mul- sia, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, and Uz- tiply, increasing in number from about 3,000 in bekistan. Although people of Slavic stock make 1990 to as many as 10,000 by the late 1990s. up over 70 percent of the combined population— During the communist era, Moscow had only concentrated especially in Russia, Ukraine, and one legally functioning evangelical congregation; Belarus—all together the CIS is home to nearly by the late 1990s there were more than 300. 600 distinct people groups, approximately half of Evangelicals from other parts of the world which have been only minimally reached with launched an unprecedented evangelistic blitz. the gospel. While over half the CIS population is Several hundred mission agencies and countless nominally Christian—mostly Russian Ortho- local churches sent workers by the thousands to dox—active believers are few, and, although esti- take advantage of the new freedoms and of peo- mates vary widely, evangelicals probably make ple’s apparent spiritual hunger. By the late 1990s up only between 1 and 2 percent of the popula- it was estimated that nearly 6,000 foreign mis- tion, half of them being in Ukraine alone. Most sionaries were serving in the various republics of are either Baptist or Pentecostal. Approximately the CIS—the majority on short-term assign- 20 percent of the people in the CIS are nominally ments, but nearly 2,000 serving longer term. Muslim, the majority following a highly animis- And, significantly, several hundred of these mis- tic variety of folk Islam. And, of course, after sionaries were non-Westerners—from South more than 70 years of communist suppression of Korea. religion, millions are atheists or agnostics. After decades with no evangelical institutions It was in a.d. 988 that Eastern Orthodoxy was of higher learning, new schools proliferated, first introduced into what eventually became the numbering more than 100 by the late 1990s. 30 Congress on the Church’s Worldwide Mission

While many of these Christian colleges and erty, Orthodox leaders have repeatedly called for Bible institutes are quite small and are strug- severe restrictions on the activities of both for- gling to maintain academic standards, several eign and indigenous Protestant organizations, are having a significant impact on the entire and in several regions of the Russian Federation CIS. Leading institutions include Donetsk Chris- local governments have unilaterally begun to tian University (specializing in the training of suppress evangelical activities. Religious liberty indigenous missionaries) and Odessa Theologi- has been more consistent in Ukraine but is lim- cal Seminary in Ukraine and, in Russia, St. Pe- ited or nonexistent in most of the other CIS re- tersburg Christian University and the Rus- publics. sian-American Christian University in Moscow Raymond P. Prigodich (focusing on the preparation of Christians for involvement in secular ­society). Bibliography. M. Bourdeaux, The Gospel’s Triumph The Fragmentation of the Church. Until the over Communism; D. B. Clendenin, From the Coup to the Commonwealth: An Inside Look at Life in Contem- 1990s, divisions among evangelicals were rela- porary Russia; K. R. Hill, The Soviet Union on the tively few. Under communist oppression, they Brink: An Inside Look at Christianity and Glasnost; tended to preserve unity as much as possible. N. C. Nielsen Jr., Christianity After Communism: Social, Now, however, older denominations have begun Political, and Cultural Struggle in Russia; W. Sawatsky, to experience a measure of fragmentation, while Soviet Evangelicals Since World War II. both nationals and foreign missionaries have es- tablished scores of new church bodies. There has Congress on the Church’s Worldwide Mission been considerable debate between those West- (Wheaton Congress, 1966). With the merger of erners who advocate coming alongside the exist- the International Missionary Council into the ing churches and those who argue that because World Council of Churches in 1961, conserva- the traditional churches are sometimes legalistic tive American mission executives, missionaries, and out of step with contemporary culture, new and missiologists perceived a need for a dis- wine should be poured into new wineskins. tinctly evangelical congress to address ongoing Relations with Russian Orthodoxy. Western issues of theological and practical concern. evangelicals working in the CIS are sharply di- Jointly sponsored by the EFMA and IFMA, the vided as to the appropriate stance to be taken to- congress was held in Wheaton, Illinois, in April ward Russian Orthodoxy. The majority eschew of 1966. The seven-day congress comprised five any cooperation with the Orthodox Church, ar- missions-­oriented biblical expositions, ten major guing, among other things, that Russian Ortho- study papers (on topics like Syncretism, Univer- doxy seems to teach salvation by works and that salism, evangelical unity, Proselytism, changes it is dominated by ritualism and even supersti- in the Catholic Church), and area reports. The tion. However, a sizable minority of evangelicals working in the CIS argue that a renewed Ortho- 938 registered delegates represented some 258 doxy is, in fact, the best hope for evangelizing mission boards and agencies, interest groups, that vast region. The Orthodox Church itself is and educational institutions from 71 countries in ambivalent about any sort of cooperation with every part of the world. evangelicals. Most Orthodox reject Protestant The conference was framed to respond to the Christianity out of hand as being heretical and challenges of the conciliar movement by reaf- incompatible with Slavic culture, but some Or- firming fundamental convictions in an atmo- thodox leaders have been more open to evangeli- sphere of evangelical ecumenicity. The precon- cal offers of cooperation and assistance. gress statement noted that there was greater Cooperation with Westerners. National be- missionary strength in the IFMA-EFMA affilia- lievers tend to be quite ambivalent in their atti- tion than in the WCC. Thus it was felt that the tude toward Western missionaries serving in the time had come for this segment of the total mis- CIS. While appreciating some of the resources sion force to clearly state its own convictions. and new ideas Westerners bring, nationals un- Among the papers that emerged from the con- derstandably resent the tendency of many West- gress was the Wheaton Declaration. Initially erners to want to dominate the work in which drafted by Arthur Glasser, it was revised in sev- they are involved. Nationals want partners, not eral committees and finally adopted by the dele- parents. And again and again national believers gates. The declaration begins by affirming the have lamented the tendency of Westerners to need for certainty, commitment, discernment, stay for too short a time, to be woefully ignorant hope, and confidence in the midst of the harden- of the local language and culture, to fail to con- ing social, religious, and political climates of the textualize their message, and to pay insufficient times. It confesses the failures of evangelical attention to existing national church structures missions in the light of scriptural standards, and and leaders. presents an evangelical consensus on the author- Threats to Religious Liberty. Although the ity of the Bible and the central concern of evan- Russian Constitution guarantees religious lib- gelism in mission. Finally, it addresses selected 31 Contextualization crucial issues of the day (the issues studied in people living in a particular place at a particular the major papers). time. This means the Worldview of that people The Wheaton Congress garnered enough atten- provides a framework for communication, the tion to merit the publication of the declaration in questions and needs of that people are a guide to IRM, though there was relatively little impact in the emphasis of the message, and the cultural ecumenical circles. Even so, the Wheaton Con- gifts of that people become the medium of ex- gress stands as an important evangelical mile- pression. stone in that it was one of the definitive steps that Contextualization in mission is the effort made eventually resulted in the Lausanne Movement. by a particular church to experience the gospel A. Scott Moreau for its own life in light of the Word of God. In the process of contextualization the church, through Bibliography. H. Lindsell, ed., The Church’s World- the Holy Spirit, continually challenges, incorpo- wide Mission. rates, and transforms elements of the culture in order to bring them under the lordship of Christ. Contextualization. The term “contextualiza- As believers in a particular place reflect upon the tion” first appeared in 1972 in a publication of Word through their own thoughts, employing the Theological Education Fund entitled Minis- their own cultural gifts, they are better able to try in Context. This document laid out the princi- understand the gospel as incarnation. ples which would govern the distribution of The term “contextualization” is most com- funds for the Third Mandate of the TEF. The monly associated with theology, yet given the scholarships were awarded for the graduate edu- above definition, it is proper to speak of contex- cation of scholars in the international church. tualization in a variety of ways encompassing all Contextualization was described as “the capacity the dimensions of religious life. For example, to respond meaningfully to the gospel within the church architecture, worship, preaching, sys- framework of one’s own situation.” A precedent tems of church governance, symbols, and rituals for the new term, “contextual theology,” resulted are all areas where the contextualization princi- from a consultation held in Bossey, Switzerland, ple applies. Context, on which the term is based, in August 1971. The Ecumenical Institute of the is not narrowly understood as the artifacts and World Council of Churches had sponsored that customs of culture only, but embraces the differ- earlier discussion under the theme “Dogmatic or ences of human realities and experience. These Contextual Theology.” differences are related to cultural histories, soci- The lament behind the Third Mandate of the etal situations, economics, politics, and ideolo- TEF was that “both the approach and content of gies. In this sense contextualization applies as theological reflection tend to move within the much to the church “at home,” with all its varia- framework of Western questions and cultural tions, as it does to the church “overseas.” presuppositions, failing to vigorously address the In mission practice the more visible aspects of gospel of Jesus Christ to the particular situa- contextualization were closely related to older tion.” Further, it was declared that “Contextual- terms such as Accommodation, Adaption, Incul- ization is not simply a fad or catch-word but a turation, and Indigenization. Issues such as theological necessity demanded by the incarna- forms of communication, language, music, styles tional nature of the Word.” of dress, and so on had long been associated While the document had a limited purpose, with the so-called three-self missionary philoso- the implications coming from it resulted in a phy which was built around the principle of in- movement which has had an impact on the the- digenization. Indigeneity often was understood ory and practice of mission. The contextualiza- as “nativization,” in that the visible cultural tion concept was a timely innovation. New na- forms of a given people would be used in ex- tions were struggling for their own life. The pressing Christianity. In going beyond these mission enterprise needed new symbols to mark more superficial expressions, the new term “con- a needed separation from the colonialistic, West- textualization” tended to raise the fear of Syn- ern-dominated past (see Colonialism). cretism. This would mean the “old religion” There is no single or broadly accepted defini- would become mixed in with the new biblical tion of contextualization. The goal of contextual- faith and that culture would have more authority ization perhaps best defines what it is. That goal than revelation. Some felt, therefore, that the is to enable, insofar as it is humanly possible, an older concept of indigenization should not be understanding of what it means that Jesus changed but, rather, broadened to cover more Christ, the Word, is authentically experienced in adequately the field of theology. each and every human situation. Contextualiza- In addition to giving greater attention to the tion means that the Word must dwell among all deeper levels of culture, the new term “contextu- families of humankind today as truly as Jesus alization” became distinguished from indigeni- lived among his own kin. The gospel is Good zation in other ways. Indigenization always im- News when it provides answers for a particular plied a comparison with the West, whereas 32 Contextualization contextualization focuses on the resources avail- demonstrated how creative and stimulating able from within the context itself. Indigeniza- worldwide contextualization could be. tion was static while contextualization is dy- The decade of the 1970s also brought remark- namic, as a still photograph might be compared able progress in finding ways to carry out con- to a motion picture. The older indigenization textualization. Each of the ways, or “models,” as was more isolated while contextualization, they are called, carries certain epistemological though locally constructed, interacts with global assumptions, as well as philosophical ideas realities. about truth. While the models each have their The fact that the early documents about con- differences, they also have several features that textualization were formulated in offices related they share in common. Some are more centered to the World Council of Churches also made the on human experience while others show a concept difficult to accept in the nonconciliar greater dependence on widely accepted teach- circles. The heavy emphasis on justice and social ings of the church and the Bible. Thus, the as- development left little, it seemed, for evangelism sumptions undergirding some of these models and conversion. Scholars in Latin America were make them less acceptable to evangelicals. Varia- among the earliest to write about what they saw tions exist within a given model and certain fea- as an appropriate theology for their context. The tures of more than one model may be combined. direction this new theology took alarmed many A brief review of the models will show how di- evangelicals. verse the approaches to contextualization are. Liberation Theology became almost as a Adaptation model: One of the earliest ap- household word in the 1970s and 1980s. Evan- proaches was to make historical-theological con- gelicals felt it demonstrated an inadequate use of cepts fit into each cultural situation. Traditional the Bible and relied too heavily on a Marxist ori- Western ideas are the norm. These are brought entation. This was difficult for North American to the local culture. What is irrelevant may be set conservatives to accept. Even before his book, aside and what must be modified can be changed. The faulty assumption here is that Ministry in Context, Gustavo Gutiérrez had al- ready written his Theology of Liberation (1971). there is one philosophical framework within which all cultures can communicate, assuming Soon afterward J. Miguez Bonino followed with that other forms of knowledge are not legitimate. Doing Theology in a Revolutionary Situation Anthropological model: The beginning point (1978). These major innovations opened up fur- is to study the people concerned. The key to ther thinking on contextualization. They fol- communication and pathways to the human lowed closely the volatile 1960s in the United heart and spirit lies in the culture. The assump- States. Ideas about contextualization in the tion is that people know best their own culture; United States first became associated with the worldview themes, symbols, myths are reposito- controversial issues raised by the Vietnam War ries of truth for all people. While this is true, un- and American racism. “Black Power,” as advo- less discernment about a culture is brought to cated by James Cone (1969), had become a pop- the Word for affirmation or judgment the con- ular application of what contextualization is. textualization exercise can become distorted and Because of this ferment Hermeneutics quickly misleading. became the central point of contention among Critical model: The critical aspect of this ap- evangelicals. The question was asked whether proach centers on how features of traditional truth is derived primarily from human experi- culture—rituals, songs, stories, customs, music— ence or from Revelation. At first there was little are brought under the scrutiny of biblical teach- consensus among evangelicals about the role of ing. Here the culture and the Scriptures are eval- Culture and social issues, especially in theology. uated concurrently in the search for new ways to The contextualization debate made serious new express belief and practice. One must ask who thinking possible, especially with regard to cul- will carry out the process, and how accurate are ture and the way in which it connects to the bib- the meanings derived from both customs and the lical record. Scripture. Throughout the 1970s the writing and discus- Semiotic model: Semiotics is the science of sion on contextualization began to clarify direc- “reading a culture” through “signs” (see Symbol, tions that evangelicals should take. A Laus- Symbolism). This comprehensive view of culture anne-sponsored gathering at Willowbank interprets symbols, myths, and the like that re- (Bermuda) in 1978 adopted the theme “Gospel veal the past as well as studying “signs” that indi- and Culture.” The conference took seriously the cate how the culture is changing. These realities role of the cultural context of the believer as are compared with church tradition in a process well as the biblical text in defining evangeliza- of “opening up” both the local culture and Chris- tion and church development. The late 1970s tian practice. To master the complicated method also saw the rise (and demise) of the quarterly, would tend to separate an indigenous researcher The Gospel in Context. The journal’s brief life from the people and the context. 33 Costas, Orlando E

Synthetic model: Synthesis involves bringing person and the rank-and-file believer. They are together four components: the gospel, Christian the people who know what biblical faith must do tradition, culture, and social change. These ele- if it is to meet everyday problems. The term “in- ments are discussed together using insights of- carnational theology” is another way of speaking fered by the local people. Also there must be a about contextualization (see Incarnational Mis- recognition of sharing insights with “outsiders.” sion). This means that Christian truth is to be Each contributes to the other, while each main- understood by Christians in the pews and on the tains its own distinctives. The openness and le- streets. The objective of contextualization is to gitimacy given to all views would tend toward bring data from the whole of life to real people ambiguity and a kind of universalism. and to search the Scriptures for a meaningful ap- Transcendental model: This model does not plication of the Word which “dwelt among us” concentrate on the impersonal aspect of theol- (John 1:14). The missiological significance for ogy, that is, to prove something “out there,” but contextualization is that all nations must under- is primarily concerned with what any truth stand the Word as clearly and as accurately as means to the subject and to members of the sub- did Jesus’ own people in his day. ject’s community. Likewise revelation is under- Dean Gilliland stood as the active perception or encounter with God’s truth. Much criticism can be raised. How Bibliography. S. B. Bevans, Models of Contextual can one be an authentic believer without objec- Theology; D. S. Gilliland, The Word Among Us: Contex- tualizing Theology for Mission Today; D. J. Hesselgrave tive context and why is such Western sophistica- and E. Rommen, Contextualization: Meaning and tion necessary? Methods; W. A. Dyrness, Learning About Theology from Translation model: Based on translation sci- the Third World; R. J. Schreiter, Constructing Local ence, the nearest possible meanings of the origi- Theologies. nal text are sought out in the receiving culture. Exact forms may not be possible, but expres- Costas, Orlando E. (1942–87). Puerto Rican sions and forms that are equivalent are intro- churchman, missiologist, and missionary to duced. Attempts were made to identify the “ker- Costa Rica. Converted at the 1969 Billy Graham nel” or core of the gospel which then would Crusade in New York City, Costas obtained his apply to all cultures. The problem of subjectivity doctorate in missiology under Johannes Verkuyl in selecting forms is a risk, as is separating the at the Free University of Amsterdam. Word from what is culturally negotiable. Ordained by the American Baptist Convention, In contextualization, evangelicals have a valu- Costas pastored congregations in Puerto Rico able tool with which to work out the meanings of and Milwaukee prior to missionary service, first Scripture in the varieties of mission contexts and with the Latin America Mission, and later with in conversations with the churches of the Two- the United Church Board for World Ministries. Thirds World. A built-in risk of contextualization Assigned to Costa Rica, he served with the Insti- is that the human situation and the culture of tute of In-Depth Evangelization and the Latin peoples so dominate the inquiry that God’s reve- American Biblical Seminary. He founded and di- lation through the Bible will be diminished. To rected the Latin American Evangelical Center for be aware of this danger is a necessary step in Pastoral Studies, and promoted the Latin Ameri- avoiding it. Contextualization cannot take place can Theological Fraternity. He returned to the unless Scripture is read and obeyed by believers. United States in 1979 to Eastern Baptist Theo- This means that believers will study the Scrip- logical Seminary. In 1984, he moved to Andover tures carefully and respond to their cultural con- Newton Theological Seminary, occupying the cerns in light of what is in the biblical text. Cul- Adoniram Judson Chair of Missiology. ture is subject to the God of culture. Culture is important to God and for all its good and bad Active in denominational life and ecumenical factors, culture is the framework within which circles, Costas made significant contributions to God works out God’s purposes. Some indications missiological literature. He wrote over a hundred of the gospel’s presence in the soil may be evi- books and articles and contributed to more than dent, but Scripture is something that is outside thirty volumes edited by others. A radical evan- and must be brought into the cultural setting to gelical, Costas advocated a holistic gospel of the more fully understand what God is doing in cul- kingdom, yet emphasized the unique role of the ture, and to find parallels between the culture church. Although he moved beyond the separat- and the Bible. ist fundamentalism of his youth, Costas retained The strength of contextualization is that if his evangelical identity as he interacted exten- properly carried out, it brings ordinary Christian sively with conciliar and liberation theologies. believers into what is often called the theological Ken Mulholland process. Contextualization is not primarily the Bibliography. O. E. Costas, The Church and Its Mis- work of professionals, though they are needed. It sion: A Shattering Critique from the Third World; idem, is making the gospel real to the untrained lay The Integrity of Mission; idem, Christ Outside the Gate: 34 Crusade Evangelism

Mission beyond Christendom; idem, Liberating News: A seek spiritual renewal. This planned process of Theology of Contextual Evangelization. revivalism became a major evangelistic tool for reaching the lost. Crowther, Samuel Adjai (c. 1808–91). Nigerian Wesley soon joined Whitefield in his practice explorer and missionary statesman. The son of a of open-air preaching. Crowds of over thirty royal Yoruba family in what is now Nigeria, thousand flocked to hear Wesley preach. Receiv- Crowther was taken as a slave when a youth. ing great opposition from the clergy, he declared Freed by the British, he was settled in Sierra that the world was his parish. As the demand for Leone and learned Christianity from the mis- preaching grew, Wesley began to appoint laity to sionaries there. preach. He soon developed routes for his circuit After studies in England, Crowther was among preaching evangelists to travel. Wesley spent the the first to enroll at and graduate from Fourah rest of his life organizing the converts into Meth- Bay College in Freetown. He was ordained in the odist societies. Anglican Church in 1843. The First Great Awakening set the stage for the Crowther’s name is intimately associated with planned revivalism of the nineteenth century. the Niger River, first as an explorer and then as During the Second Great Awakening, frontier leader of the mission efforts of the Church Mis- camp meetings were held in which thousands of sionary Society (CMS). He represented the CMS people, of many different denominations, would on three expeditions up the Niger sponsored by come to hear gospel preaching. The camp meet- the British. ings came to be held annually and took the form It soon became clear that the Niger River was of protracted meetings. A starting date was deadly for Europeans, who were not resistant to planned but no conclusion. tropical diseases. Thus, Henry Venn sponsored Many notable evangelists arose during the the idea of an all-African team of missionaries to nineteenth century. The first evangelist of great work in the Niger River area. significance was Charles Finney (1792–1875). Crowther was installed as bishop of the Niger Finney instituted innovative methods called New territories and sent on his way together with as- Measures, which encouraged persons under con- sistants from Sierra Leone. The initial work was viction to come forward and seek salvation. Fin- slow and difficult because of poor communica- ney’s New Measures included anxious meetings tion, pagan persecution, incompetent assistants, in which the anxious could come to a reserved and the criticisms of ethnocentric missionaries section and be led immediately to Christ. Finney from England. But Crowther was a man of ster- is remembered as the “Father of Modern Evan- ling character who continued the work until he gelism.” died in his early eighties. His career is a lasting The year 1875 marked the last year of Finney’s reminder of what Africans accomplished for God ministry and the first major American evangelis- during the nineteenth century. tic campaign of D. L. Moody (1835–99). Moody Timothy Monsma and his musician, Ira Sankey, led major crusades in England and America. Moody concentrated his Bibliography. J. Du Plessis, The Evangelization of efforts in the cities, believing that if he could Pagan Africa; P. Falk, The Growth of the Church in Af- reach the cities, he could better impact the coun- rica; S. C. Neill, HCM. try. He repeatedly filled the auditoriums of Amer- ica’s largest cities, regularly preaching to crowds Crusade Evangelism. Modern crusade evange- up to 15,000. Moody traveled over one million lism began in the eighteenth century when a miles and spoke to over one hundred million peo- mighty movement of God was birthed in North ple. America and Europe. This movement in Amer- A contemporary of Moody was Sam Jones ica, known as the Great Awakening, was the cat- (1847–1906). Whereas Moody focused on regen- alyst for thousands coming to a saving faith in eration, Jones focused on reformation. He main- Jesus Christ. The major personalities of this time tained a close connection between conversion were George Whitefield in North America and and moral issues. He averaged nearly two thou- John Wesley in England. Their dynamic preach- sand conversions per crusade, recorded over five ing attracted some of the largest crowds ever to hundred thousand professions of faith, and hear the gospel. spoke to well over twenty-five million people. Whitefield developed the practice of preaching R. A. Torrey (1856–1928) was one of the great in the open fields in England when he was not early evangelists of the twentieth century. Torrey allowed to preach in many of the English pulpits. and his music assistant Charles Alexander were From this practice an evangelistic ministry sur- welcomed as Moody and Sankey’s successors. faced that took Whitefield across the face of En­ Torrey believed that he was the divinely ap- gland and up the Atlantic Coast in America. A pointed successor to Moody and prayed that the process was begun in which masses of people Lord would send him around the world with the would gather to hear the Bible preached and message of salvation. He held crusades across 35 Danish Mission Boards and Societies the world with notable crusades in Australia, greatest crusade ministry in revival history. Like India, and a four-year campaign in Britain, many great evangelists before him, Graham which claimed over one hundred thousand con- preached numerous crusades overseas, including verts. His American crusades were highly suc- major efforts in Australia, England, China, East- cessful as he gained notoriety for challenging ern Europe, and the former Soviet Union. atheists and was successful in refuting promi- Over the years crusade evangelistic efforts nent Universalists and Unitarians. have had their share of detractors. Controversies D. L. Moody referred to J. Wilbur Chapman over excessive lifestyles and integrity issues have (1859–­1918) as the greatest evangelist in the exposed those who have engaged in crusade min- country. Chapman became widely known for his istry for personal gain. They have also resulted in use of the simultaneous crusade. He would di- better accountability structures among those vide cities into districts; evangelists would hold who might be tempted to move in such a direc- meetings that preceded the main crusade. He tion. In any event, however, there is no doubt also utilized various specialists whom he be- that the varied forms of crusade evangelism have lieved would appeal to specific groups. His spe- played, and will continue to play, a vital role in cialists included social activists, athletes, repre- mission and world evangelization. sentatives of the various denominations, Frank Harber children’s specialists, and reformed alcoholics and gamblers. Bibliography. E. E. Cairns, An Endless Line of Splen- dor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awaken- Wilbur Chapman left evangelism in 1895 for ing to the Present; S. Huston, Crusade Evangelism and the pastorate and was succeeded by his crusade the Local Church; B. R. Lacy, Jr., Revivals in the Midst director Billy Sunday (1862–1935). Sunday was of the Years; W. L. Muncy, Jr., History of Evangelism in a former professional baseball player for the Chi- the United States; P. Scharff, History of Evangelism: cago White Stockings. His preaching style was Three Hundred Years of Evangelism in Germany, Great dramatic and included acrobatics and theatrics. Britain, and the United States of America; M. Taylor, Ex- Sunday erected giant wooden tabernacles, some ploring Evangelism: History, Methods, Theology. holding up to twenty-five thousand, to accom- modate the crowds. Those who responded to Danish Mission Boards and Societies. In 1706 Sunday’s invitation were called “trail hitters,” re- the first missionaries from a Lutheran land ar- flecting Sunday’s key phrase in the invitation to rived in the Tranquebar region of southeast “hit the sawdust trail.” In all, Sunday preached India, sent out by what became known as the to over one hundred million people and led over Danish-Halle Mission. The Danish king, Freder- a million persons to faith in Christ. ick IV, had been especially eager to spread the During the twentieth century many notable faith by sponsoring this initiative. But in fact the crusade evangelists engaged successfully in cru- first missionaries were Germans, as were most sade evangelistic efforts around the world. Prom- of the several dozen sent to India throughout the inent Africa-American crusade evangelists in- rest of the century. (However, the number of clude Howard Jones and Ralph Bell. American Danes, six or so, who went probably was the Pentecostals who conducted massive healing right proportion compared to the far more nu- crusades include Oral Roberts, Kathryn Kuhl- merous German population.) A missionary col- man, and Benny Hinn. In Latin American con- lege was founded in Denmark in 1714 to further texts Luis Palau and Carlos Anacondia stand out. this and other ventures. By the beginning of the In Africa, Nigerian Benson Idahosa, Ugandan nineteenth century, this early Danish-Halle Festo Kivengere, and Zambian Nevers Mumba thrust had been overwhelmed by a rationalistic are well known. Additionally, Pentecostals such spirit. as American T. L. Osborne and German Rein- A new beginning occurred in 1821 with the hard Bonnke have conducted large-scale cru- founding of the Danish Missionary Society. It has sades across the continent. Prominent Asian cru- always functioned as a voluntary society within sade evangelists include Indians Abdiyah Akbar the framework of the national Lutheran Church, Abdul-Haqq, Robert Cunville, and Ravi Zacha- to which almost all Danes nominally belong. Fi- rias as well as Sri Lankan Ajith Fernando. In the nancial support is provided by contributions South Pacific, Australian Bill Newman is well rather than through the taxes that have provided known. for buildings and clergy salaries. This society, like Perhaps no evangelist of any century, however, many of the other early ones around Europe, ini- has had the impact of Billy Graham. Born in tially sent workers through the auspices of older 1918, Graham was converted under the preach- ones, such as the Basel Mission, before sending ing of Evangelist Mordecai Ham. As a young missionaries on its own. Eventually the Danish minister, Graham received much notoriety as the society had up to seventy missionaries at a time key speaker for Youth for Christ in rallies across in China. But by the 1960s there were only about the country. However, it was his 1949 crusade in eighty-five missionaries total, two-fifths each in Los Angeles that launched his ministry into the Africa and India, the rest in Taiwan and Japan. 36 Dialogue

Meanwhile, many other societies emerged Ontological and epistemological relativism within the national Lutheran Church, eventually form the basis for pluralist dialogue. Within this numbering sixteen or seventeen, mostly small and framework, dialogue is seen as a primary avenue focusing on one or two fields. The only other one toward universal religious truth. Through inter- with more than a score of workers is a “Sudan” faith discussion under an attitude of equal re- Mission, begun in 1911 for work in what is now spect for person and faith, dialogue may reveal Nigeria, and which reported sixty-six missionaries supreme truth that transcends various religious by 1970. Among the smaller Lutheran ones are traditions: the ultimate truth behind all cultural the “Santal” dating from 1867 for work in India expressions of religious experience, whether that and a Lutheran Missionary Association begun in experience finds expression through Hinduism, 1868 with work in Tanzania and Surinam. Islam, Buddhism, or Christianity. Important as- In 1912 a national missionary council was pects include entering dialogue with little or no formed, as in so many other countries in the predetermined expectations, complete honesty, wake of the 1910 Edinburgh World Missionary openness, and willingness to change, even con- Conference. Initially it had twelve member soci- cerning important theological issues. Thus, eties, all Lutheran. Fifty years later the number through interfaith dialogue, the Christian may of agencies had doubled and included four convert from Christianity, the non-Christian may non-Lutheran ones. convert to Christianity, or both may become ag- As in the rest of Scandinavia, the Danish “free nostic. Adherents to this position include John churches” are very small. The membership total Hick, Paul F. Knitter, John R. Cobb, Raimundo for all of the congregations in each denomina- Panikkar, and Leonard Swidler. tion is still only a few thousand. This has never- This position, however, views Relativism as a theless not kept them from concern for foreign universally accepted paradigm, possibly creating missions, and proportionately they send out far a naiveté concerning the willingness of other more than the societies within the national parties to agree to the relativistic preconditions church. Their small size means that this yields and the possibility that such dialogues become only one or two dozen missionaries from each limited to other pluralists from various faiths. denomination. They differ from the main body This position also evidences a lack of attention to also in that the denomination as a whole gener- smaller religious movements in the pluralist lit- ally takes responsibility for the missions work. erature. Little space is given to dialogue between The Danish free church missions have mostly Christians (even liberal) and Satanists, to give an worked in Africa. One example are the Baptists extreme example. who, beginning in 1928, served in the Central Af- The opposite view may be called the antidia- logue position; it is held by D. Martyn Lloyd- rican countries of Rwanda and Burundi. Jones, among others. Drawing presuppositions In the early 1970s there were about 330 Dan- from conservative Christian tradition and nine- ish Protestants serving abroad with twenty-eight teenth-century positivism, this position assumes boards and societies in thirty countries, as well an absolute, complete, and accurate comprehen- as a dozen or so Roman Catholic and Jehovah’s sion of biblical truth as expressed in evangelical Witness missionaries. Twenty years later the orthodoxy, forming “an exact correspondence number of Protestant missionaries had risen to between theology and Scripture” (Hiebert, 1985, about 350, but mergers had reduced the agencies 7). Any dialogue that contains the possibility for to eighteen. theological change is often perceived as a threat. Donald Tinder Accordingly, as John Stott points out, proclama- tion commands the central element of this posi- Dialogue. The subject of vigorous discussion, di- tion. Careful attention is given to the presenta- alogue seems to defy definition. Most agree, how- tion of the message in monologue form with less ever, that dialogue includes face-to-face conversa- attention to surrounding beliefs or circum- tions involving persons who have fundamentally stances. Dialogue with non-Christians is often different religious convictions for the purpose of considered to involve compromise with an- understanding and growth. In the debate on reli- ti-Christian forces, violating 2 John 7–11. gious Pluralism and dialogue, convictions on its Preaching in monologue style seeks to accurately nature and use appear to settle into three posi- communicate propositional truth, thus safe- tions. The position held by pluralists rejects tradi- guarding the purity and integrity of the biblical tional views on biblical revelation, proclaiming message. interreligious dialogue as a new epistemology; Weaknesses include substantial evidence of extreme conservatism calls for the rejection of di- cultural and subjective bias in biblical interpre- alogue in favor of proclamation; a more centrist tation, undermining the presupposition of exact view affirms dialogue as a means of under- correspondence. Accordingly, adherents may ex- standing and communication without rejecting perience difficulty discerning and respecting dif- biblical revelation. ferences in conservative biblical interpretation 37 Diaspora(s) that stem from divergent worldviews. In addi- diaspora Jewish believers. Acts tells us that the tion, greater possibilities exist for insensitive pre- nucleus of the churches planted in the Roman sentations that can hinder comprehension of Empire came from diaspora Jews and “God fear- central biblical issues. For example, cultures that ers.” The Syriac-speaking church in the East value relationships and conversation more than which took the gospel to India and, through the preaching may find difficulty in responding to Nestorians, to China probably had its beginning the message. in synagogues of the diaspora in Mesopotamia. The third position seeks to affirm both the un- Through the centuries Christians have been derstanding and communication aspects of dia- scattered in other diasporas because of religious logue without surrendering biblical absolutes, or political persecution or to seek economic op- the latter being a crucial distinction from the portunities and political freedom. The Walden- pluralist definition of dialogue. This position, sian movement arose in Lyon, France, in the combining critical realism with theological con- twelfth century and spread across southern and servatism, is held by (among others) Stott, central Europe, only to suffer Persecution and E. Stanley Jones, Kenneth Cragg, Carl F. H. Martyrdom. Some Waldensians joined remnants Henry, and Bishop Stephen Neill. Through in- of the Hussite movement which arose in Bohe- terpersonal dialogue, one listens and learns as mia and Moravia in the fifteenth century to form well as shares scriptural truth. Biblical evidence the Unitas Fratrum. It was a few members of that for this position includes examples from the group who became the nucleus of the Moravian ministry of Christ (John 3–4; Luke 18:18–29), the movement which became a major catalyst of the ministry of Peter (Acts 10:27–48), Paul (Acts modern Protestant missionary movement (see 13:8–18; 17:16–34; 19:8–10; 20:6–7), and the Moravian Missions). common sense of Proverbs 18:13. Stott summa- The Mennonites are the primary heirs of the rizes his argument by stating that true biblical sixteenth-century Anabaptist movement. They dialogue reflects authenticity, humility, integrity, have been scattered through a number of Euro- and sensitivity—all without relinquishing essen- pean countries as well as North and South Amer- tial biblical mandates for salvation. The position ica at first because of persecution by the state calls for careful discernment between people churches and also in an attempt to preserve their who are valued by Christ and religious systems sense of community and their pacifism (see Paci- that oppose him, and it is the position generally fist Theology). While in some cases their com- practiced by evangelical missionaries. munities have turned inward, in others they have The weaknesses of this position include possi- reached out in mission (see Mennonite Mis- ble difficulties in maintaining a balance among sions). Part of the evangelical movement in Rus- interpersonal relationships, biblical truth, and sia has its roots in the Mennonites. resulting psychological equilibrium. Addition- The Puritans came to North America in dias- ally, losing biblical perspective may also lead to- pora and it was a latter-day Puritan, Jonathan Ed- ward Syncretism. However, the strengths of this wards, who played a key role in the first Great approach far outweigh the weaknesses. Awakening which laid the foundation of the Steven J. Pierson American missionary movement. Swedish Bap- tists and other free churches persecuted by state Bibliography. P. J. Griffiths, An Apology for Apologet- churches in Europe came to the United States ics; J. Hick and P. F. Knitter, eds., The Myth of Christian seeking religious freedom and economic opportu- Uniqueness; P. Hiebert, Theological Students Fellowship nity. Such groups have made a contribution to Bulletin 8 (1985): 5–10; P. F. Knitter, No Other Name?; D. M. Lloyd-Jones, Preaching and Preachers; T. C. missions far beyond the proportion of their num- Muck, JETS 36 (1993): 517–29; H. A. Netland, Disso- bers. For example, the Covenant Church, of Swed- nant Voices: Religious Pluralism and the Question of ish origin, was originally the Mission Covenant Truth; E. Rommen and H. Netland, eds., Christianity Church. and the Religions: A Biblical Theology of World Reli- In the twentieth century the Chinese have es- gions; J. R. W. Stott, Christian Mission in the Modern tablished churches in at least thirty-three coun- World; L. Swidler, After the Absolute: The Dialogical Fu- tries, probably more. Koreans began to flee from ture of Religious Reflection. their homeland after 1910 and established churches in Siberia and China. It is estimated Diaspora(s). The role of the Jewish diaspora is that there are two million Koreans in China, and seen clearly in the Acts of the Apostles. Stephen, that at least 12 percent are Christians. The more Philip, Barnabas, and Paul were all Jews of the recent Korean diaspora has taken them to 170 diaspora who were at home in both Jewish and countries, and they have established churches in Greek culture. And it is clear that the first to at least 150 nations. In some cases they are preach the gospel to Gentiles were such bicul- reaching out to non-Koreans. That has no doubt tural Jewish followers of Christ. The first specific been a factor in the growing Korean missionary mission to the Gentiles was called out from the movement. Now many of the second-generation, Antioch church which included both Gentile and bicultural youth are showing interest in mis- 38 Dutch Mission Boards and Societies sions. Like the first cross-cultural Christian mis- land has dropped sharply, so that by 1970 sionaries who were Hellenistic Jews at home in slightly fewer Dutch people identified themselves two languages and cultures, bicultural Christians as Protestants than as Catholics, and by the today, Koreans, and others, have great potential 1990s they comprise even nominally only about for missions. one-fourth of this Protestant-founded nation. Paul E. Pierson That makes the recent significant increase in Protestant missionaries even more interesting, Bibliography. R. DeRidder, Discipling the Nations; showing that there is no simple correlation be- F. Gibson, ed., You Are My Witnesses, The Waldensians across 800 Years; W. Shenk, ed., Anabaptists and Mis- tween overall church attendance and missionary sion. effort. Dutch ministers had been working abroad since the early 1600s, when the small Dutch na- Dutch Mission Boards and Societies. Though tion started becoming a major global trading and Dutch Protestants initially took the lead in mis- colonizing power. Though they lost what became sions work, by the twentieth century the contri- New York in 1664, various waves of Dutch immi- bution had become overwhelmingly from the gration to North America before and since, and Catholic portion of the population despite the the corresponding effort to minister to the immi- large Protestant presence at home and in com- grants and their descendants, have probably di- merce. The Catholic population has remained verted overseas efforts that might otherwise have comparatively large and stable, being almost 40 gone to non-Christian areas. On the other hand, percent in 1830 and the same 40 percent in 1970. as the Dutch integrated into North America soci- By the 1990s, Catholics had dropped to about a ety, they became major participants, not just in third of the population, and the proportion of ethnic churches, but in church life generally, in- those who attended Mass regularly had plum- cluding the missionary effort from North Amer- meted. But in the early 1970s, even though the ica. The colonial Great Awakening began among number had started declining, it is noteworthy the Dutch before leaping to English-speaking set- that of some 12,300 Dutch priests, fully 30 per- tlers. In the twentieth century, Dutch entrepre- cent of them were still serving as missionaries neurs led the evangelical book publishing indus- overseas. They were joined by many more broth- try. ers, sisters, and lay workers, so that in total there The first major Dutch Protestant mission soci- were over 7,600 missionaries. At the same time ety was founded in 1797, alongside of, but not there were only some 350 Dutch Protestant mis- controlled by or limited to, the Reformed sionaries, less than 5 percent as many missionar- Church. It understandably concentrated its ef- ies as the Catholics were sending. forts in Indonesia, where the Netherlands had In the 1970s, this declining but still formidable already replaced Portugal as the leading com- Catholic missionary force of 7,600 was widely mercial power and gradually extended its politi- dispersed. There were no significant indigenous cal control outward from Java. Theological con- Dutch sending agencies, so instead some three troversies in the homeland were also reflected in dozen international agencies or orders were new mission societies (within the main church) used, the largest number being with the Mill Hill and new denominations (generally with their Fathers, the White Fathers, the Spiritans, and small mission efforts being part of their official the Franciscans. However, those four still com- church structure) being formed throughout the prised less than one-fifth of the total force. As to nineteenth century. These new agencies gener- area of service, roughly one-third were in Africa. ally occupied different areas of the vast East In- They were scattered, with Congo’s 450 being the dies. In the twentieth century most began coop- largest contingent. Another third were in Asia, of erating more closely, and the societies (except whom four-fifths were quite understandably in one) of the main church finally in 1951 united as Indonesia, the former Dutch East Indies. The an official arm of it. Most of the older mission final third served in the Americas, the Pacific Is- efforts, including those of the older (and very lands, and even some in Europe, chiefly Scandi- small) non-Reformed churches, are represented navia. Brazil, the largest Catholic country, re- in a Missions Council, are more theologically di- ceived more than one thousand Dutch verse, and their missionaries are decreasing and missionaries. But about 630 were serving in the have disbursed from their original concentration small Netherlands Antilles or in the sparsely in Indonesia. From about 350 in the early 1960s, populated South American Dutch possession their numbers had decreased more than 60 per- which did not gain independence as Suriname cent to under 140 by the early 1980s. until 1975. However, by the early 1990s, the By contrast, the newer non-Reformed number of Catholic missionaries had continued churches, though still relatively small at home, to fall to less than five thousand. and joined by some of the Reformed, are sending The trend for Protestantism is quite different. forth an increasing number of missionaries, often Their percentage of the population in the home- through small Dutch branches of the denomina- 39 Ecumenical Movement tional and interdenominational societies that out the missionary task. Later, Anglicans cooper- have become such a key part of the evangelical ated with Lutherans in the mission in India. And movement in the twentieth century. The Evangel- because of his desire to work for renewal, unity, ical Missionary Alliance included forty such and mission together, Zindzendorf would be agencies with almost 180 missionaries in the called an “ecumenical pioneer.” early 1980s, but by the mid-1990s there were The revivals on both sides of the Atlantic about eighty agencies in the Alliance (none very brought other manifestations of ecumenism. In large) and they comprise the great majority of the North America, George Whitefield, an Angli- approximately 1,200 Dutch Protestant missionar- can; Jonathan Edwards, a Congregationalist; and ies. Gilbert Tennent, a Presbyterian, cooperated in Donald Tinder the first Great Awakening. And in England the revival saw cooperation among Anglicans and Ecumenical Movement. The word “ecumeni- dissenters. Members of different denominations cal” comes from the New Testament word oikou- corresponded, encouraged each other, and read mene,m which meant either the whole world or the each other’s works. Carey would be partly moti- Roman Empire. In the fourth century the term vated in his missionary vocation through reading was used to describe the whole church, and re- David Brainerd and the Moravians. The modern ferred to those church councils recognized as au- Protestant missionary movement, which thoritative by the undivided church. Thus the stemmed from the revivals, saw further steps in first seven councils, called to resolve doctrinal cooperation. Most of the early missionaries of issues mainly concerning Christology (see also the Anglican Church Missionary Society were Christological Controversies), are called the German Lutherans, influenced by pietism. The ecumenical councils. They took place before the London Missionary Society included Congrega- division of the Eastern and Western churches tionalists, Presbyterians, and Anglicans, while and so included all Christians. The final division the British and Foreign Bible Society and the Re- of the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox ligious Tract Society found support among all churches in 1054 created the ecumenical prob- evangelical groups. In an early and visionary at- lem for all churches, which, up to that point, had tempt at greater unity, Carey proposed “a general understood the church as one. association of all denominations of Christians, The Protestant Reformation exacerbated the from the four quarters of the world,” to be held problem. Even though Luther wished only to re- in Capetown in 1810 or 1812, “to enter into one form the Western church with no thought of es- another’s views.” tablishing a different church, the sixteenth cen- While Carey’s dream would not become a real- tury saw massive fragmentation of the Body of ity until a century later, missionaries of various Christ in the West, leaving groups ranging from denominations began to meet in 1825 in Bom- Roman Catholic to Anglican, Lutheran, Re- bay to promote Christian fellowship and ex- formed, and various Anabaptist communities. change ideas. At a similar meeting in 1858 an Despite the ecumenism of Calvin, Bucer, and Anglican stated that while denominational con- others, who longed for the unity of Protestants, troversies may elicit truth in the West, elsewhere most were denouncing each other as apostates they produce nothing but evil, adding his hope by the seventeenth century. that God would produce a church in India differ- While it is clear in the New Testament that ent in many aspects from those in Europe or there is only one church and that the unity of all America. Western denominational divisions believers is an objective fact based on the work seemed to make no sense in Asia or Africa and of Christ, the modern ecumenical movement were often a scandal. They seemed to deny a finds its major biblical basis in John 17, where basic aspect of the faith. In December 1862, an- Jesus prayed that all who believed in him would other conference prefaced its report with the be one so that the world might believe. Thus prayer, “that they all may be one,” and discerned unity would be linked to mission. And in fact the a pattern of “the united action of Christian men historical roots of ecumenism are found in who pray, confer, and work together, in order to movements of renewal and mission beginning advance the interests of their Master’s kingdom.” with Pietism and Moravianism in the eighteenth In the same meeting, Anglicans, Presbyterians, century (see Moravian Missions). An example Methodists, and Baptists took Communion to- was the correspondence among Francke, the Lu- gether. Similar conferences took place in Japan, theran Pietist in Germany; Mather, the Congre- China, Africa, Latin America, and the Muslim gationalist in New England; Chamberlyne and world. Newman, the secretaries of the Society for the The most prominent focus in these confer- Propagation of Christian Knowledge; Boehm, ences was Unity, which was a result of both the the court chaplain at St. James Chapel; and Zie- common commitment to mission and the experi- genbalg, the Lutheran missionary in India in ence of working and praying together. Many rec- which they sought greater unity in order to carry ognized that their unity was much deeper than 40 Ecumenical Movement differences in Church Polity or style of worship, zeal. The Federation sought to promote the spirit and was based on a common devotion to Christ of unity for which the Lord longed, and to em- and his mission. But not all took part. The High phasize the efficacy of prayer, the saving work of Church Anglicans at one extreme, and some Christ, and the “energizing power of the Spirit Faith Missions on the other, stayed away. But at and the Word of God.” this point there was still a broad consensus These powerful streams came together in the among the great majority about the nature and Edinburgh Missionary Conference in 1910. purpose of mission. Many of those who planned it came from the An additional and related factor was the Evan- Student Christian movement. A number of them gelical Alliance, formed in 1846. It sought to would become leaders in the formation of the unite in fellowship all who believed in the full World Council of Churches in midcentury. authority of the Bible, the incarnation, atone- John R. Mott, the chairman, was the most visible ment, salvation by faith, and the work of the leader of the SVM and probably the most im- Holy Spirit. Its monthly journal, Evangelical portant symbol of the growing ecumenical move- Christendom, brought news of missionary work ment. Three topics of the conference were “Car- all over the world, and was avidly read by mis- rying the Gospel to all the World,” “The Church sionaries as well as those at home. This strength- on the Mission Field,” and “Cooperation and the ened the vision of missionary cooperation. Promotion of Unity.” However, in order to ensure Missionary conferences overseas had their the participation of the High Church Anglicans counterparts in Europe and North America. In and continental Lutherans, the conference lim- 1854 Alexander Duff spoke in New York at a ited participants to those involved in mission to meeting open to friends of mission from “all “non-Christians.” Consequently those involved in evangelical denominations,” to consider eight mission to traditionally Roman Catholic Latin key questions about world evangelization. Many America were excluded. This would create barri- similar meetings were held during the last half of ers between Latin American evangelicals and the the century in various parts of Europe as well as conciliar ecumenical movement later on. On the the United States. A new and important step was other hand, neither Roman Catholics nor Ortho- Ecumenical Missionary Conference held in New dox were invited. York in 1900. Nearly two hundred thousand peo- Edinburgh’s most important achievement was ple attended its various sessions, and it was the formation, in 1921, of the International Mis- opened with an address by President William sionary Council (IMC) which promoted interna- McKinley. The word “ecumenical” was used in tional missionary cooperation. However, it was its title “because the plan of campaign which it also uniquely responsible for the formation of proposes covers the whole area of the inhabited the World Council of Churches. It did so by globe.” Thus the original dimension was brought bringing the younger churches into the thinking again to the meaning of the term. Now it re- of the older churches, helping to recognize them ferred, not only to the whole church and thus to as an essential part of the world Christian com- unity and cooperation, but to the worldwide munity. Even though the organizers had agreed scope of the missionary task. not to discuss matters of theology and polity, Along with the revivals and the missionary some in attendance saw the need to do so and, as movement the nineteenth-century student move- a result, the Faith and Order Movement was ini- ments formed a third stream contributing to the tiated in 1927. The influence of the Student ecumenical movement. The Intercollegiate Movement and Edinburgh was also important in YMCA existed on 181 campuses by 1884, empha- the formation of the Universal Christian Council sizing Bible study, worship, and personal evange- for Life and Work, established in 1925. Bishop lism. In 1880 the Interseminary Missionary Alli- Soder­blom of Sweden who had been influenced ance was formed by students from thirty-two by D. L. Moody and Mott, established the coun- seminaries to encourage focus on the missionary cil to seek cooperative action on common prob- task. Through these two organizations mission lems. Faith and Order and Life and Work would became the primary feature of the student move- become the parent movements of the World ment. The Student Volunteer Movement, Council of Churches (WCC), organized in 1948 formed in 1886, carried the emphasis further. (see Amsterdam Assembly). For the older denom- Student Christian movements were organized in inations it has been the primary institutional ex- a number of countries, and these were brought pression of the ecumenical movement. together in the World Student Christian Federa- When the IMC became a part of the WCC in tion in 1895 under the leadership of John R. 1961 some hoped it would place mission at the Mott. Its founders saw the need for greater unity heart of the Council. Others feared the move at home if their goal of world evangelization was would result in a decline in mission. The latter to be realized. In England, for example, it proved to be right as a combination of theologi- brought together Free Church, Evangelical, and cal liberalism, which seemed to doubt the impor- Anglo Catholic students to promote missionary tance of evangelism and maintained a primary 41 Elliot, Elisabeth Howard focus on social issues, led to a great decrease in statement of faith that laid the foundation for a missionary activity by most conciliar churches in more adequate understanding of mission. The Europe and North America. Thus the WCC has formation of the Lausanne Committee on World not succeeded in fulfilling the goal of its early Evangelization (LCWE) worked to bring about proponents, unity so that the world might be- greater cooperation in the evangelistic task in a lieve. Its member churches seem to be playing an number of areas. Those involved included a wider ever decreasing role in world evangelism. This spectrum than ever before, ranging from Angli- can be seen in statistics from the United States. cans to Pentecostals. At the same time the insights In 1918, 82% of the missionary force came from and concerns of Christians from Asia, Africa, and the “mainline” churches, most likely to be mem- Latin America contributed to deeper under- bers of the WCC today. In 1966, only 6% of standing of the Gospel and the missionary task by American missionaries served under those those in the West (see Evangelical Movement). boards. The second congress of the LCWE, held in Ma- Other manifestations of ecumenism are coun- nila in 1989, was probably the most inclusive cils of churches in many countries and mergers Christian gathering in history up to that time of various denominational traditions in some na- (see Lausanne Congress II). Four thousand evan- tions. The United Church of Canada was formed gelical Christians from 150 countries gathered in 1925 by Methodists, Congregationalists, and for a week. They included over sixty from the some Presbyterians with the hope of more effec- former Soviet Union, while others came from tive outreach in the West. However, the result obscure countries like Chad in Central Africa. has been disappointing and decline rather than The goal was that half the delegates come from growth has been the result. The Church of Christ Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Pentecostals in China was formed in 1927 by Presbyterians, were included among the speakers. So were United Brethren, the United Church of Canada, women. Thus the whole church was represented and some Baptists and Congregationalists. to an extent not previously seen. The focus re- Under the communist regime it became the par- captured the ecumenical ideal: the whole church, ent body of the current “Three-Self Church,” taking the whole gospel, to the whole world. And sanctioned by the government. The Church of while Manila did not contribute the kind of sig- South India was formed in 1947 and included nificant theological reformulation done at Laus- Anglicans, the first time they had been drawn anne, it seemed to provide additional impetus to into communion with Presbyterians, Methodists, the goals of cooperation in mission. and others. In 1941 most Protestants in Japan, While the LCWE has been the most visible under government pressure, formed the Church symbol of the new evangelical ecumenism, there of Christ in Japan, but Anglicans, Lutherans, and are many others. The AD 2000 Movement, led, some others withdrew from it after the war. In not by a European or North American, but by an 1948 the United Church of Christ in the Philip- Argentine, the Global Consultation on World pines was established. It appears that most of Evangelization held in Korea (’95) and South Af- these united churches, with the exception of the rica (’97), the Latin American mission confer- Church in China, are not growing as rapidly as ences (see COMIBAM) held in 1987 and 1997, many of the newer groups. and the internationalization of the missionary The early ecumenical movement was based on movement, are all aspects of ecumenism. While a theological consensus which was solidly evan- there is still much to be done, the evangelical gelical and breathed missionary passion. To the movement is now more genuinely ecumenical extent that agencies lost either or both of these, than ever before, as men and women from many they declined. But after midcentury a new evan- races, languages, cultures, and nations seek to gelical ecumenism arose. This is probably the discover how they can demonstrate our unity in most important manifestation of the ecumenical movement today. In the first half of this century Christ so that the world might believe. fundamentalists and evangelicals tended to focus Paul E. Pierson more on the issues which separated them from Bibliography. J. Hoekstra, The World Council of each other than on their common faith and task. Churches and the Demise of Evangelism; W. R. Hogg, But in 1966 the Congress on the Church’s Ecumenical Foundations; LCWE; The Lausanne Cove- Worldwide Mission at Wheaton and the World nant; K. S. Latourette, A History of Christianity; S. Neill Congress on Evangelism in Berlin began to over- and R. Rouse, A History of the Ecumenical Movement. come the separatism. Those meetings were suc- ceeded by the International Congress on World Elliot, Elisabeth Howard (1926– ). American Evangelism, held at Lausanne in 1974. The stat- lecturer, author, and missionary to Ecuador. El- ure of Billy Graham helped greatly in bringing liot was born of missionary parents in Brussels, together men and women from diverse traditions Belgium. Her father, Philip E. Howard Jr., later and many nations, while the theological insights became the editor of the Sunday School Times. of John Stott contributed to the formulation of a She and her five siblings, all of whom entered 42 English Mission Boards and Societies

Christian ministry, were exposed regularly to English Mission Boards and Societies. The missionary guests in their home. two oldest English mission agencies predate the After graduating from Wheaton College in Evangelical Revival. The Society for Promoting 1948, Elliot went to Ecuador in 1952, working Christian Knowledge was established in 1698 to initially among the Colorado Indians. In 1953 provide schooling and Christian literature in she married Jim Elliot and joined him among both Britain and North America. Connections the Quichua Indians. In 1956 Jim and four com- with German Pietists also led the Society in 1710 panions were speared to death in an attempt to to adopt the Danish Lutheran mission at Tran- reach Auca Indians. quebar, the first Protestant missionary venture in In 1958 Elisabeth and her three-year-old India. The Society for the Propagation of the daughter, Valerie, with Rachael Saint, went by Gospel in Foreign Parts was founded in 1701 pri- invitation to live among the Aucas, where she marily to provide Anglican pastoral ministry to learned the language and began translation settlers in the British North American colonies. work. In 1963 she returned to the United States. Although the Society’s royal charter made im- She was married in 1969 to Addison Leitch, plicit reference to the needs of the indigenous who died of cancer in 1973. She married again in American peoples, the SPG remained almost en- 1977 to Lars Gren. A popular speaker to stu- tirely a colonial church society until the 1830s. dents, women, and others, she produces a daily These two religious societies were not dedi- radio broadcast, Gateway to Joy, heard nation- cated exclusively to overseas mission. The first wide and a bimonthly newsletter. She has writ- English society founded specifically for this pur- ten more than two dozen books, many of which pose was the Particular Baptist Society for Prop- have been best-sellers and have stimulated great agating the Gospel among the Heathen, founded interest in missions. in 1792 by the Particular (Calvinistic) Baptists. David M. Howard The Baptist Missionary Society (BMS), as the Society became known, sent William Carey to Bibliography. E. Elliot, The Savage, My Kinsman; Bengal in 1793. Other denominations similarly idem, Passion and Purity; idem, The Shaping of a Christian Family. touched by the Evangelical Revival soon fol- lowed suit. In 1795 evangelicals from various churches formed “The Missionary Society” in an Elliot, Philip James (1927–56). American mis- united endeavor to send the gospel to the “hea- sionary martyr in Ecuador. Elliot was born to then,” leaving the converts to decide their own godly parents in Portland, Oregon. He graduated form of church government. This dream of evan- from Wheaton College in 1949, having been a gelical ecumenism proved hard to sustain once champion wrestler and campus leader as presi- different denominations had their own mission- dent of the Student Foreign Missions Fellowship. ary bodies. The name was changed to the Lon- He began keeping a personal journal in 1948, don Missionary Society in 1818. The LMS be- parts of which have been widely quoted because came chiefly identified with the Congregational of his keen spiritual insights. denomination. Among its missionaries were Elliot went to Ecuador in 1952 to work among Robert Morrison, Robert Moffat, and David the Quichua Indians. In 1953 he married Elisa- Livingstone. Evangelicals in the established beth Howard in Quito. Church of England formed their own missionary Burdened for unreached tribes, he and com- society in 1799: the “Society for Missions to Af- panions Nate Saint and Ed McCully searched for rica and the East” or “Church Missionary Soci- the Aucas, which they discovered in September ety.” The CMS grew over the course of the nine- 1955. For three months they dropped gifts weekly teenth century into the largest of the English from the air to the Aucas. In January 1956, with societies. From the ranks of its secretaries came two more companions, Roger Youderian and two of the most influential missionary thinkers Peter Fleming, the five established a beachhead in recent Christian history: Henry Venn and Max on the Curaray River near the Auca territory. One Warren. John Wesley’s new “Methodist” move- friendly contact with three Aucas took place at ment within the Church of England was also ac- their river encampment. Then on January 8, tively involved in foreign mission from 1786, 1956, they were attacked and speared to death by when the first Methodist missionary arrived in the Aucas. The story of Jim Elliot and his com- the West Indies. However, the formal organiza- panions has continued to motivate Christians all tion of the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Soci- over the world for commitment to missionary ety took place only after 1813, when different service. Methodist districts established their own mis- David M. Howard sionary societies, which came together in one Bibliography. E. Elisabeth, Through Gates of Splen- national body in 1818. Unlike the BMS, LMS, or dor; idem Shadow of the Almighty, idem (ed.), The Jour- CMS, the WMMS was not a voluntary society nals of Jim Elliot. separate from denominational structures, but an 43 Europe integral part of the Methodist connectional ma- West. Between 1966 and 1977 the LMS was chinery. transformed into a global partnership body, the Nevertheless, the English mission agencies in Council for World Mission. Less radically, the the nineteenth century shared an essentially CMS in 1995 changed its name to the Church common evangelical theology and similar ap- Mission Society, reflecting an understanding that proaches to fundraising at home and policy on mission is a broader process than the sending of the field. As the century proceeded, three devel- missionaries. In 1965 the SPG and the UMCA opments occurred that diversified this picture. had merged to form the United Society for the First, the revival of High Churchmanship within Propagation of the Gospel (USPG). the Anglican Church expressed in the Oxford In England, as elsewhere, the newer faith mis- Movement first transformed the SPG into an ef- sions have continued to stress the priority of ini- fective missionary agency, and then, in 1857, tiating evangelistic expansion to unreached pop- led to the formation of a new mission, the Uni- ulations. However, by the 1990s they too were versities’ Mission to Central Africa. Although struggling to maintain their levels of support, as owing much to the ideas of Livingstone, the the younger generation of English evangelicals new mission also embodied the distinctively An- appeared less acutely concerned than their fore- glo-Catholic principle that missionary ventures bears about the spiritual condition of non-West- should be pioneered by “missionary bishops.” ern peoples. To some extent evangelicals in En­ The focus was shifting from voluntary society to gland have followed the more liberal sections of church. Second, James Hudson Taylor’s forma- the English churches in focusing their overseas tion of the China Inland Mission in 1865 concerns on Christian relief agencies such as marked an alternative and distinctively evangel- TEAR Fund, set up by the Evangelical Alliance in ical departure from the voluntary society ideal. 1968. Young people in England have nonetheless The CIM repudiated the idea of a society run by been attracted to a third generation of mission an elected committee and responsible to its sub- agencies, such as Operation Mobilisation (1957) scribers, and introduced instead the model of or Youth With a Mission (1960), which have en- nondenominational “faith mission,” directed on couraged short-term service and vacation mis- the field by a spiritually gifted leader, with the sion opportunities for students. domestic emphasis falling less on fundraising Brian Stanley than on prayer. This ideal became international in scope during the 1880s and 1890s, but also Bibliography. J. Murray, Proclaim the Good News: A spawned other faith missions in England such Short History of the Church Missionary Society; B. Stan- ley, The Bible and the Flag: Protestant Missions and Brit- as the Regions Beyond Missionary Union ish Imperialism in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centu- (whose origins go back to 1878) or the Sudan ries; idem, The History of the Baptist Missionary Society United Mission (1904). Third, in the final years 1792–1992; H. P. Thompson, Into All Lands: The His- of the century strains began to appear within tory of the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel in English missions over theological issues, partic- Foreign Parts 1701–1950; B. Thorogood, ed., Gales of ularly in relation to biblical criticism and atti- Change: Responding to a Shifting Missionary Context. tudes to Indian religions. By the early 1920s The Story of the London Missionary Society 1945–1977; these strains had become acute, issuing, for ex- A. F. Walls, DSCHT, pp. 567–94. ample, in the secession of some conservatives from the CMS in 1922 to form the Bible Europe. Mission in Europe, as also in Africa and Churchmen’s Missionary Society (now known Asia, must start with the biblical record: thus the as Crosslinks). importance for Europeans of the Syrophonecian In terms of size of missionary force and levels woman in Mark’s Gospel who used Jesus’ sense of of popular support the older denominational so- humor to secure the healing of her daughter, and cieties reached their peak between the World the Greeks in John’s Gospel “who would see Wars. After 1945 these societies, under the lead- Jesus.” Building on this the record indicates Eu- ership of mission statesmen such as Max War- ropean participation in the Pentecostal experi- ren, began to revise their policies in response to ence: Peter’s direction by vision to accept Corne- the growth of nationalism in the non-Western lius as a fellow follower of the Way, and the world and the beginnings of decolonization. Macedonian appeal to Paul to render help to the Their approaches were also affected in varying youthful churches of Europe. Thus bound up measure by the increasing theological doubts with the early history of Europe is the growth of about the appropriateness of seeking to convert the early Christian community, the story of how people of other faiths to Christianity. Some of it came to define its core beliefs in relation to in- the older societies changed their names or even cipient heresy, and how from being a persecuted dissolved themselves in favor of new bodies that sect it became the state religion of the Roman expressed ideals of global Christian partnership Empire. This process was not all gain, for with it, rather than mission in the traditional sense of a as Eusebius (c. 260–340), the church’s first histo- one-way flow of personnel and funds from the rian, observed, there came social advantage in 44 Europe adopting the Christian faith, whose adherents ence and technology and exploited this for mis- came to represent a range of motivations from sionary purposes. continued faithfulness to more pragmatic rea- In the Protestant world it was not until the era sons (“the hypocrisy of people who crept into of Pietism had succeeded that of the Reforma- church” with an eye upon securing imperial tion that the churches began to look to wider favor). missionary horizons. In England the Society for With the Christianization of the Roman world, the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts the expansion of the empire itself came to have was founded in 1701. Although much of its work mission implications. Some have suggested that was among European ex-patriots it did provide a the expansion of Christianity among the Teu- mechanism to evangelize non-Christian popula- tonic peoples pressing on the borders of the em- tions, a theme that in continental Europe came pire was in the first place a product of Christians to be championed by Count von Zinzendorf who had been taken prisoner by, for example, (1700–1760) and the Moravians. By the end of the marauding Goths. Franks and Celts were to the eighteenth century, Protestants, under the in- follow in accepting the Christian faith and fluence of Calvinism modified by the experience among them some remarkable early missionar- of the Evangelical Revival inaugurated what La- ies responded to the missionary call to evange- tourette has called ‘The Great Century’ of mis- lize the continent: receiving cultures soon be- sionary endeavor. The Baptist Missionary Soci- came also sending cultures, seen, for example, in ety was formed in 1792, with the London the lives of Columbanus (c. 543–615) and Boni- Missionary Society following in 1795 and the face (680–764) (see also Celtic Missions). Later Church Missionary Society in 1799. In Europe, the missionary endeavors in the East of two where Bremen led the way with the founding of Greek brothers, Cyril (826–869) and Methodius a new missionary society in 1819, Hamburg fol- (c. 815–885), saw the gospel taken in 862 to lowed in 1822; the Basel Mission was estab- Moravia, where Cyril’s educational activities led lished in 1815, the Rhineland Society in 1828, to the invention of the Cyrillic alphabet, which it and the Berlin Society in 1824, two years after is claimed became the foundation of all Slavonic French Protestants had formed the Paris Evan- languages. The Eastern Church’s use of the ver- gelical Missionary Society. nacular in early missionary activities was in Missiology in such a context was born out of marked distinction to the Western Church’s con- shared experiences and soon implanted within centration on Latin. the university curriculum with the establishment In the fifteenth century the missionary endeav- of the Halle chair of mission studies in 1896. ors of a reinvigorated Catholic Church were Missiological scholars networked with one an- more obvious than the outreach of Protestant- other and with practitioners through the activi- ism, which remained confined to Europe. In the ties of the International Missionary Council, it- West the sending of priests alongside the con- self a child of the historic World Missionary quistadores to colonize the new world that Co- Conference meeting in Edinburgh in 1910, lumbus had “discovered” was seen as simply a which played such a crucial part in bringing the continuation of the Christianization of the Ibe- Ecumenical Movement to maturity. Consent be- rian peninsula, or Reconquista, the driving of the tween Christians on the style and content of Moors out of Spain. Columbus’s famous journey Christian mission was not easily obtained and and the fall of Granada both occurred in 1492. At was not resolved by the integration of the IMC the same time militant Islam, in the form of the into the work of the World Council of Churches Ottoman Turks, was pressing the Christian East in 1961. with great ferocity until 1683, when Vienna in Already, by the second half of the nineteenth the center of Christian Europe came under siege century, denominational endeavors were supple- by these alien forces. The most remarkable mis- mented by interdenominational initiatives in sionary story of the sixteenth century was that of which a new kind of missionary society was the Jesuit, Francis Xavier (1506–52), who in the born, of which Hudson Taylor’s China Inland last decade of his life undertook a formidable Mission of 1865 was archetypal. The new Faith program of evangelization starting in Goa. From Missions did not overtly solicit funds from sup- there he traveled to Sri Lanka and the islands of porters, who no longer controlled policy, for de- Indonesia, going as far east as Japan and found- cision making was now invested in the hands of ing a church there before continuing his mission missionaries to identify with those to whom they work in China. In the process he was surprised ministered in dress and culture. to find a Christian presence already in India in The century which followed that of Europe’s the form of the Malabar Christians whom he unstinted investment of human resources and fi- thought most dreadfully ignorant. Matteo Ricci nances in both home and foreign missions, has (1552–1610), born in the year of Xavier’s death been a century of Secularization. Fundamen- and also a Jesuit, won the trust of the Chinese tally, it was the fruits of Enlightenment thinking court through his demonstrated mastery of sci- as well as scientific advances which, for many of 45 Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies

Europe’s citizens, in a century of troubled politi- would have seemed impossible at its beginning. cal and economic development, pushed matters In some countries it has joined national ecumen- of faith to the margins of life and concern. In the ical bodies as an equal partner, and there are East the legacy of the years of Marxist constraint good relationships between the Conference of and persecution is still painfully present. Regret- European Churches and the Conference of Euro- tably the relationships between evangelical mi- pean Bishops, so that they are able to have joint norities and state orthodoxy have all too often continent-wide celebrations. Moreover, the influ- deteriorated since the end of the Cold War, while ence of the Charismatic Movement among in the former Yugoslavia, as in the island of Cy- Roman Catholic laity and clergy has opened up prus, ethnic tensions and conflict have all too new and fruitful lines of communication, but a often set Christians against their Islamic neigh- reluctance to go further still emanates from the bors. Vatican on such issues as the recognition of In the West, folk or national churches still non-Roman orders and the possibilities of claim large baptismal memberships and main- shared communion. Undoubtedly, a major as- tain an excellent range of worship buildings and pect of the century has been both the growth of ancillary facilities, even though regular worship- Pentecostalism alongside historic Protestantism ers form only a small percentage of secular Eu- and the wide impact of the Charismatic move- rope’s population. Europe hardly needed the re- ment both within the mainstream churches and minder of the Mexico City Conference on the new house and community churches. To- World Mission in 1963 that witness was to take gether, these have contributed to growth in place in all six continents. Those who had been Christian witness in Europe. sending nations now desperately needed to re- John H. Y. Briggs ceive something of the buoyancy and hope of the churches of the south. Many North American Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies. missionary societies increasingly saw Europe as The Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies a mission field needing urgent attention. (EFMA) is a voluntary association of more than In its turn this has led to a new relationship be- one hundred missionary agencies. It is com- tween mission agencies and the churches which posed of both denominational and nondenomi- had been born out of the labors of their mission- national missions from a wide variety of evan- aries. First, within the Ecumenical Movement gelical traditions. younger mission-founded churches sought recog- History of the EFMA. The EFMA was formed nition as churches in their own right, not to be in the 1940s as part of a larger evangelical resur- represented by proxy through mission boards. gence in the United States. The advance of theo- Second, questions were raised about missionary logical liberalism as represented in the old Feder- structures and some of the old societies chose to ated Council of Churches (predecessor of the reconstruct themselves more into mission part- National Council of Churches) and its missions nership organizations. Perhaps the classic trans- arm, the Division of Foreign Missions (predeces- formation was the way in which the London Mis- sor of the Division of Overseas Ministries), had sionary Society became first the Congregational given rise to concerns for developing evangelical Council for World Mission in 1966. This body was missions. in turn fully internationalized as the Council for Efforts to present an evangelical voice were World Mission in 1977. The new council, it was hampered by continued divisions in outlook and hoped, recognizing a diversity of leadership strategy. The moderate voice that developed was through equality of presence around a single part- called the National Association of Evangelicals nership table, would combine a commitment to (1943), rallying around leaders such as Harold unity with a commitment to mission. In Europe, Ockenga and Clyde Taylor. the Paris Evangelical Missionary Society went In 1945 Taylor issued a call for evangelical through a similar change in 1971 when it became missions, both denominational and nondenomi- the Communaute Evangelique d’Action Apos- national, to come together under the aegis of the tolique (CEVAA). Other societies were reluctant NAE to deal with missions-related problems. both to unite home and foreign mission and to Fourteen of the missions agencies that gathered replace the societal model by one of world Part- for this purpose became charter members and nership. launched the EFMA. Taylor served as executive Europe has seen the uniting of some churches, director of the EFMA until 1975. The organiza- especially within the Methodist and Reformed tion was led by Wade Coggins from 1975 to 1990, traditions, the continuation of large national and by Paul E. McKaughan from 1990. The churches though with serious loss of member- EFMA broke new ground by pulling together ship, and the revival of orthodoxy in the context evangelicals from various traditions, ranging of political freedom but economic constraint. from Baptist to Reformed, Mennonite, Holiness, The Roman Catholic Church at the end of the and Pentecostal. As a variety of evangelical de- century recognizes other Christians in a way that nominations, missions and service agencies, and 46 Evangelical Fellowship of Mission Agencies student ministries joined the association, the organizations of evangelicals worldwide. These EFMA experienced rapid growth. national units—variously known as evangelical One of the first moves by the EFMA was to es- fellowships, associations, federations, alliances, tablish a presence in Washington, D.C., so as to or councils—frequently have within their mem- represent the concerns connected with the surge bership the churches that have grown out of the in evangelical missionary activity following work of EFMA and IFMA missions. World War II. For example, the EFMA has inter- EFMA Distinctives. The EFMA is a nonprofit vened to enable evangelical missionaries to ob- membership organization that provides many tain passports more easily, and has worked with services to its members and to the larger evan- the U.S. Department of State and with foreign gelical community. In many ways it parallels a embassies in Washington to provide, where nec- trade or professional association. The EFMA essary, certification of the reliability of member concentrates on the needs of its members, seek- missions agencies and churches. This has eased ing to enhance their work and to make the lead- the process of obtaining visas for missionaries ership of member organizations more effective serving under organizations affiliated with the in their respective tasks. EFMA. While retaining solid commitment on the Already on the scene since 1917 was the Inter- evangelical theological essentials, member agen- denominational Foreign Mission Association cies represent a wide range of doctrinal distinc- (IFMA), which served non-Pentecostal missions tives within the broader evangelical family. groups including the historical “Faith Missions.” Membership is divided almost evenly between In the early days of the EFMA, relations between denominational and nondenominational groups. the EFMA and the IFMA were tense, but by the They come from traditions including Wesleyan, 1960s an era of cooperation began. The two as- Reformed, Pentecostal/Charismatic, Baptist, sociations formed a joint Latin America Com- Presbyterian, Lutheran, Mennonite, and Breth- mittee that continued until the 1990s. In 1964 ren. While denominational groups provided im- they formed the Evangelical Missions Informa- portant momentum for the EFMA, independent tion Service (EMIS) and began publishing the missions have also been a significant part of the Evangelical Missions Quarterly (EMQ). In the late association from the beginning. Missions with 1950s Wade Coggins joined Clyde Taylor in the specialized ministries and service organizations work of EFMA, and in the 1960s E. L. Frizen Jr. are also an integral part of the EFMA. became the director of the IFMA. Coggins, Tay- The EFMA has maintained a fundamental lor, and Frizen were the architects of many coop- commitment to cooperation, a stance that has erative efforts between the IFMA and the EFMA. characterized its philosophy and activity. It has At various times, as needed, there have been joint committees related to Africa, Latin Amer- sometimes found itself caught between the ica, Asia, Personnel, Publication, Church broader ecumenical movement and the more sep- Growth, and Theological Education by Exten- aratist evangelicals and fundamentalists. During sion (TEE). the years of its ascendancy, the separatist Ameri- Through the 1950s the number of missionaries can Council of Churches made vicious attacks on being sent out by the EFMA and the IFMA agen- the NAE and EFMA because of their more mod- cies increased while those related to the National erate stance. In time, the EFMA became the larg- Council of Churches of Christ (NCCC) declined. est association of missionary agencies. By 1960 it was noted by missiologists that the Identification and authentication are very im- combined number of missionaries of EFMA and portant components of EFMA’s ministry. IFMA agencies was greater than those of the Through its membership standards it provides NCC-related groups. individuals and churches with a way to recog- One significant example of EFMA–IFMA coop- nize missions agencies that conform to specific eration was joint sponsorship in 1966 of the Con- doctrinal and financial standards. gress on the Church’s Worldwide Mission, Strategic planning is another significant role, which came to be known as “Wheaton ’66.” with the EFMA often serving as a kind of “think Meeting on the campus of Wheaton College, it tank,” providing opportunities for missions gathered together hundreds of missions leaders leaders to wrestle with ideas and strategies. to hear the challenge of reaching the world with Through such forums various missions strate- the gospel of Jesus Christ. The Congress issued a gists have launched major new missions con- statement called the Wheaton Declaration, cepts and initiatives. which stated the continuing call to the church to An important channel of catalytic ministry acknowledge the lostness of humanity and the was the formation and development, with the need to take the gospel to all the earth. IFMA, of the EMIS. Under the leadership of EFMA has been a major proponent and sup- James Reapsome, EMQ and World Pulse contrib- porter of the World Evangelical Fellowship ute significantly to the distribution of news and (WEF), an association of more than 120 national ideas about missions. The EMIS has also spon- 47 Evangelical Missions Conferences sored significant strategy conferences and semi- Evangelical Missions Conferences. Repre- nars. sented by a broad spectrum of types, evangelical As a cooperative effort with the IFMA, the an- missions conferences have typically shared the nual Personnel Workshop has stimulated signifi- common purpose of furthering the worldwide cant advances in how missions deal with person- Christian movement. While they have taken a va- nel concerns. Subjects addressed by the riety of forms, most have tended to fall within workshop include recruitment of missionaries, one of two main categories. They generally exist orientation, training, evaluation, compensation, either as “think-tanks” for discussing missions retirement, pensions, children’s education, and strategies, programs, and policies, or as inspira- pastoral and psychological care. tional meetings to rally the Christian public. The The Church Growth Movement was given latter seek to inform and inspire people in the prominence as an academic discipline and mis- pews to contribute their prayer and financial sions strategy through EFMA-sponsored work- support, as well as to send forth their sons and shops by Donald McGavran during the 1960s. daughters (and increasingly themselves, as short- Through the ministry of the EMIS, Church term and second-career missionaries) to engage Growth seminars were conducted by interna- directly in the great missionary task. tional teams (often including McGavran) and The most common variety of the inspirational local leaders worldwide. Having served as a cata- type conferences have been those held annually lyst in this area, the EFMA left the development in local churches (see Church Missions Confer- of programs and training to others. The Disciple ences). These have followed a wide variety of a Whole Nation (DAWN) strategy, for example, schedules and patterns during their lengthy his- has its roots in the Church Growth seminars tory, but the long-popular pattern of week-long held in the Philippines. conferences with nightly meetings has largely The EFMA also had a significant role in the given way in our overly programmed and fre- development and dissemination of Theological netic age to weekend conferences or month-long Education by Extension (TEE). Through its joint mission emphases with special events and speak- (with IFMA) subsidiary Committee to Assist ers taking center stage over several weeks of reg- Ministry Education Overseas (CAMEO), EFMA ular meeting times. The common features gener- supported seminars for missionaries in the ally include displays and reports from preparation of TEE materials. In turn, TEE pro- furloughing missionaries and mission agencies grams around the world have impacted thou- that the church supports as well as messages sands of lives and provided theological training from one or more gifted speakers. for church leaders. CAMEO, led by Raymond A related but largely fading tradition among Buker and later Lois McKinney, also gave im- fundamentalist and evangelical Christians is the portant leadership in developing improved cur- Bible and missions conference centers, which ricula for all levels of leadership training world- combine rustic vacation and recreational oppor- wide. tunities with Bible teaching and missionary re- Focus/listening groups constitute another ports and challenges. While these were very pop- method of strategic planning. EFMA convenes ular during the late nineteenth century and such groups at various locations across the much of the twentieth, they have not fared as United States, bringing together people from the well in recent decades with an increasingly afflu- missions community such as missions execu- ent and harried American evangelical popula- tives, pastors, academic leaders, and specialized tion. Even where these centers have continued ministry representatives. Such gatherings pro- with relative success, the missions emphasis has become much less pronounced. vide opportunities for creative thinking and In terms of perennial conferences, there can planning as issues and opportunities confronting be little doubt that the triennial Urbana Mission missions in the coming decades are considered. Conferences are among the most famous and Although not without its problems, the EFMA long-lasting. This massively attended event has served a vital role in the task of world evan- (close to 20,000 in 1996) has been held over the gelization during the past half century. As the Christmas break since 1948 at the University of church moves into the twenty-first century it will Illinois at Urbana, but its roots go all the way confront an increasingly complex world with a back to the quadrennial student conventions fresh set of opportunities and challenges, and the begun by the Student Volunteer Movement in EFMA can be expected to continue to provide 1891. Those gatherings continued until 1936, leadership to member groups as they work to- but ended as the clouds of war gathered. The gether to make disciples of Jesus Christ among model was again picked up in 1946 in Toronto all nations. by the InterVarsity Christian Fellowship, which Wade T. Coggins had recently merged with the Student Foreign Bibliography. W. T. Coggins and E. L. Frizen, EMQ Missions Fellowship. The gatherings today at 20:2 (1984): 118–27. Urbana, which combine large doses of both in­ 48 Evangelical Missions Conferences spiration and information, attract hundreds of York, 1900), the Panama Congress (1916), and mission agencies and thousands of students, most notable of all, the World Missionary Con- missionaries, and others. ference (Edinburgh, 1910). Conferences devoted to discussing strategic In recent decades a new wave of self-con- missions policies, programs, and plans have sciously evangelical international conferences played an influential role in shaping the North have taken place. Beginning in 1966, with the American evangelical missionary movement twin events of the Congress on the Church’s through the years. Over the last three decades or Worldwide Mission (Wheaton, 1966) and the so, they have been doing the same internation- World Congress on Evangelism (Berlin Con- ally as well. On the domestic North American gress 1966), evangelicals of many stripes, and scene, a long-standing and influential place has from around the world, have gathered together in been held by the annual conferences sponsored events like these to declare their commitment to by the Interdenominational Foreign Missions global mission in the face of theological, cultural, Association (since 1917), and the Evangelical and pluralistic challenges to its legitimacy. Subse- Fellowship of Mission Agencies, the missionary quent global conferences over the period have wing of the National Association of Evangelicals, maintained this emphasis while building on it in formerly known as the Evangelical Foreign Mis- various ways. sions Association (since 1945). Supplementing The most significant of these more recent con- their annual meetings, these two associations ferences was the first Lausanne Congress on have also met jointly on a triennial basis since World Evangelization (1974). Besides being the 1963, when their momentous first meeting to- most representative global conference up to that gether gave birth to the Evangelical Missions In- time, it was pivotal in at least two ways: First, it formation Service. Others among their meetings refocused in a very important way the attention have also been of weighty importance. Their of the evangelical missions community on the meeting together at Green Lake, Wisconsin, in most neglected segment of the world’s popula- 1971, for example, was a pivotal event in the his- tion, unreached peoples. Second, through the in- tory of evangelical mission and church relation- strumentation of the Lausanne Covenant, it en- ships, providing as it did a strategic examination hanced the status of social concern ministry as of both overseas and domestic issues. an integral part of gospel witness. Other confer- Other important issues-oriented missions con- ences that followed built on these foundations. ferences that take place annually or periodically These included the Lausanne Congress II on in North America would include the meetings of World Evangelism held Manila in 1989, a fact groups like the American Society of Missiology, indicating perhaps better than anything else the the Evangelical Missiological Society, the In- ternational Society for Frontier Missions, AIMS enduring legacy of Lausanne I. It clearly was a (Association of International Mission Services), watershed event, having produced in its wake a and ACMC (Advancing Churches in Missions movement with the same name. Commitment). The other really significant series of global There are in addition periodic scholarly con- conferences that followed in the train of Laus- ferences devoted to missions topics, generally anne I, albeit with a less churchly and more spe- sponsored by evangelical seminaries and gradu- cifically missions-oriented clientele, were the ate studies programs. An important example Global Consultations on World Evangelization would be the June 1986 conference held at held in Singapore in 1989, in Seoul in 1995 (see Wheaton College, “A Century of World Evangeli- Global Consultation of World Evangelization zation: North American Evangelical Missions, [GCOWE 95]), and in Pretoria in 1997 (see 1886–1986.” More regular but smaller study con- Global Consultation of World Evangelization ferences are also sponsored by the Overseas Min- ’97 [GCOWE II]). This series of conferences has istries Study Center, a center for missions schol- been particularly significant in mobilizing na- arship which publishes the International Bulletin tional evangelical leadership in various countries of Missionary Research. to the task of reaching the unevangelized peoples On a wider and usually international front, and corners of their own land with the gospel, as there is a long tradition of the great conferences, well as in stirring up a passion for engaging in some of which would be claimed by both evan- mission beyond their own borders. gelical Christians and others, and some of which Finally, mention should be made of the World would be far less international than others. The Evangelical Fellowship and its network of asso- earliest of these would include gatherings such ciations and commissions that sponsor global, as the Union Missionary Convention (New York regional, and national conferences that serve Missionary Conference, 1854), the Centenary over 100 million evangelicals globally every year. Conference on the Protestant Missions of the A significant portion of these have a profound World (London Missionary Conference, 1888), missions impact. the Ecumenical Missionary Conference (New Gary R. Corwin 49 Evangelical Movement

Bibliography. J. D. Allan, The Evangelicals: An Illus- cused on the believer’s need of regeneration. Lu- trated History; J. D. Douglas, ed., Let the Earth Hear His theran Pietists Philipp Jakob Spener and August Voice: International Congress on World Evangelization, Hermann Francke emphasized a “heartfelt” con- Lausanne, Switzerland; idem, Proclaim Christ Until He version, individual and family prayers, devo- Comes: Lausanne II in Manila; D. M. Howard, Student tional study of the Bible with applications for the Power in World Evangelization; H. Lindsell, ed., The Church’s Worldwide Mission; D. McGavran, ed., The Christian life, hope for the world as expressed in Conciliar-Evangelical Debate: The Crucial Documents Christian social action, and foreign missions. 1964–1976; J. M. Phillips, and R. T. Coote, eds., Toward The movement soon spilled over into Mennonite, the 21st Century in Christian Mission; J. Stott, ed., Mak- Brethren, and Quaker churches. Jansenism and ing Christ Known: Historic Mission Documents from the quietism in the Roman Catholic Church were Lausanne Movement, 1974–1989; T. Wang, ed., Count- part of the larger spiritual awakening at the time down to AD 2000: GCOWE in Singapore. The AD 2000 associated with Pietism. Movement. The mass evangelism of Charles and John Wes- ley and George Whitfield advanced the evangel- Evangelical Movement. In the broadest sense, ical revival in eighteenth-century England. In an “evangelical” movement comprises persons 1738, at a Moravian meeting on Aldersgate Street who believe in salvation by faith in Jesus Christ in London, John Wesley found new meaning in and present the gospel to others. In the context the doctrine of justification by faith when he re- of North America, the term denotes a twenti- ceived personal assurance of his own salvation. eth-century movement committed to the historic While the “Methodists,” as their converts were doctrines of the Christian faith, the supreme au- called, eventually left the Church of England, An- thority of Scripture in faith and practice, the glican evangelicalism continued, led in part by need for personal conversion, and the imperative Charles Simeon and William Wilberforce. Across of world evangelization. In global Christianity, the Atlantic, stirred by revivalists like Jonathan “evangelicalism” encompasses a broad scope of Edwards and George Whitfield, the Great Awak- Christians, movements, and organizations which ening secured for evangelicals an important role transcend confessional and ecclesiastical lines. in the development of the United States. In nine- In the sixteenth century, an early evangelical teenth-century America, evangelical Christianity movement appeared among Roman Catholics in reigned as the dominant faith and forged the na- Spain and Italy (e.g., Juan de Valdes) who tion’s values and religious consciousness. Revival- wished to bring about reform in the institutional ism, promoted by evangelists such as Charles G. church through a more biblically based faith Finney, offered hope for a spiritual awakening than that of the late medieval church. Much that would eliminate social evils and bring about more prominently, however, “evangelical” de- the establishment of a Christian republic. Afri- scribed the faith of Martin Luther and his follow- can-American churches guided by leaders Rich- ers who initiated the Protestant Reformation. ard Allen (African Methodist Episcopal Church), Along with justification by faith, he taught the Thomas Paul (Baptist), and others, also taught priesthood of all believers, thereby replacing a evangelical doctrine. Social activists, represented sacred hierarchy with a community of faith in by the later Ida B. Wells-Barnett (Methodist), which all believers serve as priests before God. found strength for their struggles for racial equal- Gradually, the term embraced the “Reformed” ity in a deep evangelical faith. churches originating with Huldrych Zwingli and The Wesleyan holiness movement, fired by the John Calvin. It also described the faith of Men- teachings of John Fletcher, Phoebe Palmer, and nonites and Swiss Brethren in the Radical Refor- William Arthur, highlighted the postconversion mation, as well as English Separatists and Bap- experience of “entire sanctification” for the per- tists. Beginning in the seventeenth century, fection of the believer and purification of society. renewal movements changed the landscape of Reformed revivalists Dwight L. Moody, Hannah Protestant Christianity. Puritanism, already a Whitall Smith, and speakers at the annual Kes- force for Reformed theology in the Church of wick Conventions in England viewed this second England, sought to bring about the restoration experience of grace as the beginning of the of New Testament Christianity and a Christian “Higher Life,” a fully consecrated life empowered society. Its influence extended to the pietist for Christian service. Both holiness camps re- movement in Germany and the later evangelical ferred to this as baptism in the Holy Spirit. revival in England. Celebrated Puritan leaders From the holiness taproot grew the Pentecos- included Richard Baxter and John Owen; in tal Movement shortly after the turn of the twen- America, Puritanism reached its peak in the spir- tieth century. It originated with a revival at itual and theological writings of Jonathan Ed- Charles F. Parham’s Bethel Bible School in To- wards. peka, Kansas, in 1901. The movement became In continental Europe, Pietism emerged in the worldwide several years later as a result of the Lutheran and Reformed churches. Though faith- interracial Azusa Street revival (1906–9) in Los ful to Luther’s teaching on justification, it fo- Angeles, California, led by the African-American 50 Evangelical Movement

William J. Seymour. With scores of succeeding By the 1940s, conservatives J. Elwin Wright, revivals in North America and Europe, a new di- Harold J. Ockenga, Carl F. H. Henry, Billy Gra- aspora of missionaries left for the mission lands. ham, and others rejected the denominational sep- Concurrent with the Azusa Street revival, a Pen- aratism and intellectual and cultural isolation- tecostal revival commenced in India in 1906. ism of fundamentalism and became the Between the Civil War and World War I, the spokesmen for the “New Evangelicals.” The hegemony of evangelical Christianity declined evangelistic crusades of Billy Graham, which due to rapid changes in the culture. Waves of im- first gained national attention in 1948, played a migration brought large numbers of Roman crucial part in the shaping of “neo-evangelical- Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and ism.” Key institutions also served the new move- Jews to the American shores that threatened ment: among them, the National Association of evangelical dominance. Prompted by the reli- Evangelicals (NAE [1943]), Wheaton College gious skepticism of the Enlightenment, Darwin- (1869), Fuller Theological Seminary (1947), and ian evolution, and the radical higher criticism of Christianity Today magazine (1956). These and the Bible coming from German and English aca- similar institutions fostered a “renaissance” of demic circles, questions arose about the ultimate evangelical biblical and theological scholarship claims of the Christian faith. These challenges beginning in the 1950s. The elections of evangel- appeared to undermine the historical integrity of icals as presidents of the United States in recent Scripture, creationism, miracles, and the divinity decades has not only marked the resurgence of and resurrection of Christ. Furthermore, the evangelicalism, but signaled widely different po- growing appeal of the social gospel convinced litical orientations within. numerous evangelicals that social action was The organization of the National Black Evan- now replacing the priority of personal conver- gelical Association (1963), and to the north, the sion in some church bodies. Many were influ- Evangelical Fellowship of Canada (1964), repre- enced by dispensational Premillennialism with sented other notable milestones. While the NAE its negative assessment of human progress and preempted the term “evangelical,” many evangeli- warning of the imminent return of Jesus Christ cals remained within their denominations, most and impending judgment on the wicked. In re- of which were constituent members of the Na- sponse to these assaults on traditional Christian tional Council of Churches (NCC) and the World beliefs, conservatives in mainline churches Council of Churches (WCC). Three large evangeli- sought to preserve theological orthodoxy by con- cal denominations—the Lutheran Church–Mis- trolling denominational structures and seminar- souri Synod, Wisconsin Evangelical Lutheran ies. This agenda consequently led to the Synod, and the Southern Baptist Convention— fundamentalist-­modernist controversy that peaked in the 1920s. Modernists endeavored to have chosen to remain outside conciliar bodies. reconcile Christian beliefs with scientific discov- Modern evangelicalism now encompasses an eries and higher criticism, and concentrated their almost unbridgeable diversity of Christians, all energies on the social applications of the gospel. loyal to the gospel message, but with varying theological and spiritual orientations. Major Some endorsed forms of religious Pluralism. Fundamentalists, as the conservatives were groupings consist of Lutherans, Presbyterians, called, coming largely from the Reformed sector Anglicans, Pentecostals, Baptists, Wesleyans, of evangelicalism, denied the Enlightenment no- Mennonites, Brethren, Churches of Christ, and tion of the innate goodness of humankind and others in the Restoration Movement. To these can fought modernist tenets. Losing the battle in be added Messianic Jews, nondenominational their denominations, fundamentalists like the Christians, and constituents of parachurch agen- New Testament scholar J. Gresham Machen, cies (e.g., Campus Crusade for Christ). Although Carl T. McIntire, founder of the American Coun- controversial, some observers have listed Sev- cil of Christian Churches, and the Canadian Bap- enth-Day Adventists; and “Jesus Name” or One- tist T. T. Shields, encouraged conservatives to ness Pentecostals belong. separate from them. The Charismatic Movement has magnified Fundamentalists resisted changes that imper- evangelical witness in the mainline denomina- iled their vision of a Christian society, the truth tions, highlighted the ministry of the Holy Spirit claims of non-Christian religions, scientific ar- in the life of the believer, and notably influenced guments against biblical teachings on the ori- contemporary Christian music and worship gins of life, as well as the Ecumenical Movement styles across a wide range of churches. Noted and the Pentecostal movement. After the famous leaders included Dennis Bennett (Episcopal “Monkey Trial” in 1925 at Dayton, Tennessee, in Church), Larry Christenson (Evangelical Lu- which John T. Scopes was convicted of illegally theran Church in America), Demos Shakarian teaching evolutionary theory in a public school, (Full Gospel Business Men’s Fellowship Interna- the public viewed fundamentalism as antiscien- tional), and David J. du Plessis (Assemblies of tific and obscurantist. God). In a significant development, some charis- 51 Evangelical Movement matics in the Roman Catholic Church have iden- Pierson, an ardent evangelical and later editor of tified themselves as “evangelical Catholics.” the Missionary Review of the World, challenged the In England, the perceived new threat of students with the watchword, “The evangelization Roman Catholicism and the decline of evangeli- of the world in this generation.” From this event cal doctrine led to the founding of the Evangeli- arose the Student Volunteer Movement for For- cal Alliance in 1846 to sponsor conferences and eign Missions (SVM) and leaders such as John R. promote biblical Christianity, an international Mott (World Student Christian Federation) and week of prayer, aid to Protestant minorities, and Robert P. Wilder (SVM traveling secretary). the evangelization of the world. A century later, As the missions movement progressed, prac- it became a founding member of the World tices that centered on establishing schools and Evangelical Fellowship (1951). Anglican Evan- charitable institutions came under fire from crit- gelicalism advanced under the tutelage of John ics who favored apostolic methods (e.g., Matt. R. W. Stott, James I. Packer, and Anglicans in 10:7–10). Usually impelled by premillennial es- other countries such as Festo Kivengere in chatology and dissatisfied with the slow rate of Uganda and Leon Morris in Australia. conversions, independent Faith Missions (e.g., Protestant missions began as a result of re- China Inland Mission founded by J. Hudson Tay- newal movements subsequent to the Reforma- lor in 1865) aimed their attention primarily at di- tion. While the Reformers exhibited little interest rect evangelism. Radical evangelicals like A. B. in evangelizing non-Christians (see Reformation Simpson, founder of the Christian and Mission- and Mission), the rediscovering of the gospel and ary Alliance (1881), anticipated that in the end- the value placed on the translation of the Scrip- times the outpouring of the Holy Spirit (Joel tures into the vernacular languages made a pro- 2:28–29) would bring miraculous Signs and Won- found impact on the course of the missions ders (Acts 5:12) that would once more accom- movement. Indicative of the complex origins of pany gospel proclamation. A novel approach to Protestant missions, early efforts varied from training unfolded with “Bible institutes,” which chaplains working for the Dutch East India prepared ministers and missionaries for the Company, to Puritan missions to Native Ameri- Faith Missions. Early schools included the Mis- cans in New England, and in England the found- sionary Training Institute (Nyack College) ing of the Society for Promoting Christian founded by Simpson in 1882; Chicago Evangeli- Knowledge (1698–99) and the Society for the zation Society (Moody Bible Institute) by Dwight Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign Parts L. Moody in 1889; Boston Missionary Training (SPG) (1701). From Germany came the Dan- Institute (Gordon College and Gordon-Conwell ish-Halle Mission (1705) and Moravian Mis- Theological Seminary) by A. J. Gordon in 1889; sions (1732), the latter under the leadership of and Toronto Bible Training School (Tyndale Col- the pietist Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf. lege and Seminary) by Elmore Harris in 1894. Missions gained more ground with the publi- In the twentieth century, doubts about the cation of William Carey’s Enquiry into the Obli- need for sending missionaries took a heavy toll gations of Christians to Use Means for the Conver- on Protestant missions and after midcentury, the sion of the Heathen and the organization of the number of missionaries in most of the older de- Baptist Missionary Society, both in 1792. Many nominations declined. In contrast, the missions more societies emerged, including the London that remained conservative in theology grew. Missionary Society (1795), the Church Mission- Networking among them resulted in the forma- ary Society (1799), the American Board of Com- tion of the Interdenominational Foreign Mis- missioners for Foreign Missions (1810), the sion Association (1971) and the Evangelical Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society (1813), Fellowship of Mission Agencies (1945), an NAE African Baptist Missionary Society (1815), Pres- affiliate. Subsequent efforts at cooperation have byterian Board of Foreign Missions (1831), included the Congress on the Church’s World- Woman’s Union Missionary Society (1861), and wide Mission (Wheaton Congress, 1966), World the Woman’s Foreign Missionary Society of the Congress on Evangelism (Berlin Congress, Methodist Episcopal Church (1869). The evan- 1966), Lausanne Congress on World Evange- gelical unity of these agencies and the several lism (1974), and International Conference for hundred mission societies that followed laid the Itinerant Evangelists (1983). Regional networks theological basis for Comity agreements in the have been formed to further evangelism and nineteenth century and the international mis- achieve other objectives (e.g., theological educa- sionary conferences (e.g., Centenary Confer- tion, social action, relief work). ence on the Protestant Missions of the World In addition to nondenominational faith mis- [London Missionary Conference, 1888]). sions, a variety of parachurch organizations have University and college students were inspired to extended vital services. Along with the contribu- dedicate their lives to foreign missions at tions of the United Bible Societies (1946), Wy- Dwight L. Moody’s Northfield Conference in Mas- cliffe Bible Translators (1934) has trained sachusetts in 1886. At the gathering, Arthur T. workers to reduce languages to writing, produce 52 Evangelism and Social Responsibility grammars, and translate the Scriptures. Con- American Culture; idem, Reforming Fundamentalism; tinuing the tradition of the SVM, Inter-Varsity G. A Rawlyk, ed., The Canadian Protestant Experience, Christian Fellowship (1936) and its triennial Ur- 1760–1990; G. A. Rawlyk and M. A. Noll, eds., Amazing Grace: Evangelicalism in Australia, Britain, Canada, and bana Mission Conferences in the United States have inspired thousands of students to become the United States; M. C. Sernett, Black Religion and American Evangelicalism; F. E. Stoeffler, ed., Continen- missionaries. Youth With a Mission (YWAM tal Pietism and Early American Christianity; V. Synan, [1960]) has created opportunities for youth to The Holiness-Pentecostal Tradition: Charismatic Move- evangelize overseas. Mission Aviation Fellowship ments in the Twentieth Century. (1944) has provided air transport and communi- cations assistance for missionaries. World Vision Evangelism and Social Responsibility. Over (1950) has focused on relief and development ac- the past two centuries the modern Protestant tivities. Others have engaged in publishing ven- movement has planted vibrant churches around tures, and radio and television evangelism. The the world. Today, the center of Christianity is International Council for Evangelical Theo- moving to these younger churches. But this logical Education (ICETE) (1980) has encour- growth is not without its problems. One area of aged the upgrading of standards in Bible colleges deep concern in many evangelical circles is the and seminaries and promoted regional accredit- division between evangelism and social con- ing associations. cerns. Despite many efforts to present a whole Pentecostalism ushered in a new pattern in gospel, the effects of this dualism in missions missions, based on the radical expectancy of and churches are still apparent. miracles in ministry (e.g., physical healings, de- The roots of this division go back to medieval liverance from chemical addictions), glossolalia Europe, where churches and monasteries were and the gifts of the Holy Spirit for spiritual em- centers of worship, evangelism, literacy, relief, powerment, and the encouragement of Indige- medicine, and agriculture. The Worldview of the nous Churches. Embracing many of the same Middle Ages, rooted in biblical thought, divided beliefs, the charismatic movement influenced reality between the Creator and the creation. In missions in church bodies connected to NCC and this view God was intimately involved in all of WCC. Independent charismatics have found as- his creation, and all creation, including both sistance for their missions in the Association of heavenly and earthly concerns, was one. That International Mission Services (1985). Believing same unity is evident in the ministry of Jesus, that supernatural interventions and “power en- which reflects a wholism that does not seem nat- counters” will help bring closure to the Great ural today. Commission before the imminent return of By the eighteenth century, the church felt Christ, “Third Wave” and “New Apostolic Refor- called to worship and to mission, but education, mation” mission endeavors have grown under medicine, and agriculture became the domains the tutelage of John Wimber, Charles H. Kraft, of science and the modern nation-state. The shift and C. Peter Wagner (see also New Apostolic was due mainly to the rediscovery of Greek Reformation Missions). thought, especially Greek dualism, which sepa- Evangelical Christianity has grown signifi- rated spirit and matter, supernatural and natu- cantly outside of North America and Europe in ral, and heavenly and earthly affairs. The absorp- the last half-century. Major advances have taken tion of dualism theologically was formalized by place in Latin America, sub-Saharan Africa, Asia, Thomas Aquinas. The result was the increasingly and Oceania. Christians in these areas, the ma- sharp distinction between religion and science, jority of whom now exhibit features of Pentecos- or between eternal and earthly needs. tal/charismatic spirituality and are vibrantly con- On the surface, the modern mission movement cerned for world evangelization. They have began in the nineteenth century with a whole begun sending out their own missionaries in one gospel. Missionaries planted churches, and es- of the momentous developments in modern tablished schools, hospitals, handicraft projects, Christianity (see also Non-Western Mission and agricultural centers. They cared for the Boards and Societies). starving during times of famine, and called for Gary B. McGee social justice. Underneath these activities, how- Bibliography. D. W. Bebbington, Evangelicalism in ever, the dualistic perspective persisted. It did Modern Britain: A History for the 1730s to the 1980s; not help that missionaries often cooperated with D. G. Bloesch, The Evangelical Renaissance; J. A. Car- the colonial agenda, the goal of which was “civi- penter and W. R. Shenk, eds., Earthen Vessels: Ameri- lizing” their new territories. Evangelism and can Evangelicals and Foreign Missions, 1880–1980; M. Dieter, The Holiness Movement of the Nineteenth church planting were seen as the marks of Chris- Century; K. A. Fournier with W. D. Watkins, A House tianity. Education, medicine, and agriculture United? Evangelicals and Catholics Together; R. A. N. were signs of civilization. In many cases, how- Kydd, Healing Through The Centuries: Models For Un- ever, people accepted science, technology, and derstanding; G. M. Marsden, Fundamentalism and other manifestations of modern rational thought 53 Evangelism and Social Responsibility introduced by the missionaries, but rejected the racism and called for repentance and unity gospel they proclaimed. That is why some ob- among Christians in addressing the world’s des- servers conclude that Christian missionaries perate needs. In the regional congresses that fol- have unwittingly been a force for Secularization lowed (Singapore, Minneapolis, Bogota), the in- worldwide. volvement of the church in social issues was a A second consequence of this dualism was that recurring theme. In 1973, the Workshop on missions organized schools, hospitals, and agri- Evangelicals and Social Concern drafted the Chi- cultural projects based on Western models that cago Declaration of Evangelical Social Concern did not fit local contexts. The operation of these which represented another attempt to transcend institutions reflected the division between evan- the traditional dichotomy between evangelism gelism and social concern. Specialists provided and social responsibility. services in a compartmentalized way that com- The Lausanne Congress on World Evangeli- municated something less than an integrated zation (1974) took a major step toward resolving gospel. Furthermore, these institutions required the tension between these two concerns by af- large amounts of money and Western-style orga- firming that both evangelism and social respon- nizational skill, most of which had to be im- sibility are essential to the mission of the church. ported from outside. Later, when missions began The Lausanne Covenant stated that “The mes- handing over the administration of the institu- sage of salvation also implies a message of judg- tions to local churches, local leaders often saw ment upon every form of alienation, oppression, them as heavy burdens which their churches and discrimination, and we should not be afraid could not easily sustain. to denounce evil and injustice wherever they The division between evangelism and social exist” (section 5). The plea to keep evangelism concern reached its peak in the early twentieth and social concerns together was strengthened century in the battles between liberals and fun- by a statement of support that was signed by damentalists over the emerging Social Gospel some five hundred Lausanne participants. This movement. Liberal churches virtually abandoned effort to bring evangelism and social responsibil- aggressive evangelism in favor of relief and de- ity together generated sharp criticisms on the velopment ministries of all kinds. Conservative part of some mission leaders in North America. churches increasingly focused their attention on But, particularly for those in the Two-Thirds evangelism and church planting, and left relief World, it was an invitation to proclaim a whole and development tasks to parachurch agencies. gospel. That conviction was validated again at That emphasis has created the impression in the All India Conference on Evangelical Social many parts of the world that the church deals Action (1979), the Second Latin American Con- with ultimate concerns, but has little to contrib- ute to the urgent needs of the contemporary gress on Evangelism (1979), and the Consulta- world. tion on Simple Lifestyle (1980) sponsored by the In recent years there have been efforts in evan- Lausanne Committee and the World Evangeli- gelical circles to restore a holistic understanding cal Fellowship. Although attempts were made at the World Consultation on World Evangeliza- of the gospel. In 1966 the Congress on the tion Church’s Worldwide Mission was held at Whea- (Pattaya, 1980) to focus exclusively on ton, Illinois, sponsored by the Evangelical For- world evangelism, many delegates called for the eign Mission Association (now the Evangelical inclusion of social issues in the conference state- Fellowship of Mission Agencies) and the Inter- ment. denominational Foreign Mission Association, The need to clarify the relationship between agencies that represented at that time 102 mis- evangelism and social responsibility led to the sion boards and 30,000 missionaries. The con- Consultation on the Relationship between gress, which was comprised of nearly 1,000 dele- Evangelism and Social Responsibility (Grand gates from 71 countries, wrote The Wheaton Rapids, 1982) sponsored by the Lausanne Com- Declaration, in which they called on the church mittee for World Evangelization, and the Con- to address contemporary issues such as racism, sultation on the Church in Response to Human war, the population explosion, poverty, and the Need (Wheaton, 1983) sponsored by the World disintegration of the family. This growing con- Evangelical Fellowship. Both affirmed that evan- cern for a Christian response to social problems gelism cannot be divorced from meaningful in- was due, in part, to the influence of the large volvement with people in all their needs. In re- number of participants from outside the United cent years, Christian agencies such as World States whose churches could not ignore the so- Vision International, Food for the Hungry, the cial evils around them. Also in 1966, the World Mennonite Central Committee, and the Adventist Congress on Evangelism gathered in Berlin, Development and Relief Agency have initiated sponsored by Christianity Today. That congress theological and administrative reflections on reaffirmed the importance of proclaiming the how to implement the proclamation of the whole gospel, but in the closing statement condemned gospel (see also Holism, Biblical). 54 Faith Missions

It is clear that as long as evangelism and social obedience, disruption, despair, disease and all concern are seen as two separate entities that that would destroy our wholeness.” need to be integrated, the dualism that has weak- Paul G. Hiebert and Monte B. Cox ened missions will remain. Some will reduce one Bibliography. B. Bradshaw, Bridging the Gap: Evan- to the other: conservatives will see social minis- gelism, Development and Shalom; E. J. Elliston, ed., tries as means to evangelistic ends and liberals Christian Relief and Development: Developing Workers will see social ministries as ends in themselves. for Effective Ministry; R. Greenway, Together Again!; Others will try to balance the two by claiming B. J. Nicholls, Word and Deed: Evangelism and Social that one is more important than the other, with Responsibility; C. R. Padilla, Transformation 2:3 (1985): many conservatives arguing that evangelism is 27–32; E. Ram, ed., Transforming Health: Christian Ap- proaches to Healing and Wholeness; T. Sine, ed., The the top priority while liberals counter that the Church in Response to Human Need; C. Van Engen, church must concentrate on other, more press- Mission on the Way. ing needs. Both approaches fail to integrate the different strands of the gospel into a single Faith Missions. With the beginning of the mod- whole. ern missionary movement in the last years of the We will proclaim a whole gospel only when we eighteenth century, several types of mission reject the dualism between supernatural and nat- agencies emerged. The earliest agencies, such as ural realities, religion and science, and evange- the American Board of Commissioners for For- lism and social concerns. Many young churches eign Missions and the London Missionary Soci- in other cultures have taken a step in this direc- ety were interdenominational. In the early years tion by making no distinction between the spiri- of the nineteenth century denominations orga- tual and the material, or between supernatural nized their own boards of missions; and even as and natural realms. Many of them model inte- late as 1925, 75 percent of American missionar- grated ministries to whole persons and societies. ies were affiliated with denominational boards. Evangelical mission agencies and churches are Faith mission societies, often also referred to catching on as well. In partnership with younger as independent, interdenominational, or nonde- churches, they are beginning to focus on people nominational, developed in the latter half of the more than tasks, on holistic development more nineteenth century. At the present time they have than relief, on transformation more than the many more missionaries under appointment simple delivery of services (see also Transforma- than do the denominational agencies. These tional Development), and on the formation of types of mission agencies appeared first in Great living communities of faith rather than bureau- Britain, the best known being the China Inland cratic institutions. Some agencies are backing Mission in 1865. Some of the early faith mis- away from the overspecialization that character- sions in the United States were the Christian and izes Western approaches to life and are offering Missionary Alliance (1887), the Evangelical Alli- a more generalized sort of training with holistic ance Mission (1890), the Sudan Interior Mission ministry in mind (see also Holistic Mission). (1893), and the Africa Inland Mission (1895). The push for holism draws strength from the Several interrelated factors led to the develop- rediscovery of the church as a healing commu- ment of faith mission societies. First was the conviction that the denominational agencies nity where Christians gather to Worship, to bear were not reaching the unevangelized areas of the Witness to the world, and to minister healing, in world—they were not penetrating the interiors the fullest sense of the term, to people. It is also or frontiers of many countries. The terms “inte- fueled by a renewed emphasis on a theology of rior” and “inland” in the names of these new the kingdom of God, within which evangelism, agencies testified to this fact. Among the un- church, ministry, and prophetic witness are parts reached in many countries were women. This led of the whole. This kingdom, however, cannot be to the first American faith mission, the Woman’s defined by theories of modern utopias, as in Union Missionary Society (1860). Marxism and capitalism. It is defined by Christ, A second major issue was theological. Chris­ its King. He and his incarnation as a human tian leaders were alarmed at the growth of what unite God’s concerns for all creation, now and they perceived to be liberalism in many denomi- for eternity. His salvation includes not only eter- nations and wished to found agencies that were nal life in the presence of God, but also a new fully committed to the authority of Scripture and earth characterized by righteousness, peace, jus- had an evangelistic fervor to reach the lost. tice, and fullness of life. In a word, Shalom is the These new agencies were connected with the ideal to which individual Christians as well as fundamentalist movement, were theologically the corporate church aspires. As Dan Fountain conservative, and usually separated themselves points out, “God’s plan for the world is this: that from the mainline denominations. They tended all persons everywhere, in every nation, know to be opposed to the conciliar Ecumenical Move- God’s saving health and be delivered from dis- ment, believing that many of its leaders were lib- 55 Finnish Mission Boards and Societies eral and that it was more committed to social is- tional boards to the faith mission agencies con- sues than to evangelism. tributed to the founding in 1917 of the A third factor for the establishing of the inde- Interdenominational Foreign Mission Associa- pendent mission agencies was financial. Denom- tion of North America. Boards formerly a part of inational agencies often had insufficient funds to the Foreign Mission Conference of North Amer- send out missionaries. The new boards, operat- ica, such as the Africa Inland Mission, Central ing on the faith principle, believed that God American Mission, China Inland Mission, Sudan would provide even when it appeared that no Interior Mission, South Africa General Mission, money was available. This made it possible for Inland South America Missionary Union, and the them to continue to send out new missionaries. Woman’s Union Missionary Society joined forces At the beginning, societies like the China Inland to form this new association of interdenomina- Mission instructed their missionaries not to ask tional or faith missions societies. Today a total of for money nor to tell anyone but God about their seventy-two agencies belong to the IFMA. specific financial need. At present, most of the The IFMA does not include denominational, faith agencies ask for money or in some way Pentecostal, or holiness groups, even though it is make their financial needs known. willing to work with them in cooperative endeav- As concerned Christian leaders assessed the ors. So in 1945 a group of mission executives re- spiritual needs of the world, they formed a num- lated to the National Association of Evangelicals ber of specialized mission agencies that can also formed the Evangelical Foreign Missions Associ- be considered faith or independent societies. ation (EFMA), now renamed Evangelical Fel- Among these were Mission Aviation Fellowship, lowship of Mission Agencies. It includes many Far Eastern Broadcasting Company, Gospel Re- agencies that are not members of the IFMA. cordings, and Wycliffe Bible Translators. Ralph R. Covell The formation of these new agencies came in a period at the end of the nineteenth century when Bibliography. E. L. Frizen Jr., 75 Years of IFMA mission interest was stirred to new heights by 1917–1992; J. H. Kane, A Concise History of the Chris- tian World Mission. many mission conferences both in England and in America. Among these were international con- ventions held in Cleveland, Detroit (1894), and Finnish Mission Boards and Societies. Fin- Liverpool (1896) by the Student Volunteer land became independent only in 1917, after a Movement for Foreign Missions. Another series century of Russian czarist rule and, before that, of important annual conferences was promoted, seven centuries of Swedish domination. The old- beginning in 1893, by the Interdenominational est and, until recently, largest sending agency, Conference of Foreign Missionary Boards and the Finnish Missionary Society, was founded in Societies in the United States and Canada. The 1959 and traditionally was organizationally inde- most international and interdenominational of pendent of, but closely linked with, the Lutheran all these conferences was the Ecumenical Mis- Church. It sent out its first missionaries in 1870 sionary Conference held in New York in 1900. to the northernmost region (Ovamboland) of From the beginning, the faith mission societies what is now Namibia and a strong Lutheran derived their finances and personnel from inde- Church eventually resulted in what remained its pendent Bible and community churches. Most of main receiving field. In 1901, missionaries were their missionaries were trained in Bible schools sent to China. After World War II they were with- founded in the last two decades of the nineteenth drawn, but work, usually cooperating with other century, such as Nyack (1882), Moody (1886), agencies, was begun in Tanzania, Taiwan, Paki- Ontario (1894), and Barrington (1900). Gradu- stan, and Jerusalem. By the mid-1960s there ally, many of these schools added liberal arts were nearly two hundred missionaries with this courses to their curriculum and became Bible agency, representing more than 90 percent of the colleges granting the B.A. degree. Most candi- national church’s total force, and supported by dates for faith missions continue to come from voluntary contributions rather than official these schools. church funds. Many faith mission agencies that were based There are a few other small sending societies originally only in the United States or England working within the national church. Mention have now established centers in other countries, should be made of the Lutheran Evangelistic As- even in Asia, Latin America, and Africa. Thus sociation, which began in 1873 for home mission they have become international societies, sending work as part of a revival movement, but since missionaries from six continents to six conti- 1900 has often supported around a dozen mis- nents. sionaries at a time in Japan in association with The theologically more inclusive nature of the the Lutheran Church there. World Missionary Conference at Edinburgh in The total of all Protestant free church adherents 1910, the growth of liberalism in mainline de- in Finland is probably under 3 percent of the pop- nominations, and the antipathy of denomina- ulation and is divided into several denominations, 56 French Mission Boards and Societies most of which have Swedish- and Finnish-speak- from among all people those who are saved and ing sections (which usually have separate mission to incorporate them into the church; (6) salva- programs). The Pentecostals apparently have tion is found only through faith in Christ; and (7) more members than the combination of all the mission is God’s decisive activity that will con- rest (Adventist, Baptist, Free Church Methodist, tinue until the return of Christ. Salvation Army, etc.) In general, the small free Reaction among German scholars tended to be church denominations take responsibility as a either strongly in favor of or strongly against the whole for their missionaries rather than through declaration. It received significant attention in separate organizations. These missionaries often American evangelical circles through the efforts work in cooperation with international agencies, of McGavran and Harold Lindsell, who pub- so that it is hard to identify a mission church of lished it in Christianity Today. Interestingly specifically Finnish free church origin. enough, ecumenical leadership publicly ignored However, the free churches as a whole, and the it in spite of the fact that it received international Pentecostals in particular, contribute quite dis- acceptance within evangelicalism. proportionately to the total missionary force A. Scott Moreau from Finland. In the early 1970s there were over five hundred Finnish missionaries and this was a Bibliography. P. Beyerhaus, Shaken Foundations; doubling of the figure from a decade before. The idem, Missions: Which Way? Humanization or Redemp- tion; D. McGavran, Eye of the Storm. Pentecostals were sending more than a third of them (and they were going to many different fields, especially in Asia). By the early 1990s, the French Mission Boards and Societies. France total of missionaries had grown to over 1,300, has been a mission field since the beginning of serving with some twenty-two agencies, six of Christianity. Paul’s disciple Crescens possibly which work within the national church. Opera- reached Gaul (2 Tim. 4:10 according to ancient tion Mobilization has been especially successful manuscripts). The first congregations were in recruiting Finns to serve abroad, most com- Greek-speaking. Latin became common until monly for shorter periods of service. French was shaped and established itself as a re- Donald Tinder ligious language. Worship in French became the rule in the sixteenth century in the emerging Frankfurt Declaration on the Fundamental churches of the Reformation. The Roman Catho- Crisis in Christian Mission. Among evangelical lic Church of France followed suit only after the efforts to redress the significant shifts in mission Second Vatican Council allowed local languages theology seen in the Ecumenical Movement was to be used in the Mass liturgy (1963). Sermons, the Frankfurt Declaration. The flash point was however, were always delivered in French. The the preconference document “Renewal in Mis- level of language is differentiated according to sion,” prepared for the WCC Uppsala Assembly educational, social, and geographical back- in 1968. Peter Beyerhaus felt that the document grounds. Bible Societies produce several trans- represented a serious disruption of the whole lations from basic to literary French. tradition of missiological thinking. Donald Mc- France today is both a mission field and a send- Gavran’s parallel response led to correspondence ing country. Home and foreign missions (based between the two in which McGavran urged Bey- mostly in America, England, Holland, and Ger- erhaus to pen a statement similar to the Whea- many) are approaching secularized French popu- ton Declaration (see Congress on the Church’s lations and also linguistic minorities settled in Worldwide Mission), but dealing with the recent France in growing numbers (North and West Afri- WCC documents and thinking. The Theological cans, Asians, Eastern Europeans). A striking de- Convention, a group of fifteen German theolo- velopment was the creation of the Evangelical gians, echoed McGavran’s urging. Beyerhaus Gypsy Church in France through the ministry of drafted the declaration, and after discussion and Clément Le Cossee and some American mission- revision the group signed it on March 4, 1970. aries. This church was received in 1975 as a full The single goal of the Frankfurt Declaration member of the Federation of Protestant Churches was to reaffirm the biblical basis of mission. in France. Similarly, some missionary groups are Beyerhaus listed seven indispensable elements of targeting so-called Nominal Christians. Many mission, each of which specifically refuted a scattered Pentecostal, Baptist, and independent trend seen in the WCC: (1) the foundation for evangelical congregations and networks have mission is found solely in the New Testament; emerged mainly in the cities, either spontaneously (2) the primary goal is to glorify and proclaim or through the ministry of evangelists and mis- God’s name throughout the world; (3) Jesus sionaries. alone is the basis, content, and authority of mis- While the consolidated Protestant population sion; (4) mission is the church’s presentation of in France oscillates between 2 and 5 percent, salvation appropriated through belief and bap- Roman Catholic tradition is cherished by about tism; (5) the primary visible task is to call out two-thirds of the population. This includes a 57 German Mission Boards and Societies strong foreign missionary commitment, which erates on behalf of forty-seven churches interfered with French foreign policy in the nine- worldwide, with headquarters in Paris. Its first teenth and the beginning of the twentieth centu- executive secretary was Victor Rakotoarima- ries, when France officially protected Roman nana, of the United Reformed Church of Mada- Catholic missions in China and the Pacific. gascar. This body is directly supported by church There are about 300 Roman Catholic mission- synods, according to the respective financial ca- ary orders and congregations in France; among pacities of the member churches. Swiss and them at least 210 women’s congregations of French contributions make up 90 percent of the French origin. But most of them have become budget. international groups due to the Vatican strategy Relationships between Roman Catholic and of centralization since 1922, and to interna- Protestant missions used to be tense and even tional recruitment. At this time most of origi- hostile until the Second Vatican Council (1962– nally French Catholic foreign missions have 65) articulated a new theology of ecumenism. moved their headquarters to Rome: the Oblates There have been many successful experiments in of Mary Immaculate, founded in 1816 by Eu- forms of common witness. Two ecumenical asso- géne de Mazenod; the Holy Ghost Fathers, re- ciations of missiologists have been established founded by François Libermann in 1848; the (1979 for mission history, 1994 for mission theol- White Fathers, founded by Charles Lavigerie in ogy). 1868; the Christian Brothers, the Sisters of St. A puzzling development is the multiplication Joseph of Cluny, the Daughters of Charity of St. of highly profiled nongovernmental organiza- Vincent de Paul, among many others. Until the tions in the field of development and relief, rely- decline of missionary vocations in the 1960s, ing upon secular funding. Many of them have a France and the Netherlands had the highest Christian background, but are reluctant to coop- ratio of missionaries in the world. Roman Cath- olic missions are supported by a worldwide erate with established churches and mission fund established in Rome since 1922, but fund boards. raising is also operated by local and regional Marc R. Spindler missionary networks. Bibliography. P. King, ed., French Christian Hand- The internationalization of the Protestant book. missionary movement is probably even more ev- ident. The Paris Evangelical Missionary Soci- German Mission Boards and Societies. The ety (1822–1971) always recruited its staff from German missions are children of revivals, and many European countries and worked in close they differ depending from which revival they cooperation with the London Missionary Soci- come. After an unsuccessful attempt by Justinian ety, the Basel Mission, and the Methodist Mis- von Welz (1664), the first two German missions, sion. This mission board was restructured in the Danish-Halle Mission (India, 1706) and the 1971 as the French Evangelical Department of worldwide Moravian Mission (Herrnhut, 1732), Apostolic Action (DEFAP). It recruits missionar- were born in the pietistic revival (see Pietism). ies and volunteers on behalf of almost all de- Herrnhut managed to withstand the Enlighten- nominations (Reformed, Lutheran, Moravians, ment and provided spiritual and organizational Baptists, Mennonites, Free Churches). Other links to the classical missions of the Great Awak- French evangelical missions are associated with Swiss, Dutch, German, English, and American ening, which came over to the Continent from mission boards. Significant organizations in Britain. Basel, through the Christentums­ France are Action Chrétienne en Orient Fellow- gesellschaft, served as a center of revival and mis- ship (founded in 1922 by Paul Berron in Stras- sions for both Germany and German-speaking bourg, restructured in 1995), the Baptist branch Switzerland. Several of the Basel auxiliaries de- of the European Baptist Union, the French veloped into missions of their own. The first set branch of the Evangelical Leprosy Mission, the of these Protestant classical German missions French branch of the Evangelical Mission in (Basel, 1815; Berlin, 1824; Barmen, 1828, Bre- Côte d’Ivoire, the International Association for men, 1836) was interdenominational, based on the Albert Schweitzer Hospital at Lambarene, Lutheran and Reformed churches, but not de- Gabon. pendent on them. The second set of classical When the churches in the mission fields be- missions came from the more definitely Lu- came autonomous bodies in the 1950s and theran wing of the Great Awakening in Germany: 1960s, mainline mission boards merged into the Leipzig (1836), Neuendettelsau (1841), Her- synodal structure of the French churches. This mannsburg (1849), and Breklum (1876). The so-called churchification of missions led to the power of the classical missions lay in their re- creation of a new intercontinental and inter- vival spirituality, lay involvement, and organiza- church body, the Apostolic Community for Apos- tional independence. Both groups together form tolic Action (CEVAA) (1971), which presently op- today the ecumenical missions and are largely 58 Ghanaian Mission Boards and Societies integrated into the German Lutheran/Presbyte- Fellowship, and Sudan United Mission. Taking rian territorial churches. ideas from the faith missions and from the Next came the Faith Missions, originating in Brethren missions, Ernst Schrupp developed the Holiness revival (1859) which also came Missionshaus Bibelschule Wiedenest, which had from Britain: Neukirchen (1880), Allianz Mission originated in an effort to evangelize in Eastern (1889), China Inland Mission, German Branch Europe (Alliance Bible School Berlin, 1905) into (1896, later Liebenzell), Marburg (1899/1909), a major evangelical mission with a strong con- Sudan Pioneer Mission (1900), Mission für Söd- gregational base. The Baptist mission was reor- Ost-Europa (1903), and Licht im Osten (1920). ganized as European Baptist Mission, and a The German faith missions originally followed good number of new evangelical missions came the concepts of the British faith missions, but in- into being (like Deutsche Indianer Pionier Mis- creasingly modified them to better suit the eccle- sion or Kindewerk Lima). A new departure was siastical environment. The only major mission the founding of the Deutsche Missionsgemein- then of the German “Free Churches” was the schaft (1951), also Vereinigte Deutsche Mission- Baptist Mission (1890). shilfe (1961), designed to send German mission- The Pentecostal revival (1907), not being aries to many international faith missions. The strong in Germany, still produced some foreign majority of the German missions and missionar- mission work, starting with Velbert (1931). The ies are now evangelical. The charismatic revival, Catholic missionary revival started after the which reached Germany in 1963, was slow in Great Awakening, with major centers in France, developing its own missions, but is now increas- Belgium, and Holland. Catholic missionary work ingly doing so, with the missions often being relies heavily on missionary orders (Society of based in or almost identical with a local congre- the Divine Word, Steyl, 1875, the Mission Bene- gation. A new development is the transformation dictines of St. Ottilien, 1887, and the White Fa- of the Vereinigte Evangelische Mission (Barmen/ thers of Trier, 1894, being the first in Germany) Bethel) into a worldwide fellowship of [equal] and supporting societies (Franziskus Xaverius churches in mission (United Evangelical Mis- Verein, 1832, Kindheit-Jesus-Verein, 1843). sion, 1996). Women far outnumber men as Catholic mission- In Germany the classical (ecumenical) missions aries (Servants of the Holy Spirit, Reichenbach, cooperate in the Evangelisches Missionswerk­ 1887, the first German female missionary order). (1975, successor to Deutscher Evangelischer Mis- Though women also provided the larger numbers sionstag, 1922), the evangelical missions cooperate in the Protestant missionary force, they devel- in the Arbeitsgemeinschaft Evangelikaler Missionen oped few women’s missionary societies (1969, with the Freie Hochschule für Mission), and (Deutscher Frauenmissionsgebetsbund, 1899). the Pentecostal and charismatic missions in the The First World War disrupted German for- Arbeitsgemeinschaft Pfingstlich-Charismatischer eign missionary work severely, and the years be- Missionen (1993). tween the wars were, as in other countries, years Klaus Fiedler without revivals, when few new missions were founded. However, in the Third Reich the Ger- Ghanaian Mission Boards and Societies. Gha- man Protestant missions as a whole took the side naians have been active in missionary work ever of the Confessing Church against the state-­ since Philip Quaque (c. 1741–1816) was first en- supported German Christians. Nazi rule and ide- gaged by the Anglican Church to reach people ology did affect their work. The period after the from his own country. The Presbyterian Church Second World War saw a strong renewal of the of Ghana and the Evangelical Presbyterian efforts of the classical missions in a new ecu- Church in Ghana were planted by German mis- menical setting. A missiological reorientation sion agencies, and became the first self-governing connected with the New Delhi Assembly (1961) non-Western churches in Ghana after World led to a closer integration of the classical Protes- War I. By 1980, there were 23 active mission tant missions into the territorial (mainline) agencies in Ghana. In 1993 it was estimated that churches, and to a reliance more on funds allo- over 670 Ghana missionaries had been sent out cated by the churches than on funds collected by by some 44 agencies. The Church of Pentecost has the missions. placed workers in several African countries as During the same time the evangelical missions well as in Europe and North America. Christian experienced a major expansion. The fact that Outreach Fellowship, founded by William Ofori over the decades most of the early German faith Atta, deploys cross-­cultural missionaries to un- missions had become closely related to one or reached people groups. Pioneers Africa, headed several fellowship movements within the territo- by Solomon Aryeetey, works among Muslims in rial churches created room for new interdenom- Mali and has focused on unreached peoples in Af- inational missions. Many of them were German rica. branches of interdenominational faith missions Bible Translation and Christian literature dis- like WEC International, Overseas Missionary tribution have been important facets of Ghanian 59 Global Consultation on World Evangelization (GCOWE ’95) mission endeavor. The growth of Bible transla- tory, with 4,000 delegates representing more tion work in the local languages is closely related than 180 nations. to the story of the growth of missions in Ghana. GCOWE ’95 focused on “an in-process review/ The work of the Ghana Institute of Linguistics, assessment of the unfinished task of the Great Literacy, and Bible Translation (GILLBT) is rec- Commission,” emphasizing Unreached Peoples, ognized by both the church and the state. The uncharted areas, and countries within the 10/40 use of the Jesus Film in local languages is help- Window. Six notable marks of the consultation ing Ghanians reach unreached peoples within facilitated movement toward the stated goal of Ghana’s borders. “a church for every people and the gospel for There are several parachurch organizations every person by the year 2000”: prayer was fre- that actively utilize Ghanian staff to reach quent, both planned and spontaneous as the Ghana and other countries for Christ. Gottfried Spirit led; reconciliation and bonding occurred Osei-Mensah was the first executive director of between individuals, ethnic groups, mission the Lausanne Committe for World Evangeliza- agencies, denominations, and countries; partner- tion. Theophilus B. Dankwa headed IFES-Africa ships were formed as delegates shared mutual and Sam Atiemo Youth for Christ. Isaac Ababio interests and discussed specific plans for world pioneered the Hour of Visitation Evangelistic evangelization; strategic planning was pursued Association. Florence Yeboah’s GHACOE Wom- as conferees laid out agendas to reach their own en’s Ministry is engaged in holistic mission. countries and tried to cooperate in mission- Scripture Union (SU) had been active in Ghana ary-sending efforts targeting the 10/40 Window; since the early 1950s, and many of the current empowerment developed as women delegates Ghanian church leaders came to Christ through and representatives from traditional mission the SU efforts. fields recognized their opportunity and responsi- As a result of the Ghana Church Survey pub- bility for world evangelization; mobilization of lished by the Ghana Evangelism Committee in both people and resources was identified as the 1989 and a subsequent national mission consul- next step, and an estimated 70,000 Korean young tation in 1993, Ghana’s most neglected mission people dedicated their lives to world mission. fields have become the target of pioneer out- Luis Bush reaches by denominations, mission agencies, and individual churches; more cross-cultural Global Consultation on World Evangelization missionaries have been sent out and an Associa- ’97 (GCOWE II). A follow-up conference to tion of Evangelical Missions has been formed. GCOWE ’95, the Global Consultation on World Theological education and training for mis- Evangelization ’97, held June 30 to July 5, 1997, sions remains a challenge. Christian G. Baeta, drew some 4,000 delegates from 133 countries to Kwesi Dickson, and John Pobee have made sig- Pretoria, South Africa. Sponsored by the global nificant contributions. Kwame Bediako and the AD 2000 and Beyond Movement, GCOWE II’s Akrofi-Christaller Memorial Centre for Mission main focus was on assessing how many of the Research and Applied Theology are also making movement’s 1,739 designated “people groups” had been “adopted” for church-planting efforts fresh strides in mission training and research. by missions agencies and churches. After the Ghana has sent missionaries around the conference, about 90 percent of the 1,739 groups world. In the past twenty years, these have in- in the “Joshua Project 2000” list were reported to cluded a new wave of missionaries—“economic have a church-planting “movement” (however missionaries.” They are comprised of committed large or small) or a commitment to mobilize a believers who have been spread out from Ghana team of church starters. because of harsh national economic pressure on As with GCOWE ’95, less emphasis was placed them at home. They mostly serve as profession- on meeting AD 2000’s goal of “a church for every als in their new host countries, but diligently people and the gospel for every person by the work as members of God’s kingdom on his busi- year 2000.” The AD 2000 Movement was ness of telling others about Christ. They are on launched in 1989 at the Lausanne II conference every continent and in every ideological and reli- in Manila. By 1997 many leaders were speaking gious region around the world. of the year 2000 as a kind of springboard for a Robert Aboagye-Mensah new century of outreach, rather than as a dead- and Jude Hama line to “finish the task” of world evangelization. In Pretoria missiologist Ralph Winter urged that Global Consultation on World Evangelization a more contextualized, de-Westernized gospel be (GCOWE ’95). A global-strategy consultation presented to the huge and largely unreached held in Seoul, South Korea, on May 17–26, 1995. blocs of Hindus, Muslims, and Buddhists. Sponsored by the AD 2000 and Beyond Move- Some observers said the movement was em- ment, GCOWE ’95 is believed to be the largest bracing a broader mission for the church beyond and most representative such gathering in his- short-term evangelism and church planting. Ten 60 Globalization consultations were convened during GCOWE church, however, continued to spread across Eu- ’97, including ones for business executives, Afri- rope, to what are now Belgium, Germany, and can initiatives, local pastors, children’s concerns, the Netherlands. Russia also became Christian- the poor, and the performing arts. Racial recon- ized. Nestorian Christianity made its way into ciliation, appropriate to the South African venue, China but did not last. Later, the Dominicans, was another major theme. Franciscans, and Jesuits brought Christianity Stanley M. Guthrie into Central Asia, China, Africa, and Latin Amer- ica. Bibliography. B. Nickles, Pulse, August 1, 1997; Protestants, inspired by the example of David P. Ulrey, Pulse, January 3, 1997; S. R. Sywulka, Pulse, July 7, 1995; J. Reapsome, Pulse, August 25, 1989. Brainerd among the Indians of the New World and the Moravians of Germany, began to remem- ber their missionary responsibilities. But not Globalization. In the Bible God anticipated and until 1792, with the spark provided by William commanded the globalization, or worldwide Carey, did the Protestant Church begin large- spread, of biblical faith. In the Old Testament, scale outreach to other lands. The 1800s, some- God blessed Abraham and promised that “all times called the Great Century of Missions, saw peoples on earth will be blessed through you” the proliferation of missionary societies, aided (Gen. 12:3). The people of God were told to “De- by the expansion of the great colonial powers clare his glory among the nations, his marvelous into India, China, and Africa. deeds among all peoples” (Ps. 96:3). The cove- The advance of the gospel has been remark- nant community was open not just to Jews but to able in the twentieth century, particularly the lat- all who would follow Yahweh, such as Ruth of ter half. In 1960, an estimated 58 percent of the Moab. God’s grace and compassion reached even world’s Christians were Westerners; in 1990, only the wicked people of Nineveh through Jonah and 38 percent were. Latin America’s evangelical Naaman the Syrian. The Servant of the Lord, presence exploded from a mere 50,000 in 1900 to fully realized in Christ, was to be “a light for the 40 million in 1990. Today, with about one-third Gentiles, that you may bring my salvation to the of the earth’s approximately 6 billion people, ends of the earth” (Isa. 49:6). Christianity is present in every nation-state. In the New Testament, Jesus Christ told the Most of the growth has come in the former “mis- disciples, “And this gospel of the kingdom will be sion fields” of Asia, Africa, and Latin America. preached in the whole world as a testimony to all From 1960 to 1990, the number of evangelicals nations, and then the end will come” (Matt. in the West grew from 57.7 million to 95.9 mil- 24:14). After the resurrection, he commissioned lion, while evangelicals outside the West multi- them to reach beyond the Jews and “go and plied from 29 million to 208 million. About three make disciples of all nations” (Matt. 28:19). Just in four of the world’s evangelicals are non-West- before his ascension the Lord told them, “But erners. However, despite this growth, many peo- you will receive power when the Holy Spirit ple in the world’s vast Muslim, Hindu, and secu- comes on you; and you will be my witnesses in larized blocs remain relatively untouched by the Jerusalem, and in all Judea and Samaria, and to gospel. the ends of the earth” (Acts 1:8). Acts chronicles Globalization of the Missionary Task. As the beginning of this expansion. The Bible as- Christians in the former missionary “receiving” sures us that at the end of history there will be “a countries have realized their responsibilities to great multitude that no one could count, from be “senders,” the globalization of the missionary every nation, tribe, people and language, stand- enterprise has begun to track the globalization of ing before the throne and in front of the Lamb” the church. The number of Protestant missionar- (Rev. 7:9). ies from the United States and Canada has de- Globalization of the Church. Christianity has clined, from 50,500 in 1988 to 41,142 in 1992, advanced unevenly around the globe during according to the fifteenth edition of Mission most of its first twenty centuries, with the Handbook. South Korea and India each boast church often slow to remember its evangelistic 4,000 missionaries, and their numbers continue mandate. Despite occasional periods of persecu- to grow. Nigeria’s Evangelical Missionary Society tion, until a.d. 313, when Constantine issued the sends about 950. While the precise figures are in Edict of Milan, the church exploded across the dispute, the numbers of non-Western missionar- Roman Empire. For the next three centuries, the ies are certainly growing substantially faster Christian faith continued to spread via monks than their Western counterparts (see Non-West- and bishops into Ethiopia, India, Ireland, Brit- ern Mission Boards and Agencies). Some ex- ain, and along the trade routes toward Central perts believe that Western missionaries will be Asia. numerically eclipsed by the turn of the century. The coming of Islam brought a series of rever- With the shifting balance of missions power sals. Lost to the Muslim invaders were the holy have come calls for Western churches to stop lands, North Africa, Asia Minor, and Persia. The sending missionaries and instead—or predomi- 61 Greene, Elizabeth “Betty” nantly—send money to support “native mission- test flights, towed targets for live-fire gunnery aries” (see Foreign Financing of Indigenous practice, and flew a number of military aircraft, Workers). These are said to be cheaper and including the four-engine B-17 Flying Fortress. more effective than Westerners. Such calls have Greene opened the Christian Airmen’s Mis- been especially attractive to Western Christians, sionary Fellowship (CAMF) office in Los Angeles who find themselves increasingly inward-looking in 1944 as the designated secretary-treasurer. and financially pressured. While applauding the Co-laborer with Jim Truxton, she quickly became energy, vision, and commitment of the younger a major driving force behind the new organiza- missionary movement, missions experts caution tion. Greene worked with Truxton, Parrott, and against idealizing the non-Westerners as without Buyers on the incorporation papers for CAMF, problems. They acknowledge weaknesses in the which later became Mission Aviation Fellowship non-Western sending, training, and shepherding (MAF). She served both on the first board of di- bases as well as dangers in sending money rectors and on the first executive committee. In only—both for recipients and for senders. 1946, Greene became CAMF’s first field pilot, fly- Non-Western churches and mission agencies are ing a plane to SIL’s Jungle Camp in Mexico, sometimes better at sending people out than MAF-US’s first foreign field. During her thir- keeping them there, they say. Much effort is ty-year career with MAF, Greene flew all over the being expended to shore up the training of globe, becoming the first woman to fly over the non-Westerners in order to keep them in their Andes. She also flew missionary tours in Nigeria, assignments. Sudan, Ethiopia, Uganda, Kenya, the Congo Most of the discussion about the relationship (Zaire), and Dutch New Guinea (Irian Jaya). On of Western and non-Western missions focuses on the forefront of promoting prayer for MAF, she discarding old roles and developing partnerships launched a newsletter in 1945, “Wings of Praise in the common task of world evangelization. and Prayer,” distinguishing herself as MAF’s While Partnership most often refers to Western prayer secretary. missionaries and non-Western “nationals” work- Gary Lamb ing one on one as equals, it can have a more structural meaning for missionary organizations. Bibliogaphy. D. G. Buss, and A. F. Glasser, Giving Agencies that cross ethnic or national lines to Wings to the Gospel: The Remarkable Story of Mission work together are said to be internationalized. Aviation Fellowship; R. A. Tucker, FJIJ. Four types of internationalized organizations have been identified: cooperative (through infor- Harris, William Wade (1865–1929). Liberian mal sharing, such as the Missions Advanced Re- evangelist and missionary in West Africa. Known search and Communication Center), task-ori- as Prophet Harris, he was a Liberian (Grebo/ ented partnerships (spearheaded by groups such Kru) Anglican catechist. Jailed twice in Liberia as Gospel for Asia and Interdev that bring several for anti-government activity, during his second organizations together), international agencies imprisonment he had a vision of the angel Ga- (such as WEC International and the Society for briel calling him to be “a prophet, to preach a International Ministries, which operate in many gospel of repentance, to destroy ‘fetish’ worship, nations or have multinational leadership), and in- and to baptize those who obeyed.” In 1913, he ternational movements in pursuit of a common began preaching in Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) goal or strategy. The AD 2000 and Beyond Move- and Gold Coast (Ghana) that Jesus Christ must ment, with its emphasis on “unreached peoples,” reign, and that Harris was his prophet. He pro- is an example of the latter. Such movements are claimed a political vision that would bring all na- effectively reaching across national, denomina- tions under the earthly rule of Jesus. Colonial tional, and ethnic boundaries and presenting a authorities were condemned as “Satan.” Harris clearer picture of the globalization of missions at preached belief in one God, destruction of fe- the dawn of the twenty-first century. tishes, observance of Sunday as a day of rest, Stanley M. Guthrie and prohibition of adultery and alcohol. He Bibliography. D. Hicks, Globalizing Missions; stressed the “incomparable importance” of the L. Pate, From Every People; J. A. Siewert and J. A. Ken- Word of God. yon, eds., Mission Handbook; W. D. Taylor, ed., Interna- Harris told those he baptized to build churches tionalizing Missionary Training; R. D. Winter and S. C. and wait for teachers who would come and give Hawthorne, eds., PWCM; J. D. Woodbridge, ed., AFC. them fuller instruction. An estimated 100,000 Ivorians believed before French authorities de- Greene, Elizabeth “Betty” (1921–97). American ported Harris in 1915. missionary aviation pioneer. Born in 1921, she In 1923, a missionary of the English Methodist learned to fly at the age of sixteen. A member of Society found 45,000 people faithful to Harris’s the Women’s Air Forces Service Pilots during teaching. In Ghana, Wesleyans increased sev- World War II, Greene performed high-altitude en-fold between 1912 and 1929, largely through 62 History of Missions the preaching of Harris. He continued preaching dered while awaiting the disposition of the in Liberia until his death in 1929. charges against him. Donald K. Smith The early expansion of the church is a para- digm for understanding how the gospel traveled Bibliography. G. M. Haliburton, The Prophet Harris; around the world in the succeeding two millen- D. Shank, Prophet Harris, the ‘Black Elijah’ of West Af- nia. Under the Pax Romana the gospel spread rica; S. S. Walker, The Religious Revolution in the Ivory Coast: The Prophet Harris and the Harrist Church. rapidly in the major centers of commerce and government. Even during Jesus’ ministry, the gospel had penetrated government circles (cf. History of Missions. The Apostolic Age. The Luke 8:3, where Joanna, the wife of Chuza, story of how the followers of a first-century itin- Herod’s steward, is numbered among the circle erant Jewish preacher spread his message of that traveled with Jesus). Paul can write from God’s kingdom to the entire world is amazing. Rome that the reason for his imprisonment is The initial conquest of the Roman Empire and well known in the palace (Phil. 1:13). This inter- the subsequent planting of the Christian church est in Christianity by the ruling authorities is in- around the earth were the result of the witness of dicative of the interaction that the gospel would countless believers. A great number of these mis- have throughout history. Up through the twenti- sionaries are known, but there is an even greater eth century, the conversion of a ruler often number whose names are unknown to subse- meant gaining at least the nominal adherence of quent generations. This lack of a complete his- that ruler’s subjects to Christianity. The close tory forces us to recognize that God empowered connection between the ruler’s religion and the ordinary believers to carry out the missionary subjects’ adherence is particularly pronounced task. While Jesus limited his ministry to the through to the sixteenth century in Europe, and areas of Judea and Galilee, with occasional for- it is always common in close knit societies. ays into non-Jewish territory, he gave his disci- The interaction of the gospel with commerce is ples specific instructions to be his witnesses in something that is seen in Acts and has been re- “Jerusalem, Judea, Samaria and even to the re- peated in various periods of missionary work. At motest parts of the earth” (Acts 1:8). The Acts of times the gospel was bad for business (Acts the Apostles is organized along that plan, with 16:19; 19:23ff.). The commercial motive drove the gospel emanating in an ever-increasing cir- the sponsors of both Catholic and Protestant cle. With the coming of the Holy Spirit on the missions. Another theme that is repeated is the day of Pentecost, the gospel was preached in Je- interaction of the gospel with other religions. rusalem to Jews and proselytes “from every na- The main rivals of the Christian faith in the first tion under heaven” (Acts 2:5). century were the mystery religions; elements of The first persecution that dispersed the church these religions addressed similar questions an- after the stoning of Stephen (Acts 7) resulted in swered in the Christian gospel. There was a spir- the scattering of the believers throughout Judea, itual hunger that the gospel could meet. How- Samaria (Acts 8:1), Phoenicia, Cyprus, and An- ever, the pagan religions did not give in easily, tioch (Acts 11:19–20). It is noteworthy that the necessitating Power Encounters such as those movement commanded by Jesus to disciple the in Acts (e.g. 6:8; 8:9ff.; 13:6ff.; 16:16ff.) The First 500 Years. As we do not know the nations only commenced with Persecution. This identity of the disciples who first preached to the theme of God’s using what seemed like tragic Gentiles in Antioch, so we do not know who first events to propagate the gospel is repeated preached the gospel in Rome. But Paul found be- throughout history. The bringing of the gospel to lievers there to welcome him. The earliest con- the Samaritans bridged two major hurdles, reli- verts were most likely from the lower classes. gion and culture. The first recorded preaching to However, during the persecution under the em- Gentiles is Peter’s interaction with Cornelius peror Domitian (c. a.d. 96), a cousin of the em- (Acts 10). Some of those who were scattered be- peror was put to death and his wife banished be- cause of persecution went to Antioch, where they cause of “sacrilege,” the usual charge against shared the message with Gentiles (Acts 11:20). Christians. Some take this as an indication of the Since these Gentile converts were not proselytes, penetration of the gospel to the highest reaches it is not strange that the disciples were first of society. At the end of the first century and called Christians in Antioch to distinguish them throughout the second century, severe persecu- from a sect of Judaism (Acts 11:26). The mis- tions arose against Christians because of their sionary journeys of Paul originated from this refusal to pay homage to the Roman gods. Their church, the Holy Spirit directing the sending of loyalty to Christ alone as God earned them the Paul and Barnabas (Acts 13:2ff.), indicating name atheists since they would not acknowledge where Paul and his team were forbidden to the Roman pantheon of deities. Justin Martyr preach the gospel (Acts 16:6–10). At the end of (c. 100–165) was one of the early apologists who Acts Paul is in Rome preaching Christ unhin- sought to defend the Christian faith against mis- 63 History of Missions representation. By the year 251, there is an esti- ing church. From a persecuted minority, the mate of the Christian population in Rome num- church became legal and then socially accept- bering thirty thousand. The persecution did not able. The peace of the church from external per- eliminate the church, as the clear testimony of secution provided the opportunity to solve its the martyrs often bore eloquent witness to the re- theological disputes, a process in which the em- ality of the Christian faith. Because of their cou- perors from Constantine on took part. The trini- rageous witness, Tertullian (c. 160/70–c. 215/20) tarian and christological disputes gave rise to could write that the blood of the martyrs is the what are sometimes called the Oriental Eastern seed of the church (see also Martyrdom). churches, which adopted a doctrinal stance dif- The gospel entered Egypt at an early date, ferent from the Chalcedonian formulas. These though again the original missionaries are not churches were missionary centers, with the known. Alexandria became a major Christian Nestorian Mission movement reaching into center with teachers like Clement (c. 150–215) China. and Origen (c. 185–254) holding firmly to the Even before Christianity became recognized as biblical revelation but also recognizing Greek the official religion of the Roman Empire (a.d. philosophy as a preparation for the gospel. This 333), the gospel had penetrated the western and is the first example of discerning the seeds of a northern provinces of the empire. Irenaeus pre-gospel understanding in a people’s culture as (c. 130–c. 200), bishop of Lyons, writes of using a forerunner to evangelization. The results of Celtic as well as Latin in the church, which signi- both the Alexandrian model and applications of fies the presence of the church among the less the same principle throughout the history of the educated population. When Christianity became church have been debated. The danger of Syn- the religion of the empire, more direct assaults cretism is ever present in such formulations. could be made against paganism. However, the Christianity spread quickly across Roman gain in legitimacy was at the expense of an in- North Africa among the educated colonial creasing nominalism. Monasticism was in part a classes. These were the first Latin-speaking reaction to the lower standard of Christianity. churches in the world. There was some use of Patrick (c. 389–461) was captured by Irish the Punic language, brought by the Phoenicians raiders from his home in England as a youth. who had colonized Carthage, but it is not clear After six years, he escaped and entered a monas- that the church ever penetrated to the Berber tery in France. Persistent visions led him to re- vernacular of the villages and nomads. By not turn to Ireland at the age of forty-three, where he using the heart language of the peasant popula- labored until his death. When he began his work, tion, it was assured that these groups would turn Ireland was nearly entirely pagan but by the time to Islam in the seventh century. The major lesson learned from the experience in North Africa is he died, Ireland was largely Christian.­ Later that the church needs to penetrate the common Celtic monks would be responsible for evangeliz- language of the people. While the church in this ing large parts of Europe (see Celtic Missionary area produced outstanding theologians, includ- Movement). One of the turning points in Europe was the ing the key figure in Western theology, Augustine of Hippo, the theological formulations did not baptism of Clovis, king of the Franks. He had stop the rapid spread of Islam. married (in 493) a Christian princess, Clotilda of The Donatist controversy, which revolved Burgundy, who did her best to convert him. Clo- around what was to be the church’s stand toward vis vowed if the Christian God would help him those who deny the faith during times of perse- defeat his enemies, the Alemanni, he would con- cution, further weakened the church of North vert. On Christmas day 496 he was baptized Africa. Nevertheless, from a missiological per- along with three thousand of his soldiers. Other spective it is sobering to note the absence of rulers had converted, but Clovis was the first to Christianity today in what had been an influen- accept, to the extent he understood, the Catholic tial center. faith instead of Arianism. The earliest Christian kingdom was Edessa, The Dark Ages, 500–1000. The classical world which was one of the sources for the spread of was passing. The barbarians pouring out of the the gospel in Armenia, the second Christian Central European plain overran western Europe. kingdom. Tradition tells of the visit of the apostle The Vikings raided as far as Constantinople and Thomas to India. Such a voyage would have terrorized Britain and northern Europe. Centers been possible; Roman coins found in India indi- of learning were special targets because they cate a trading pattern. The Mar Thoma (St. were wealthy, yet even the horrors of these en- Thomas) Christians regard their origin in the counters presented an opportunity for the gos- ministry of the apostle. The church certainly was pel. These five hundred years were the time in India in the first centuries of the Christian era. when the church attempted to tame the barbar- The conversion of the emperor Constantine ians and make their conversion more than nom- dramatically changed the picture for the develop- inal. The three key factors in this period were 64 History of Missions royal patronage, martyrdom, and monasticism for missions is that the eastern church did not (see also Monastic Movement). insist on the same linguistic unity that the west- Another challenge to Christendom came from ern church did. It is significant that Ulfilas Arabia, where Muhammad gathered his follow- (c. 311–383), the missionary bishop who trans- ers and provided them with a sense of unity and lated the Bible for the Goths, was consecrated at mission. They swept over Christian lands and Constantinople, though his Arianism keeps him within a hundred years of Muhammad’s death, from being claimed by the Eastern Orthodox. In all of North Africa and most of Spain, as well as the eighth century when Cyril and Methodius Palestine and Syria were under Muslim control. undertook missionary work among the Slav- Checked for the first time by Charles Martel at ic-speaking Moravians, they were opposed by Tours in 732, Muslims still sacked Rome in 846. missionaries connected with the pope because of Sicily was a Muslim country by 902. Finally in their translation work. The three principles that 1453, Constantinople itself fell to the Muslims, these two brothers from Thessalonica put for- ending over a thousand years of primacy in ward were the use of the vernacular in worship, Christendom. the employment of indigenous clergy, and the Yet in spite of perilous times, the church con- eventual selfhood of the church. They traveled to tinued to be found in new places. Irish mission- Rome, where they were able to celebrate the Sla- aries established monasteries on the rugged vonic liturgy in the pope’s presence. However, Scottish coast and evangelized Britain. At the when Methodius returned to Moravia as a same time a mission was sent by Pope Gregory bishop, he faced opposition and eventual expul- the Great to the Anglo-Saxons who had sup- sion. Their disciples spread throughout the planted the native Britons. In 596 Augustine and Slavic lands, giving rise to the circumstances a party of monks made their way to Kent, where that led to the conversion of Vladimir in 988. Ethelbert (c. 560–616) was king. He had married Prince Vladimir, who was descended from Vi- Bertha, a Christian princess from Gaul and by kings, used his authority to force his followers the end of the year, Ethelbert and ten thousand into the fold of the church, thereby setting one of Saxons were baptized. The Celtic missionaries the patterns for successive rulers of Russia. In had slightly different customs which had been spite of its beginnings, the church in Russia has preserved in their more isolated settings. While endured for more than a thousand years, at these differences seem insignificant to modern times under repressive rulers who tried to con- readers, it raised the question that reappears in trol it. other ages: Who has the right to resolve differ- The Medieval World, 1000–1500. As the ences? In the end Rome prevailed, which set a Christian church entered its second millennium, pattern that endured until the Reformation. it was a mainly European phenomenon. Vestiges The advance of the church was not without of the ancient churches existed in Muslim-con- compromise, exemplified by Pope Gregory, who trolled territory, the church had a foothold in advised his missionaries to reconsecrate the India and Ethiopia, but the Nestorian work in pagan temples, destroying only the idols in them. China had been suppressed. The Scandinavian Likewise, pagan festivals were remade into peoples were initially resistant to the gospel, but Christian holy days and traditional religious by the late twelfth century, the church had been customs baptized as Christian symbols. The ori- planted in the Nordic lands. The paganism that gins of the Christmas tree, the Yule log, and had been the religion was hard to suppress and even the traditional date of Christmas are exam- still carries on in Nordic folklore. ples of this A­ ccommodation. The Crusades are perhaps the least likely vehi- There were Power Encounters between the cle for missionary expansion in the history of the missionaries and the indigenous people. Boni- church. Conceived as an attempt to wrest control face, apostle to the Germans, felled the sacred of the Holy Land from the Muslims, the military oak of Thor in Hesse. The gospel made a slow, adventures spanned two hundred years and re- steady advance through Europe, though it is sulted in thousands of lives lost. The attempt to doubtful that the pagan influences were ever use force to convert unbelievers, while it had a fully rooted out, surfacing again in folk stories of seven-hundred-year tradition in the church, was trolls and fairies, with syncretism affecting a failure, in part because the Crusaders found it church life. Some peoples were more resistant to easier to kill the infidels than reason with them. the gospel and many monks were martyred. The attempts to witness to Muslims by the hum- The schism between the church in the eastern ble Francis of Assisi (1181–1226) and the schol- and western halves of the Roman Empire was arly Raymond Lull (c. 1235–1315) are bright not official until the bull of excommunication of spots on an otherwise bleak landscape. Lull was 1054 and even then it was only the hierarchies martyred in North Africa. Francis managed to that were excommunicated. However, the drift preach before the Sultan of Egypt, who is re- can be detected earlier in the different theologi- ported to have said, “If I meet any more Chris- cal foci that were developing. The importance tians like you I will become one myself.” The 65 History of Missions lasting legacy of the Crusades is enmity between missionary force was launched. This new order Muslims and Christians that exists to this day. was subject to the pope and devoted to the re- The rumored existence of a Christian kingdom conversion of heretics and the conversion of pa- to the east of the Muslim-dominated lands gans to the Catholic faith. By 1640 Jesuit mis- prompted speculation. Several expeditions were sionaries had been in most of the then known undertaken to the Mongols, with varying degrees world. One of the original six, Francis Xavier, of success. The Christian kingdom was not was not only to become a famous Catholic mis- found. However, the Mongols who ruled Central sionary, but arguably one of the greatest mis- Asia threatened the Muslim Empire, capturing sionaries of all time. Xavier first worked among and destroying Baghdad in 1258 and reaching the illiterate fisherfolk in India, but news of the Damascus two years later. The Nestorian church potential for evangelism in Japan led him there. enjoyed a favorable position under the Mongols One of Xavier’ s lasting contributions to mission- it had not known before. But in the end the Mon- ary thinking arose out his experience in Japan. gols came under the Muslim culture and the op- His previous ministry among low-caste people portunity was lost to bring them into the realm did not prepare him for the advanced culture of the church. and traditions of the Japanese. Rather than tear The traveler Marco Polo brought back tales of down everything in the culture, Xavier sought to the Chinese Empire and a request from the refine and re-create elements of tradition. In Kublai Khan for one hundred scholars to debate some ways, this is an extension of the policy car- the virtues of the Christian faith. John of Monte- ried out during the evangelization of Europe corvino (c. 1247–1328), a Franciscan, undertook when pagan customs were incorporated into the the journey, reaching Beijing in 1294. By the faith. It was to have great consequences and time of his death (1328), he had been joined by some controversy in the missionaries who fol- three other Franciscans and had been appointed lowed Xavier. archbishop by the pope. John had baptized sev- Another great innovative Catholic missionary eral thousand people; however, after his death, was Matteo Ricci (1552–1610), who labored in the church in China declined because more mis- China. An expert clockmaker, he presented sionaries were not sent. clocks as gifts to the Chinese and when the The Age of Discovery, 1500–1600. The Cru- clocks needed to be wound he used the opportu- sades fueled a desire to reach the East by cir- nity to preach. He dressed as a Confucian cumventing the lands under Muslim control. scholar and allowed his converts to observe the Voyages of exploration were undertaken to reach rites that honored Confucius and the family. Ric- the East Indies to secure a trade route for the ci’s principle was to make the gospel as accept- spices of the East and to attempt to find allies in the continuing crusade against Islam. Prince able as possible to the Chinese and, judging by Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) had sent crews the number of converts of high rank, he was suc- down the coast of Africa. Christopher Columbus cessful. The question of accommodation, how- tried to reach the East by sailing west and de- ever easy to enunciate, is extremely difficult to sired to bring the benefits of Christianity as well practice without compromising the gospel. as securing lands and riches for his patron, Isa- Roman Catholic Missions, 1600 to 1800. The belle, queen of Spain. In 1493, to settle a dispute advantages of the Padroado, which divided the between two Catholic sovereigns, the pope di- world between Spain and Portugal, meant that vided the world between the nations of Spain the missionaries could count on support, if not and Portugal with the commission to bring the overly generous, from the colonial authorities. true faith to the lands that they conquered. All But it broke down because Portugal, whose pop- the lands west of the line were to belong to ulation at the time was around one million, Spain, those to the east to Portugal. When the could not fulfill the missionary mandate. Thus in line was moved to the west a year later, Brazil 1622 Pope Gregory XV established the Sacred came under Portugal. The conquest of the New Congregation for the Propagation of the Faith to World was accomplished with considerable vio- assume the missionary task. Francesco Ingoli, lence by the conquistadors. Some of the mission- the first head of the Propaganda, was a remark- aries to Spanish America became vocal champi- able missionary statesman. Ingoli pushed for the ons of the Indians. The best known was rapid development of indigenous clergy and the Bartholomew de Las Casas (1474–1566), who freeing of Christian work from colonial attach- petitioned the Spanish throne for fair treatment ments. In 1659 the Propaganda issued instruc- of the Indians. Pedro Claver (1581–1654), a Je- tions to the vicars apostolic (heads of missionary suit, devoted his life to ministering to the African regions) not to attempt to change customs of in- slaves brought to work the plantations. It is said digenous peoples unless these practices were dis- he baptized over three hundred thousand slaves. tinctly non-Christian. “What could be more ab- When in 1534 Ignatius of Loyola gathered surd than to transport France, Spain, Italy or with his six friends to form the Jesuits, a potent some other European country to China.” 66 History of Missions

In India Robert de Nobili (1577–1656) fol- structing them in Christianity. Illiminiski reduced lowed the methods of Ricci by adapting his the Tartar language to writing using Russian method of presentation to Brahman customs. script and promoted the use of vernacular lan- While he gained some success with the upper guages to teach Christian truth. Innocent Venia- castes, he faced opposition from other European minov (1797–1878) answered the missionary call missionaries who accused him of theological to Russian Alaska, planting the church among the compromise. It was only when the lower castes Aleuts. He also adopted the use of the vernacular were the target of missionary work that what and was proficient in navigating his kayak around might be termed a Mass Movement occurred. his island parish. After his wife died, he became a With the decline of Spain and Portugal, France monk, taking the name Innocent, and was made a became the great Roman Catholic missionary missionary bishop for the vast territory of Siberia. source. French expeditions had priests with He ended his service to the Church by occupying them who journeyed with the explorers into the the highest office, metropolitan of Moscow. One interior of North America, establishing missions of the missionaries that he influenced was Nico- among the indigenous populations. In France a las Kasatkin (1836–1912), who pioneered the Or- nun of the Ursuline order, Mary of the Incarna- thodox Church in Japan. Kasatkin’s method of tion, had a vision of missionary work in Canada. making each believer responsible to teach another Arriving in Montreal in 1639, the first six mem- person mobilized the Japanese. bers of the order were the forerunners of the The common elements in these examples were considerable involvement of nuns in missionary the use of the vernacular and the creation of an work. In Paraguay Jesuits established self-suffi- indigenous clergy. cient villages or reductiones in which they gath- The Beginnings of Protestant Missions. At ered their Indian converts. These were places of the time of the Protestant Reformation, the safety to protect the converts from hostile tribes countries that embraced the Reformation were and the colonial slave traders. While the church not the world’s dominant powers. Furthermore, was the center of the community life, from the internal squabbles as well as pressure from the standpoint of expansion of the church, the work Catholic Church made missions impossible. The among the Guaraní was a failure because while response of the Reformers was to teach that the the Jesuits conducted their mission for more obligation for missionary work had ceased with than a century, they brought no candidate for the the apostles (see also Reformation and Mission). priesthood forward from the Indians. There were notable exceptions, such as Justinian The second half of the eighteenth century saw von Welz (1621–68), who advocated missionary the eclipse of Roman Catholic missions. Among work. When Holland became a world power, the reasons for this change was the evolving po- chaplains were sent to its colonies. However, any litical situation with Protestant nations becom- missionary effort was to come after their pri- ing world powers. In some countries a reaction mary task of meeting the needs of the colonists. against Christianity set in and many missionar- The discovery of America prompted a new in- ies were martyred. The final blow was the sup- terest in reaching the Native American popula- pression of the Jesuits by Pope Clement XIV in tion. The charter of the colony of Massachusetts 1773. The loss of their missionaries and influ- included the statement that the principal pur- ence was at that time irreplaceable. pose of the plantation was to convert the natives Eastern Orthodox Missions. After the Great to Christianity. The first successful attempt was Schism (1054), the histories of the Western and by John Eliot (1604–90), who learned the lan- Eastern branches of Christianity drifted even far- guage of the Pequots and organized his converts ther apart. The Tartar invasion was the crucible into “Praying Towns” so they could live Christian that forged the Russian nation but it also hin- lives. He is remembered for his Bible translation dered evangelism. However, there were notable into the Indian language. David Brainerd (1718– missionary heroes of the Orthodox Church, all of 47), a close friend of Jonathan Edwards, also la- whom shared the same concern for the Bible and bored among the Indians. When he died, ex- liturgy to be in the language of the people. Ste- hausted by his labors, he left behind a diary that phen of Perm (1340–96) evangelized the Zyrians, influenced both William Carey and Henry Mar- reducing their language to writing. Makarius tyn. Gloukarev (1792–1847) worked in the Altai The European missionary enterprise had its Mountains, incorporating education and health start in the movement known as Pietism. Pia De- care into his missionary work and being one of sideria written by Philip Jakob Spener outlined the first to see the ministry of women. Nicholas the necessity for personal conversion, holiness, Illiminiski (1821–91) was a linguist who became a fellowship, and witness. As the movement grew brilliant missionary strategist. While he was never in the churches, King Frederick IV of Denmark a missionary in the traditional sense, he discov- decided that he should send missionaries to his ered that the use of Arabic script was reinforcing tiny colony of Tranquebar. He turned to the cen- the Tartars’ allegiance to Islam rather than in- ter of pietism in Halle in Germany for recruits. 67 History of Missions

August Hermann Francke (1663–1727) selected ments, as well as Bible portions in ten additional two men, Bartholomaeus Ziegenbalg and Henry languages were printed. They were students of Plüschau, who arrived on the field in 1706, the Indian culture, with Ward publishing a book on first non-Roman Catholic missionaries in India. Hindu culture in 1811. Ziegenbalg (1683–1719), with no precedence to While the Serampore Trio had education as guide him, unerringly made the right choices one of their goals, it was Alexander Duff (1806– and the best of missionary work followed the 78) who opened the first English-speaking insti- principles he laid down for Bible translation, an tution of higher education in India. Duff’s aims accurate understanding of local culture, definite were both educational and evangelistic and and personal conversion, and development of in- while he only saw thirty-three converts in eigh- digenous clergy as quickly as possible. He saw teen years, these were solid conversions. Duff’s the potential of using education to spread the methods were widely copied in other areas. gospel because Christians must be able to read Adoniram Judson (1788–1850) was the pioneer the Word of God. in Burma (Myanmar). Ann Hazeltine Judson Another missionary leader influenced by pi- (1789–1826) was one of the first missionary her- etism was Count Nicolaus Ludwig von Zinzen- oines, literally keeping her husband alive during dorf, who had welcomed the Brethren of the his captivity in the Anglo-Burmese war. Judson’s Common Life who had been exiled from Mora- work lived on in his translation of the Bible into via to settle on his estate at Herrnhut. Hearing Burmese. But a greater legacy was to be found in that the Danish mission to Greenland would one of his converts, Ko Tha Byu, who brought likely be abandoned, he proposed that the Mora- the gospel to his own Karen people. The Karens vians undertake the mission. August 21, 1732, is had a tradition of a Creator God whom they had celebrated by the Moravian churches as the be- displeased because of their sin. The gospel told ginning of their missionary work. In addition to them of a Savior who paid the price of their sin. the work in Greenland, the Moravians sent mis- A mass movement occurred among the Karens. sionaries to the West Indies and Surinam (see By no means the first missionary to Africa, also Moravian Missions). David Livingstone (1813–73) is known for his ex- The Great Century of Missions. The explosion plorations and opposition to the slavery. Son-in- in Protestant missions coincided with the Euro- law to Robert Moffat (1795–1883), who served pean mastery of speed in the form of the steam- for forty-eight years among the Tswana people of ship and power in the form of the steam engine. Southern Africa, Livingstone was not content to As the European powers scrambled to carve out stay in one place. Beckoned on by “the smoke of colonies in the rest of the world, so missionary a thousand villages” that had never heard the interest in the spiritual welfare of these peoples gospel, he explored the interior. It was his con- increased. The voyages of Captain Cook stirred viction that only as Africa became Christian and William Carey, whose An Enquiry into the Obli- developed economically could the horrors of the gations of Christians to use Means for the Conver- slave trade be stopped. sion of Heathens (1792) was a stirring call to mis- Christianity’s entrance into China was with the sions. Carey challenged the generally accepted accompaniment of commercial interests. The theological notions that the missionary mandate first Protestant missionary in China was Robert had ceased. Carey (1761–1834) was a shoemaker Morrison (1782–1834). He arrived when it was and schoolteacher. A self-taught man, he is illegal for missionaries to preach the gospel and sometimes referred to as “the father of modern was compelled to live in hiding. However, his flu- missions.” This is not accurate, as Carey knew ency in Chinese was so great that he became a about the work of previous missionaries. How- translator for the East India Company. The trade ever, Carey’s importance was as a forerunner in in tea was causing an imbalance of payments for the English-speaking world which has produced the British as the Chinese demanded silver for in the time since Carey the overwhelming major- their tea. The answer for the British, who con- ity of Protestant missionaries. Landing in India trolled the areas that produced opium, was to in 1793, he worked as a plantation manager for force China to allow trade in the narcotic. Two five years. With the arrival of more Baptist mis- opium wars opened China to trade and allowed sionaries in 1799, the missionary work pro- the residence of foreigners in China and trans- gressed. ferred Hong Kong to Britain. Karl F. A. Güt- Carey was persuaded to join Joshua Marshman zlaff (1803–51) envisioned a grand strategy for (1768–1837), a schoolteacher, and William Ward evangelizing the interior of China by employing (1769–1823), a printer, in establishing a station native agents as colporteurs (see Colportage) at the Danish enclave of Serampore, sixteen and evangelists. Unfortunately, his agents were miles from Calcutta. They established a Baptist not always trustworthy and did not carry out the church and engaged in preaching tours. Their missionary work for which they were paid. How- great work was in translation. In thirty years, six ever, Gütz­laff’s work was not in vain as he made whole Bibles, twenty-three complete New Testa- the outside world aware of the provinces. An- 68 Hodges, Melvin Lyle other result of the opium trade and the entrance biblical revelation. These indigenized forms of of missionaries was the T’ai P’ing rebellion. Christianity engaged the concerns of the people Hung Hsiu-Ch’uan (1814–64) had received Chris- and provided an answer to a population transi- tian literature from Liang Fah (1789–1855), the tioning to the pressures of the modern world (see first ordained Chinese Protestant pastor. African Initiated Church Movement). Through a series of dreams he conceived of his The twentieth century was also marked by a destiny to reform China through Christian prin- worldwide charismatic phenomenon, that grew ciples as he understood them. The extent of his out of the Holiness movement. This renewal, sect’s orthodoxy is debated, but he used the which resulted in the formation of Pentecostal Lord’s Prayer and the Ten Commandments, with denominations, provided a fresh impetus for the fifth enhanced to include filial piety and the missionary work. The outbreak of charismatic seventh to prohibit opium use. This peaceful activity in the older traditional denominations movement was transformed between 1848 and has prompted a new interest in spreading a gos- 1853 into a revolutionary army that had its goal pel of power encounters with the forces of evil of overthrowing the Manchu dynasty. Nanking (see also Pentecostal Missions). was captured by the rebels in 1853 and for eleven In this survey of expansion of the church, sev- years was the capital of Hung’s dynasty. The im- eral themes have reappeared. The Bible, in the perial forces assisted by the Western powers vernacular of the people, is a powerful force for crushed the revolt. Ironically Charles Gordon, transformation of societies. Empowerment of the British Army officer who commanded the converts, either by recognizing them as leaders imperial troops, was as much a Bible reader as through ordination or through separatist move- Hung, whose printers had been distributing ments, is the way the church grows in a culture. Morrison’s translation at a great rate. The contagious sharing of what has been experi- The great visionary for China was James Hud- enced in Christ empowered by the Holy Spirit, son Taylor, who founded the China Inland Mis- either by missionaries or converts, is the key to sion to place missionaries in the interior of church growth. China. His workers wore Chinese dress and James J. Stamoolis adapted as much as possible to the Chinese way of life. Taylor accepted missionaries who had lit- Bibliography. J. Beeching, An Open Path: Christian tle formal education, which was a change from Missionaries 1515–1914; S. Bolshakoff, The Foreign the societies that were growing more profes- Missions of The Russian Orthodox Church; A. J. Broom- hall, Hudson Taylor and China’s Open Century; sional. In most cases his recruits were fine mis- J. Du Plessis, A History of Christian Missions in South sionaries and many became superior linguists. Africa; F. Dvornik, Byzantine Missions Among The He also had the mission headquarters in China Slavs; H. M. Goodpasture, Cross and Sword: An Eyewit- so that the work could be directed by those who ness History of Christianity in Latin America; C. P. knew the local situation. Groves, The Planting of Christianity in Africa; M. Jar- The gospel had some success in China so that rett-Kerr, Patterns of Christian Acceptance: Individual by the end of the nineteenth century there were Response to the Missionary Impact 1550–1950; S. Neill, about half a million adherents, but it also Colonialism and Christian Missions; idem, A History of spawned fear and resistance. China was still in Christian Missions; K. S. Latourette, A History of the turmoil, with foreign nations making more de- Expansion of Christianity; idem, Christianity in a Revo- lutionary Age: The 19th and 20th Centuries; S. H. Mof- mands and in some cases occupying territory. fett, A History of Christianity in Asia; D. Roberts, Amer- Opposition to foreigners and Christians exploded ican Women in Mission; E. Smirnoff, A Short Account in 1900 with the formation of Righteous Harmo- of The Historical Development And Present Position of nious Fists (Boxers), supported by the empress Russian Orthodox Missions; B. Stanley, The Bible And dowager. The Boxers killed Chinese Christians The Flag: Protestant Missions and British Imperialism in and missionaries and destroyed mission prop- the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries; R. A. Tucker, erty. It was the greatest loss of missionaries’ lives FJIJ; idem, GGC; A. F. Walls, The Missionary Movement to that time. A military force from the Western in Christian History; M. Warren, The Missionary Move- powers finally suppressed the rebellion. ment from Britain in Modem History. Missionary work in the twentieth century ex- panded dramatically. The Bible was translated Hodges, Melvin Lyle (1909–88). American mis- into more languages. As the Bible was made sionary to Nicaragua and El Salvador. Hodges’ available in Africa, the phenomenon of separatist name is synonymous with missiology done from churches erupted. The result of a vision of their a Pentecostal perspective. His classic work, The founder, such as the Church of Simon Kimbangu, Indigenous Church, published in 1953, was the these groups which are variously called Zionist first booklength volume on missiology published or Ethiopian are conveniently referred to as Afri- by a Pentecostal. can Independent Churches to indicate their non- Hodges received missionary appointment as missionary origin. Their doctrines are typically a an Assemblies of God missionary in 1935. He mixture of traditional African cultures and the spent his missionary career in Central America 69 Indian Mission Boards and Agencies working primarily in Nicaragua and El Salvador. India has two main types of mission boards. The Indigenous Church is a clear missiological One is church-based and denominational. Exam- reflection deeply influenced by the writings of ples include the Mission Board of the Presbyte- Roland Allen and clearly Pentecostal in its un- rian Church of North East India, the Zoram Bap- derstanding of the role of the Holy Spirit and tist Mission of Mizoram, the Nagaland Missionary missionary activity. The significant growth of Movement, the Mar Thoma Syrian Evangelistic Pentecostals in Central America during the last Association, and the various diocesan mission decades of the twentieth century must acknowl- boards. This pattern prevails in northeast India. edge Hodges’ efforts to champion strong evange- The other is the nondenominational or interde- listic churches whose capability to indigenize nominational mission. Examples include the Na- their Pentecostal faith has been central to their tional Missionary Society, Indian Evangelical vitality and continued growth. Mission, Friends Missionary Prayer Band, and Recognition of Hodges’ missiological contribu- various independent agencies. This pattern pre- tion by those outside Pentecostal ranks was ex- dominates in the south. Yet this is only part of the emplified in a 1963 invitation by Donald Mc- picture. Gavran to be part of the first Church Growth Mission is not the exclusive domain of the mis- lectures sponsored by the Institute of Church sion societies. Churches and denominations Growth. themselves are also vehicles for missionary out- Retiring from full-time missionary service in reach. This is especially true of the rapidly ex- 1973, Hodges became professor of missions at panding Pentecostal movement in India. At Ma- dras the New Life Assembly of God sends and the Assemblies of God Theological Seminary supports its own missionaries to other parts of where he served until 1986. India. In another instance an entire new field has Byron D. Klaus been opened by missionaries sent from one local Bibliography. G. B. McGee, BDCM, p. 296. congregation at Chrompet, Madras, which also functions as a mission society (GEMS—Gospel Indian Mission Boards and Agencies. Thou- Echoing Missionary Society). Further, indepen- sands of Indian missionaries are presently serv- dent workers have had an important role in pen- ing under some two hundred indigenous mission etrating new areas and establishing Pentecostal organizations. Indigenous Christian missions are churches and agencies. not new to the Indian context. Early indigenous Roman Catholic missionary orders have not agencies still active include the Mar Thoma Syr- been included in most studies of indigenous mis- ian Evangelistic Association (organized in 1888), sions, probably because little distinction is made the Indian Missionary Society of Tirunelveli between indigenous orders and those of non-­ (1903), and the National Missionary Society Indian origins. The latter are thoroughly indige- (1906). The India Missions Association (IMA), nized in personnel and management. The Catho- lic contribution is in fact enormous. created in 1977 to coordinate the activities of the Indianized international Protestant agencies various indigenous missions, in 1994 claimed 75 include Inter-Serve (India), Operation Mobiliza- member mission agencies having about 9,000 tion, and Youth With a Mission. Various special- missionaries. In 1996 this had increased to 87 ized social ministries—drug rehabilitation, edu- members and 14,000 Indian missionaries. The cation, literature, medicine, projects with youth, Indian Evangelical Team (IET) was the largest, the poor, the destitute, and slums—also form with 1,032 pioneer missionaries in fourteen part of the missionary edge of the Indian states. Many other mission organizations are not churches. members of IMA. It is difficult to ascertain the Roger E. Hedlund number. A 1992 study identified 275 agencies en- gaged in cross-cultural and other direct mission- Bibliography. R. E. Hedlund and F. Hrangkhuma, ary activity. An index included 103 agencies, 76 eds., Indigenous Missions of India; Indian Missions As- of which listed pioneer evangelism. Tamil Nadu sociation, Languages of India: Present Status of Chris- tian Work in Every Indian Language; L. J. Joshi, Evalu- has the largest number of mission headquarters, ation of Indigenous Missions of India; S. Lazarus, ed., followed by Kerala and Andhra, Pradesh. Proclaiming Christ: A Handbook of Indigenous Mission What precisely is an indigenous Indian mis- in India; L. D. Pate, From Every People: A Handbook of sion? Definitions vary, but Indian mission boards Two-Thirds World Missions. and agencies may be delineated in terms of mis- sionary work that is rooted in the Indian Indigenous Churches. The term “indigenous” churches and has an Indian identity. They are comes from biology and indicates a plant or ani- not a copy or continuation of the foreign mis- mal native to an area. Missiologists adopted the sions that worked in India over the past two cen- word and used it to refer to churches that reflect turies, but are a genuine expression of the mis- the cultural distinctives of their ethnolinguistic sionary spirit of Indian churches and Christians. group. The missionary effort to establish indige- 70 Indigenous Churches nous churches is an effort to plant churches that members. (5) Intensive biblical and doctrinal in- fit naturally into their environment and to avoid struction should be provided for church leaders planting churches that replicate Western pat- every year. In his writings Nevius criticized the terns. heavily subsidized work that most missions car- Missionary efforts to establish indigenous ried on in China. Nevius’s principles had little churches are attempts to do missions as the impact in China, but when the American Presby- apostle Paul did. A brief recital of Paul’s mission- terians began their work in Korea, the new mis- ary methods demonstrates this fact. Paul served sionaries invited Nevius to advise them. They as an itinerant missionary, never staying more adopted his plan and enjoyed great success. than three years in any city. Paul’s approach to Roland Allen (1868–1947), an Anglican priest, evangelizing regions was to plant churches in served as a missionary in China with the Society cities from which the gospel would permeate the for the Propagation of the Gospel in Foreign surrounding areas. He never appealed to the Parts from 1892 until 1904. Like Nevius, he crit- churches in Antioch or Jerusalem for funds with icized the methods employed by most missions which to support the new churches. Rather, he in China. He wrote several books, but expressed expected the churches to support themselves. his philosophy of indigenous missions in Mis- Paul appointed and trained elders to lead all the sionary Methods: St. Paul’s or Ours? (1912) and churches he planted. He gave the churches over The Spontaneous Expansion of the Church to the care of the Holy Spirit, but he also visited (1927). them and wrote to them periodically. Allen emphasized the role of the Holy Spirit in Henry Venn (1796–1873) of the Church Mis- missions and encouraged missionaries to work sionary Society and Rufus Anderson (1796–1880) in itinerant church planting, trusting the Holy of the American Board of Commissioners of For- Spirit to develop the churches. Allen’s main prin- eign Missions first used the term “indigenous ciples are these: (1) All permanent teaching must church” in the mid-nineteenth century. They both be intelligible and so easily understood that wrote about the necessity of planting “three-self” those who receive it can retain it, use it, and pass churches—churches that would be self-support- it on. (2) All organizations should be set up in a ing, self-governing, and self-propagating (Venn way that national Christians can maintain them. used the term “self-extending”). They exhorted (3) Church finances should be provided and con- missionaries to establish churches that could sup- trolled by the local church members. (4) Chris- port themselves, govern themselves, and carry out tians should be taught to provide pastoral care a program of evangelism and missions. They cau- for each other. (5) Missionaries should give na- tioned missionaries about becoming absorbed in tional believers the authority to exercise spiritual pastoring and maintaining churches, insisting gifts freely and at once. Allen’s principles have that the missionary’s primary task must be plant- influenced many twentieth-century missiolo- ing new churches that would be “self-reliant” and gists, most prominently Donald McGavran. “purely native.” They instructed their missionar- Melvin Hodges (1909–86), a missionary and ies to train national pastors and hand the care of mission administrator with the Assemblies of the churches over to them at the earliest opportu- God, wrote The Indigenous Church (1953). nity. Venn coupled the concept of indigenous Widely used in missions courses, this book ex- churches with euthanasia in missions. By eutha- pressed the ideas of Venn, Anderson, Nevius, and nasia he meant that missionaries should plant Allen in an updated, popular format. Hodges ac- churches, train leaders, and then move on to new, knowledged the difficulty missionaries experi- unevangelized regions. Henry Venn believed that ence in changing a field from a subsidy approach missionaries should always be temporary work- to an indigenous approach. He also emphasized ers, not permanent fixtures. training national workers and giving them re- John L. Nevius (1829–93), a Presbyterian mis- sponsibility for the care of the churches, freeing sionary to China, built on Venn and Anderson’s the missionaries to concentrate on starting new indigenous principles in his classic work, Plant- churches. ing and Development of Missionary Churches. Ne- In his book, Verdict Theology in Missionary The- vius developed a set of principles that came to be ory, Alan Tippett (1911–88) updated the three-self called “The Nevius Plan”: (1) Christians should formula of Henry Venn. Tippett served on the fac- continue to live in their neighborhoods and pur- ulty of the School of World Mission at Fuller Sem- sue their occupations, being self-supporting and inary and was a member of Donald McGavran’s witnessing to their co-workers and neighbors. (2) inner circle. The writings of Tippett, McGavran, Missions should only develop programs and in- and others show that the Church Growth Move- stitutions that the national church desired and ment accepted and built on the work of the earlier could support. (3) The national churches should proponents of indigenous missions. call out and support their own pastors. In Verdict Theology Tippett proposed a sixfold (4) Churches should be built in the native style description of an indigenous church: (1) Self-im- with money and materials given by the church age. The church sees itself as being independent 71 Interagency Cooperation from the mission, serving as Christ’s church in to take the initiative. (10) Missionaries must its locality. (2) Self-functioning. The church is allow the national churches to develop theolo- capable of carrying on all the normal functions gies and practices that are biblical yet appropri- of a church—worship, Christian education, and ate in their cultural settings. so on. (3) Self-determining. This means the John Mark Terry church can and does make its own decisions. The local churches do not depend on the mission Bibliography. R. Pierce Beaver, ed., To Advance the to make their decisions for them. Tippett echoes Gospel: Selections from the Writings of Rufus Anderson; Venn in saying that the mission has to die for the M. L. Hodges, The Indigenous Church; J. L. Nevius, Planting and Development of Missionary Churches; church to be born. (4) Self-supporting. The A. Tippett, Verdict Theology in Missionary Theory; church carries its own financial burdens and fi- M. Warren, ed., To Apply the Gospel: Selections from the nances its own service projects. (5) Self-propaga- Writings of Henry Venn. tion. The national church sees itself as responsi- ble for carrying out the Great Commission. The Interagency Cooperation. While the days of church gives itself wholeheartedly to evangelism mission agencies acting as lone rangers continue and missions. (6) Self-giving. An indigenous church knows the social needs of its community to diminish, there is still progress to be made. A and endeavors to minister to those needs. number of external factors will continue the Tippett summarizes his understanding of the push toward cooperation: the dwindling number indigenous church with this definition: “When of full-time missionaries; the increase of short-­ the indigenous people of a community think of termers; churches doing their own selecting, the Lord as their own, not a foreign Christ; when training, sending, and mentoring; the diminish- they do things as unto the Lord, meeting the cul- ing appreciation for denominations; ministry tural needs around them, worshipping in pat- overlap between agencies (reduplicating support terns they understand; when their congregations personnel); the difficulty of fundraising for function in participation in a body which is workers and agency maintenance. More by ne- structurally indigenous; then you have an indige- cessity than design, interagency cooperation pro- nous church” (136). vides a solution for survival and ministry. In recent years some missiologists have sug- Interagency cooperation includes a number of gested adding a seventh mark to Tippett’s list— risks for those who wish to participate. Agency self-theologizing. They believe a truly indigenous boards, leaders, and personnel will worry about church will develop its own theology, expressed a number of issues: Will they lose the agency’s in culturally appropriate ways. These theologies distinctive for existence? Will the agency’s mis- would affirm the central doctrines of the Chris­ sion statement and core values be compromised? tian faith, but they would express them using How can the different philosophies of ministry metaphors and concepts that reflect their own be unified? Should they? If certain positions in unique cultures. the agency are no longer necessary, what hap- Missionaries who seek to establish indigenous pens to those who filled them? What energy churches should keep these principles in mind as costs will be necessary to maintain productive they begin their work: (1) Missionaries should cooperation? Who funds what? And of deeper plant churches with the goal in mind. This concern, will their agency die? means that the desired outcome—an indigenous The trust factor figures large in interagency church—should influence the methods em- cooperation. To offset some of the above con- ployed. (2) There will always be a dynamic ten- cerns, courting should precede the wedding con- sion between supracultural doctrines and vari- tract. When they eventually say, “I do,” they say able cultural traits. (3) Church planters should “yes” to commitment, character, a common vi- expect the churches to support themselves from the beginning. (4) Bible study groups should be sion, costs, cooperation, and communication encouraged to make basic decisions even before over concerns, and “no” to competition and com- they organize as churches. (5) Missionaries parison. should encourage new congregations to evange- The rewards of interagency cooperation must lize their communities and seek opportunities to move beyond survival. And they can. From the begin new churches. (6) Missionaries should al- perspective of agency personnel, the pooling of ways use reproducible methods of evangelism, personnel and finances can meet their needs teaching, preaching, and leadership. (7) Mission- from recruitment to retirement much more ade- aries should give priority to developing nationals quately. From the perspective of ministry projects to serve as church leaders. (8) Missionaries and programs, interagency cooperation can ex- should view themselves as temporary church pand the kingdom of God in ways no single planters rather than permanent pastors. (9) Mis- agency can. Some of these efforts may be short- sionaries should resist the temptation to estab- term, some long-term. But all processes should lish institutions and wait for the national church be driven by the unity–diversity of the partici- 72 Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association of North America (IFMA) pants, thereby glorifying the creative God behind Nondenominational, interdenominational, or them. independent missions have been popularly called Tom A. Steffen Faith Missions because their financial structures are based on prayer and trust in God to supply Bibliography. L. Bush and L. Lutz, Partnering in Min- istry; The Direction of World Evangelism, IJFM 11:1 financial needs. There is no guaranteed salary (1994); J. H. Kraakevik and D. Welliver, eds., Partners in for missionaries in faith missions. Most member the Gospel: The Strategic Role of Partnership in World; missions have adopted the principle of “full in- W. Sandy, Forging the Productivity Partnership; W. D. formation without solicitation.” While some Taylor, ed., Kingdom Partnerships for Synergy in Mis- IFMA members do solicit funds, the IFMA re- sions. quires of them active faith in God for the provi- sion of needs without strong fund solicitation. Interdenominational Foreign Mission Associ- The primary concern of the original founding ation of North America (IFMA). In March of members of IFMA (e.g., SUD, AIM, CIM) was the 1917, Paul Groef, a Wall Street broker and mem- unreached inland peoples. Throughout IFMA ber of the board of the South Africa General Mis- history, member agencies have been innovative sion, called together leaders of key faith missions in their efforts to evangelize the Hidden Peoples for the purpose of strengthening effectiveness of the world; they have pioneered and special- and outreach. Representatives of the South Af- ized in such ministries as education, medicine, rica General Mission (now Africa Evangelical radio and television, gospel recording, Bible Fellowship), The China Inland Mission (now translation, and aviation. The IFMA has focused Overseas Missionary Fellowship or OMF Inter- internally on the need for closer cooperation of national), the Central American Mission (CAM the nondenominational mission agencies in International), and the Africa Inland Mission these endeavors and externally on presenting a organized the Interdenominational Foreign Mis- unified front against the encroachment of vari- sion Association (IFMA) to enable missions lead- ous forms of theological liberalism. ers to get together for prayer, fellowship, and the The first full-time executive officer of IFMA, exchange of ideas and information. The other John Percy, was elected to the office of general charter members were the Sudan Interior Mis- secretary in 1956. He was succeeded by Edwin sion (now the Society for International Minis- Frizen Jr. in 1963, who was in turn succeeded by tries), the Inland South America Missionary John Orme in 1991. The official board has no ad- Union (South America Indian Mission), and the ministrative authority over member missions, Women’s Union Missionary Society of America. but does elect fifteen board members for the pur- From the 1920s to the 1950s, roughly ten new poses of accreditation, networking for special agencies were added to the IFMA each decade. projects, and coordination between churches, From the 1950s to the 1980s, the number in- schools, and mission agencies. creased to fifteen per decade. From 1981 to Among member agencies, the direction of the 1991, the number jumped by thirty-five mem- work in the field is done from the field, not by bers. Current membership comprises over one home directorates or executive staff. Thus indi- hundred agencies, representing over ten thou- vidual missionaries have not only a voice, but sand missionaries sent from North America. An- also a vote in the organization and conduct of other five thousand from other countries are af- mission affairs. In some agencies the missionar- filiated with the member agencies. ies themselves elect the general director and Mission agencies can maintain one of four lev- other officers. In others, the board of directors els of relationship with the IFMA: (1) Association elects the general director. is reserved for member agencies, with member- Nondenominational missions characteristi- ship requirements including agreement with the cally have been open to cooperation with like- basic historical fundamentals of conservative minded evangelical missions. In a number of in- evangelical Christianity and with the IFMA Con- stances, cooperation has led to mergers. Every fession of Faith. Additionally, member agencies three years the IFMA meets with the Evangelical are expected to maintain a noncharismatic ori- Fellowship of Mission Agencies (EFMA) in a entation. (2) Cooperation is the level of relation- joint leadership gathering. The two associations ship for all nonmember groups which share the jointly sponsor the annual IFMA/EFMA Person- IFMA doctrinal and operational commitment. nel Seminar. From 1964 to 1997, the two associ- (3) Fellowship is maintained with evangelical ations cosponsored the Evangelical Missions groups whose doctrinal or operational stances Quarterly and Pulse. In 1966, they cosponsored make cooperation difficult. (4) Communication the Congress on the Church’s Worldwide Mis- is maintained with groups whose doctrinal sion. Through the executive director of IFMA, stances (such as the inclusivism of the World communication and relationships are also main- Council of Churches) make fellowship impossi- tained with the National Association of Evangel- ble. icals (NAE), the World Evangelical Fellowship 73 International Conferences for Itinerant Evangelists (Amsterdam 1983, 1086)

(WEF), and other major entities working in and financial accounting; (3) cooperation with world evangelization. local churches; and (4) effectiveness in giving Through their history, the IFMA members evangelistic invitations. From July 12 to 21, have considered both husband and wife as full 1983, there were two plenary sessions daily, and missionaries. This is in contrast with some a myriad of workshops. One warning was blunt: boards that have appointed only the husband as “Avoid being self-appointed gurus, sent by no- a missionary. Among IFMA mission agencies, body and accountable to nobody.” Since the sixth single women have pioneered in many minis- Assembly of the World Council of Churches tries, including Evangelism and Church Plant- was meeting almost concurrently in Vancouver, ing. Graham’s closing address pointedly called on Headquartered in Wheaton, Illinois, the IFMA WCC leaders to renew their commitment to bib- supplies personnel staffs with the know-how for lical evangelism and world mission. Then he missionary recruitment, selection, and profes- turned to the Amsterdam delegates and stressed sional development, and business and financial the indispensables to effective evangelism: a ro- staffs with refresher seminars in management, bust prayer life and an unrelenting devotion to taxes, and accounting. Other offerings include Bible study. He confessed that the greatest fail- conferences and small group seminars that en- ure in his life was that he had “spoken too much, hance leadership and management skills as well studied too little.” Hardly had the conference as forums enabling mission leadership to stay ended when the full-time convention staff began abreast of world issues and current theological interviewing delegates to conserve the evident and missiological trends. gains of this costly venture ($8.7 million). Many John Orme called for a repeat in the near future, and a sec- ond conference was convened in 1986. Bibliography. E. L. Frizen Jr., 75 Years of IFMA: Having been forced to turn away some 6,000 1917–1992; J. H. Kane, Faith Mighty Faith: A Handbook of the Interdenominational Foreign Mission Association; possible participants at Amsterdam ’83, the ca- M. Rupert, The Emergence of the Independent Mission- pacity for Amsterdam ’86 was expanded to in- ary Agency as an American Institution, 1860–1917. clude 8,160 evangelists and 2,000 other partici- pants. They came from 173 countries, more than International Conferences for Itinerant Evan- any other conference in history at that time. Si- gelists (Amsterdam 1983, 1086). An amazing multaneous translation was made available in step of faith on the part of Billy Graham, the con- 25 languages, enabled by a team of 112 transla- ference for itinerant evangelists was fully spon- tors. The primary purpose of Amsterdam ’86 sored and well organized by hundreds within the was “to encourage, to equip, and to motivate the circle of the evangelistic association that bears his evangelists of the world” (CT, 1986, 41). In light name. Graham, however, was not at all sure of the of the goal, it was appropriate that 78 percent of outcome of a conference designed solely to minis- the participants came from Two-Thirds World ter to the coming generation of itinerant evange- countries. The total conference cost was $21 lists worldwide. When it was first conceived, no million, paid for by contributions raised through one was even certain of their numbers, much less the Billy Graham Evangelistic Association. In how to contact them. Werner Burklin, the Ger- the late 1990s, the BGEA began planning for a man executive of Youth for Christ, was assigned final Amsterdam Conference to take place in Au- the task of tracking them down by visiting numer- gust of 2000 with an estimated budget of some ous countries and interviewing all sorts of church $35 milllion. leaders—always with the request for information Arthur F. Glasser on promising young evangelists, women as well as Bibliography. Christianity Today 27 (June 17, 1983): men, who would be most likely to profit from 46–47; (Sept. 2): 28–31, 42–46; 30 (Sept. 5, 1986): 41– such a gathering. At first, the response was slow, 43; D. Foster: Billy Graham, A Vision Imparted: Amster- but it gathered momentum and in the end 3,827 dam 83, A Pictorial Report. came from 133 countries, largely (70 percent) from the non-Western world. More than half were International Council for Evangelical Theo- without formal training, and for the majority the logical Education (ICETE). In a little noticed conference was their first exposure to evangelists phenomenon of modern global Christianity, in from other countries. It was later discovered that most parts of the Two-Thirds World the evangel- there were at least 10,000 such itinerant workers ical theological schools have taken the initiative serving throughout the world. to link themselves in vigorous indigenously di- At the opening session Graham, while promis- rected alliances. Such alliances first began to ing to avoid heavy theology, set forth four spe- emerge in the 1960s and early 1970s. In 1980 cific goals for the individual conferees: (1) main- these continental movements organized them- tenance of the purity of the gospel; (2) adherence selves into a global federation, now known as the to biblical ethics in home life, personal morality, International Council for Evangelical Theologi- 74 International Missionary Council (IMC) cal Education (ICETE, formerly ICAA). ICETE inburgh in 1910. Organized in 1921 under the functions under the auspices of the World Evan- leadership of John R. Mott, Joseph H. Oldham, gelical Fellowship (WEF). Its constituency in- and A. L. Warnshuis, its purpose was to encour- cludes continental alliances of theological insti- age and assist churches and mission societies in tutions representing all major regions of the their missionary task, understood as sharing world. with people everywhere the transforming power In response to the strongly felt needs of their of the gospel of Jesus Christ. It hoped to bring constituencies, most ICETE associations began about united efforts wherever possible. with, or early developed, accreditation schemes to Its membership consisted mainly of national facilitate academic recognition for their member and regional interdenominational mission orga- schools. Most also developed a range of support nizations, such as the Committee of German services, and promoted contact and cooperation Evangelical Missions and the Foreign Mission among member schools. Most ICETE associa- Conference of North America. It encouraged the tions have also embraced nonformal and exten- development of national Christian councils in sion theological education. ICETE itself adopted Asia, Africa, and Latin America, in which the the “Manifesto on the Renewal of Evangelical churches eventually played a stronger role than Theological Education” (1983, 1990) to encourage the mission organizations. Thus the churches be- fresh approaches. A principal achievement of came the centers for planning, rather than the ICETE since its inception has been the lively in- mission structures. It eventually grew to include tercontinental dialogue fostered through a se- thirty-eight such councils. The IMC saw itself as quence of international consultations: Hoddes- a center of information and consultation, don, England (1980); Chongoni, Malawi (1981); thought, and study, holding conferences where Seoul (1982); Wheaton (1983); Katydata, Cyprus the results of research could be shared. It also (1984); Unterweissbach, Germany (1987); Whea- published the International Review of Missions. ton (1989); London (1991); Bangkok (1993); and At its first meeting in Jerusalem in 1928, half Sopley, En­gland (1996). The papers of several of of the 231 delegates came from Asia, Africa, and these gatherings are published in an ICETE Latin America. Some called it the first truly monograph series, Evangelical Theological Educa- global meeting in history. Its message was basi- tion Today. cally optimistic despite growing secularism. Evangelical schools in Africa first established Theological divergence was evident as the con- an alliance in 1966 under the acronym AEBI- cern for social issues caused some anxiety among CAM. In 1970 the Asia Theological Association conservatives, but its final word was “Our mes- was formed, and in 1973 what is now the Carib- sage is Jesus Christ. He is the revelation of what bean Evangelical Theological Association was God is and what man through Him may become. founded. In 1976 AEBICAM was superseded by In Him we find God incarnate.” Seeking to move the Accrediting Council for Theological Educa- beyond paternalism, Jerusalem recognized the tion in Africa (ACTEA), and in 1979 the Euro- equality of the “younger churches,” a term then pean Evangelical Accrediting Association was coming into use. It also established an interna- established. In March 1980 these bodies joined tional committee on the Christian approach to with the older (1947) Accrediting Association of the Jews. Bible Colleges (North America) to form ICETE. The 1938 meeting brought 471 delegates, in- Subsequently ICETE has been joined by the cluding 77 women, from 70 nations, to Tam- South Pacific Association of Bible Colleges baram, India, near Madras. A major issue was the relationship of Christianity to non-Christian (founded 1969) and the Association for Evangel- religions. Hendrik Kraemer wrote his prepara- ical Theological Education in Latin America tory volume, The Christian Message in a (AETAL; founded in 1992 as the successor to Non-Christian World, stressing discontinuity be- AETTE, which was founded in 1968). The first tween Christianity and other faiths against those general secretary of ICETE was Paul Bowers who saw value in non-Christian religions as a from ACTEA. He was succeeded by Robert preparation for the gospel. Resisting some calls Youngblood, who was in turn followed by Roger for Syncretism, the council reaffirmed the au- Kemp of Australia. thority of Scripture and the truth and grace of Paul Bowers God in Jesus Christ. Other issues addressed were Bibliography. W. P. Bowers, ed., Evangelical Theo- the need to improve the preparation of leader- logical Education: An International Agenda, 2nd ed.; ship for the younger churches, and the chal- R. Kemp, ERT 19:3 (July 1995): 314–15; idem, ed., Text lenges of communism, nationalism, and secular- and Context in Theological Education. ism. During World War II, the IMC did a magnificent job of gathering resources to care International Missionary Council (IMC). The for orphaned European missions in various parts International Missionary Council was an out- of Asia and Africa, cut off from their homelands growth of the World Mission Conference at Ed- and support, making possible their continued 75 Japanese Mission Boards and Societies ministry. The Whitby, Ontario meeting in 1947 be connected to its historical position in relation was an opportunity for the renewal of fellowship to other countries. In the pre–World War II period after the war and called all churches to redis- Japanese Christian missionaries went out to vari- cover the nature of their obedience in proclaim- ous colonies within the expanding Japanese Em- ing the gospel to a broken and revolutionary pire (e.g., Taiwan) after its 1894–95 victorious war world. The slogan “Partners in Obedience” was with China, to Korea after its annexation in 1910, adopted; it was intended to symbolize the full then to protectorates granted by the League of equality of older and younger churches, to over- Nations after World War I (e.g., parts of Microne- come paternalism and dependency, and stress sia). In other words, Japanese churches sent mis- unity. sionaries to work within Japanese-controlled do- At Willingen, Germany, in 1952, new theolog- mains. ical winds were blowing amidst growing pessi- The current period of missionary outreach is mism about the church and its mission in a rev- very much associated with Japan’s postwar eco- olutionary age. The question was asked, What nomic growth, beginning in the 1960s. The was to be the nature of the missionary obliga- United Church, Overseas Medical Co-operative tion of the church as many traditional mission Service, Holiness Church, and Evangelical Mis- fields were closing and the churches in the West sionary Society spearheaded the earlier postwar were increasingly aware of the role of churches efforts. Much of this outreach was to Japanese in mission? people living abroad. Currently there is more of At the 1958 Ghana meeting the Theological an international quality to the missions move- Education Fund was launched to upgrade insti- ment, in terms both of the sending-equipping tutions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. But agencies in Japan and of the places in which the the most important issue was the decision to 269 (1993) missionaries from Japan are working. merge with the World Council of Churches Various international mission boards and societ- (WCC). John Mackay and others believed the ies have offices in Japan (e.g., Wycliffe) for rais- merger would put mission at the very heart of ing up personnel, finances, and prayer support. the WCC. Others, especially Max Warren of the There are organizations for coordinating commu- Church Mission Society, spoke strongly against nication between mission agencies and through- it. He said that while mission calls for almost in- out the Christian community in Japan. There are finite flexibility and a readiness to take initiative, interdenominational missionary training centers official bodies have great hesitation about taking (e.g., Immanuel Bible Training College in Yoko- risks. Thus he predicted that the voluntary prin- hama), at least one of which is associated with an ciple that was so important in missions would be accredited university (Tokyo Christian University lost with the merger. But WCC leaders promised in Chiba). Some boards and societies partner that mission and evangelism would be central to with churches in specific areas (e.g., Africa, the its life and work. Consequently, in 1961 the IMC Philippines, Australia). Some focus on ecumeni- became the Commission on World Mission and cal partnership, while others emphasize social Evangelism (CWME) of the World Council of Churches. Its stated purpose was “to further the issues such as peace and hunger. proclamation to the whole world of the gospel of J. Nelson Jennings Jesus Christ to the end that all men may believe Bibliography. L. M. Douglas, ed., World Christianity: and be saved.” Oceania; OW; J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christian However, for reasons having to do both with Missions: From Pentecost to the Present; R. V. J. Wind- structure and theology, the CWME disappeared sor, ed., World Dictionary of Missionary Training Pro- in the 1990s, becoming a subunit in Programme grams, 2d ed. Unit No. 2 (Churches in Mission, Health, Educa- tion, and Witness) of the WCC. The CWME, the Jones, Eli Stanley (1884–1973). American mis- successor to the IMC, no longer exists as a sepa- sionary to India. Born in Maryland, Jones went rate entity. to India under the Methodist Missionary Board Paul E. Pierson in 1907. By 1930 his appointment was expanded to “evangelist-at-large for India and the world.” Bibliography. H. Hoekstra, The World Council of Churches and the Demise of Evangelism; R. W. Hogg, Following his initial service as pastor of an En­ Ecumenical Foundations; S. Neill, and R. Rouse, eds., glish-speaking congregation in Lucknow and A History of the Ecumenical Movement; R. K. Orchard, then work among the outcastes, Jones changed ed., The Ghana Assembly of the IMC, 1957–58; C. W. his focus to evangelizing the upper-caste intel- Ranson, Renewal and Advance. lectuals. It was in this context that he emerged as a leading advocate of indigenizing, or Indian- Japanese Mission Boards and Societies. Ja- izing, the gospel message. For Jones this in- pan’s Christian missionary outreach—surprisingly volved both de-Westernizing the gospel and im- substantial for a country whose Christian popula- mersing it in Indian cultural and philosophical tion remains at about 1 percent of the total—can forms and structures. He drew a sharp distinc- 76 Korean Mission Boards and Societies tion in his view of evangelism between the mes- Kimbangu, Simon, (1889–1951). Zairian Inde- sage of Christ and the Western institutional pendent church founder. The Church of Jesus church. His first book, The Christ of the Indian Christ on Earth though the Prophet Simon Kim- Road (1925), expounded the need to present bangu (EJCSK), largest of the several thousand Christ in an Indian setting—to give Christ to African Initiated Churches, is the result of only India and India to Christ. Two of his notable ad- three months of public ministry by Simon Kim- aptations for indigenized evangelism were the bangu. A Baptist catechist and evangelist when Round Table philosophical discussions with In- God called him to a healing ministry, Kimbangu dian intellectuals and the establishment of Chris- initially resisted and fled from his home to Kin- tian ashrams (adapted from the Hindu communi- shasa. Through circumstances God drew Kim- ties or “families”). During his missionary career, bangu back to his home area, and in 1921 again Jones’ view of evangelism evolved from the indi- called him to heal. This time Kimbangu re- vidualistic-conversion emphasis of his Wesley- sponded, and was promptly accused of being a an-Holiness heritage to a blend of individual sorcerer by a woman he had healed. Changing conversion and the redemption of social, eco- her mind after hearing his explanation of what nomic, and political structures. Thus, E. Stanley had happened, she helped spread the news of Jones’ missionary legacy is that of an ardent what God had done. Within two months people evangelist, a protoliberationist, a vocal ecumen- were coming by the thousands, leaving jobs, ist, and an innovative indigenizer. emptying hospitals, and even bringing bodies of the dead to be raised. Donald R. Dunavant While missionaries on the scene reported few Bibliography. E. S. Jones, The Christ of the Indian genuine healings, within three months of the Road; idem, Christ at the Round Table; R. W. Taylor, The initial healing the Belgian authorities were so Contribution of E. Stanley Jones. worried about the crowds that they issued a warrant for Kimbangu’s arrest. Kimbangu Kane, J. Herbert (1910–92). American missiolo- eluded them for three months before giving gist and missionary to China. Born in Canada himself up. His initial death sentence was com- and later naturalized as an American citizen, muted to life imprisonment in part at the urging Herbert Kane graduated from Moody Bible Insti- of missionaries. Kimbangu spent the rest of his tute in 1935. He and his wife Winifred went to life as a model prisoner, dying in 1951. The China in 1935 with the China Inland Mission EJCSK, not officially recognized until 1959, is (CIM). After language study, the Kanes were as- estimated to be over 5 million strong. It is led by signed to Fouyang in Anhui province where they Kimbangu’s youngest son, and is an example of spent most of their missionary career. Under a contextualized denominational framework Kane and his missionary and Chinese colleagues that missionaries would do well to study. Fouyang became one of the most spiritually pro- A. Scott Moreau ductive areas of the CIM work. The Kanes re- Bibliography. M. L. Martin, Kimbangu: An African mained in China during much of the Japanese Prophet and His Church; G. Molyneux, African Chris- occupation, but were finally evacuated in 1945. tian Theology: The Quest for Selfhood. They returned to China in 1946, but again needed to evacuate in 1950 after nineteen months under Korean Mission Boards and Societies. The communist domination. story of church growth in Korea has been well After his return from China, Kane received fur- known throughout the world, but its missionary ther education (B.A. Barrington College; M.A. work has not been as widely reported. From the Brown University) and then began a career teach- beginning, the Korean church has been a mis- ing missiology at Barrington College (1951–63), sionary church, particularly since the Presbyte- Lancaster Bible College (1963–67), and Trinity rian Church in Korea was set up as a self-govern- Evangelical Divinity School (1967–80). Bar- ing, independent church in 1907. As of March rington College conferred the honorary degree of 1998, there were over 5,800 Korean missionaries Doctor of Humane Letters on him in 1971. in 152 countries (Kim, 1988, 6). Kane served as president of the American Soci- Rise of the Missionary Movement in the Ko- ety of Missiology (1976) and authored over ten rean Church. In 1907, during the culmination of books on missions, the most noted being Under- Korea’s first great awakening, seven men were or- standing Christian Missions. These activities and dained by the first Presbyterian Church in Korea his teaching expertise led his colleagues to de- and one of them, Ki-Poong Yi, was sent as a mis- scribe him as having “an encyclopedic knowl- sionary to the Island of Quelpart (Chaejudo) in edge of missions.” 1907. In 1909, Suk-Jin Han was sent to Japan, Ralph R. Covell and three ordained missionaries were sent to Bibliography. J. H. Kane, IBMR 11:3 (July 1987): Shantung, China in 1913 (Rhodes, 1934, 392–95): 129–32; idem, Twofold Growth. Tai-Ro Park, Pyung-Soon Sa, and Young-Hoon 77 Kraemer, Hendrik

Kim. Also, the Korean church did the work of denominations, and churches in their mission- missions in such places as Siberia, Hawaii, Mex- ary efforts. Korean missionaries tend to use their ico, Mongolia, Manchuria, and America, working finances to recruit nationals and new converts to with both the Korean diaspora and the nationals, work together in evangelizing and planting in spite of losing their sovereignty, language, and churches. However, they may do so at the cost of names and suffering severe persecution under corrupting these “innocent” people, a reality ob- Japanese Colonial Rule (1907–45). From 1902 to served earlier by John L. Nevius in China and 1945, the Korean church sent a total of 120 mis- more recently seen in the Philippines. sionaries. Finally, the early Korean missionaries cooper- The contemporary face of the Korean church ated and worked together with the Western mis- and its involvement in missions has gone sionaries and the host churches as partners. through a drastic change from those early days. Presently, however, there are a growing number The Korean War (1950–53) divided Korea and of Korean missionaries who work independently the strength of Korean Christianity moved from with little or no consultation with other mission- North to South. Samuel I. Kim has noted that aries and national churches in their location of from 1953 to 1976 there were a total of 234 mis- ministry. Missionaries of all nations need each sionaries sent from South Korea, working in other, and Korean missionaries in particular Thailand, Taiwan, Japan, Vietnam, Hong Kong, must learn (or perhaps relearn) to partner and to Indonesia, Pakistan, Nepal, Ethiopia, Okinawa, work cooperatively for the kingdom. Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, Brunei, and America The Korean church, as a missionary church, (1976, 124). But it was not until the early 1980s can make great and unique contributions to the that there was an explosive increase in the num- missionary movement of the church in the twen- ber of Korean Christians sent as missionaries. ty-first century if it can solve these dilemmas. The Antioch News documents the explosion of Timothy Kiho Park numerical growth of Korean missionaries sent Bibliography. C. K. Kim, ed., Antioch News, 3:22 by denominations, local churches, and pa- (March 1988); S. I. Kim, New Forces in Missions, pp. ra-church and mission organizations (excluding 121–30; H. A. Rhodes, ed., History of the Korea Mission: those sent to America; Kim, 1998, 6). The num- Presbyterian Church U.S.A. 1884–1934. bers increased from 323 in 1982, to 1,645 in 1990, 3,272 in 1994, and 5,804 in 1998. Kraemer, Hendrik (1888–1965). Dutch ecumen- With this rapid growth has come the dilemma ical leader, missiologist, and missionary to Indo- of how Koreans can most effectively be trained nesia. Born in the Netherlands, Kraemer lost and enabled to work with other missionaries for both parents by the age of twelve and was raised the kingdom and the task of world evangeliza- in an orphanage. Through independent Bible tion. study he experienced a personal conversion to Issues of Concern and the Korean Mission- Christ, and at sixteen decided to become a mis- ary Effort. There is no doubt that Korean Chris- sionary. After study in Egypt, he served with the tians have a strong evangelistic spirit. They want Dutch Bible Society in Indonesia. to plant churches and do missions. But too often Kraemer returned to accept a position at the their understanding of missions is limited to University of Leiden (1937–47). During this pe- “soul saving” and the ministry of the Word. Ko- riod he was very active in Dutch church life, to rean missionaries need a better balance of both the point of being a hostage under the Nazi oc- the ministries of the word and deed, without cupation. Later he became the first director of making a sharp separation between the two. But the Ecumenical Institute in Bossey (near Ge- to do this requires that Koreans think again neva). After his retirement he was guest lecturer about the place of God in missions, or the theol- at Union Theological Seminary in New York for ogy of missions. a year (1956–57). Second, with the explosion of growth in num- Kraemer is remembered both as a pioneer with bers of Korean missionaries since the early a vision and as a scholar. His book Christian Mes- 1980s, too many missionaries have been sent sage in a Non-Christian World had profound influ- without being properly selected or trained. There ence on twentieth-century missiology. Although is an urgent need to give immediate attention to he was a true scholar in the fields of Eastern lan- this deficiency in working with missionary can- guages, Islam, and the history of religions, his didates, moving them from their monocultural legacy is as a missionary and a missionary theo- background to being cross-cultural people. logian whose awareness of the problematic na- Third, it is sad to see how the abundance of fi- ture of present and future Christian missions and nances has kept many Korean Christians from a interfaith dialogue was sharper and far more ad- childlike dependence on God in their ministry vanced than that of his contemporaries. and from cooperating with other missionaries, Stephen Hoke 78 Latin America

Bibliography. L. A. Hoedemaker, ML, pp. 508–15; pre-Columbian peoples also speak their historic H. Kraemer, From Missionfield to Independent Church; language. Ecumenical Review 18 (Jan. 1966): 96–99. Latin America’s population is growing at the annual rate of 1.8 percent per year, and will dou- Latin America. This continent must be studied ble in 38 years. By the year 2010 it is projected to in light of its unique geography, historical devel- have some 589 million people and by the year opment, peoples, religions, and cultures, as well 2025 the estimate surges to 691. In 1997, 72 per- as its current, changing social environment. Only cent of the continent was considered urban; 34 from that perspective can one fully understand percent under the ages of 15 years and only 5 the Latin spiritual mosaic, in particular, its vi- percent over age 65. It is helpful to compare brant evangelical Christianity. Latin America is Latin America’s annual GNP of $3,310 to that of very diverse, with each country displaying its the less developed world ($1,120), the more de- own unique features. veloped world ($19,310), and the entire world Geography and Population. Latin America ($4,920). (Spanish- and Portuguese-speaking) is composed A Historical Panorama. Modern Latin Amer- of nineteen nations, having 15 percent of the ica must be understood from the perspective of world’s land mass and about 8 percent of the its particular history and its four major time global population. Starting with Mexico’s north- segments: (1) pre-Columbian times (ancient ern border, one travels 7,000 miles down to the past to 1492); (2) the conquest and colonization bottom tip of Chile, just north of Antarctica, and (1492–1821); (3) the genesis and crisis of the at its widest 3,200 miles from Peru’s Pacific coast new nations (1821–1930); and (4) the modern eastward through Brazil to the Atlantic. Two of period (1930–92). the nineteen countries are found in the Carib­bean The demarcation date for the mutual discovery (Cuba and the Dominican Republic), while the is 1492, when the Latin/European history begins other island nations enjoy their different heri- in this newly discovered (for the Europeans) tages—English, French, and African. Puerto Rico world. Evidence points to a crossing of the Ber- is a North American Commonwealth island, and ing straits some time prior to 20,000 b.c., and while it shares many historical, religious, and cul- gradually the population moved down the conti- tural values with the other nations it must be nent. Vast civilizations had come and gone by studied within its own Caribbean and U.S. reali- the time Columbus landed, but in 1492 three ties. On the northern flank of South America are major ones remained: the Aztecs in Central Mex- two nations that identify more with the Carib- ico, the Maya in southern Mexico and Guate- bean—Suriname, Guyana, and the French colony, mala, and the Inca in the Andean region. Esti- Guyane. mates of the Indian population in 1492 range The races and peoples within each country are widely between 15 million to an unrealistic 100 also very diverse. The original tribal peoples million. whom the Europeans met over 500 years ago still The colonial history produced a mixed legacy. compose a significant percentage of the popula- On the positive side the Europeans brought a tion. Called “Indians” (so named by mistake, be- system of education; they introduced new tech- cause Columbus concluded erroneously that he nology; they transferred two major languages— had arrived in India) pre-Columbian (before Co- Spanish and Portuguese; they “evangelized” lumbus) peoples are found primarily in Mexico bringing a new religion—Roman Catholic Chris- (11% of 102 million people), Guatemala (50% of tianity; they introduced an entire social structure 12.2 million), Peru (45% of 26 million), Ecuador to organize and expand Spanish culture and so- (21% of 12.6 million), Bolivia (55% of 8.3 mil- ciety. On the negative side, the Spanish have lion), and Chile (9% of 15.3 million). The black been criticized severely for social and cultural people (originally coming as African slaves and evils inherent in the conquest and colonization. later as Caribbean immigrants) form a signifi- Europeans delivered diseases against which the cant percentage of Latin America, particularly in Indians were defenseless and which killed mil- the Caribbean and in a “black ribbon” on the Pa- lions, and brutal slave labor wiped out un- cific Ocean coast, as well as in Brazil (6% black counted numbers. Early on there was a battle to and 38% mulatto). People of pure European and determine whether these “primitive peoples” had Asian blood live in all the nations. However, souls or not. If not, then they were a higher level most of the population is a mixture of the races, of animals for slave work. In Mexico alone, one called “mestizos.” estimate states that the Indian population Over 160 million Brazilians speak Portuguese, dropped from 16,871,408 to 1,069,255 between a result of the colonization by Portugal. Most of 1532 and 1608. A few valiant priests defended the remainder of 312 million people in the other the Indians, such as Bartholomew de Las Casas, eighteen nations speak Spanish, either as mother who battled until the Indians were declared to be or trade tongue. But millions of Latin American human. Unfortunately, this humanity did not ex- 79 Latin America tend to Africans, who were then imported as New liberationists and leftist intellectuals se- slaves to work the colonial economy. verely criticize the extremes of this “neo-liberal- Following independence from both Spain (be- ism.” tween 1820 and 1821) and Portugal (indepen- The Spiritual Mosaic. Latin America is histori- dence in 1822; with Brazil becoming a federal cally and nominally Roman Catholic and Rome republic in 1889), the new nations struggled for still considers Latin America within its religious viability and political/economic development world, which in 1900 was almost entirely Catho- from 1824 to 1880. It was relatively easy to defeat lic. The continent has a general concept of God Spain and gain autonomy, but nearly impossible and the Bible, of the Virgin Mary, and of Jesus to organize and administrate stable republics. Christ (particularly his passion story). With cer- The map was redrawn, but the nations were in tain notable exceptions, such as Uruguay and Ar- crisis, with political foundations unprepared for gentina, Latin America is God-conscious and fa- Western democracy. Into that leadership/power vorable to Christianity in the broad sense of the vacuum emerged the dictators, who took per- word. sonal charge of their nations from the early nine- However, probing deeper into the worldview, teenth century even into the mid-twentieth cen- most Latins are presuppositionally spiritistic. tury. This is particularly true of the pre-Columbian The 1880–1930 period was marked by relative peoples, who for centuries worshiped their na- peace and limited national development, with so- ture gods. Even with nominal conversion to Ca- cial positivism experiments (Brazil and Mexico tholicism, their basic Worldview is spirit-con- are case studies) with its “scientific technocracy.” trolled. Africa-originated spiritism is widespread, National infrastructure was developed, the but in particular most visible in the Macumba armies grew stronger, and central governmental and Umbanda cults of Brazil (see also Latin control extended. During this period the contro- American New Religious Movements). Some versial role of the United States emerged as the 35% of Brazilians are active spiritists, and partial Western Hemisphere’s superpower—generating practitioners raise that population to 60%. an ongoing love–hate relationship between Latin Whether they come from the lowest social class America and the United States. or the movie stars or leading politicians, spiritism The modern period, starting in 1930, gradually attracts Brazilians. Anyone in Latin American increased social and political stability. During the Christian ministry must understand this world- 1960s and 1970s the right-wing military con- view and be equipped to minister in the context trolled most of the nations, with democracy fad- of Power Encounter—both evil and Triune ing even as violence and poverty increased. Fun- God-provided. damental political and economic structures did Another aspect of the cultural and spiritual not begin to change substantially until the late mosaic is the continental spirit of “Indianism,” 1980s and into the 1990s. By 1995, all but one currently on a continental rise. On the positive country (Cuba) had voted for some form of dem- ledger, it celebrates the God-given values and cul- ocratically elected government. The 1990 collapse tures of these pre-Columbian peoples, recogniz- of Russian and European Marxism robbed the ing their ethnic riches as well as their economic intellectual left of socialist/Marxist political mod- and political power in partial counteraction to els, which contributed to the 1990 electoral de- centuries of abuse. Yet there are warning signs feat of the Nicaraguan Sandinistas. Peace ac- also, particularly the revival of traditional spirit- cords have been signed in El Salvador and ism and pre-Columbian nature-worshiping reli- Guatemala, and political stability has even gions. opened space for former Marxists to run for and Contemporary Latin Catholicism reveals a win public office. broad diversity of streams: the historic, tradi- Much faith continues to be placed in the hands tional sacramentalist, hierarchy-ruled, in some of the new political technocrats, the market econ- nations allied with the oligarchy; a progressive omy, privatization, microeconomic development, wing with socialist to Marxist sympathies, at- and growing stability of trade agreements within tempting to articulate a new theology of libera- Latin America as well as with the United States tion; a biblical studies circle that has generated and Pacific Rim nations. The military have cur- solid Scripture resources; the charismatic “re- rently retreated to their barracks. But dark signs newed” Catholics (many drawn back into Catho- loom over the continent: endemic corruption, the lic mysticism but others still related to charis- violent drug industry, political systems drastically matic evangelicals); the large majority of needing overhaul, the uncontrolled growth of Catholics who would practice some form of pop- poverty, the breakdown of the family, and the ular religiosity, converging traditions, personal fragmentation of fragile human social systems. emotions, and syncretistic folk religious prac- The privatization of former state industries is cre- tices; nominal Catholics who are simply that be- ating immediate high unemployment, as are the cause of family tradition but the underlying value cuts in traditional social programs and services. system is secular. Many evangelicals have inter- 80 Latin America faced with the more biblical and charismatic sec- represent classic Latin Protestantism, but their tors. Liberation theology was primarily con- churches are not growing. ceived, birthed, and given life within Latin The third wave came with the arrival of North Catholicism, generating a vast amount of publi- American and European Faith Missions. Even cations and influencing global theology. Since the D. L. Moody and Ira Sankey ministered in Mex- collapse of Russian and European Marxism, lib- ico City in 1894. These new societies sent thou- eration theology is a movement seeking new ar- sands of cross-cultural missionaries with evange- ticulation. Evangelicals would be wrong to dis- listic and church-planting passion as early as miss it, for as long as a majority of people live in 1890; Bible institutes were started to train pas- poverty, Christians of all stripes will attempt to tors and evangelists; Christian radio and publish- speak for the poor. ing ministries expanded. The churches grew with Latin Catholic leaders are grappling with the vibrancy in almost every nation, and today they new rules on an open religious playing field, a represent the majority of non-Pentecostal/charis- new experience for them. While Catholicism in matic evangelicals on the continent. Europe and North America has lively religious The fourth wave came shortly after the Asuza pluralism, this is not yet the case in Latin Amer- Street Revival (1906), for inherent in that Spirit ica. Pope John Paul II has made twelve trips to movement was its empowered commitment to the region, has labeled evangelicals as “sects,” world evangelization with new distinctives. Pen- and has challenged his Church to affirm Catholic tecostal denominations arrived and grew, and doctrine and reevangelize the continent. some of the historic churches were swept into The Evangelicals. The Protestant gospel ar- these new movements—Chilean Methodists split rived in Latin America in five movements. The and the Methodist Pentecostal Church of Chile first wave came with the new settlers in the early was formed. Every Pentecostal denomination in nineteenth century from northern Europe: Ger- the United States established its Latin counter- many, Holland, France, and Britain. A short-lived part, although some of them may now be larger Lutheran Welser colony settled in Venezuela than the “parent” body. In Brazil alone there are from 1528 to 1546, and French Huguenots tried over 15 million affiliated with the Assemblies of to establish from 1555 to 1557 a Brazilian base. God. These colonists brought their Protestant faith, Today we witness the fifth wave of Latin Amer- but largely kept it to themselves, and tended to ican evangelical, autochthonous churches. A worship in their European language within the good number are massive, but most are smaller immigrant and trade communities. Even some in size. They are autonomous, contextualizing “Protestant pirates” got involved and helped set- theology and missiology, with most forming their tle what became the three Guianas. Early in the own national and international denominations. It nineteenth century Moravians immigrated to this might be safe to estimate that they represent 30 New World and established churches and com- percent of all Latin evangelical churches. In Mex- munities. We honor the great Bible colporteurs, ico City they represent 55 percent of the such as James Diego Thomson, Joseph Monguiar- churches, in Lima 37 percent, and in Guatemala dino, and Francisco Penzotti, agents of the Brit- 25 percent of all churches. Mostly independent ish and American Bible Societies, for their Neo-Pentecostal (charismatic) churches, they are unique ministry, which for some meant Martyr- generally led by strong centralizing leaders who dom. have emerged from the ranks of committed laity. The second wave began in the early to The focus is on emotional, celebratory worship mid-nineteenth century, when the major denomi- and preaching, with a strong emphasis on evan- nations from Britain and the United States estab- gelism and church planting even beyond national lished churches and educational/social institu- borders. They have been charged with being a tions throughout the continent. During this Protestant version of Latin popular religiosity. period the Latin political context was changing, Undoubtedly, they challenge all other variants of the religious influence of Spain diminishing, and Latin evangelicalism. commerce with England and northern Europe Growth in Numbers. How much have Latin growing stronger. All of this favored a new reli- American evangelical-Protestant churches grown gious opening, though in some countries persecu- in recent years? One measure comes from com- tion was experienced.­ paring data in the 1993 edition of Patrick John- Europeans focused primarily on the Southern stone’s Operation World with those from the 1986 Cone nations, but the United States denomina- edition. But it is impossible to justify all terms tions spread throughout the region. Early on the and statistics. Essentially the Protestant Comity agreements guided territorial expansion. churches have grown from a total community of Churches were established in every country. roughly 50,000 in 1900 to an estimated 64 mil- However, some of these denominations gradually lion in 1997 (see also Núñez and Taylor). developed a primary social and educational em- Data from 1993 reveal the diversity of evangel- phasis, and today these historic denominations ical strength in these 19 nations, with numbers 81 Latin America in percentage of total population: Argentina, 7.5 tion more than authentic community, and the percent; Bolivia, 8.5 percent; Brazil, 18.9 per- growth of biblical illiteracy in both pew and pul- cent; Chile, 27.1 percent; Colombia, 3.4 percent; pit with devalued biblical study and exposition. Costa Rica, 9.8 percent; Cuba, 2.7 percent; Do- Here is a series of issues in dialectical tension minican Republic, 5.8 percent; Ecuador, 3.7 per- that will mark the future of Latin evangelicals. cent; El Salvador, 20.8 percent; Guatemala, 22.1 First, the battle between profound renewal and percent; Honduras, 10.1 percent; Mexico, 5.1 maturity versus nominalism and cultural evan- percent; Nicaragua, 16.3 percent; Panama, 16.1 gelicalism. Numerical growth is thrilling to percent; Paraguay, 5.5 percent; Peru, 6.8 percent; many, encouraging to all, even though statistics Uruguay, 3.5 percent; Venezuela, 5.1 percent. For are imprecise. But the hard questions must be the continent the total is 11.1 percent. Using the asked: “What is church?” “What is growth?” 1997 population total of 472 million, the esti- “What about the problem of ‘former evangeli- mated 15 percent of evangelicals generates a cals’?” Internal weaknesses and open heresies— force of some 64 million believers. from other regions as well as Latin species—seep A measured guess suggests there are some into the churches and sap their vitality. The 300,000 evangelical churches in Latin America. churches must face head-on the crisis of the dis- Perhaps only 25 percent of them have a formally integrating Latin family structure and articulate trained pastor-leader. Some 75 percent of the better answers in light of urbanism and modern churches are Pentecostal-charismatic, and 25 lifestyles. The Spirit of God must renew stagnant percent non-Pentecostal/charismatic. But evangelical churches. Studies in Costa Rica and churches of both categories are growing as long Chile have documented the disturbing percent- as they evangelize actively. The largest percent- age of “former evangelicals.” Some have re- ages of evangelical populations are found in Gua- turned to the Catholic fold and others have temala, Chile, Brazil, and El Salvador; the lowest moved into privatized religion or even nonbelief. in Mexico, Colombia, Cuba, Ecuador, Uruguay, Second, the struggle between evangelical mu- and Paraguay. tual acceptance and interdependency versus iso- Some Clarifying Items Regarding Religious lationism and critical divisionism. A limited Terminology. In Latin America the words “Protes- sense of unity in the Latin churches is mani- tant” and “evangelical” are generally used inter- fested locally, nationally, and continentally. changeably, with preference for the latter. The Whether subtle or open, it pits Pentecostal terms “Pentecostal” and “charismatic” sometimes against Pentecostal, charismatic against charis- describe the same reality, but at other times “Pen- matic, Pentecostal against charismatic, and tecostal” is used more of the older denominations, non-Pentecostal versus charismatic, non-Pente- like Assemblies of God or Church of God. “Charis- matic” has a broad use that runs from Spirit-filled costal against non-Pentecostal, traditional de- Catholics to independent churches of Pentecostal nomination against Third Wave church. CON- persuasion. Perhaps 75 percent of all Latin evan- ELA (The World Evangelical Fellowship gelicals would consider themselves charismatic or related regional body) has the potential to unite Pentecostal. But all Latin charismatics consider evangelicals on a continental basis, but it awaits themselves also “evangélicos!” The concept of “re- visionary leadership that understands the nature newal” or of a “renewed church” seems to apply and influence of national and regional fellow- to the charismatic theology and practice that is ships and will provide crucial services to the moving through non-Pentecostal denomina- churches. Meanwhile, a few national movements tions—such as Baptist, Methodist, Brethren, and will increasingly and effectively impact their na- independent non-Pentecostal. It is fair to state tions. that Latin evangelical churches characterized as Third, the tension between relevancy and bibli- “practicing supernaturalists” are the ones demon- cal Contextualization versus the superspiritual- strating growth and vibrancy. Their worship is ization of the faith. A hermeneutical struggle is strong, utilizing the spectrum of instruments, found in every Christian community: How is with words and music now primarily written by Scripture to be applied and experienced in a rad- Latins. ically changing Latin American society? Chris- Whither Latin American Evangelicals? This tians must be equipped to face the insidious ene- is a unique continent-wide moment for Latin mies filtering in through Secularism (the evangelicals, attempting to speak for transcen- rejection of a theistic point of reference); materi- dental absolutes in a world of Relativism, politi- alism (consumer society and massive debt); Mo- cal neoliberalism,­ philosophical Postmodernism, dernity (glorification of technology and “prog- and moral deconstructionism. While Latin evan- ress”); and now the surprisingly rapid invasion of gelical leaders rejoice in their numerical growth, postmodernity with its deconstructionist influ- they also express profound concern about its ences (questioning of technology and “progress,” health, citing shallow ethical depth, the moral the newer religious pluralism, rejection of tran- relativism, the emphasis on emotional celebra- scendental truth). 82 Latin America

Latin theological leaders, pastors, and those dad (which identifies Latins intrinsically as Cath- preparing for ministry must be equipped for the olics) has created other conflicts on the challenge of ongoing contextualization in light of continent. historical needs and the new ideological face of North Europeans and North Americans must Latin America. The Latin American Theological not confuse their Catholicism with that of Latin Fraternity has done a valiant job in this area. All America. These are two different models, and to leaders and believers must be equipped to con- impose experience and expectations of the first front the evil powers of the occult, so openly and upon Latin evangelicals is wrong. influentially influencing the entire spectrum of Seventh is the tension between monocultural society. evangelization versus cross-cultural mission, Fourth is the effective equipping of leadership whether national or international, continental or for ministry versus informal volunteerism. Most intercontinental. The number of evangelical Latin formal educational delivery systems are churches with cross-cultural vision is still low. costly to create, fund, staff, and produce gradu- This must change as they are challenged bibli- ates. They do have their strategic place but need cally and then mobilized to broader mission. In serious self-examination. Few formal institutions Latin America, church-based missions will con- offer program degrees beyond the master’s de- tinue to carry the day, but leaders must break old gree. Most Latins travel to the United States or molds and attitudes. Missiological literature Europe for doctoral study. In this critical time must be developed by Latin writers and theolo- for the Latin churches, women and men with the gians, as well as by the practitioners. highest credentials and strongest gift mix are Latin-driven movements and organizations, needed. Formal schools serve a very small seg- such as COMIBAM (Cooperation of Missions of ment of church needs, and in the gap more and Iberoamerica), must be supported as they mobi- more smaller programs or training alternatives lize beyond emotionalism and create the impera- are emerging. There are two major entry points tive missions infrastructure for the movement to to ministry in Latin America; one coming be truly visible and viable. This challenge focuses through formal theological study and the other on three areas: the precandidate phase of screen- emerging “on the march” of regular lay ministry. ing, primarily by the local church; the prefield How these two currents relate to and influence training (informal and formal) phase; and the each other in the future will profoundly shape field ministry phase, which requires adequate su- the Latin churches. pervision, shepherding, and strategizing. The fifth tension is the involvement in the cri- Eighth, and finally, is the spirit of interdepen- ses of society and political governance versus dent partnership versus control and neopaternal- forms of spiritualized isolationism. For decades ism by expatriate organizations. Many interna- evangelicals eschewed political involvement as tional organizations have vested interests in part of the devil’s work. This has radically Latin America, whether they be funding bodies, changed, with a number of evangelicals now in denominations, parachurch organizations, or the political arena. But the jury is mixed on this foreign mission agencies. Control must pass to involvement, for some Christian politicians have Latin grassroots, and decisions must be made by sold their integrity and yet crassly serve their de- those directly affected by the decisions. On the nominational interests. Some Latins want to es- continent more and more expatriate missionar- tablish evangelical parties, though these have no ies serve under Latin leadership. Expatriate mis- hope of winning elections. Too many evangeli- sionaries from all nations continue to be wel- cals in politics are naive, have been manipulated, comed, provided they come with the genuine or lost their spiritual convictions while in power. spirit of servanthood and serve where they are In part this has come from the absence of spiri- truly needed in light of global missiological pri- tual accountability as well as inadequate pastoral orities. The fact is that many international mis- ministry to public servants. sion organizations are searching for their iden- Sixth is the polarized polemics between Catho- tity and role in Latin America today, particularly lics and evangelicals versus mutual respect. with the emphasis on the non-Latin unevange- Catholic leaders know they are losing influence lized nations and people groups. and space in Latin America, and this has created Summarizing. Latin America is a multihued an internal crisis for the hierarchy. The Roman continent facing an uncertain future in the global Church is adjusting to the new religious plural- and borderless economy. Its God-given vast natu- ism. And some evangelicals still suffer from the ral and human resources have yet to be devel- ghetto mentality of a persecuted minority. But oped and wisely utilized, although political con- the fact is that evangelicals are still being perse- ditions are healthier today than ever before. cuted for their faith, whether the Chamula Indi- National, regional, and continental development ans of southern Mexico (religious persecution) will take place as genuine political reform is insti- or the Quechua believers in Peru (political perse- tutionalized in a way that truly grapples with the cution). The spiritual/social value called hispani- causes and characteristics of an ever-prevalent 83 Latin American Mission Boards and Societies poverty and social crises. Within this textured America and some of them created a third pat- context we find the evangelical churches and tern for the channeling of missionary vocations leadership facing unique challenges, and empow- among Latin Americans. Organizations such as ered by the Spirit they will impact their world. the Latin America Mission, Wycliffe Bible Trans- William David Taylor lators, Operation Mobilization, and Youth with a Mission incorporated Latin Americans into their Bibliography. M. Berg and P. Pretiz, Spontaneous international mission force, generally relying on Combustion: Grass-Roots Christianity Latin American Style; E. L. Cleary, and H. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Con- North American or European funds and leader- flict and Competition: The Latin American Church in a ship. Student movements associated with the In- Changing Environment; E. Dussell, ed., The Church in ternational Fellowship of Evangelical Students Latin America, 1492–1992; The Economist Intelligence (IFES) pioneered missionary conventions to Unit, Economist Country Profiles; G. Gustavo, A Theol- challenge students to become involved in mis- ogy of Liberation: History, Politics and Salvation; rev. ed. sions in their own countries or abroad. The First P. Johnstone, OW; D. Martin, Tongues of Fire: The Ex- Latin American Missionary Congress gathered plosion of Protestantism in Latin America; E. A. Núñez five hundred university students and graduates and W. D. Taylor, Crisis and Hope in Latin America: An from all over Latin America in Curitiba, Brazil, Evangelical Perspective, rev. ed.; D. Stoll, and V. Bar- in January 1976. Sponsored by the IFES related rard-Burnett, eds., Rethinking Protestantism in Latin America. Alianza Bíblica Universitaria do Brasil (Inter Var- sity of Brazil), this congress produced the “Declaracao de Curitiba” (a missiological mani- Latin American Mission Boards and Societies. festo) and several of the participants volunteered Very early after the arrival of evangelicals in Latin for missionary service in rural Latin America, America a missionary impulse among Latin Angola, and Italy. Operation Mobilization was Americans took them as missionaries to remote also active in providing vision and missionary areas of their countries as well as to other coun- education to Latin American young people, re- tries and continents. The roots of missionary cruiting selected volunteers for work and travel work in pietist and revivalist movements empha- in the ships Doulos and Logos. Mexican univer- sized the priesthood of all believers and created sity graduates related to these movements structures that facilitated it, in open contrast to started “Proyecto Magreb,” later on “PM Interna- the priest-centered life of predominant Roman tional,” to reach the Muslim world from a base Catholicism. There are records of spontaneous in Spain. In July 1987, several organizations and missionary activity of Chileans from the Method- individuals sponsored COMIBAM in São Paulo, ist Pentecostal revival of 1911, going as missionar- Brazil. COMIBAM and the Latin American Theo- ies to Argentina beginning in 1925. Argentinean logical Fraternity are working successfully to Baptists sent Maximino Fernández as a mission- bring missiological components into theological ary to start work in Paraguay in 1919. Puerto education. Even churches and countries that Rican Baptists sent Santiago Soto-Fontánez as a went through critical days because of political missionary to El Salvador, and Eduardo Carlos violence have been the source of a missionary Pereyra from Brazil crusaded for the cause of thrust such as AMEN (Evangelical Association missions among Presbyterians in his country. for Mission to the Nations) in Peru, an indige- These cases are examples of two missionary pat- nous faith mission that sent missionaries to En- terns that originated in Latin America. First, the gland and France in the 1970s and used “Keryg- migration pattern to and from neighboring coun- ma”—a folk music team—to generate interest tries became a vehicle used by tentmakers as a and funds for their venture. Indigenous sending way of carrying on missionary work. This has de- agencies have also developed in Costa Rica and veloped significantly in recent years, when for po- Guatemala. In this fourth pattern, leadership, litical or economic reasons thousands of Latin funding, and management is entirely in Latin Americans have emigrated to North America, Eu- American hands though funds may also be rope, and Australia, or have gone as technicians raised from churches planted by its missionaries and professionals to work in the Muslim world. in North America and Europe. There are an in- There are thousands of evangelicals from Latin creasing number of Latin American missionaries America working in Japan, many of whom get in- going to Spain either to work there or to use it as volved as missionary volunteers in that country. a base and training ground to prepare missionar- Second, organized denominational mission ies to Muslim countries of North Africa and Cen- boards following the model of North American tral Asia. Research completed in late 1977 shows missions developed especially in Argentina, a total of four hundred Latin American mission Puerto Rico, Mexico, and Brazil. Mainly denomi- sending agencies and approximately four thou- nations that were financially strong and well or- sand missionaries. ganized have managed to continue this model. In recent years Roman Catholics have intensi- After World War II, a large number of conser- fied the promotion of missionary vocations vative evangelical faith missions came to Latin through Missionary Congresses that meet every 84 Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization (1974) other year. This has been coordinated by DEMIS, idem, History of the Expansion of Christianity, 7 vols.; the Missions Department of the Conference of idem, Beyond the Ranges: An Autobiography. Latin American Bishops (CELAM). Among Cath- olic missiologists there is concern because while Lausanne Congress II on World Evangeliza- almost 50 percent of the Catholics of the world tion (Manila, 1989). Three thousand five hun- live in Latin America, only 2 percent of their dred and eighty-six church and mission leaders total missionary force comes from that region. from 190 countries gathered in Manila, the Phil- The Comboni order from Italy has been the most ippines, in July 1989, for Lausanne II, the second active in missionary education and promotion. International Congress on World Evangelization Some of the problems of channeling missionary convened by the Lausanne Committee for World fervor into action that Protestants face are solved Evangelization. Compared to Lausanne I, partic- among Catholics through the traditional mis- ipants at Manila tended to be younger (over half sionary orders such as Jesuits, Franciscans, and were under forty-five years of age) and included Dominicans. These are truly international in more women (25 percent). For most partici- membership, leadership, and fund raising, and pants, it was their first international congress. facilitate the inclusion of Latin Americans in However, many of the fundamental issues dis- their ranks, in order to do missionary work in cussed at Lausanne I were also discussed at other parts of the world. Lausanne II. For example, reaching the poor; Samuel Escobar internationalization of cross-cultural ministries; univer­ salism­ in a pluralistic society; the nature Bibliography. W. D. Taylor, ed., Internationalizing of the gospel and social concern. Missionary Training; J. D. Woodberry, C. Van Engen, Lausanne II was strongly influenced by poli- and E. J. Elliston, eds., Missiological Education for the 21st Century. tics in China and Russia in ways that were not present at Lausanne I. Seventy Russians and other leaders from Central Europe were full of Latourette, Kenneth Scott (1884–1968). Amer- optimism about the work of the gospel in their ican church historian of global Christianity and countries. On the other hand, the Chinese dele- missionary to China. Born in Oregon City, Ore- gates were represented by a section of empty gon, Latourette received his B.A. and Ph.D. from chairs. At the last minute, China had refused pa- Yale University. While at Yale he joined the Stu- pers for 300 pastors to visit Manila. Lausanne II dent Volunteer Movement and the Yale Mis- produced a declaration on the “Beijing Massa- sion, to which he committed himself for mis- cre.” sionary service in China. He served in China Another strong emphasis at Lausanne II was from 1910 until 1912, at which time he was inva- the presence of the “AD 2000 Movement,” lead- lided home. After teaching at Reed College and ers of which predicted that 50 national “AD 2000 Denison College, Latourette returned to Yale in Plans” would emerge from the congress, and 100 1921, succeeding H. P. Beach as the D. Willis such plans by 1995. At the same time, congress James Professor of Missions. He served Yale over participants discussed the hurdles standing in the next thirty-two years, retiring in 1953. the way of world evangelization: lack of workers, Among his many professional activities Lato- lack of prayer, government pressures, war, suffer- urette served as president of the American Soci- ing, poverty, traditional religions, illiteracy, and ety of Church History, the American Historical animism. Association, the American Baptist Convention, There were 53 major speeches and 450 work- and the Association for Asian Studies. Addition- shops on the program, plus countless video pre- ally, he was an active participant in ecumenical sentations. In addition to plenary sessions, there affairs. were 90 special interest tracks, plus country and Latourette’s greatest legacy was a single idea, regional meetings. Participants were asked to controversial at the time, that Christianity was a sign “The Manila Manifesto” at the conclusion of multicultural global movement continuing to the congress. This document largely reflected the grow and expand in the midst of the secularism earlier Lausanne I document, “The Lausanne of the modern world. Latourette was a pioneer of Covenant.” a truly global approach to church history. He Jim Reapsome sought to develop his ideas in a series of publica- tions. His three hundred articles and thirty Lausanne Congress on World Evangelization books, including two multivolume histories, es- (1974). The First International Congress on tablished Latourette as one of the most prolific World Evangelization convened in Lausanne, church and mission historians of the twentieth Switzerland, in July 1974. For ten days, 2,430 century. participants and 570 observers from 150 coun- Mark Shaw tries studied, discussed, and fellowshiped around Bibliography. W. R. Hogg, ML, pp. 416–27; K. S. the church’s evangelistic and missionary man- Latourette, The History of Christian Missions in China; date. Invitations were extended on the basis of 85 Lausanne Movement seven for every one million Protestants in the churches everywhere to pray, study, plan, and country, plus two for every ten million unreached work together for the evangelization of the people in the country. For example, India re- world. ceived seventy invitations in the first category The congress in Lausanne was called by Ameri- and 150 in the second. The United States had by can evangelist Billy Graham. Some 2,300 Chris­ far the largest representation (more than 500), tian leaders from 150 nations, representing a wide plus innumerable American missionaries repre- cross-section of denominational affiliations, at- senting countries where they worked. tended the congress. The congress produced an The Congress Convening Committee included influential document, “The Lausanne Covenant,” 168 men and 5 women from 70 countries. Each and authorized the Lausanne Continuation Com- country had its own national advisory committee mittee to continue the work begun at the con- to select participants. They were approved by the gress. This committee became the Lausanne Congress Planning Committee, made up of 28 Committee for World Evangelization. Subse- men and one woman from 17 countries (10 of quently, LCWE convened another consultation in them from the U.S.). Officially invited visitors in- Pattaya, Thailand, in 1980, and held “Laus- cluded some Roman Catholics and administra- anne II” in Manila in 1989. tors from the World Council of Churches. The LCWE believes that: (1) cooperation and shar- congress operated on a $3.3 million budget. ing are better than competition; (2) the whole Evangelist Billy Graham put his prestige, influ- gospel includes demonstration by deeds as well ence, and organization behind the congress. as proclamation by words; (3) biblical theology Participation began months before the con- and mission strategy must be consistent; (4) its gress convened. Eleven major papers were circu- own neutrality creates space for all evangelicals lated in advance and comments solicited. Those to work together, regardless of their church or who gave papers responded in their presenta- faith tradition. tions. Small group discussions were organized LCWE is a volunteer network of individuals under four major divisions: (1) national strategy and groups that affirm “The Lausanne Cove- groups; (2) demonstrations of evangelistic meth- nant,” and are committed to support the work of ods; (3) specialized evangelistic strategy groups; world evangelization, wherever it is done in a and (4) theology of evangelization groups. way that is true to the Bible. Its network includes The plenary program was built on seven “Bib- some thirty committees in different countries and lical Foundation Papers” and five “Issue Strategy regions of the world. It is supported financially Papers.” There were seven other major ad- by people in its network, and by the gifts of those dresses, three panels, two special multimedia who believe in its work. programs, and a closing communion service. LCWE organizes small international consulta- Among the major speakers were Billy Graham, tions on subjects that are critical to completing John R. W. Stott, Susumu Uda, Donald Mc- the task of world evangelization. More than Gavran, Harold Lindsell, René Padilla, Michael thirty such consultations have brought together Green, George Peters, Ralph Winter, Gottfried key people to achieve an approach that is both Osei-Mensah, Peter Beyerhaus, Samuel Esco- biblical and strategic. More than fifty regional, bar, Malcolm Muggeridge, Francis Schaeffer, national, and international conferences have Henri Blocher, and E. V. Hill. been held in response to expressed needs. Participants were asked to sign a 3,000-word Publications have included a number of pa- document, “The Lausanne Covenant.” Early on, pers and books on subjects pertinent to world it had been submitted in draft form and revi- evangelization, as well as a quarterly magazine, sions requested. Hundreds of submissions were World Evangelization (now discontinued), which made by individuals and delegations. By ad- includes news and analyses of current issues journment, 2,200 participants had signed it. A arising for those who want to make Christ poll of participants showed that 86 percent of the known to the world. Making Christ Known. His- 1,140 who responded favored post-congress fel- toric Mission Documents from the Lausanne lowship, and 79 percent favored the appointment Movement, 1974–1989, edited by John Stott, of a “continuation committee” of 25 people. This was published in 1997. committee evolved into The Lausanne Com- More recently, LCWE sees itself as the “Barna- mmittee for World Evangelization. bas factor” in the church. As such, it encourages Jim reapsome churches to (1) trust new and younger leaders; (2) undertake work among people different from Lausanne Movement. The Lausanne Commit- themselves; and (3) stay with people who have tee for World Evangelization (LCWE) was orga- different ideas until they find each other in a nized following the Lausanne Congress on new way. World Evangelization in Lausanne, Switzer- The long-term staying factor in the movement land, in 1974. It is an international movement has been “The Lausanne Covenant.” It has been committed to encouraging Christians and translated into more than twenty languages. It 86 Liberation Theologies has been adopted by hundreds of churches and does not negate, however, the reality of a signifi- parachurch agencies as their basis of operations cant degree of commonality among liberation and cooperation. It has led to the formation of a theologies (Hennelly). The following discussion number of national and regional movements in will focus primarily on Latin American libera- Europe, Asia, Australia, Africa, North America, tion theology as representative to some degree of and Latin America. It has stimulated many coop- the larger concerns of these several movements. erative movements, mostly ad hoc, short-term, Fundamental Commitments. To comprehend and noncompetitive. It has spun off related the particular orientation and contributions of movements such as the Lausanne Consultation liberationist missiology requires an appreciation on Jewish Evangelism and the Chinese Coordi- of its fundamental commitments. Above all else, nating Committee for World Evangelization. It liberation theologies highlight systemic issues of has been the basis for a variety of consultations, injustice and attempt to speak for the oppressed the findings of which have been published as within a given context. The particular issues and “Lausanne Occasional Papers.” groups, of course, are defined by the brand of The issues addressed by the covenant in 1974 liberation theology under discussion; accord- are still very much alive in the world of church ingly, concern can center on socio-economic and missions at the end of the century. For ex- class, race, and/or gender. In Latin America, spe- ample: (1) the relationship of evangelism and so- cial attention has been given to the first of these. cial concern; (2) unity, diversity, and cooperation The serious consideration of the Latin Ameri- among Christians; (3) the uniqueness of Christ; can social context for missiological reflection and (4) the validity of missions; (5) the work of the action has sought to provide a comprehensive Holy Spirit in evangelism; (6) religious liberty framework from which to define and evaluate the and human rights; (7) the relationship of the gos- mission of the church. For example, the histories pel to culture. of the Roman Catholic Church and Protestant de- LCWE’s organizational structure is made up of nominations and missions are located within the what it calls” the current partners of the Laus- economic and political trajectories of Latin anne Movement.” This international grassroots America in order to discover either complicity committee includes members from Argentina, and oppressive regimes and systems or the mod- Asia, Australia, Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, En­ els of service to the masses of the poor (Dussel; gland, Estonia, Europe, Finland, France, Ger- see Poverty). The social sciences (including di- many, Ireland, Italy, Kenya, Korea, the Nether- verse elements of certain types of Marxism) as- lands, Nigeria, Norway, Scotland, Spain, sume an important role in the analysis of the Sweden, the United States, and Wales. Latin American context and in the articulation of International structures include the Chinese visions of an alternative social and ecclesiastical Coordinating Committee for World Evangeliza- reality. In contrast to more traditional ap- tion, the Health and Healing Network, the Jew- proaches, the doing of liberation theology begins ish Committee, and the Tentmakers Exchange. from the perspective of the weak. This starting Special interest members include the Interces- point from the “underside of history” and the sion Working group, the Theology and Strategy “preferential Option for the Poor” determines Working Group, and groups focusing on disabled how the mission of the people of God is subse- people, women, strategic evangelism partner- quently defined and evaluated (Ellacuria and So- ships, research, tentmakers, and information brino). technology (www.lausanne.org). Key Themes. A particular interpretation of the Jim Reapsome concept of the Kingdom of God is foundational to liberationist missiology. The kingdom is an es- Liberation Theologies. Any attempt to provide chatological hope of total liberation that is real- an overview of liberationist missiology must rec- ized in part today within history, wherever some ognize the variety of movements labeled under sort of freedom from oppression is concretely that rubric. Each broad category of liberation achieved. The interpretation of other theological “theology”—Latin American, African, Asian, or and biblical items coheres with this point of North American Black, Hispanic, or Feminist— view. The historical Jesus is the basis of the also manifests internal diversity among its lead- Praxis of mission: his preaching of the kingdom ing exponents and practitioners and has its own of God, his earthly ministry to the marginalized history of development. In addition, different (see Marginal, Marginalization), his death and movements of liberation theology have been resurrection are pointers to the virtue of self-sac- openly critical of one another, pointing to per- rifice and the divine vindication of his solidarity ceived limited perspectives and commitments. with the poor. The mission of the church, then, The questioning of Latin American and Black has the example of Jesus to follow in its own liberation theology’s sensitivity to gender issues striving to proclaim and incarnate the good news by feminist and womanist theologians is an ex- of God’s commitment to the poor. The church, ample of this mutual challenging. This diversity although it is not itself the kingdom, must be 87 Martyrdom both the place where the reign of God is visible, portant, tended to be elitist and idealistic and as well as an active participant with other misread the heart of the poor. What remains for human beings in the partial realization of that mission in the new situation are more limited kingdom in the here and now. In other words, pastoral projects of solidarity among those who the church is to be both its sign and servant. suffer (Berryman, 1994). At the same time, Ber- The concentration on the context has not ryman studies the phenomenon of the burgeon- meant an abandonment of the mystical elements ing evangelical presence in Latin America. While of Christian faith or of the issue of the eternal critical of some of what he sees, Berryman rec- fate of the human soul. Yet, these topics are re- ognizes that evangelicalism has been able to tap defined in line with liberation theology’s social into the deeply felt needs of the masses and and ecumenical orientation. Evangelization is sometimes exhibits some of the same social con- linked to the sharing of the liberating word and cerns as liberation theology, even if these are life of God’s kingdom of justice. manifested differently. Any rethinking of libera- The Scope of Mission. According to liberation tionist missiology cannot ignore this evangelical theology, the mission of the people of God must component of Latin American religious life (Ber- begin within the church. The church needs to be ryman, 1994, 145–218; 1996). evangelized by the poor in the sense that it M. Daniel Carroll R. should judge whether its ethos, message, liturgy, and structures reflect the divine obligation to so- Bibliography. P. Berryman, Stubborn Hope: Reli- ciety’s exploited. In Latin America, especially in gion, Politics, and Revolution in Central America; idem, Religion in the Megacity: Catholic and Protestant Por- Roman Catholic circles, this liberationist con- traits from Latin America; L. Boff, Church: Charism and cept of the nature of the church generated a new Power—Liberation Theology and the Institutional formulation of Christian communion, the base Church; G. Cook, ed., New Face of the Church in Latin ecclesial communities. This way of being the America: Between Tradition and Change; E. Dussel, ed., church was to be the catalyst for fulfilling the The Church in Latin America, 1492–1992; S. Escobar, calling to be the instrument of the kingdom of Themelios 19:3 (1994): 15–17; I. Ellauria and J. So- God within the world (Boff; Cook, 150–56). Mis- brino, eds., Mysterium Liberationis: Fundamental Con- sion, therefore, is all-encompassing. The church cepts of Liberation Theology; A. T. Hennelly, Liberation is to reshape itself even as it reaches into the sur- Theologies: The Global Pursuit of Justice; D. Irarrazaval, rounding society. Missiology 25:1 (1997): 61–68. The Future of Liberation Theologies. Much has changed in Latin America over the last de- Martyrdom. The role of martyrdom in the ex- cade, causing liberation theologians to reassess pansion of the church is the common thread that their understanding of the context and the links the church of all ages with its suffering Sav- church’s mission. The failure of the Sandinistas ior. Tertullian, third-century leader in the church to rebuild Nicaragua, the inability of the conti- of North Africa, wrote to his Roman governors in nent’s other revolutions to establish a different his Apology, “As often as you mow us down, the socio-economic reality, and the global collapse of more numerous we become. The blood of the Marxism are among a number of factors that Christians is seed.” But martyrdom is not unique have forced liberationists to reconsider the to Christianity. People have sacrificed their lives church’s task in the world. throughout the ages for a variety of reasons. To On the one hand, some liberationists claim define the distinctive meaning of Christian mar- that the emerging capitalist hegemony under- tyrdom requires investigation of the Bible and scores even more the themes that liberation the- church history. ology has always championed, even if socialism Definition. The word martyr is an English no longer appears to be a viable option (see also word transliterated from its Greek equivalent Economics). The poor are becoming poorer, and (martyrus). It is closely associated with the word the powerful nations continue to take advantage witness as used in the Scriptures. The Old Testa- of the less fortunate. In addition, these circum- ment Hebrew equivalent is moed, which is used stances provide the opportunity to probe other in reference to the place where God establishes dimensions of mission (such as popular or Folk his covenant with his people. Religion, Ecology, and indigenous rights), as In the New Testament, the ideas of truth and well as to join with other groups who are being Scripture are integrated into the verb form mar- pushed to the periphery in the global economy tureom. Jesus uses it to establish his witness as (Cook, 245–76; Irarrazaval). truth (Matt. 26:65; Mark 14:63; Luke 22:71). Nevertheless, others are less sanguine about John the Baptist links Jesus, truth, and Scrip- the future. Berryman details how liberation ture. Luke speaks of witness to the whole world hopes in Central America broke down. He dis- (Acts 1:8). closes how insignificant were the numbers of The word martyr also extends its meaning to those actually involved in the base communities include Christ-like values, such as faithfulness, and admits that this minority voice, though im- truth, witness, and lifestyle. Eventually, even 88 Melanesia

“death-style” is subsumed. The first Christian-era Faith; J. Hefley and M. Hefley, By Their Blood: Christian martyr known is Stephen (Acts 7) who, interest- Martyrs of the Twentieth Century; WCE. ingly, was put to death by “witnesses” for his wit- ness. In Revelation 3:14, the last word is given McGavran, Donald A. (1897–1991). American concerning Jesus Christ who is “the faithful and missionary to India and founder of the Church true witness.” The word does away with any dis- Growth Movement. McGavran was born in tinction of what a true believer might live and India of missionary parents. Influenced by the die for. Death does not stop the witness given. It Student Volunteer Movement, he returned to merely adds an exclamation point of truth, faith- India in 1924 to serve with the Disciples of Christ fulness, and love for the glory of God. It is the in a variety of missionary capacities: educator, supreme witnessing act. Neither personal gain field executive, hospital administrator, evange- nor personal opinion provides the motive for list, Bible translator, church planter, and re- such a death. searcher. Passionately interested in the causes of Church Growth and Martyrdom. Tertullian church growth, McGavran studied this issue first also wrote, “For who, when he sees our obsti- in India, then in a variety of other places. nacy is not stirred up to find its cause? Who, Returning to the United States in 1957, Mc- when he has inquired, does not then join our Gavran established the Institute of Church Faith? And who, when he has joined us, does not Growth in Eugene, Oregon, where he was joined desire to suffer, that he may gain the whole grace by Australian anthropologist Alan Tippett. From of God?” Current estimates are that roughly 1964 to 1980, he published his ideas in the Church 150,000 Christians are martyred each year, down Growth Bulletin, which he founded. In 1965, he from a peak of 330,000 prior to the demise of became founding dean of the School of World communist world powers. Some project that the Mission of Fuller Theological Seminary, which numbers will increase to 600,000 by a.d. 2025, provided a forum to popularize his ideas. Mc- given current trends in human rights abuses and Gavran advocated a return to classical mission growth of militant religious systems. with its stress on evangelism and church planting. Those inflicting contemporary Christian mar- He underscored the importance of employing the tyrdom include political regimes with count- social and behavioral sciences as missiological in- er-Christian agendas (e.g., official atheistic pow- struments. Many of the theses written by his stu- ers, such as China and the former Soviet Union); dents were published and disseminated widely sociopolitical regimes enforcing religious restric- among the mission community. tions (e.g., Egypt, Sudan); ethnic tribal regimes In his writings, McGavran sought to identify bent on eliminating minorities (e.g., Sudan, the factors that facilitate and those that impede Rwanda, and Burundi) and religious regimes church growth. Investigating various People (e.g., Muslim countries in which Sharia is the of- Movements within society, he used his findings ficial legal system). Conclusion. Martyrdom will continue to be as- to identify principles for church growth. Mc- sociated with the progress of gospel proclama- Gavran also emphasized the importance of allow- ing persons to become Christian without forcing tion until the Kingdom of God is established. Jesus said, “Do not suppose that I have come to them to cross cultural barriers (see Homogeneous bring peace to the earth. I did not come to bring Unit Principle). He was committed to the estab- peace, but a sword” (Matt. 10:34). The sword was lishment of a church movement within every seg- not to be used by his disciples against others, but ment of the human mosaic. could be expected to be used against them. Paul McGavran was also instrumental in restructur- said, “All this is evidence that God’s judgment is ing the Evangelical Missiological Society. He right, and as a result you will be counted worthy continued to teach on a reduced schedule and to of the kingdom of God, for which you are suffer- write extensively until the end of his life. ing” (2 Thess. 1:5). Finally, as Augustine wrote in Ken Mulholland City of God: “Despite the fiercest opposition, the Bibliography. D. A. McGavran, The Bridges of God; terror of the greatest persecutions, Christians idem, Why Churches Grow; idem, Understanding have held with unswerving faith to the belief that Church Growth, 3rd ed. Christ has risen, that all men will rise in the age to come, and that the body will live forever. And Melanesia. Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polyne- this belief, proclaimed without fear, has yielded a sia are the three major groupings of islands in harvest throughout the world, and all the more the Pacific. The islands of Melanesia from east to when the martyr’s blood was the seed they west include Norfolk Island; Fiji; Vanuatu; New sowed.” Caledonia and the Loyalty Islands; the Solomon J. Ray Tallman Islands and the Santa Cruz Islands; New Guinea Bibliography. R. Daniel, This Holy Seed; S. Berg- (Papua New Guinea and Irian Jaya), the Admi- man, Martyrs: Contemporary Writers on Modern Lives of ralty Islands, and the Bismarck and Louisiade 89 Melanesia archipelagos. The year 2000 estimated combined the Melanesian Mission. Other missions ap- population of the islands exceeds 6 million. peared in Melanesia during this period including Due to the rugged terrain of many of the islands the Presbyterians who primarily focused on Van- and the vast distances of water between them, uatu. By the decade of the 1870s, New Guinea Melanesia is one of the most diverse regions in became a significant target for a host of missions the world. It is estimated that in excess of a thou- beginning with the LMS in 1871 and the Sacred sand languages exist in the New Guinea region Heart Fathers from France in 1884. Within a few alone. Melanesian societies are based on kinship years, the Neuendettelsau Mission (1886) and the and by comparison to other areas of the world, Rhenish Missionary Society (1887) established are small-scale, ranging from as few as seventy on works in the northern part of the island which the smaller islands to several thousand in the New was under German rule. Missions to The Solo- Guinea Highlands. Traditional economies were mon Islands appeared during this same period. based on rudimentary agriculture, hunting, fish- One of the significant missions to reach the Solo- ing, and indigenous wealth which included pri- mon Islands was the South Seas Evangelical Mis- marily pigs and portable valuables. Trade net- sion (formerly the Queensland Kanaka Mission). works were established between the islands by The period from 1900 to 1942 was one of sig- means of deep sea canoes which navigated the nificant expansion of missions in Melanesia. Pacific and through inland waterways and bush Major efforts were launched by Protestant tracks linking the populated areas. groups including the Lutherans, Anglicans, The diversity of Melanesia encompasses their Methodists, and Congregationalists as well as traditional religious beliefs and practices. In gen- new works by interdenominational faith mis- eral, however, Melanesian religions are theistic in sions such as the Unevangelized Fields Mission that they emerge from a belief in a god. One over- and the German Liebenzell Mission. The Roman all effect of the widespread theistic religions with Catholic missions continued to expand and de- their solid commitment to the centrality of rela- velop throughout the region. The Seventh-Day tionships was that Christianity spread rapidly. Adventists entered Melanesia establishing works Although some contact with Western explor- in a number of islands. The end of this period of ers took place prior to the second half of the active expansion coincided with the war in the eighteenth century, the major movement was a Pacific. direct result of the voyages of the British ex- Following the war, news of the isolated islands plorer, Captain James Cook from 1772 to 1779. full of unevangelized peoples reached the ears of With the opening of Australia as a colony, the the churches in the West. The result was a resur- expansion of the British Empire brought the gence of new missions, particularly those of the predictable wave of settlers driven by commerce specialized ministries such as Missionary Avia- and opportunity. A surprising outcome of Cook’s tion Fellowship and the Summer Institute of exploration of Australia, New Zealand, and the Linguistics. Smaller independent missions also islands of the Pacific came in response to his dotted the Melanesian landscape, particularly journals which became the reading material for those from North America. This growth and ex- a generation of young Christians destined to be pansion of missionary efforts continued through part of the Great Century of Missions. The ear- the early 1980s. The early characteristic of a liest missionaries to the South Pacific were part partnership between indigenous and expatriate of the London Missionary Society (LMS) group missionaries was less a feature of the rapidly ex- arriving in Tahiti in 1797. One of the young panding missions in the twentieth century. One Christians who studied Cook’s journals was important attempt at greater cooperation in mis- John Williams, a man destined to impact not sions was the formation of the Evangelical Alli- only the islands of Polynesia, but to take the ance which established combined works in edu- gospel as far as Vanuatu in Melanesia. Williams’ cation, medicine, and the Christian Leaders commitment to including indigenous missionar- Training College in Papua New Guinea. ies in his outreaches characterized Melanesian The growth of churches in Melanesia paral- missions in the early days. leled the periods of missionary expansion. The Following the early thrust of the LMS in Mela- beginnings of church independence were seen in nesia were the English Methodists who entered Tonga and Samoa as early as 1885, but did not Tonga and Fiji in the mid-1820s. Methodism reach Melanesia until the Methodist Church spread rapidly through Tonga and Fiji initially worked through the issues of finance and control and from there to other islands of Melanesia.­ The in Fiji during the first decade of the twentieth Roman Catholic missions arrived in Tahiti in century. Other churches followed a similar pro- 1836 and in the Melanesian islands of Fiji and cess of growth and independence. New Caledonia in the years from 1840 to 1851. A number of challenges and opportunities face Another thrust of missions came from the Angli- the churches and missions of Melanesia at the cans in New Zealand and the work of George end of the twentieth century. The more serious Selwyn, the first Anglican bishop and founder of challenges include widespread nominalism, a 90 Micronesia lack of adequate resources to deal with the chal- ABCFM missionaries and Hawaiian co-work- lenges of modernity, particularly among the ers evangelized the northern islands of Kiribati youth; tribalism which undermines the church’s (Gilberts) in 1857, while the southern islands ability to demonstrate reconciliation; and a need were reached by English missionaries of the to develop more leaders to address the theologi- London Missionary Society as the islands had cal issues unique to Melanesia. As with any pe- become part of an English Protectorate and later riod of great challenge, great opportunities are an English Crown Colony. also present. One of the most dynamic situations In 1898, after Spain lost the Spanish-American is the resurgence of interest in missions among War, the United States took over Guam. The rest the evangelical churches of Melanesia. This of the Micronesian islands became a colonial movement began in the early 1980s and culmi- possession of Germany. Thus, in 1906, German nated in a South Pacific missions conference Protestant missionaries of the Liebenzeller Mis- held in Suva, Fiji, in 1989. One result of the con- sion (former German branch of the China Inland ference was the launch of “The Deep Sea Canoe,” Mission) entered the eastern part of Micronesia a combined mission movement designed to in place of the American missionaries. They pro- bring Melanesians back into an active role in ceeded to strengthen the existing churches and world missions. to evangelize the unreached islands west of Douglas McConnell Chuuk. During World War I, Japan took over Mi- Bibliography. C. W. Foreman, The Island Churches cronesia from Germany. They replaced German of the South Pacific; D. Hilliard, God’s Gentlemen: A missionaries with workers from the Protestant History of the Melanesian Mission, 1849–1942; K. S. La- Church of Japan. In the 1920s and 1930s the Jap- tourette, A History of the Expansion of Christianity, vol. anese government allowed German missionaries 5; Melanesian Institute, Point; G. W. Trompf, Melane- to return to the islands, but they placed them sian Religion; C. J. Upton, EB, 5:864–70; D. L. under severe restrictions as the islands were for- Whiteman, Melanesians and Missionaries. tified for war. The U.S. liberation of Micronesia during World War II ended the Japanese control Micronesia. Polynesia, Micronesia, and Mela- and initiated an American administration in the nesia comprise the three major divisions of the islands as the U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific large Pacific Ocean. It is located north of the Islands. This allowed missionaries from the orig- equator in the western part of the Pacific. Geo- inal American Board to return to the eastern part graphically, Micronesia includes the large island of Micronesia. Further, German missionaries nation of Kiribati (formerly Gilbert Islands, a who had survived the war were allowed to con- British protectorate) located in the easternmost tinue their work under the auspices of the Amer- part and straddling the equator. Then, spread ican Board. These missionaries joined their ef- from east to west are the islands of the former forts to regather island Christians and to rebuild U.S. Trust Territory of the Pacific—the Marshall their lives and their churches. Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia of The United States brought its educational, Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk (Truk), Yap; and Palau monetary, and postal system to the islands of Mi- (Belau); and the Northern Marianas Islands (Rota, Tinian, Saipan). In the westernmost part, cronesia. They also provided health care and a political program that led the war-torn islands the island of Guam, an unincorporated territory of the United States, completes the list of Micro- into a period of restoration and growth. Vigorous nesian islands. It is an island world composed of training programs by the United States equipped over 2,000 islands scattered over 3 million square islanders with needed skills to rebuild the islands miles of the Pacific with a population of over and explore new forms of democratic govern- 260,000. ment. With proper training, they wrote their own In 1852, American Board of Commissioners Constitutions and democratically elected their for Foreign Mission (ABCFM) missionaries, as- own forms of governments at the municipal, sisted by newly trained Hawaiian couples, en- state, and national levels. In the early 1960s, tered the eastern part of Micronesia (Marshalls, elected leaders from each island group formed Kosrae, and Pohnpei) and established small is- the Congress of Micronesia and a national gov- land churches. Within the first twenty years mis- ernment in cooperation with the U.S. adminis- sionaries on Pohnpei reached farther west to the tration. However, over the past twenty years, Chuuk Islands with the help of local servants of each island group has elected its own style of Christ. Roman Catholic missionaries reached the government, thus ending a united Micronesia western parts of Micronesia (Guam and the and resulting in the various island nations: the Northern Marianas) in the late seventeenth and Republic of the Marshall Islands, the Federated the early part of the eighteenth centuries. They States of Micronesia (FSM) made up of the four eventually established churches on Yap and Island States of Kosrae, Pohnpei, Chuuk, and Palau, and throughout the rest of the Microne- Yap; the Republic of Belau (Palau); and the Com- sian islands. monwealth of the Northern Marianas. 91 Middle East

All of these young island nations, except the and sharing of resources is being taxed by a Northern Marianas, have chosen to maintain greater emphasis on the individual. Overseas their close ties with the United States through a travel and education, movies, TV (cable, CNN), unique arrangement with the United States, videos, and other mass media bring incredible called the “Compact of Free Association.” Under challenges to the island people and their cultural this compact, the United States provides the is- values. Elementary and high school education for land nations with needed funding for their inter- all island young people adds to the culture change nal development. They also have freedom to deal facing families, communities, and churches. with their internal affairs and are allowed to Drugs, alcohol, and a promiscuous lifestyle chal- enter the United States without a visa. In ex- lenge the island communities. change, the United States receives options on Rural–urban drift due to education, jobs, and land use for United States military purposes. The adventure has drawn the young educated elite United States also assumes the responsibility for from their islands to the crowded administration the defense of the area. The people of Northern centers of Micronesia, often leaving the very Marianas elected an even closer bond with the young and the older ones back on their islands. United States, the status of a “commonwealth,” Guam, within easy access of most of the islands, allowing them to receive greater benefits, espe- has become the most attractive urban center for cially U.S. citizenship. islanders from the central and western part of Mi- The island of Guam, “unincorporated terri- cronesia. Since the “Compact of Free Association” tory” of the United States and located within the was ratified in the early 1980s, Micronesian citi- western part of Micronesia, provides the United zens have unrestricted entry into the United States with one of the most forward bastions of States. Thus, Guam, Hawaii, and the United defense in the vast Pacific Ocean. There is a large States have become home to many Micronesians. U.S. military presence on Guam. The Organic For example, a recent estimate claims that over Act of Guam (1950) by the U.S. Congress desig- 9,000 Chuukese have migrated to Guam. nated the island as an “unincorporated territory” Chuukese churches have attempted to provide of the United States, giving its people, the pastoral care for their people on Guam. In addi- Chamorros, U.S. citizenship without the privi- tion, many Chuukese have settled in Hawaii and lege of voting for the president of the United various parts of the United States. They have be- States. As the “Hub of the Pacific,” Guam has be- come a significant people group, among whom come the home for many Micronesians, Asians, evangelistic and pastoral work is being done. and U.S. citizens. The island has also become the The continuous cultural change over the years “honeymoon capital” for Japanese newlyweds. In has also sparked the rise of “nativistic move- recent years, Chamorros have been seeking to ments” (Palau and Chuuk) that urge a return to change their island status from a U.S. territory to cultural values and practices rejected and ne- a commonwealth. glected by generations of island Christians. During this crucial transition period, the mis- These movements have challenged the churches sionaries assisted the island churches in develop- to become more sensitive to the unmet needs of ing their leadership through local training pro- islanders. Also, the persistent animistic prac- grams, centralized pastoral schools, as well as tices, involving local medicine and magical assis- overseas education in Bible colleges and semi- tance of various kinds through contact with an- naries. This has resulted in self-governing and cestral spirits and traditional powers, challenge self-supporting island churches in the past island Christians to demonstrate the all-suffi- twenty-­five years. The mission boards (American ciency of Jesus Christ. Board/UCC and Liebenzell) still assist with some One of the most important roles for the island funding and personnel at the request of the churches in Micronesia today is to be the pro- churches. phetic voice of God to the elected leaders of the The traditional island churches are also chal- island nations; to provide a cohesive community lenged by other Christian organizations establish- of faith and values for island Christians in the ing their ministries. The Assemblies of God, the face of rapid cultural change; and to demon- Seventh-Day Adventists, the Independent Bap- strate to many islanders in meaningful Power tists, Youth with a Mission, Campus Crusade, and Encounters the all-sufficiency of the Lord Jesus more recently the Salvation Army have become Christ and the power of the gospel. active on various island centers. The Jehovah’s Herman Beuhler Witnesses, the Mormon Church, and the Baha’i are also offering their services to the Microne- Middle East. Since World War II, the lands from sians. the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the Persian Over the past twenty-five years, enormous Gulf have been called the Middle East. Other changes have challenged the island traditions and designations include the Levant and Near East. cultural values. Subsistence farming and fishing is Though the geographic perimeters vary, the Mid- giving way to a cash economy. Communal living dle East consists of the states or territories of the 92 Middle East

Arabian Peninsula, Cyprus, Iran, Iraq, Israel, cal and military empire. Within thirty years, the Jordan, Lebanon, Palestine, Syria, and Turkey. At rule of the patriarchal caliphate stretched west the core, religiously, it is a largely Islamic world. through the richest provinces of North Africa However, more than 8 million Christians live in halfway to the Atlantic Ocean, east into Asia, and the region. Despite the fact that massive emigra- north to the eastern shores of the Black Sea. Ex- tion of Christians has eroded the strength of cept for Asia Minor, Muslims ruled all of the an- Christianity in some areas, notably Palestine, cient Christian Roman Empire in Asia. overall the Christian population is growing. Nonetheless, there remained a significant Christian presence in the region goes back to Christian minority population throughout the establishment of the first church in Jerusalem on Middle East. Especially where large Arab Chris- Pentecost, when the Holy Spirit came upon the tian populations were involved, notably in what is disciples of Jesus (Acts 1–2). From that epicenter now Egypt, Palestine, Lebanon, Syria, and the gospel was to spread to Judea, Samaria, and Yemen, Muhammad’s successors granted immu- the ends of the world (Acts 1:8). Earliest Christi- nity from forcible conversion. For non-Arabs, in anity in the Middle East thus had a missionary what is now Iran or Turkey, Christianity remained dynamic. Within the lifetime of Jesus’ first fol- as a tolerated minority, often in a sort of religious lowers, Christianity spread to Africa, where nota- ghetto and subject to special taxes. ble Christian populations have continued to Gradually over the next three centuries Chris- thrive in Egypt and Ethiopia despite the rise of tianity in Asia went into decline. Under the Uma- Islam in the seventh century; to Europe; and yyad Caliphate (661–750) and ‘Abbasids (750– eastward. Christians were first so-named at An- 1258), a numerically large body of Christians tioch (Acts 11:26). Although surviving docu- persisted faithfully, but its missionary possibili- ments provide too slender a base to support ties were curtailed and its long-term survival was some claims made about the expansion of Chris- in doubt. The world of Islam also experienced tianity in Asia during the lifetimes of Jesus’ apos- splintering, and ancient centers of civilization tles, an early tradition is that Thomas carried the came under the sway of new Islamic political gospel to India and established seven congrega- empires. These forced conversion to Islam all tions along the Malabar coast. across Asia with the exception of the Middle Christianity spread through the Hellenistic East. The Nestorians in China disappeared, and world, largely tending to follow trade lines and the Thomas Christians of southern India were attracting converts in the great urban centers of isolated as a minority-caste community. the Roman Empire such as Antioch, Ephesus, Still Christianity survived under medieval Is- Corinth, and Rome. Although conversion to the lamic rule. From the perspective of Asian history new faith was uneven, by the end of the third as a whole, the most distinguishing feature of the century Armenia had became the first Christian- period was the fall of the Arabs and triumph of ized kingdom followed, early in the fourth cen- the Turks. There are, of course, other perspec- tury, by the Roman Empire. Within two hundred tives, most notably that of European history years after the death of Christ, Syrian Christians which tends to highlight the brief, failed inter- were carrying the faith into the Persian Empire vention known as the Crusades. The first cru- and across the steppes of Central Asia. In addi- sade began in 1095 with a call by Pope Urban II tion to the tradition that St. Thomas visited to the Christian rulers of western Europe to res- South India, there is another account, dating to cue the Holy Land from the Turks. This led to the third century, of his visit to northwest India creation of a Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, which (what is now Pakistan). Earliest evidence of lasted in various forms from 1099 until the fall of Nestorian missionary activity in the ancient Chi- Jerusalem in 1187. Properly speaking, the story nese capital Chang’an dates to 635. of the succession of Crusades to restore Chris- Missionary dynamism did not endure. Con- tian control of the Holy Land belongs to the his- tributing to this decline was the internal political tory of the Western church. However, they did and theological splintering of Christianity. How- leave their mark on the churches of the Middle ever, in terms of the transformation it brought to East. Negatively, they heightened the breach be- the religious geography of the Middle East, the tween Eastern and Western Christianity, and major factor was the rise of Islam. During the tended to unite Eastern Christians, Jews, and period from the hijrah, or emigration of the Muslims in their disenchantment with arrogant Prophet and his family from Mecca to Medina in Western Christians. Positively, they contributed 622 to his death in 632, Muhammad created a to the renaissance of European life, in part religious community held together by his per- through the introduction of new architectural sonal presence and authority. Though it lasted forms and learning to Europe. They also contrib- only ten years, Muhammad’s public mission had uted to the emergence of two new Catholic mis- an impact similar to that of Jesus. After his sionary orders, the Dominicans and Franciscans. death, his family and closest relatives by mar- The Castillian Dominic (1170–1221) sent riage transformed this community into a politi- preaching friars to the Middle East with a sense 93 Middle East of mission shared by the Franciscans, to strive to gretfully or unwisely, the mission formed a new heal the divisions of Christianity and to reach Protestant denomination. In Iran, Henry Martyn, out in faithful evangelistic witness to Muslims. en route to England from service in Calcutta, Among the early Dominican missionaries, Ray- India, between 1806 until 1811, worked on a Per- mond Martin (1230–84) became a notable sian version of the New Testament until his death scholar of Islam. Francis of Assisi (1182–1226), at age thirty-one, having baptized one convert. never reached the Middle East. However, his per- Missionaries with the ABCFM who opened a sta- sonal mission to Egypt impressed Muslims. His tion at Urmia in 1835 concentrated on adherents model of sincere Christian witness inspired Is- of Eastern Christianity, with the same results as lamic rulers to allow Franciscans to remain in noted in Turkey. By contrast, Swiss missionaries the region, often as custodians of the Holy Sites. of the Basel Mission, who settled in Tabriz in Between the fourteenth and eighteenth centu- 1813, concentrated on contact with Muslims. ries, Christian missionary activity in the Middle Among its missionaries, Karl Pfander completed East was limited. Early in this period, the best- in 1829 the Mizan-al-Haqq (Balance of Truth), a known missionary was the Spanish layman, Ray- book which helped pioneer a more tolerant ap- mond Lull (c. 1235), who sought to convince the proach to Muslims, with an inner understanding Western church of the vital need for peaceful of Islam not characteristic of earlier missionaries. missionary work among Muslims. During his This approach began to bear fruit under the min- preaching journeys to Tunis and Algeria in North istry of an Irish Anglican Robert Bruce, who spent Africa, and to Cyprus, he was attacked, arrested, ten years in the Punjab and, like Martyn, obtained and expelled many times. He met a martyr’s permission to spend a year in Iran on his way death by stoning in Tunis. back from furlough in Britain to improve his The Reformation period of the sixteenth cen- knowledge of Persian and of Islam. His year’s stay tury, which witnessed the creation of new Roman extended to two, and in 1871, as he prepared to Catholic missionary orders and some initial Prot- leave for India, nine Muslims with whom he had estant outreach, quickened the pulse of Christian studied Islam in Isfahan asked for baptism. He re- evangelistic activity and awakened interest in mained in Iran and was joined by another CMS work among Jews and Muslims. However, virtu- missionary with a background in India, Edward ally no effort to evangelize in the Middle East fol- Craig Stuart. Their ministry bore fruit when the lowed from this. It remained for the evangelical first Persian, Hassan Barnabas Dehquni-Tafti, awakening of the late eighteenth century to gen- was consecrated Anglican bishop on April 25, erate missionary activity in the region. 1961. In the nineteenth century, Protestants under- One additional nineteenth-century initiative is took several initiatives. Animated by Paul’s ex- worthy of note. Even as Christianity arose in Jeru- ample of preaching first to the Jew (Rom. 1:16), salem under the unitive ministry of the Holy the London Society for Promoting Christianity Spirit, Jerusalem was the setting of an ecumenical among the Jews (Church Mission to Jews, or initiative between 1841 and 1886. In 1841 the Church’s Ministry among the Jews), founded in Church of England and Prussian Evangelical 1808 as an offshoot of the London Missionary Union jointly established the Protestant bishopric Society, was the first of some twenty-three such in Jerusalem. The first bishop, Michael Solomon societies in Britain alone. Many of these con- Alexander, was a converted Jewish rabbi. He tinue to the present. The London Society sent the served from 1842 to 1845. His successor, Samuel Reverend Joseph Wolff (1796–1862), a converted Gobat, a French-speaking Swiss Protestant who Jew, to undertake various exploratory journeys, had served the Church Missionary Society in leading to the start of a medical ministry in Jeru- Ethiopia, was bishop for thirty-three years, from salem in 1824. 1846 to 1879. His tenure proved controversial in Elsewhere, in 1818, the Church Missionary So- such areas as liturgy, missionary strategy, and re- ciety (CMS) sent a party of five missionaries to lations with local political and religious authori- Egypt. The American Board of Commissioners ties. When his successor, Joseph Barclay, died for Foreign Missions (ABCFM) established work suddenly after less than two years in office, the in Beirut in 1823. Notable work was done in the joint undertaking collapsed, and the British Arch- area of translation of the Bible into modern Ara- bishop of Canterbury appointed a successor on a bic and establishment of the Syrian Protestant purely Anglican basis. The demise of the Jerusa- College, which became the American University lem episcopacy in 1886, due to conflict in Jerusa- of Beirut in 1920. The American Board also began lem and imperial politics in Europe, contributed work in Turkey in 1831. The Reverend William to the continued breach between the Anglican and Gordell settled in Constantinople. The educa- Lutheran churches and the splintering of the tional work gradually extended to other centers in Christian community in the Holy Land. Prosely- Asia Minor and Armenia. In terms of conversions, tizing activities among Eastern Christians and however, numerical growth came from adherents failure to establish any viable Jewish Christian of the ancient Eastern churches as, perhaps re- community among the local inhabitants further 94 Miracles in Mission weakened Christian witness in the Holy Land. to Iraq’s invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Christian This initiative contributed in some measure to the Zionists still engender fervent support for the continued failure on the part of Western Chris- State of Israel. The intimate linkage between tians to rethink attitudes toward Eastern Chris- Christian Zionism and political decision-making tians and the people of Israel. remains a political factor in Western diplomacy The religious awakening of interest in the Mid- related to the Israeli-Arab and Israeli-Palestinian dle East coincided with the decline of the Otto- conflicts. man Empire and an awakening of European im- As the era of Western influence in the region perial ambitions in the region. At times, waned after mid-nineteenth century, involve- ecclesiastical and political rivalries often contrib- ment by indigenous Christians in the wider so- uted directly to conflict, starting with Napoleon cial and religious life of Middle East has in- Bonaparte’s invasion of Egypt in 1798. In 1847, creased. Despite the great diversity of the region, the Roman Catholic Church revived the Latin it is possible to make a few generalizations. On Patriarchate under French auspices. This in turn the whole, the social influence of Christians is attracted Russian interest, allegedly in support of disproportionate to their numbers throughout Orthodox authorities, and contributed in some the region. Generally, they are better educated measure to the outbreak of the Crimean War in than the Muslim majority. They are prominent 1854. Struggle among European imperial powers in commerce, education, and the professions. for control of the region intensified in the after- Christians fare relatively well economically and math of the collapse of the Ottoman Empire are less likely to number among the poorest of after World War I. the poor. Where Islamic law prevails, and in the The lands of the Bible have extraordinary sig- State of Israel, Christians are generally tolerated nificance for Christians, Jews, Muslims, and the provided there is no missionary activity from tiny community of Samaritans as well as for outside. In countries where so-called Islamic other religious communities such as the Baha’i fundamentalism is particularly strong, or reli- and Druze. Interest in and care for the Holy gious nationalism particularly strident, as in Land have long characterized major streams of Iran since 1979, Christians have suffered perse- Christian spirituality. Pilgrimage has been a cution. Christians exercise considerable political major manifestation. Another has been Christian power of Cyprus, which remains partitioned, Zionism, a phenomenon first expressed during and in Lebanon, where they once formed a ma- the sixteenth century. Especially within the An- jority of the population. Religiously, the Chris­ glican and Calvinist traditions, some Protestants tian churches remain fragmented, notwithstand- began to read the Bible in such a way that they ing the longings of ordinary Christians to live as expected, as a prelude to Christ’s second coming, one body, including gestures to promote unity, that Jews would return to their ancient home- such as the pilgrimage of the Roman Catholic land. By the nineteenth century, many Chris- Pope Paul VI in January 1964, and the encoun- tians, influenced by a dispensational hermeneu- ters he had with Benedictos I, Greek Orthodox tic (see Dispensationalism), expressed an Patriarch of Jerusalem, and Athenagoras I, Ecu- accepting attitude toward the desire of many di- menical Patriarch of Constantinople. aspora Jews to return to the Holy Land and initi- Paul R. Dekar ated political activity promoting restoration of Jews to the Holy Land. In effect, Christian Zion- Bibliography. Y. Ben-Arieh, The Rediscovery of the ism preceded the emergence of political Jewish Holy Land in the Nineteenth Century; R. B. Betts, Chris- Zionism, an ideological instrument for mobiliz- tians in the Arab East. A Political Study; S. P. Colbi, A History of the Christian Presence in the Holy Land; J. S. ing international patronage for a Jewish home- Conway, Holocaust and Genocide Studies 1 (1986): 127– land in the Holy Land. In Britain, Canada, and 46; K. Cragg, The Arab Christian. A History in the Mid- the United States, Christian Zionists have exhib- dle East; R. T. Handy, ed., The Holy Land in American ited considerable activity and influence, antici- Protestant Life 1800–1948. A Documentary History; pating Christ’s second coming by the end of the N. A. Horner, A Guide to Christian Churches in the Mid- second millennium of the common era. Chris- dle East; S. M. Jack, Journal of Religious History 19 tian Zionists welcomed the Balfour Declaration, (December 1995): 181–203; S. H. Moffett, A History of which, on November 2, 1917, promised the Jews Christianity in Asia. a national home in Palestine; capture of Jerusa- lem a few weeks later; establishment of the Brit- Miracles in Mission. Contemporary mission en- ish mandate of Palestine after World War I; ap- deavor cannot and should not seek to avoid the pointment of a Jew, Herbert Samuel, as the first subject of supernatural power and the miracu- High Commissioner; Jewish emigration to the lous. Neither, on the other hand, should missions Holy Land; organization of Jewish para-military today become obsessed with or distressed over forces; creation of the State of Israel in 1948; re- the power and activity of evil beings under Sa- unification of Jerusalem under Israeli control in tan’s control, nor over those who teach about 1967; and the response of the world community them. The Bible teaches Christ’s victory over all 95 Miracles in Mission the Powers (authorities), Principalities (rulers), erless through God’s power (see also Demons, De- dominions, and demons (1 Cor. 2:6; 15:24; Eph. monization; Exorcism; and Spiritual Warfare). 1:15–23; Col. 1:15–20, 2:15; 2 Thess. 2:8; Heb. The Miraculous and Other Manifestations. 2:14). Mission today needs to rest assured that Miracles today are evidenced in tongues, knowl- God still can and does work miracles. edge, visions, and other areas (1 Cor. 12–14). Areas of Interface between the Miraculous These manifestations, questioned by some, indi- and Mission. Missions interface with the mirac- cate to others the direct action of God. Mission- ulous in evangelism, healing, deliverance, and aries must deal honestly and directly with these other areas. manifestations. The Miraculous and Evangelism. All evange- Principles Relating to Missions and the Mi- lism is miraculous but in missions today individ- raculous. Several principles relate to miracles uals and groups are opened to the gospel in ways and missionary work. First, missionaries should that can only be miraculous. The history of welcome the aid of miracles and other manifes- Christianity is replete with accounts of people tations of Signs and Wonders in missionary movements that obviously were instigated and ministry. In regard to supernatural power and promoted by the Holy Spirit. the miraculous, missionaries must be careful Some contemporary missionaries consider never to be materialists, disbelieving in supernat- warfare prayer and the “binding” of territorial ural powers, nor magicians, thinking supernatu- spirits as a major method in evangelistic activi- ral powers can be controlled by ritual (see ties. C. Peter Wagner defines Territorial Spir- Magic). its as members of the hierarchy of evil spirits Second, missionaries must affirm that mira- who, delegated by Satan, control regions, cities, cles, signs, and wonders are not necessary for tribes, people groups, neighborhoods, and other evangelism or other missionary work. The Holy social networks and inhibit evangelistic break- Spirit continues to grant evangelistic fruit where through. John Duncan and Edgardo Silvoso re- there are no outward signs of miracles. Signs and count how, in Argentina, after prayer, fasting, wonders can, however, be instrumental in help- confession, and confronting territorial spirits, ing people become more willing to hear the gos- the Lord granted a marvelous gospel break- pel. through. John Wimber, who believes in “power Third, missionaries must accept that healing is evangelism” and miracles in evangelism, does not always God’s plan for every person. God not hold miracles necessary for evangelism. He speaks through suffering as well as through heal- sees proclamation of the gospel as the “heart and ing. Missionaries should not, therefore, promise soul” of evangelism. healing as God remains sovereign in granting The Miraculous and Healing. God has used healing. healing to reveal the truth of his message Fourth, missionaries must also remember that throughout history. The Lord has healed through power resides in the gospel itself, not in miracles the prophets (2 Kings 5:1–16), Jesus (Mark 1:40– (Rom. 1:16; 1 Cor. 1:18). Missionaries must be 41; John 4:46–54), the apostles (Acts 3:1–10), certain never to make miracles seem imperative New Testament believers (Acts 14:3), and Chris- for missionary effectiveness. They must remem- tian missionaries today. God continues to per- ber that miracles, like all other Christian deeds, form miracles of healing, both to meet the phys- must glorify God rather than calling attention to ical needs of suffering people and to reveal the humans. When miracles are used to bring fame truth of his message. and notoriety to humans, these “signs” are not of Belief in divine healing in no way prohibits God. Christians may be seen doing miracles but using modern medicine and using modern medi- never be doing miracles to be seen. cine does not indicate a lack of faith in God’s Finally, missionaries should remember that power to heal. Missions today should allow God miraculous events are not always of God. Pha­ to speak both through modern medicine and raoh’s magicians did signs (Exod. 7:10–22) as did God’s direct healing action. Satan (2 Thess. 2:9). Jesus declared that false The Miraculous and Deliverance. Demons (evil prophets would perform miracle (Matt. 24:24). spirits, powers) exist and harm, but do not pos- Missionaries must beware of counterfeit mira- sess in the sense of owning, human beings, cles. Missionaries must remember that signs and whether believers or unbelievers. Jesus and New wonders function to convey truth, especially di- Testament Christians expelled demons from per- vine compassion. The purpose of signs is that sons (Matt. 8:28–34; Mark 5:1–20; Acts 5:16; people apprehend the message the signs bring 16:16–18). Contemporary missionaries face ex- rather than dwell on the signs themselves. panding needs and opportunities to oppose evil Ebbie C. Smith spirits who demonize persons. Deliverance from Bibliography. C. E. Arnold, Ephesians: Power and evil spirits has become a growing phenomenon Magic; idem, Powers of Darkness; D. Bridge, Signs and among evangelical missionaries. Demons who Wonders Today; J. Dawson, Taking Our Cities for God; attack people can be expelled and rendered pow- N. Geisler, Signs and Wonders; P. G. Hiebert, Anthropo- 96 Mother Teresa logical Reflections on Missiological Issues; D. Powlison, izing missions from the West needed to be dis- Power Encounters; E. Rommen, ed., Spiritual Power mantled in favor of a new order of relationships. and Missions; T. M. Warner, Spiritual Warfare; C. P. Reflecting this, Bishop Federico Pagura of Cen- Wagner, Engaging the Enemy; C. P. Wagner, and F. D. tral America wrote a pithy challenge in 1964 en- Pennoyer, eds., Wrestling with Dark Angels. titled “Missionary, Go Home . . . Or Stay.” After appeals in 1971 from John Gatu of Kenya Mission on Six Continents. The Commission on and Emerito Nacpil of the Philippines, a heated World Mission and Evangelism (CWME) of the debate developed over the need for “mission,” World Council of Churches held its first world but not for Western missionaries. This occurred conference at Mexico City in December 1963. It both in print and especially at international con- affirmed that the old unidirectional model of ferences in Bangkok (1973), Lusaka (1974), Lau- Westerners sending and non-Westerners receiv- sanne (1974), and Nairobi (1975). Calls were is- ing missionaries was past. Disavowing the anti- sued by some for a transfer of “the massive quated paternalistic structures, the CWME de- expenditure on expatriate personnel in the clared under the caption “mission in six churches in Africa [for example] to programme continents,” that the emphasis should be that activities manned by Africans themselves.” God’s mission could now originate from every In 1974, Gerald h. Anderson argued that part of the world. Every part of the world had while there were “situations in which the with- been implanted with the church and therefore drawal of missionaries would be in the best in- was capable of sending mission agents to any terests of the Christian mission,” such a general other part of the world. Mission belonged to the policy for all situations was “neither biblically essence of the church, and the paganism (or sound nor in the best interests of the churches” neo-paganism) of the West constituted as much anywhere. Instead, he urged the development of a mission challenge as the paganism of countries “mutuality in mission.” Similarly, Stephen Neill far away from the West ever did. Indeed, the observed that different churches held rather di- Western world now needed to realize what vergent views on the “moratorium” issue, reflect- non-Western Christians could do to help its peo- ing the fact that many of them were at different ple find meaningful faith in God. stages in life. The new theological emphasis alerted the During the 1990s, questions were raised in church in every continent to recognize its mis- evangelical circles on questions such as: “Are sionary calling within its own environment. It American [or Western] missionaries still needed challenged the traditional one-way traffic in mis- overseas?” Alternatives have been suggested by sion and denied that Westerners were the most mission organizations acting on the premise that authentic representatives of Christian belief, life, twenty-five or more local believers (who are far and practice. As Johannes Verkuyl pointed out, more effective evangelists than are expatriates) it discarded the distinction between mission (in can be supported for the cost of maintaining one distant lands) and evangelism (in one’s own American missionary overseas (K. P. Yohannan). land) and challenged churches everywhere to A. Christopher Smith focus on the one world, which is in need of the Bibliography. G. H. Anderson, Mission Trends, No. gospel. An assumption here was that Partner- 1, pp. 133–41; idem, DEM, pp. 702–3; E. Castro, IRM, ships and reciprocity are to characterize relation- 64:254 (April 1975), pp. 117–217; F. Pagura, Mission ships between Christians from all parts of the Trends, No. 1, pp. 115–16; K. P. Yohannan, Revolution world. in World Missions. The slogan was a milestone of twentieth-­ century mission theology. It maintained currency Mother Teresa (1910–97). Yugoslavian social for a few decades in ecumenical circles. worker and missionary in India. Mother Teresa A. Christopher Smith has become one of the most accepted and cele- Bibliography. R. K. Orchard, ed., Witness in Six brated missionaries in the modern world, having Continents: Records of the CWME of the WCC Mexico been honored with the inaugural John XIII City 1963; J. Verkuyl, Contemporary Missiology: An Peace Prize (1971), the inaugural Templeton Introduction. Prize (1973), and the Nobel Peace Prize (1979). Born in Skopje, Yugoslavia, as Agnes Gonxha Moratorium. Since the mid-nineteenth century, Bojaxhiu in 1910 into an Albanian peasant fam- a number of international Christian leaders be- ily, at eighteen she joined Loreto Nuns. She came came very concerned about paternalistic and au- to Calcutta, where she taught at Loreto Convent thoritarian mission practices and the need for High School for seventeen years. God called her new churches in the southern continents to de- as she was traveling by train to a Himalayan re- termine their own courses of action. One hun- treat in 1946 to give up everything and follow dred years later, Hendrik Kraemer, Max War- him to the slums to serve him among the poorest ren, and James A. Scherer argued that mission of the poor. Two years later she left the convent business should not continue “as usual.” Patron- and started the Missionary of Charity Order, 97 Mott, John Raleigh which began its first children’s home in 1955 and World Council of Churches named him honor- its first leprosarium in 1957. The ministry now ary president. But the Methodist layman who had includes schools, food distribution centers, and declined prestigious academic and political posts AIDS hospices worldwide. wanted to be remembered simply as an evangelist. By the 1960s, nine foundations were estab- His many works included The Evangelization lished in other countries, and by 1975 there were of the World in This Generation (1910) and Ad- more than a thousand sisters spread out all over dresses and Papers (6 vols., 1946–47). the world. After an interview with Malcolm Mug- J. D. Douglas geridge for British Broadcasting, she became an Bibliography. B. Mathews, John R. Mott, World international celebrity. In recent years Mission- Citizen; C. H. Hopkins, John R. Mott, 1865–1955: A aries of Charity has grown to over three thou- Biography. sand sisters and four hundred brothers. Mother Teresa is a true model of Christian love Myanmar Mission Boards and Agencies. in action. She was well accepted by all religious There are two major streams of Protestant mis- and political groups. She did not make an issue sionary efforts in Myanmar. The first is that of about people getting converted, but she shared conciliar mission work, which is a joint effort of Christ through her life and mission. Her life and eleven mainline Protestant churches united in work was her testimony for Christ. After her the Myanmar Council of Churches related to the death, she was honored by an Indian state fu- World Council of Churches. The Regional neral with dignitaries from around the world Council for Burma was formed in 1914, and re- present. named the Burma Christian Council in 1949 and Sakhi Athyal the Burma Council of Churches in 1975. Today, Bibliography. J. L. Gonzalez-Balado and J. N. Play- Myanmar Baptist Convention, Methodists, and foot, My Life for the Poor; E. LeJoly, Mother Teresa of Presbyterians, through their mission boards and Calcutta: A Biography; R. Serrou, Teresa of Calcutta: A societies, are sending missionaries to the un- Pictoral Biography. reached areas. Evangelistic efforts since the 1970s, such as “Chins for Christ in One Century” Mott, John Raleigh (1865–1955). American mis- and “Kachin Gideon Band-3/330,” have been the sionary promoter and ecumenical leader. Born most dynamic. The Conciliar mission stream into a Methodist family in Sullivan County, New emphasizes ecumenicity, development, and theo- York, he graduated from Upper Iowa and Cornell logical education. universities, was converted during his student Under the Evangelical-Pentecostal stream are days, and pledged himself to missionary service seventeen denominations and some parachurch (1886). He was a YMCA secretary (1888–1915), co- movements, ranging in persuasion from funda- founder and chair of the Student Volunteer mentalistic to charismatic. The Myanmar Evan- Movement (1888–1920), prime mover in establish- gelical Christian Fellowship was organized in ing the World Student Christian Federation 1984. Assemblies of God, the fastest growing and (1895), and chair of the World Missionary Con- third largest denomination in the country with a ference (Edinburgh, 1910). Mott traveled two mil- membership of 67,648, began in 1930 and is a lion miles enthusiastically, his motto, “With God strong mission church. The other denominations anywhere, without him, not over the threshold.” in this stream have come into existence as the re- He acquired an immense knowledge of the mis- sult of renewal, evangelism, and church planting. sionary enterprise worldwide, encouraging stu- The renewal movement among the Zomi Chin dents and fieldworkers and setting up national during the past three decades has resulted in mis- councils of churches. In 1923 a Japanese Christian sion across cultures. Also, parachurch move- leader called him “father of the young people of ments such as Campus Crusade, Witnessing for the world.” John R. Mott was adept at spotting Christ, Every Home for Christ, God’s Trio Part- and nurturing recruits, was much respected by po- ners, Gospel for the Nation, and Myanmar litical heads at home and abroad (he once spoke to Church Planting Mission all help fulfill the evan- three U.S. presidents—Taft, Coolidge, Wilson—in gelistic mandate. The churches in this stream a day), labored tirelessly for prisoners of war and emphasize evangelism, renewal, church planting, Orphanage Mission Work, and could extract large and theological education in their missionary ef- donations from the American rich (Rockefeller forts. funds established the Missionary Research Li- In addition to these streams, the Myanmar brary). He was chair of the International Mission- Bible Society, Christian Literature Society, and Myanmar Blind Mission Fellowship all work in- ary Council (1921–41) and presided over the Jeru- dependently with their own mission boards. salem Missionary Conference (1928). In 1935 a future archbishop of Canterbury declared, “He led Chin Khua Khai us then; he leads us still.” In 1946 he shared the Bibliography. D. Barrett, WCE; W. C. B. Purser, Nobel Peace Prize; in 1948 the newly formed Christian Missions in Burma; Statistics of Churches in 98 New Apostolic Reformation Missions

Myanmar (1995–1996); M. Shwe Wa, Burma Baptist themselves, but for the most part they are taking Chronicle; S. Tin, Statistical Year Book of Myanmar. the form of loosely structured apostolic networks. In virtually every region of the world, these new Nee, Watchman (Ni Tuo-sheng) (1903–72). Chi- apostolic churches constitute the fastest growing nese preacher and author. Born in Swatow, segment of Christianity. China, Nee was converted while a student at One of the strong characteristics of the new Trinity College, Fuzhou. He was influenced by apostolic churches is the conscious desire to re- missionary Margaret Barber, and the writings of instate the ministry and office of apostle, Jeanne de la Motte Guyon (1648–1717), G. M. whether the term itself is used or not. Churches Pember, Robert Govett, D. M. Panton, and Jessie which characterize themselves as apostolic in Penn-Lewis. From 1926 to 1928 Nee wrote The nature have outreach built into their very fabric. Spiritual Man, a spiritual compendium based on This includes outreach and church planting in the trichotomous view of man as body, soul, and their own surroundings and social ministries as spirit. In 1928 he moved to Shanghai, and there well as foreign missions. The strong desire to be edited The Revival, The Bible Record, and in directly involved in taking the gospel to the na- 1930, The Little Flock Hymnal. In 1933 the “Lon- tions of the world is reminiscent of the upsurge don Group” Brethren invited Nee to visit Britain, of world missions among traditional evangelical but broke fellowship with him because Nee at- churches after World War II. tempted to visit T. Austin-Sparks (who deeply in- During the last quarter of the twentieth cen- fluenced his theology) while in London. Nee tury the more traditional Western missionary built his movement of “Assembly Hall” congrega- agencies have been in notable decline, while tions and evangelistic efforts known as “the Third World-based missionary agencies have work,” which grew rapidly in the 1930s and been strongly increasing (see Non-Western Mis- 1940s. In 1938 he preached in Europe; his mes- sion Boards and Societies). Many of these Third sages in Helsingor, Denmark, were later tran- World agencies have emerged from the new ap- scribed as The Normal Christian Life. His theol- ostolic churches in their midst. An important ogy is characterized by a heavy emphasis on part of their methodology is to recognize apos- man as body, soul, and spirit; he calls Christians tolic leaders in foreign nations, build personal to be broken in spirit so that the Spirit of God relationships with them, and encourage the for- may be released in them. He taught that there mation and multiplication of apostolic networks should be one church per location; denomina- which relate to each other in non-bureaucratic, tional connections are antibiblical. He was later non-controlling ways. The local congregation imprisoned by the communist government. He frequently becomes the principal launching pad deeply influenced the life and witness of the for overseas missions, somewhat to the dismay house churches in mainland China, and numer- of traditional mission agencies, both denomina- ous Christians outside China. One of his follow- tional and interdenominational. Ted Haggard, ers, Witness Lee, developed his thought further pastor of new Life Church of Colorado Springs, into the aberration known as the “Local Church said this at a National Symposium on the Post- Movement,” based in the United States. denominational Church held at Fuller Seminary Samuel Ling in 1996: “[The New Apostolic Reformation] is the ‘black market’ of Christian ministry. Because Bibliography. B. V. James, TCDCB, p. 273; A. I. Kin- the lost of the world are demanding prayer and near, Against the Tide: The Story of Watchman Nee. the message of the Gospel, the demand is forcing us to work outside normally accepted missions New Apostolic Reformation Missions. The methods to satisfy the cry for eternal life in the New Apostolic Reformation is an extraordinary hearts of people.” work of God at the close of the twentieth century A common characteristic of new apostolic which is, to a significant extent, changing the churches is for the senior pastor to lead teams of shape of Protestant Christianity around the lay people on at least one, and more frequently world. For almost 500 years, Christian churches two or three, mission trips to different nations have largely functioned within traditional de- each year. These are usually facilitated through nominational structures of one kind or another. personal relationships with apostolic figures in Particularly in the 1990s, but with roots going the nations visited, and they last for a week or back for almost a century, new forms and opera- two. Stated immediate objectives of these trips tional procedures are now emerging in areas vary greatly from supporting the preaching and such as local church government, interchurch re- teaching ministry of the senior pastor to under- lationships, financing, evangelism, missions, taking a construction project, to street evange- prayer, leadership selection and training, the role lism, to prayer journeys to social service projects of supernatural power, worship and other im- to literature distribution to other similar activi- portant aspects of church life. Some of these ties. However, a more fundamental reason for this changes are being seen within denominations kind of an ongoing program is the benefit of a 99 New Delhi Assembly constantly increasing level of missions interest strengthened, which pleased the evangelicals and and commitment throughout the local church. Al- the orthodox. most invariably the individuals who take these Fourth, ecumenical history was made by the trips return as transformed persons. Missions is merger of the International Missionary Council no longer peripheral to them, but an essential (IMC) with the WCC. Although the merger had part of their personalities. And this permeates been discussed during the formative years of the through their respective spheres of influence in WCC, the IMC had decided to maintain its sepa- the church. How much can one local church be rate identity. After 1958, however, negotiations involved in missions? A new apostolic church of with the ecumenical councils, and tremendous 2,500 in Anaheim, California, Grace Korean pressure from the WCC, led to the incorporation Church, pastored by Kim Kwang Shin, has an an- of the IMC into the WCC. The work of the IMC nual church budget of $6.5 million, of which $5 consequently became the responsibility of the million is spent on foreign missions in East Af- newly created Commission on World Mission rica, Russia, mainland China, Vietnam, and other and Evangelism of the WCC. New Delhi marked places. the end of one era and the beginning of another David Shibley of Global Advance, one of the in ecumenical missions history. foremost trainers of new apostolic missionaries, Justice C. Anderson lists six reasons why new apostolic churches are Bibliography. N. Goodall, The Ecumenical Move- making such a significant contribution to world ment; W. A. Visser ‘t Hooft, New Delhi Speaks; R. Rouse evangelization: (1) less bureaucracy; (2) a high and S. Neill, HEM. view of Scripture; (3) the expression of signs and wonders for the verification of the gospel; New Zealand Mission Boards and Societies. (4) strategic-level spiritual warfare and advanced Anglican CMS, Wesleyan Methodist, and French intercession; (5) advanced praise and worship; Catholic Missions predate the annexation of New and (6) apostolic networking (Ministry Advan- Zealand by Britain and the signing of the Treaty tage, July–August 1996, p. 8). of Waitangi in 1840. The involvement of mission- C. Peter Wagner aries in the negotiations contributed to Maori acceptance of the treaty and to Christian con- New Delhi Assembly (1961). The Third Assem- cern about the abuse of Maori rights by the Brit- bly of the World Council of Churches (WCC) ish settlers and government. Christianity devel- met in New Delhi, India, in November 1961. Un- oped in distinct settler and Maori streams, but like the two previous assemblies (Amsterdam, sensitivity to issues of mission at home such as 1948; Evanston, 1954), New Delhi was precisely these increasingly informed convictions about planned, crisply administered, and pragmati- Chris­tian mission overseas. cally efficient. The location in India was in In 1841 an error in Bishop Selwyn’s letters of sharp contrast to the western cities of Amster- appointment gave him jurisdiction in the Pacific dam and Chicago. The assembly was composed and led to the formation of the Melanesian mis- of 577 voting members, with a total of 1,006 per- sion. Interest in Chinese in the Otago gold fields sons participating. from the 1860s led to Presbyterian mission in New Delhi avoided the speculative theological Canton. Presbyterians were also involved in Van- themes addressed earlier, and prepared reports uatu and later in India and Southeast Asia, par- on witness, service, and unity. Four develop- ticularly in medicine and theological education. ments give New Delhi its significance in ecu- The New Zealand Baptist Missionary Society menical history. began in Dunedin in 1885 and still maintains First, the enlargement of membership was dra- work in Bangladesh. The Church Missionary So- matic. Twenty-three different communions ciety of New Zealand was founded in 1892 and by joined the Council. The Russian Orthodox 1992 had sent out 280 missionaries to 24 coun- Church, with its satellites from Bulgaria, Roma- tries. Open Brethren missions began in Argentina nia, and Poland, joined, making the Orthodox in 1896. By 1996 some 800 Brethren missionaries tradition the largest communion of the WCC. had gone to over 50 countries. In 1922 the inter- Two large denominations of Pentecostals from denominational Bible Training Institute was Chile also became members. founded with an emphasis on missionary train- Next, the Roman Catholic Church sent five of- ing. The period after World War II initially saw ficial observers, giving New Delhi a status that growth in overseas involvement, but over time had never been achieved previously by an assem- there was a reduction in length of service, a ta- bly of the WCC. pering off of denominational missions, and the Third, the confessional basis of the WCC was multiplication of evangelical agencies, many theologically reinforced, emphasizing the deity linked to international groups based in North of Christ and the authority of the Bible. The trin- America and Britain. Founded in 1982, Servants itarian and biblical aspects of the basis were to Asia’s Urban Poor provides a contrasting

100 Nigerian Mission Boards and Societies model of holistic mission as a New Zealand ini- Newbigin, (James Edward) Lesslie (1909–98). tiative. British churchman, culture scholar, and mission- New Zealand churches have shared in world- ary to India. Lesslie Newbigin’s work and accom- wide moves toward ecumenism and the realiza- plishments demonstrate leadership in mission tion that Christianity is now a global, multicul- theology and the Ecumenical Movement. After tural religion without a dominant culture ordination and commissioning as a missionary de­fining its theology. While older denominational in 1936 by the Church of Scotland (though En- boards have often been sensitive to the realities glish by birth and education), he served for al- of a postcolonial world, including the complex most four decades in India. An architect of the demands of genuine Partnership, some appear church union that resulted in the Church of weaker in their commitment to evangelism. South India (CSI), he became one of its initial Many, but not all, evangelical societies have a bishops (1947). In 1959 he took the assignment commitment to social ministries, though few are to be the general secretary of the International comfortable with political issues. Missionary Council at the time it was heading Mission boards and societies generally no lon- toward integration into the World Council of ger have a monopoly on firsthand stories about Churches. Upon integration in 1961 at New social need and religious change in remote soci- Delhi, he became associate general secretary of eties. In an electronic age the power that such the WCC and director of the newly established information gave has gone forever. Not surpris- Division (later Commission) of World Mission ingly supporters of mission have a wide range of and Evangelism, serving, in that capacity, as the perceptions of the needs of the world. editor of the International Review of Missions. In Historically women have served in large num- 1965 he returned to India and served as the (CSI) bers as missionaries, and as supporters through bishop of Madras. In 1974, he returned to En- denominational groups such as the Presbyterian gland to teach mission theology at Selly Oak Col- Women’s Missionary Union. Today feminist con- leges in Birmingham until 1979, during which cerns seek to redress the lack of recognition for time he wrote his major work on mission theol- women’s contribution to world mission, and re- ogy, The Open Secret. Thereafter he fostered in ject models which still reflect values of patriar- the churches of the West a sense of the mission- chy and dominance. ary encounter of the gospel with their own cul- In 1997 there were some seventy mission agen- ture. cies involved in supporting Christian mission A prodigious author, Newbigin published nu- outside New Zealand, about ten of which were merous articles and more than thirty books. Half denominational. Roman Catholics participate in- of the latter deal explicitly with his own engage- ternationally through missionary orders. New ments with the two primary mission contexts of Zealand Pentecostals share in the spontaneous his life, India and the West. The rest are critical commitment of the worldwide movement. Angli- reflections on the missional issues facing all can Partnership-in-Mission structures provide for churches. His major contribution was to articu- diocese to diocese links throughout the world. late a rationale for mission in the culturally and The contribution of migrant Polynesian and religiously plural world of the late twentieth cen- Asian Christianity to mission from New Zealand tury. Grounding his reasoning in the biblical ac- is likely to prove important. New Zealand’s role count of the character, actions, and purposes of as a place of international theological and mis- God, he has been an apologist both for the gos- sion education is still developing. Influence is im- pel, defending belief within a postmodern con- possible to quantify, but anecdotal evidence text, and for the Christian mission, providing points to greater awareness of what can be done confidence to those who give witness to the with modest resources, a distrust of ideologies, a unique revelation of God in Christ. somewhat pragmatic theology still finding its George R. Hunsberger own roots, an eclectic spirituality and a willing- ness to relate across boundaries which the New Bibliography. L. Newbigin, The Household of God; Zealand Christian experience regards as unim- idem, Unfinished Agenda: An Autobiography; idem, Fool- portant. ishness to the Greeks: The Gospel and Western Culture. John Roxborogh Nigerian Mission Boards and Societies. In Bibliography. A. K. Davidson, ‘With All Humility and 1842 Protestant missions came to what was to be- Gentleness’: Essays on Mission in Honor of Francis Foul- kes, pp. 41–50; S. L. Edgar and M. J. Eade, Toward the come Nigeria. From the beginning, it was recog- Sunrise. The Centenary History of the New Zealand Bap- nized that most of the work would have to be tist Missionary Society; R. Glen, Mission and Moko. As- done by Africans. The Anglican Church Mission- pects of the Work of the Church Missionary Society in ary Society (CMS) got many workers from New Zealand, 1814–82; Mission Internet (NZ) Directory among the rescued slaves settled in Sierra Leone. of Mission and Training Agencies; G. Trew, ed., Looking The Metho­dists used Ghanaians, and the Presby- Back/Forging Ahead. A Century of Participation In Over- terians had West Indian missionaries. As local seas Mission by New Zealand Brethren Assemblies. converts were won, most foreign missions trained

101 Non-Church Movement (Japan) and sent out local evangelists as quickly as possi- The number of Nigerian missionaries contin- ble. Many of these worked in cultures not their ues to grow. In 1992 there were 2,873 missionar- own. ies from Nigeria, of whom 1,259 were doing Most notable among the early African mission- cross-cultural work. Most Nigerian cross-cul- aries working with the CMS was Samuel Adjai tural missionaries work in less-reached Nigerian Crowther. He set up and supervised the Niger tribes, though there are about 250 working in Mission, which worked along the Niger River other countries. from the delta to the confluence with the Benue The Roman Catholics have a college for train- River, ministering to at least five language ing Nigerian missionary priests. Some of the less groups. He recruited rescued Africans from Si- orthodox African Independent Churches of Nige- erra Leone as staff. Crowther worked within the ria send missionaries to the Nigerian communi- framework of the CMS, and the Niger Mission ties in Western lands and some to non-Christian developed into regular Anglican dioceses. Today Nigerian peoples. the Anglican Church in Nigeria has its own mis- Nigeria has 50 percent of the population of sion-sending structure. West Africa and 85 percent of the region’s evan- In 1949 the Sudan Interior Mission, now the gelicals. This makes it a strategic sending nation Society for International Ministries, helped for the evangelization of West Africa. the churches they had founded to set up their Lois Fuller own missionary-sending body, the African Mis- sionary Society. Its name was changed to the Bibliography. L. D. Pate, From Every People: A Evangelical Missionary Society (EMS) upon the Handbook of Two-Thirds World Missions. organization of the Evangelical Churches of West Africa in 1953. The oldest and largest Nige- Non-Church Movement (Japan). One of the dis- rian mission agency, the EMS has over a thou- tinctly indigenous expressions of Protestant sand workers in several African countries, Brit- Christianity in Japan today is the Mukyokai or ain, and the United States. “non-church” movement. It was founded by The Nigerian Baptists have been sending mis- Kanzo Uchimura (1861–1930), a devoted follower sionaries to Sierra Leone for many years. They of Jesus who was at the same time intensely Jap- have also worked in the less-reached areas of Ni- anese in his loyalties. Inevitably he became a geria. Other notable denominational missions vocal critic of Western denominationalism be- are the mission departments of the Church of cause of what he regarded as its unwarranted ele- Christ in Nigeria, Assemblies of God, Gospel vation of human leaders, its promotion of fac- Faith Mission, and Deeper Life Bible Church. tionalism, and its penchant for superimposing Deeper Life had seventy-two missionaries in thir- Western values on Japanese Christians. ty-two nations in 1992. Uchimura was a Luther-like apologist for the bib- Campus revivals in the 1960s and 1970s led to lical faith and a genuine promoter of social righ- the founding of Nigeria’s first nondenomina- teousness. Although his spiritual experience tional mission societies. Calvary Ministries began within Western denominationalism, its started with educated young people in Zaire in sectarian and ecclesiastical rigidities soon drew 1975. By 1996 they had over two hundred work- him to possible association with Quaker simplic- ers serving in nineteen Nigerian ethnic groups ity and its non-sacramental view of church ordi- and ten other African countries. The Christian nances. This led him to abhor both congrega- Missionary Foundation started in Ibadan in tional organization and formalism in liturgy and 1982, and by 1992 had fifty-five missionaries in polity, creeds and dogmas. Eventually the Mukyo- at least eight Nigerian tribes and nine other kai movement emerged. It is significant that no countries. Many smaller mission agencies con- form of Christianity has been more prolific in its tinue to be formed. literature and more relevant to the educated elite In 1982, nine Nigerian mission organizations in urban Japan. It is devoid of anything approxi- banded together to form the Nigeria Evangelical mating a local or national federation of assem- Missions Association (NEMA). Their joint proj- blies. No Sunday schools or systematic instruc- ects include raising mission awareness, research, tion of youth are permitted, no offerings are and missionary training. There were over thir- taken, and no sacraments are administered. All ty-five agencies in NEMA by 1996. Members in- public witnessing by an ordained or professional clude independent agencies, denominational clergy is eschewed. The Mukyokai movement is agencies, support agencies, and specialized min- devoid even of church buildings. Despite this, istries (e.g., children’s and student work). Uchimura produced a religion of the spirit that is Today many of the independent agencies run distinctly Japanese through and through. In the their own missionary training programs. The mid-1950s Emil Brunner reported that he felt larger denominations have tried to incorporate that the non-church movement represented the missionary training into their existing theologi- “cream of Japanese Christianity, vital and biblical cal education. in the very best sense.” The movement has pla- 102 Non-Western Mission Boards and Societies teaued of late, and tends to be currently regarded 1988 and coupled with various regional studies. as just another Christian sect. The results indicated that non-Western missions Arthur F. Glasser and agencies were growing more than five times faster than their counterparts in the West. By the Bibliography. W. H. H. Norman, IRM 46 (1957): mid-1990s, there were an estimated 88,000 380–93. cross-cultural workers sent out by approximately 1,600 non-Western agencies or organizations in Non-Western Mission Boards and Societies. Africa, Asia, Latin America, and Oceania. This As people in countries around the world were growth has continued, while in the West mis- evangelized and incorporated into a worshiping sionary recruitment and deployment have either group of believers by missionaries, one of the plateaued or declined. natural results was the development of mission- Types of Agencies. The missionary activities of ary outreach from these newer churches. Similar the Two-Thirds World can be classified as struc- to their counterparts in Europe and North Amer- tured or unstructured. The unstructured groups ica, believers in Africa, Asia, Latin America, and consist of believers who spontaneously proclaim Oceania developed their own missionary-sending the good news of Christ’s love without any for- vision and efforts. Like those of the Western mal organization to define and direct their activ- countries, these efforts required missionary-send- ity. The Quechua Movement for Christ in Bolivia, ing organizations with explicit policies and pro- the Tzeltal Christians and Chol Indian Church of cedures. Mexico, the Apostolic Church of Ghana, and the Terms. There have been several labels for this Chinese Christians in Burma are examples of ef- development. The phrase “Third World Mis- fective unstructured missionary endeavors. Re- sions” was borrowed from political economics ceiving encouragement from colleagues and (see Third World). Many from Africa, Asia, Latin church leadership, those members of the group America, and Oceania felt, however, that “Third who have an evangelistic vision reach out spon- World Missions” implied third-class missions. As taneously, often to a neighboring village or town this was not the intention, “Non-Western Mis- of another culture. Finances come from friends sions” was suggested, a particularly good re- or tentmaking activities; training and pastoral placement to describe those in Asia, since most supervision are often minimal. of their cultures are non-Western. However, the Within the Two-Thirds World, however, most peoples in Latin America consider themselves of the missionary activity is structured. There just as Western as those of North America, so are national officers or directors, a system for this term also had its deficiencies. raising and maintaining financial support, and “Emerging Missions” was used to describe the methods to coordinate the evangelistic outreach arising army of new missionaries from countries of workers hundreds of miles from the central that traditionally had received missionaries, yet office. The agencies vary greatly in character, but now sent workers as well. The term was not are united by the fact that they are formally or- meant to imply that the emerging movement was ganized. They are usually led by a charismatic completely new. For records as early as the 1820s communicator, while the vast majority of work- tell of missionaries like Joshua Mateinaniu, who ers are from the ethnic group or nation conduct- planted churches by traveling from one Pacific ing the outreach. island to another. What the term actually in- There are large denominational agencies, like tended to convey was that this phenomenon had the Burma Baptist Convention and the Diocesan recently become better documented and in this Missionary Association of the Church of the sense was emerging. Province of Kenya (Anglican). On the other The current term is “Two-Thirds World Mis- hand, there are large nondenominational agen- sions,” a more accurate representation of the re- cies, like the Friends Missionary Prayer Band in source God is now mobilizing for his kingdom; India and Mission Amen in Peru. There are agen- the countries of Africa, Asia, Latin America, and cies that maintain their main office close to the Oceania constitute nearly two-thirds of the field of service rather than in the home country, world’s inhabited­ land mass and at least that frac- for purposes of recruitment and fund raising, for tion (if not more) of the world’s population (see instance, Project Magreb, a Latin American Two-Thirds World). Although “Two-Thirds World agency located in Spain. And there are hundreds Missions” is the more popular term today, the of smaller agencies that operate along family other labels continue to have some use in describ- lines: employees at the home office are family ing this extremely significant development. members, and the missionaries are either friends Growth. In 1972, the first year the worldwide of the family or relatives. activity of the emerging missions was reviewed, Problems. In the Two-Thirds World, mission there were an estimated 2,951 missionaries sent agency problems are virtually the same as those out by 368 agencies and organizations. Similar anywhere. Funding the work and adequately systematic research was carried out in 1980 and training workers remain critical concerns for 103 Oceania prayer and resolve. One of the ways in which tion laborers from India went to Fiji, and Filipi- newer agencies have learned to handle some of nos, Japanese, and Chinese came to Hawaii. these difficulties has been to participate in conti- The first organized mission work in Oceania nent-wide or international conferences on global itself was done by Catholic Spanish missionaries missions. Another way they have learned about and Filipino catechists in Guam and other Mari- mission structure and administration has been ana Islands in the seventeenth century, and by from nationalized structures that are related to Spanish missionaries from Peru in Tahiti in the international agencies. Youth with a Mission, following century. However, the first major mis- Operation Mobilization, New Tribes, Wycliffe, sionary movement was the fruit of the eigh- and a host of other agencies of European or teenth-century evangelical revival in Britain— North American origin have been sources of en- sparked by such great preachers as Whitefield couragement and education for newer groups. and Wesley. Through his influence and financial The future of global missions clearly lies with support, Thomas Haweis convinced his fellow the Two-Thirds World agencies and missionaries. co-founders of the London Missionary Society Like those that preceded them, they are not al- (LMS) to establish their first mission in the Pa- ways without cultural bias and limitations. Yet if cific. Their own ship, the Duff, carried thirty mis- the gospel message is to continue to move into sionaries in 1797 to Tahiti, the Marquesas, and all nations, it will in large measure be the work Tonga. Tahiti, although abandoned for a short of very committed missionaries from the time in 1808, would become the base for the churches and agencies of the Two-Thirds World. LMS—“the first sustained Christian missionary Larry E. Keyes activity in the South Sea islands” (Gunson, 1978, 12). John Williams, their most famous mission- Bibliography. D. J. Cho, New Forces in Missions; ary of this early period, and others sent out Poly- D. E. Clark, The Third World and Mission; M. L. Nelson, nesian evangelists, who “laid the foundation for The How and Why of Third World Missions: An Asian Case Study; idem, Readings in Third World Missions: A the evangelization of Oceania” (Douglas, 1986, Collection of Essential Documents; L. D. Pate, From 23). Every People: A Handbook of Two-Thirds World Mis- The LMS was soon joined by others. An evan- sions; idem, The Last Age of Missions: A Study of Third gelical Anglican mission was established in 1814 World Mission Societies; J. Richard, Asian Church Lead- by the Church Missionary Society (CMS) in ers; T. Williams, World Missions—Building Bridges or New Zealand under the direction of Samuel Barriers; J. Wong, P. Larsen, and E. C. Pentecost, Mis- Marsden, who greatly influenced the early stages sions from the Third World: A World Survey of of evangelical missionary work throughout Oce- Non-Western Missions in Asia, Africa and Latin Amer- ania. CMS established the first mission among ica. the Maoris of New Zealand and stimulated fur- ther missionary outreach by the Anglican Oceania. Oceania is one of the most Christian- churches of New Zealand and Australia. ized areas of the world. In a brief period of two Congregational missionaries from the Ameri- hundred years, Christianity has spread across can Board of Commissioners for Foreign Mis- the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean. Consisting sions in Boston arrived in Hawaii in 1820 and of approximately 25,000 islands, Oceania ex- eventually expanded into Micronesia. English tends from Easter Island on the east to Palau on Methodists of the Wesleyan Missionary Society the west; from Hawaii and the northern Mariana established a base in New Zealand in 1820, and Islands on the north to Australia and New Zea- contributed to the missionary movement from land on the south. Tahiti and Hawaii westward across the Pacific Traditional society in Oceania is usually di- into Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji. The Mormons vided into four main cultural areas: Polynesia, began in present-day French Polynesia in 1844, Micronesia, Melanesia, and Australia (Aborigi- and the Seventh-Day Adventists came to the Pa- nes). The original hunting-and-gathering peoples cific around 1890. of Australia and Melanesia came in the first of After recovering from the effects of the French several major waves of migrations from South- Revolution and the Napoleonic wars, the Catholic east Asia at least forty thousand years ago. Later, Church in France began sending members of people with an agricultural way of living popu- newly founded missionary societies to the Pacific lated Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia, as in the 1830s. The Congregation of the Sacred their boating skills allowed them to traverse im- Hearts of Jesus and Mary, or Picpus Fathers, mense distances of open waters. Beginning at worked in the eastern area of Oceania, and the the end of the eighteenth century, settlers and Marists in the central. On many of the islands migrants from Europe and other parts of the where Protestant missionaries had already begun world would soon form the majority of the popu- working, there was competition between Catho- lations of both Australia and New Zealand lics and Protestants. However, Christianity was (whose original people, the Maoris, were Polyne- established through the initial contacts of Catho- sian). Also, large numbers of indentured planta- lic missionaries in such places as the islands of 104 Oceania

Mangareva and the Marquesas of present-day torate on part of New Guinea in 1884, it was the French Polynesia, and in Wallis and Futuna of first case in Oceania of a colonial government western Polynesia. taking the initiative to invite missionaries—in The history of Christianity in Oceania in the this case, the Methodists and Anglicans from nineteenth century is unfortunately scarred by Australia. Germany annexed the northeastern tensions between Protestant and Catholic mis- part of the island in 1884 and one Catholic and sionaries and churches. This situation was aggra- two Protestant missionary agencies came from vated even further as competing colonial govern- Germany: the Society of the Divine Word, Rhen- ments eventually began sweeping over the Pacific ish Missionary Society, and Neuendettelsau Mis- and in varying degrees favored “their own”— sion Society. France the Catholics and Britain the Protestants. By 1900, Christianity was just beginning in Around 1850, primary missionary efforts Melanesia, but in the rest of Oceania national began shifting to western Oceania, especially churches for whole island groups were estab- Melanesia. In contrast to Polynesia where Chris- lished and sent out their own missionaries. Pa- tianity was often accepted en masse with the cific islanders played a major role in the world conversion of their king or other hereditary lead- missionary movement (cf. Tippett), as did the ers, missionaries faced a much different situa- young immigrant churches of Australia and New tion in Melanesia, consisting of many, smaller Zealand. competitive social and linguistic units with a As for the issue of mission and politics, mis- more fluid style of achieved leadership by elders, sionaries in eastern and central Oceania had ar- or “big men.” In addition to these linguistic and rived before the colonial powers and were very cultural challenges, a number of missionaries influential in precolonial political developments. died due to sickness and attacks by the islanders, Most missionaries did not initially favor colonial who often identified the missionaries with the annexation, but many later changed this stance. behavior of labor-recruiters, traders, and colo- Eventually, Tonga would be the only island na- nial officials—the great wave of outsiders “invad- tion to avoid colonial rule. In Melanesia, mis- ing” their world and forcing them to jump di- sionaries for the most part arrived after colonial rectly from the Stone Age into modern times. annexation. While their intentions and approaches were very The years between 1900 and 1942 marked a different, missionaries and Christianity admit- period of relative stability for most island peo- tedly played a significant role in the phenome- ples and churches and it has even been called non of social change (cf. Whiteman). “the high point in the life and influence of South Within this Melanesian context, the Anglican Pacific Christianity” (Forman, 1982, 11). Al- Church of New Zealand in 1849 initiated the suc- though colonial rule had somewhat curtailed the cessful Melanesian Mission under George Sel- earlier influence of the church in island societies wyn’s innovative leadership. Presbyterian mis- in eastern and central Oceania, other influences sionaries of the late evangelical revival in Scotland from outside the area were not too intrusive. began in the 1850s in the Melanesian islands of Movements toward establishing independent New Hebrides (present-day Vanuatu). Due to his churches began in Tonga, Samoa, and Fiji. At widely read autobiography, John Paton became this same time, Christian missionary efforts were their most famous missionary. Around 1875, slowly but steadily making progress in Melane- George Brown established the first missionary ef- sia. The most significant newcomer to the mis- fort of Australian Methodists in the Bismarck Ar- sionary field during this period was the Assem- chipelago, with Fijian and Samoan Methodists blies of God. also joining them. The Missionaries of the Sacred This relative tranquility was shattered in 1942 Heart (MCS), another Catholic congregation from as Oceania was engulfed in the turmoil of World France, came to this area in 1882. In that same War II. While some of the islands were only used year, the interdenominational Queensland as military bases, others became combat zones. Kanaka Mission began its work among Solomon A large number of islanders and missionaries Islands sugar plantation workers in Australia, and died due to the war. Besides the upheaval to then in 1904 changed its name to South Sea daily life (including missionary and church activ- Evangelical Mission and, based on the China In- ities), events surrounding the war triggered land Mission model, extended its missionary out- shock waves of tumultuous social change reach to the Solomon Islands. throughout the Pacific, which often led to the New Guinea, the largest island in Oceania, was dramatic phenomenon of adjustment move- the last to be approached by missionaries. By the ments (cf. Forman, 1982, 154–63; see also Cargo end of the nineteenth century, only the coastal Cults). area had been touched. Appropriately the LMS, In the political arena, no sooner had colonial the pioneer missionaries of the Pacific, began on rule shifted in some islands through postwar ne- the south coast in 1871, and MSC on Yule Island gotiations, then there were initial steps toward in 1885. When the British established a protec- political independence. A stronger call for 105 Oceanic Mission Boards and Societies church independence followed and missionaries Kiribati named Tabuia independently evange- in general took a more supportive backseat role. lized Nauru between 1888 and 1899; and, after a The Pacific Council of Churches was established Samoan convert from Tonga had brought Chris- in 1966. Also, many new religious groups were tianity to Samoa in 1828, a Samoan missionary entering Oceania after World War II (cf. Ernst). named Paulo helped lead two hundred to three By 1980, most of the larger churches of Ocea- hundred Niueans to faith by 1852. Other groups nia had achieved independence and were send- not long in coming to Oceania included the Pres- ing missionaries to other parts of the world. For byterians, the American Board of Commissioners example, the churches with an LMS background for Foreign Missions, the Seventh-Day Adven- are now joined together through the Council for tists, and the Liebenzell Mission. World Mission. The Pacific is probably “the most A further illustration of the connection be- solidly Christian part of the world” (Forman, tween Protestant (especially the LMS) and indig- 1982, 227), out of which “the regional concentra- enous mission efforts was the Cook Islands tion of evangelicals in the Pacific (17.6% of the Christian Church, begun by the LMS in the Christian population) is the highest worldwide” 1820s, which sent about seventy missionaries to (Ernst, 1994, 11). However, Pacific Islander Papau New Guinea between 1872 and 1896. Christians are facing new challenges today as Also, an LMS seminary established in 1844 each generation strives to respond to the contin- trained numerous Samoans for evangelistic out- ual call of God’s mission. reach. After Tahitians had helped evangelize Roger Schroeder Samoa in the 1830s, an LMS missionary named Murray trained Samoans in Tutuila, who in turn Bibliography. J. A. Boutilier, D. T. Hughes, and S. W. Tiffany, eds., Mission, Church and Sect in Oceania; spread the gospel eastward to Manua. L. M. Douglas, ed., World Christianity: Oceania; M. Tahitian missionaries indeed have gone out all Ernst, Winds of Change: Rapidly Growing Religious over the Pacific, as have Samoans: by 1972, over Groups in the Pacific Islands; C. W. Forman, The Island 210 Samoan Congregationalists had served as Churches of the South Pacific: Emergence in the Twenti- missionaries, introducing Christianity to Toke- eth Century; J. Garrett, To Live among the Stars: Chris- lau, Niue, the Gilbert and Ellis Islands (now Kiri- tian Origins in Oceania; idem, Footsteps in the Sea: bati and Tuvalu), and Vanuatu. Moreover, new Christianity in Oceania to World War II; N. Gunson, missionaries continue to be sent out throughout Messengers of Grace: Evangelical Missionaries in the South Seas, 1797–1860; C. Miller, ed., Missions and the Pacific and around the world. The Fijian Missionaries in the Pacific; A. R. Tippett, The Deep Sea church has been sending overseas missionaries Canoe: The Story of Third World Missionaries in the for over one hundred years, and Tongan mission- South Pacific; D. L. Whiteman, Melanesians and Mis- aries have gone out throughout the Pacific (e.g., sionaries: An Ethnohistorical Study of Social and Reli- to Samoa and Fiji in the nineteenth century), in- gious Change in the Southwest Pacific. cluding Australia, Hawaii, and California. Naming all of the missions and similar organi- Oceanic Mission Boards and Societies. The zations operating in Oceania today would make island regions of the Pacific, or Oceania, can be a rather extensive list. Some of them are as fol- divided into three general areas: Melanesia, Mi- lows, listed (where applicable) with their dates of cronesia, and Polynesia. Over the past two cen- establishment and grouped into identifiable cat- turies, the Christian faith has spread through- egories: ecumenical agencies: Pacific Conference out these approximately 25,000 islands to make of Churches (PCC, 1966); Council for World Mis- Oceania one of the most Christianized areas in sion (formerly LMS, 1977); parachurch agencies the world. Indigenous missionaries have played for literature distribution: The Bible Society of an important role in the spread of the gospel the South Pacific, Lotu Pasifika Productions throughout the Pacific, and more recently are (1973); educational institutions: Pacific Theolog- contributing to worldwide gospel outreach as ical College (associated with the PCC, 1965), Pa- well. cific Regional Seminary (Catholic, 1972), Chris­ Spanish Catholic missionaries saw a small tian Leaders Training Colleges; research and measure of success in the seventeenth century. training organizations: The Micronesian Semi- However, it was not until well after British, Prot- nar, Pacific Churches Research Center (1976); estant missions—such as the London Missionary student fellowships: Campus Crusade for Christ, Society (LMS), the Church Missionary Society Pacific Students for Christ; women’s groups: (CMS), and the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary YWCA (1974), The Girls’ Brigade Asia-Pacific. Society—started arriving around 1800 that Ca- The continuing presence of ex-patriate mission- tholicism (increasingly French) started to grow aries in leadership roles is perhaps best exempli- significantly. Moreover, it has been primarily fied in the work of Wycliffe Bible Translators, Protestant or independent efforts that have in- Mission Aviation Fellowship, and Christian cluded the work of indigenous missionaries. For Radio Missionary Fellowship in Papau New example, Tahitian missionaries first took Christi- Guinea. Overall, however, the international mis- anity to Fiji under the LMS; a missionary from sionary community in PNG and throughout Oce- 106 Pentecostal Missions ania works largely in supporting and cooperating Radical evangelicals on the fringe of the nine- roles with indigenous churches and missions in teenth-century missions movement anticipated seeking to reach out to as yet unreached groups, the premillennial return of Jesus Christ and the as well as to countries throughout the world. outpouring of the Holy Spirit in the last days to J. Nelson Jennings spiritually equip believers with apostolic power for the world evangelization (Joel 2:28–29). Ac- Bibliography. L. M. Douglas, ed., World Christianity: cordingly, miracles would witness to the power of Oceania; J. H. Kane, A Global View of Christian Mis- sions: From Pentecost to the Present; K. Cragg, CDCWM, the gospel as they had in the expansion of the pp. 459–65. Early Church. A. B. Simpson and A. J. Gordon, among others, believed that prayer for the sick and power encounters (exorcisms, etc.) would at- Panama Congress (1916). A watershed event in tract non-Christians to the gospel. the life of the evangelical Protestant church, the As the century drew to a close and statistics Panama Congress drew attention to Latin Amer- revealed the slow pace of conversions on the ica as a mission field and gave fresh impetus to mission fields, some believed that God might the continent’s small and struggling Protestant also bestow xenolalic tongues (known human churches. The Congress came about largely as a languages) on Spirit-baptized missionaries as reaction to the World Missionary Conference in happened on the Day of Pentecost (Acts 2:4). Edinburgh six years earlier, where the organizers Hence, they could bypass lengthy language study had excluded Latin America from the agenda. and immediately begin preaching to bring swift Considering it already Christian because of its closure to the Great Commission. In varying de- Roman Catholic heritage, Edinburgh focused in- grees, Simpson, Gordon, and C. T. Studd, with stead on “pagan” nations. During the Edinburgh others such as W. B. Godbey, Frank W. Sandford, conference, however, North American delegates laid plans for a special meeting to consider the and the Kansas holiness preacher, Charles F. Par- unique missionary problems in Latin America. ham, considered this possibility. The Panama Congress had a strong North Parham concluded that speaking in tongues American flavor, with representatives from sev- constituted the “Bible evidence” of Spirit baptism: eral dozen agencies from the United States. he and most of his students at Bethel Bible School World War I limited European representation. in Topeka, Kansas, experienced the phenomenon The proceedings were conducted in English, in January 1901. This event and particularly news of the later Welsh Revival (1904–5) prompted the with Robert Speer presiding at business ses- sions and Samuel G. Inman as executive secre- Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles, California, tary. Of the 304 participants, only 21 were na- under the leadership of the African-American Wil- tive-born Latin Americans. liam J. Seymour. It became the most influential Nonetheless, the Panama Congress made a revival of the century in global perspective and lasting impact on Latin Protestantism. It pro- marked the beginning of Pentecostal missions. duced the first serious study of Protestant work Similar revivals followed in the wake of Topeka on the continent. It also gave a sense of identity and Azusa Street including ones at Zion and Chi- and solidarity to the small and struggling Protes- cago, Ill.; Dunn, N.C.; Nyack, N.Y.; Winnipeg and tant church, then numbered at 126,000 mem- Toronto, Canada; Sunderland, England; Oslo, bers, up from 50,000 in 1900. After the congress, Norway; and Stockholm, Sweden. From these Latin Protestants reportedly began identifying arose a new diaspora of missionaries, reaching themselves as “evangelicals,” since they were not upwards of two hundred by 1910. In India, how- “protesting” anything. The Panama Congress ever, influenced in part by the Welsh Revival and also gave rise to a series of follow-up regional the ministry of Minnie F. Abrams, the Pentecostal conferences (Lima, Santiago, Rio de Janeiro, and revival began autonomously in 1906. San Juan), thus promoting efforts of evangeliza- Although robust in their faith, the early mis- tion. sionaries were often ill-prepared, traveling with- out salary or pledged support, and without John D. Maust cross-cultural preparation. Before 1908, most of Bibliography. H. A. Johnson, V. M. Monterroso, and them expected to preach with “missionary W. R. Read, Latin American Church Growth; E. A. tongues,” but subsequently understood them to Núñez and W. D. Taylor, Crisis in Latin America. be glossolalia or unknown tongues for prayer in the Spirit (1 Cor. 13:1; 14:2). Whereas in India, a Pentecostal Missions. A twentieth-century mis- significant contingent of veteran missionaries sions movement noted for its emphases on Spirit (e.g., Chris­tian and Missionary Alliance [CMA], baptism, expectation of miraculous “signs and Methodists) became Pentecostal. Beginning in wonders” in gospel proclamation, utilization of the 1920s, Bible institute graduates, particularly indigenous church principles, pragmatism in from North America and the United Kingdom, communications and technology, and spectacu- became the backbone for much of the mission lar church growth. enterprise. 107 Pentecostal Missions

Apart from glossolalia and belief that all of the Pentecostal Assemblies of Canada, began moving gifts of the Spirit (1 Cor. 12:7–11) had been re- away from paternal control to partnership with stored, Pentecostal missionaries initially differed national church leaders. Scandinavian mission- little from their CMA and holiness contemporar- aries, rejecting any authority or agency above the ies. As time passed, however, they continued to local congregation, naturally supported indige- highlight miraculous signs and wonders more nous church principles. Their successes in Brazil than their Wesleyan–holiness and Reformed re- (and developments in Chile) first signaled the in- vivalist brothers and sisters. Other evangelical ternational progress of the movement. The missionaries virtually dismissed the notion of unique combination of Pentecostal spirituality miracles. Nonetheless, because of their focus on with the application of these principles accounts the Spirit’s work in mission, Pentecostals have for the rapid growth. The Church of God (Cleve- willingly addressed the dark side of spirituality: land, Tenn.) has also seen success but without Satanic power. This has helped them to effec- formally embracing indigenous church princi- tively relate the gospel to peoples with non-West- ples; growth has also come in part through amal- ern worldviews. Because the Spirit’s outpouring gamation with existing Pentecostal church bod- empowers seekers with spiritual gifts and for ies overseas. In recent years, mission churches Spiritual Warfare (Eph. 6:12), Pentecostalism have themselves begun sending out thousands of quickly becomes indigenous. their own missionaries (e.g., Yoido Full Gospel With ever-increasing numbers of missionaries, Church in Seoul, Korea, pastored by David [for- farsighted leaders recognized the need for orga- merly Paul] Yonggi Cho; Congregaçã Cristã do nization. The earliest and most successful Euro- Brazil in São Paulo, Brazil, founded by Luigi pean mission agencies were in the United King- Francescon; Calvary Charismatic Center in Sin- dom the Pentecostal Missionary Union of Great gapore, pastored by Rick Seaward). Britain and Ireland (1909), Zaire Evangelistic Since Pentecostals have always been more in- Mission (1919); in Netherlands, the Pentecostal terested in the “doing” than “theorizing” of mis- Mission Alliance (1920); and in Scandinavia, sion, they have produced few theologies of mis- Missionaries sent out from Swedish and Norwe- sion. The exceptions include: The Baptism of the gian Pentecostal congregations. In South Africa, Holy Ghost & Fire, 2d ed. (1906) by Minnie F. the Apostolic Faith Mission (1913) sent mission- Abrams, the first Pentecostal theology of mission; aries to various people groups in that region. Our Foreign Missions: A Biblical Guideline (Vår North American agencies included the Pente- Yttre Mission: Några Bibliska Riklinjer) ([Stock- costal Mission in South and Central Africa holm] 1937) by David Landin; A Theology of the (1910), Assemblies of God (1914), Pentecostal Church and Its Mission (1977) by Melvin L. Assemblies of Canada (1922), Russian and East- ern European Mission (1927), Pentecostal Holi- Hodges; The Third Force in Missions (1985) by ness Church (1911), and Church of God (Cleve- Paul A. Pomerville; The Liberating Spirit: Toward land, Tenn.) (1902). Following the trinitarian an Hispanic American Pentecostal Social Ethic dispute in the Assemblies of God (1913–16), (1993) by Eldin Villafañe; and Not By Might Nor many “Oneness” or “Jesus Name” missionaries by Power: A Pentecostal Theology of Social Concern joined organizations that eventually merged to in Latin America (1996) by Douglas Petersen. In form the United Pentecostal Church (1945). Still, discussions on the mission of the Church (1990– a large number of independent missionaries 95), Pentecostal scholars presented major papers served abroad, preferring the personal guidance on vital aspects of missiology at meetings of the of the Holy Spirit in their activities over the di- fifth quinquennium of the international Roman rectives of mission boards. Catholic­ and Classical Pentecostal Dialogue. With the delay in Christ’s return, Pentecostals The emergence of Pentecostal missions repre- frequently borrowed the paternalistic practices sented a vibrant new thrust in evangelism at a of their Protestant counterparts to give perma- time when the older missionary movement had nence to their efforts. However, Alice E. Luce, begun to decline due in part to questions raised formerly with the Church Missionary Society in about the ultimate claims of the Christian faith. India, influenced Pentecostal missions through Without such hesitancies, Pentecostal missionar- her adaptation of Roland Allen’s teachings on ies have changed the landscape of Christianity in the Indigenous Church in his Missionary Meth- the twentieth century through their accent on ods: St. Paul’s or Ours? (1912) with Pentecostal the role of the Holy Spirit in the Christian world distinctives. Reflecting the influence of Allen mission. Although contemporary statistics of and Luce, Assemblies of God missiologist Mel- worldwide church growth appear inflated, Pente- vin L. Hodges penned his best-seller, The Indige- costals now represent one of the largest families nous Church (1953). of Christians. Pentecostalism has proven to be Growth in many countries accelerated after the most dynamic force of the century for Chris- mid-century when missionaries, especially those tian expansion. from the Assemblies of God (U.S.A.) and the Gary B. McGee 108 Pentecostal Movement

Bibliography. A. L. Clanton, United We Stand: A Torrey, as well as speakers at the annual Kes- History of Oneness Organizations; E. L. Cleary and wick conferences in England (see Keswick Con- H. W. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Power, Politics, and Pen- vention), rejected the sinless perfection of the tecostals in Latin America; M. W. Dempster, B. D. Wesleyans and taught that the second work Klaus, D. Petersen, eds., Called & Empowered: Global brought the “fullness” of the Holy Spirit. Not Mission in Pentecostal Perspective; W. J. Hollenweger, The Pentecostals; J. A. B. Jongeneel, ed., Pentecost, Mis- only would it enhance personal holiness, but sion and Ecumenism; W. Ma and R. P. Menzies, eds., more importantly it would invigorate Christians Pentecostalism in Context; L. G. McClung, Jr., ed., for evangelism. In addition to the growing popu- Azusa Street and Beyond: Pentecostal Missions and larity of the doctrine of divine healing based on Church Growth in the Twentieth Century; G. B. McGee, the atoning work of Christ (Isa. 53:5; James This Gospel Shall Be Preached: A History and Theology 5:13–15) and the dispensational premillennial- of Assemblies of God Foreign Missions, 2 vols.; idem, ism of the Plymouth Brethren, these beliefs crys- “The Radical Strategy: The Linkage Between Paranor- tallized together as the “full” or “fourfold gos- mal Phenomena and Evangelism in Modern Christian pel”: Jesus Christ as Savior, Sanctifier (Baptizer Missions,” in The Holy Spirit and Mission Dynamics, ed., C. D. McConnell; R. P. Spittler, Jr., “Implicit Values in the Spirit), Healer, and Coming King. in Pentecostal Missions,” Missiology: An International Radical evangelicals from the holiness ranks Review 16 (October 1988): 409–24; L. S. Vaccaro de Pe- wondered aloud with other premillennialists how trella, “The Tension Between Evangelism and Social humanity could be evangelized in the “last days” Action in the Pentecostal Movement,” IRM 75 (January (Acts 2:17) before the imminent return of Christ. 1986): 34–38; C. P. Wagner, Spiritual Power and Church With a pessimistic appraisal of the future course Growth. of human history and discouraged by the slow pace of conversions in the mission lands, they Pentecostal Movement. A restorationist and prayed for the restoration of apostolic power. millenarian movement highlighting the baptism This “radical strategy” anticipated supernatural and gifts of the Holy Spirit that emerged from interventions of the Spirit’s power in Signs and the broader holiness movement beginning in Wonders to reach every tribe and nation with the 1901. Branches of modern Pentecostalism in- message of salvation (Matt. 24:14). For some, this clude “Classical” (denominational) Pentecostals, meant praying for the sick and exorcising de- “Neo-Pentecostals” (charismatics), and so-called mons, but others pondered the idea that God “Third Wave” evangelicals who view “signs and might restore the gift of tongues—“languages” wonders” as essential for successful ministry (xenolalia). Through bypassing time-consuming (Acts 5:12). language study, Spirit-baptized missionaries Throughout the nineteenth century, Protestants could expedite world evangelization by immedi- from a broad spectrum of churches prayed for ately preaching to their hearers. By 1890, this the outpouring of the Spirit (Joel 2:28–29) to di- short-cut to cross-cultural evangelism had gath- vinely enable them to bring about moral and so- ered considerable interest. cial reform and to evangelize the world. Among To prepare a special contingent of end-times them, Wesleyan holiness advocates encouraged missionaries, the Kansas holiness preacher believers to seek for a postconversion experience Charles F. Parham opened Bethel Bible School in of grace that would immediately bring “entire Topeka in the fall of 1900. Influenced by Irwin sanctification.” Reflecting the influence of John and convinced that tongues-speech represented Wesley, and more directly that of his associate the “Bible evidence” of Spirit baptism and af- John Fletcher, this experience became known as forded linguistic ability for gospel proclamation, the “second blessing,” the “double cure,” or he and his students prayed in early January 1901 “eradication” of the sinful nature, and increas- to receive the gift and consequently testified to ingly as the “baptism in the Holy Spirit.” Writers speaking in various languages. The “Apostolic such as Phoebe Palmer and William Arthur Faith movement,” as Parham called it, had taught that it would rid believers of the moral begun and his insistence on tongues became the flaw in human nature. Late in the century, Benja- hallmark of Pentecostal doctrine. min H. Irwin’s theology, which proposed a third In 1905, Parham started another Bible school work of grace— “fire baptism” for empower- in Houston, Texas. It was there that William J. ment—played a crucial role in the development Seymour, an African-American holiness of Pentecostalism. Separating sanctification from preacher, met Parham and accepted his teach- Spirit baptism, however, generated questions ings. Leaving Houston in early 1906 and arriving about what distinguished them from each other. in Los Angeles, he became the foremost leader of It was but a short step to arguing that speaking in the Azusa Street revival (1906–9). The impact of tongues as found in the “pattern” of Spirit bap- this event brought global dimensions to the tisms in the book of Acts (2, 8 [implied], 10, 19) movement through the following revivals and provided definite evidence of the third work. others that it sparked: Toronto, Canada (1906); Reformed revivalists like Charles G. Finney, Oslo, Norway (1906); Dunn, North Carolina Dwight L. Moody, A. B. Simpson, and Reuben A. (1907); Memphis, Tennessee (1907); Nyack, New 109 Pentecostal Movement

York (1907); Sunderland, England (1907); Stock- along with the preaching of the Word. The accent holm, Sweden (1907); Calcutta, India (1907); on the immanent presence of the Holy Spirit be- South Africa (1908); Chile (1909); and Brazil came the chief distinctive of their corporate wor- (1910). ship. Yet among early Pentecostal revivals, Azusa Between 1906 and 1916, Pentecostals divided Street was unique for its accent on racial recon- over three doctrinal issues. Beginning in late ciliation and the outpouring of the Spirit on the 1906, the first centered on the indispensable poor. Thus, while it shared the same concern for need of speaking in tongues as “initial evidence” missions that marked Topeka, other aspects of of Spirit baptism. As the belief in “missionary the Spirit’s work flowered, especially the fruit of tongues” failed, they increasingly considered the Spirit in human relationships as in the case speaking in “unknown” tongues (glossolalia) as of blacks, Hispanics, and whites in attendance. prayer in the Spirit and the source of empower- In addition to Seymour, prominent Afri- ment. Some emphasized tongues, but without can-American leaders included Charles H. insisting on them for Spirit baptism. However, Mason (Church of God in Christ), Garfield T. the emerging Pentecostal denominations gener- Haywood (Pentecostal Assemblies of the World), ally saw this as the entry into the Spirit-filled L. M. Mason (United Holy Church of America), life. and Ida Robinson (Mount Sinai Holy Church of The second division over the “Finished Work of America). Pentecostal awakenings amid op- Calvary” arose in 1910 when Pentecostals with pressed peoples (e.g., the victims of apartheid in Reformed backgrounds challenged the Wesleyan South Africa) took inspiration from Azusa as a holiness notion of sanctification. The most prom- model of true Pentecostal blessing and libera- inent leader of the opposition, Chicago pastor tion—the conferral of dignity and the Spirit’s William H. Durham, contended that Jesus fin- gifts upon the poor and oppressed. ished the work of salvation and sanctification on News of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit the cross. The legacy of this controversy contin- spread through persons traveling from Los Ange- ues with the Wesleyan view retained by several les, in addition to printed reports in periodicals “holiness-Pentecostal” organizations including such as the Apostolic Faith (Los Angeles), pub- the Church of God in Christ, Church of God lished by the Azusa leaders. At the same time, (Cleveland, Tenn.), and International Pentecostal believers schooled in holiness teachings in India Holiness Church. The Assemblies of God, Pente- began speaking in tongues in July 1906, though costal Assemblies of Canada, International unaware of events in the United States and Par- Church of the Foursquare Gospel, Pentecostal ham’s teaching on the evidential nature of Church of God, and United Pentecostal Church tongues. International (UPCI) represent “finished work” While there is little doubt that Pentecostalism bodies. attracted the poor and marginalized elements in The third division began in 1913 when a rela- society, this perception has also created an inac- tively small contingent of Pentecostals started curate stereotype. Recent research shows that teaching that water baptism in the name of Jesus while many Pentecostals came from the ranks of Christ according to Acts 2:38 had precedence blue-collar workers; indeed, there were even over the baptismal formula of Matthew 28:19. some wealthy Pentecostals. In regard to their The restoration of another “pattern” in the book role in society and due to their biblicism and ex- of Acts led Frank J. Ewart, Howard A. Goss, and pectation of Christ’s return, many were pacifists. others to replace the historic doctrine of the As a result, some were jailed or ordered to do al- Trinity with a radical “Jesus-centrism.” Dividing ternative service during World War I. As for the Assemblies of God in 1916, “Jesus Name,” women’s involvement in ministry, many Pente- “Apostolic,” or “Oneness” Pentecostals left with costals, like their holiness forebears, found justi- many of them later joining together to form the fication for this in the Spirit’s outpouring on UPCI in 1945. women as well as men (Acts 2:17). Women, Pentecostals have remained evangelical in doc- therefore, have made significant contributions as trine, confessing belief in the Trinity (the large evangelists, missionaries, pastors, and Bible majority), the inspiration and infallibility of school administrators. Most notable among Scripture, justification by faith, substitutionary them were Anna Larssen Bjourner, Christine A. atonement of Christ, and other historic doctrines Gibson, Aimee Semple McPherson, Lillian of the Christian faith. Nevertheless, they have Trasher, and Maria B. Woodworth-Etter. differed on several vital points: the ordinances of Pentecostal dynamics in worship have included the church, function of tongues in Spirit bap- encouraging everyone to become involved in tism, role of the Christian in society, attitudes singing, giving testimonies to answers to prayer, toward women in ministry, and church polity. playing musical instruments, clapping and rais- Traditional Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Con- ing hands in prayer, manifesting the gifts of the gregational polities are utilized with some Pente- Spirit (1 Cor. 12:8–10), and praying for the sick, costals claiming that the offices of apostle and 110 Pentecostal Movement prophet have been restored. Episcopal polity is ical reflection, Pentecostal and charismatic schol- evident in the Church of God (Cleveland, Tenn.), ars have made important contributions in part and even in circles that ostensibly appear Con- through the conferences and journals of the Soci- gregational (e.g., David Yonggi Cho’s Yoido Full ety for Pentecostal Studies and the European Gospel Church in Seoul, Korea). Hybrid Congre- Pentecostal Theological Association. gational/Presbyterian forms appear in such de- The Second Vatican Council (1962–65) laid the nominations as the Assemblies of God and Open theological groundwork for the Catholic charis- Bible Standard Churches. Congregational polity matic renewal, the largest of all the renewal dominates the continental European scene, Bra- movements. Beginning with the famous zil, and many other sectors of the movement. “Duquesne Weekend” retreat in the Pittsburgh, Evangelical recognition of American Pentecos- Pennsylvania, area in 1976, interest in the out- tals came with an invitation to several denomi- pouring of the Spirit grew quickly, especially nations to join the National Association of Evan- through the ministry of the Word of God commu- gelicals (NAE) at its founding in 1942. This close nity in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and major confer- identification with the NAE and participation in ences at Notre Dame University in South Bend, its member agencies has led to a gradual “evan- Indiana. Leading figures have included Stephen gelicalization” of Pentecostalism, an adoption of Clark, Ralph Keifer, Ralph Martin, Edward D. issues and perspectives germane to the largely O’Connor, C.S.C., Kevin and Dorothy Ranaghan, Reformed member organizations. NAE confer- and Leon-Joseph Cardinal Suenens, the latter ences also kindled interest in Pentecostal unity given oversight of the movement by Pope Paul VI. that led to the founding of the Pentecostal Fel- David J. Du Plessis, a key leader in charismatic lowship of North America (1948), recently reor- circles and sometime secretary of the Pentecostal ganized as the Pentecostal/Charismatic Churches World Conference, uniquely served as a bridge of North America (1994). Concern for unity between classical Pentecostals and Protestant among Spirit-baptized believers had led earlier and Catholic charismatics. In response to the to the four meetings of the International Pente- Catholic charismatic renewal and because of costal Council in Europe prior to World War I. In Pentecostal church growth in historically Roman 1939, the European Pentecostal Conference in Catholic countries, Du Plessis and McDonnell Stockholm, Sweden, helped lay the basis for the were instrumental in founding the Roman Cath- founding of the Pentecostal World Conference in olic and Classical Pentecostal Dialogue that 1947. Pentecostal church bodies have also joined began in 1972. the World Evangelical Fellowship, Lausanne Another path in the broader Pentecostal tradi- Committee for World Evangelization, and World tion came with the emergence of the “Third Council of Churches. Wave” of the Holy Spirit by the early 1980s. Ac- Beginning with the charismatic renewal in the cording to this definition, the Pentecostal and 1960s (see also Charismatic Movement), charismatic movements represent the first and “neo-Pentecostals” or “charismatics” appeared in second waves of the Spirit in the twentieth cen- the mainline Protestant churches, the Roman tury. Focusing their attention on prayer for the Catholic Church, and several of the Orthodox sick, exorcisms, and other spiritual manifesta- churches. This had actually begun in the Protes- tions, key proponents like C. Peter Wagner and tant churches in the 1950s and gained national Charles H. Kraft have encouraged evangelicals to press coverage in 1960 when Dennis Bennett, seek for supernatural power in ministry. Particu- rector of St. Mark’s Episcopal Church in Van larly influential has been John Wimber and the Nuys, California, announced to his parishioners Vineyard movement. Speaking in tongues, how- that he had been baptized in the Spirit and spo- ever, has not been at the forefront of their think- ken in tongues. Several factors account for the ing or deemed as a validation of Spirit baptism. renewal, including believers in the historic More recent developments have also impacted churches searching for a deeper work of the the world church, especially those at the Toronto Spirit, the influence of the postwar faith healing Airport Vineyard in Canada beginning in 1994 movement, and the activities of the Full Gospel and at Brownsville Assembly of God in Pensac- Business Men’s Fellowship International. ola, Florida, a year later. Although not without The appearance of Pentecostal phenomena controversy, these and continuing revivals in var- among Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Reformed, ious parts of the world (e.g., Brazil, Argentina, Mennonites, Methodists, Messianic Jews, Disci- Burkina Faso, Korea) have been influential in ples of Christ, Baptists, Lutherans, and others encouraging evangelism and revival elsewhere. prompted vigorous debate, but for the most part Classical Pentecostals alone constitute one of charismatics gained approval within their respec- the largest families of Christians in the world tive denominations. Official Catholic and Protes- today and along with charismatics and others in tant doctrinal statements on the renewal can be the Pentecostal/charismatic tradition enjoy an found in Presence, Power, and Praise (1980) edited unusual grassroots ecumenicity in the Spirit ris- by Kilian McDonnell, O.S.B. In regard to theolog- ing above conciliar and creedal boundaries. To- 111 Philippine Mission Boards and Societies gether, they represent the single most dynamic In 1986, Filipino national leaders, while con- development in twentieth-century Christianity. sidering how to evangelize their home country, Gary B. McGee set a goal of sending two thousand new Filipino missionaries by the year 2000. They further sub- Bibliography. R. M. Anderson, Vision of the Disin- divided this goal by projecting that one thousand herited: The Making of American Pentecostalism; S. M. Burgess, G. B. McGee, P. H. Alexander, eds., DPCM; of these missionaries would be sent to minister E. L. Cleary and H. W. Stewart-Gambino, eds., Power, cross-culturally within the Philippines and one Politics, and Pentecostalism in Latin America; D. W. thousand would be sent outside of the country. Dayton, Theological Roots of Pentecostalism; W. C. Various modes of support for these missionar- Fletcher, Soviet Charismatics: The Pentecostals in the ies have been used in their cross-cultural envi- USSR; D. E. Harrell, Jr., All Things Are Possible: The ronments. Some Filipino missionaries have been Healing and Charismatic Revivals in Modern America; sponsored by Western denominations. Others P. Hocken, The Glory and the Shame: Reflections on the have served in Tent-Making Mission, working as 20th Century Outpouring of the Holy Spirit; C. E. Jones, domestic or manual laborers, while serving Guide to the Study of the Pentecostal Movement, 2 vols.; Christ and giving witness to their faith in their idem, The Charismatic Movement, 2 vols.; J. A. B. Jon- newfound cultural contexts. Still others have geneel, ed., Pentecost, Mission and Ecumenism; R. Lau- been sent by local churches and supported rentin, Catholic Charismatics; K. Poewe, ed., Charis- through the sacrificial giving of the local church matic Christianity as a Global Culture; R. Quebedeaux, The New Charismatics II; J. L. Sandidge, Roman Catho- as full-time Christian missionaries. Those in this lic/Pentecostal Dialogue (1977–82): A Study in Develop- category have found missionary work difficult ing Ecumenism; V. Synan, The Holiness-Pentecostal Tra- financially because the economic base for send- dition; G. Wacker, Journal of Ecclesiastical History 47 ing and supporting from the Philippines has not (July 1996): 505–28; C. P. Wagner, The Third Wave of the been strong enough to support the Western Holy Spirit. model. Also, it has been difficult to send local currencies abroad due to local government re- Philippine Mission Boards and Societies. strictions. Finally, several indigenous mission Evangelical churches in the Philippines have agencies are closely connected with Western or been sending missionaries to peoples of other international mission agencies. The OMF Home cultures since the beginning of the twentieth Council is responsible for Filipino missionaries century. This movement may be due in part to serving with Overseas Missionary Fellowship. the influence and example of the Western mis- New Tribes, Philippines, is also working closely sionary movement. Perhaps a more significant with the New Tribes Mission of North America. reason, however, is the cultural diversity of the Many agencies are beginning to develop their Philippine Islands. It is not uncommon for Fili- own international contacts without the benefit of pinos to speak two or more languages. In one Western involvement. This has been facilitated sense, one can say that cross-cultural communi- by the networking activity of the Missions Com- mittee of the Evangelical Fellowship of Asia. cation is something Filipinos do as a matter of Three cooperative organizations are worthy of course in their daily lives. It is therefore not sur- mention. AMNET, directed by Chito Navarro, is prising, given the large Christian population and a loose association of independent churches wide cultural diversity, that a strong indigenous which are cooperating to reach unreached peo- missionary movement has grown and matured ples in the 10/40 Window. In 1998, they were over the years. Generally, this movement focused using one member mission agency, the Tribes at first primarily on Church Planting and Evan- and Nations Outreach, as their sending agency. gelism within the Philippine Islands. Some But they have been effectively promoting a mis- worked cross-culturally while others called sions vision among their constituent churches. themselves missionaries as they worked among Another organization is a cooperative project of their own people group. Nevertheless, Tagalogs the Overseas Missionary Fellowship, SEND In- worked among the Samal and Badjao in the ternational, World Team, and the Alliance of southern Philippines or among the Ifugao or Ka- Bible Christian Communities Philippines. They linga people of the north. have called it the Global Alliance Philippines Two studies done in 1986 revealed that two- Ministries, Inc., or GAP. This new organization thirds of the mission agencies active at that time will be the sending agency for Filipino mission- were founded in the 1970s and the first half of aries working with any of the participating inter- the 1980s, when Filipino missionaries could be national missions. They are currently consider- found in Indonesia, Hong Kong, Singapore, the ing the expansion of GAP to accommodate other Middle East, Latin America, and Africa. There- mission agencies which can incorporate Filipino fore, while the sending of missionaries is not a missionaries on their international missionary new phenomenon, the number of new mission teams. Finally, there is the Philippine Missionary agencies has grown significantly during the past Society, which seeks to establish links between two decades. Filipino missionaries and local churches or de- 112 Pluralism nominations in other countries. For example, a Bibliography. D. L. Pierson, Arthur T. Pierson; J. K. local church in Guatemala may need a Christian Maclean; Dr. Pierson and His Message; D. L. Robert; worker for church planting or evangelism. PMA ML, pp. 28–36. seeks to raise funds for travel and other costs for the Filipino missionary while the church in Gua- Pluralism. Christianity exists and has always ex- temala takes on the support of that missionary isted in the context of a plurality of competing when she or he arrives. and contrasting religions, but whereas in the The growing number of mission agencies is an past some Christians had an intellectual knowl- indication of a developing missions movement in edge of those religions and fewer still an experi- the Philippines. Interest in serving in missions is ential encounter with them, today most Chris- high among university students and young pro- tians have both intellectual and experiential fessionals, but local churches are still reluctant knowledge at least of the major non-Christian to make the financial commitment to send. As religions. This knowledge in turn tends to expel this changes, further growth in number of mis- the merely prejudiced view of other religions as sion agencies and the expansion of existing agen- primitive and ignorant, with their adherents dis- cies can be expected. satisfied with their religions and open to conver- Eric D. Smith, Dean Wiebracht, sion. and Thomas N. Wisely The question for mission is twofold: first the question of the salvific validity of other religions Pierson, Arthur Tappan (1837–1911). American and second the question of the origins of those minister, theological writer, and missionary religions. The answer to this second question spokesman. Hailed as the greatest popularizer of was in the past simplistic: they came from the missions of his age and one who revolutionized devil. Study of the histories of the religions, how- missionary literature, he was born in New York ever, produces a different picture: Gautama in an City and educated at Hamilton College (1857) earnest search for an explanation of human suf- and Union Theological Seminary, New York fering, Muhammad in the cave Hira pondering (1860). After ordination in the Presbyterian the absurdities of Arab polytheism, even Marx, Church, he served pastorates in Binghampton in the Reading Room of the British Museum, re- and Waterford (N.Y.), Detroit, and Philadelphia searching the causes of the miseries of the ‘toil- until 1889. An extended stay in Great Britain had ing masses’ and some possible solution for them. him preaching at the Metropolitan Tabernacle of There is today a general recognition that reli- C. H. Spurgeon for a period of two years and lec- gions represent on the one hand a perverse turing at New College (Edinburgh). From 1895 human rejection of revelation (Karl Barth’s ‘prin- to 1901, he was the president of A. J. Gordon’s cipal preoccupation of godless humanity’) and Missionary Training School (now Gordon Col- on the other hand a search, in the absence of rev- lege, Wenham, Mass.). elation, for some understanding of the apparent Pierson sustained a lifelong commitment to meaninglessness of the human experience. world evangelization. For twenty-four years he As to the salvific validity of other religions, was the editor of The Missionary Review of the there has been a spectrum of responses, ranging World, spoke at numerous conferences promot- from the naive view that ‘sincerity’ in any reli- ing missions, and wrote extensively on the sub- gion is salvific to the denial that ‘religion’ can ject. In 1886, at the D. L. Moody sponsored con- play any part at all in the process of salvation. ference in Mount Hermon, New York, Pierson This latter view is made untenable by the pleth- gave a keynote address on missions to a group of ora of examples of those who have found the 251 students from 89 colleges across the country. Traditional Religions, or Islam or Hinduism From this the Student Volunteer Movement gateways to Christian faith. Broadly speaking arose in 1888, along with its watchword “the four distinct views may be identified. There is evangelization of the world in this generation.” the inclusivist view, that finds salvation some- Pierson’s address “God’s Providence in Modern where in each religion, the pluralist view that the Missions” was later revised and published in vol- common root to all religions is precisely the salv- ume 6 of The Fundamentals. Among Pierson’s ific root, the exclusivist view that salvation is to protégés were such mission giants as Robert E. be found in Christ alone or, more rigorously, that Speer, John R. Mott, and Samuel Zwemer. salvation depends on an overt acknowledgment Author of over fifty books, Pierson is best re- of Christ as Lord, a view usually associated with membered as one of the original editors of the Hendrik Kraemer, and the view that while salva- Scofield Reference Bible (1909), and author of tion is necessarily based on Christ’s Passion, an such mission-related books as George Müller of overt knowledge of Christ is not essential to sal- Bristol, The Crisis of Missions, The Miracles of vation. Missions, Forward Movements of the Last Half Each view has its own problems: John Hick’s Century, and God and Missions Today. attempts to produce a Copernican Revolution, Walter A. Elwell replacing Christianity as the center of the uni- 113 Polynesia verse of religions by God, or the Absolute, or “the ralist Theology of Religions; B. Demarest, General Reve- Real,” adding epicycles to cycles, has served pri- lation; M. Erickson, How Shall They Be Saved?; P. F. marily to demonstrate the absence of a common Knitter, No Other Name?; J. Sanders, No Other Name. center applicable to all religions, and the inevita- bility in any such exercise of the abandoning of Polynesia. Polynesia covers a vast triangular core Christian theology, particularly incarna- area of the Pacific Ocean stretching from Hawaii tional theology. Karl Rahner’s creation of Anony- in the north to New Zealand in the southwest and mous Christianity, which purported salvifically Easter Island in the east. The term “Polynesia” to identify sincere religionists as de facto Chris- refers to the “many islands” settled by people tians was crushingly labeled religious imperial- who originated in Asia and began entering the ism. As Lesslie Newbigin commented, the Pacific from west to east c. 1000 b.c. Described as scheme was “vulnerable at many points.” It must “Polynesians” by nineteenth-century scholars, the be said, however, that Rahner’s view closely re- people were great seafarers who shared a com- sembles the Constitutive Christocentrism of the mon linguistic and cultural heritage which took Second Vatican Council, with its generally posi- on distinctive characteristics as they separated tive stance respecting the universe of religions. and migrated to different areas. Societies were However, Roman Catholic thinking has moved ruled over by chiefs who inherited status and on, and Pope John Paul II in his 1995 Crossing rank, although this varied from the significant the Threshold of Hope has gone some way toward kingdoms like Tonga and Hawaii, to large tribal restoring the 1442 Council of Florence Exclusive units in Tahiti and small tribes in atoll settle- Ecclesiocentrism. ments. Warrior traditions were strong and in- The traditional evangelical view has its own ter-tribal conflicts in the pursuit or defense of difficulty. The vast majority of humankind, mana, prestige or power, were frequent. Religious through no fault of its own, never heard of beliefs varied with “departmental gods” promi- Christ, and appears to be condemned for its sin, nent in eastern Polynesia while Tongans and Sa- which (as a consequence of the fall), it could not moans gave more significance to local spirits. resist and for which it had no remedy. The aca- While there were common features and names demic theologian has found this no particular within Polynesian mythology and cosmology, problem, where the missiologist, with one foot they were accented by particular emphases and firmly in the real world, most especially in the influenced by geographical location. Rituals and Two-Thirds World, is, perhaps, touched with a practices were clearly defined and priests or spe- greater compassion. cialists gave leadership in both spiritual and But the fourth view also is not without its diffi- practical areas of life. Sacred spaces were set culties, primarily because of the generally nega- aside as places for rituals with, in some areas, tive soteriological tenor of Bible texts such as special buildings. Concepts such as tapu, with its Acts 17:24–28 and Romans 1:18–23 which speak sense of holy or sacred, could be applied to peo- of General Revelation but apply it as a founda- ple, places, and behavior and influenced the tion for God’s judgment while not explicitly dis- whole of life. Polynesians believed in an after-life counting its salvific potential. It has been repeat- where the spirits of the dead lived, although for edly suggested that any relaxing of the traditional Tongans this was limited to those of high rank. exclusivist position must inevitably weaken mis- There was no sense of punishment and rewards. sionary motivation. To this two replies must be There was a close relationship between people, made. First, that we seek and then follow biblical the land, and the sea. theology wherever it may lead us, and second, The first European contact with Polynesia was that the Christian mission is not merely response made by voyagers such as Magellan (1521), to command or obligation but is, or at least Mendaña (1567–68, 1595), and Quiros (1606). Al- should be, ontological. The biblical imperative though motivated by Christian as well as materi- for mission is, of course, entirely clear. If the alistic ambitions their impact was limited. Dutch church is to be properly apostolic it must also be in the seventeenth century and French and Brit- praxeologically apostolic, it must engage in mis- ish explorers in the eighteenth century, notably sion. But to be effective in its praxis the church James Cook, mapped the Pacific and through as a whole (not only its missionary representa- their writings made its islands and people better tives) must engage the religions by which it is known in Europe. confronted with a confident yet compassionate This new knowledge, combined with the eigh- insistence on Jesus as the Way, the Truth, and the teenth-century evangelical revivals in Great Brit- Life. ain, created considerable interest in the evangeli- Peter Cotterell zation of the Pacific. The London Missionary Bibliography. K. Barth, Christianity and Other Reli- Society, founded in 1795, chose the Pacific as its gions, pp. 32–51; D. A. Carson, The Gagging of God; first sphere of work. In 1796 they dispatched the P. Cotterell, Mission and Meaninglessness; G. D’Costa, Duff with thirty missionaries, five wives, and Christian Uniqueness Reconsidered: The Myth of a Plu- three children to Tonga, Tahiti, and the Marque- 114 Polynesia sas. Four were ordained and the rest were arti- In 1839 Williams visited the Wesleyan mission- sans, reflecting the influence of Thomas Haweis aries, Turner and Cross, in Tonga and it was who believed Polynesians needed to be civilized agreed that the Methodists should concentrate in British ways as part of their evangelization. on Tonga and Fiji and the LMS would take re- The missionaries were ill-prepared. Of the ten sponsibility for Samoa. Accompanied by Fauea, taken to Tonga in April 1797, three were killed, a Samoan, Williams went to Samoa where he one “went native,” and the remainder abandoned was well received by Malietoa, the leading Sa- the mission in 1800. moan chief. Tahitian teachers were left in Ma- In Tahiti, where they arrived on March 5, lietoa’s care. When Williams returned to Samoa 1797, the missionaries were confronted by a so- in 1832 with additional teachers, he was im- ciety undergoing political and religious turmoil, pressed with the progress. In 1834 the first Euro- in which they were valued for giving access to peans, Platt and Wilson, were stationed in European goods rather than the Christian mes- Samoa. A training institution was established at sage. Progress in learning Tahitian was slow, Malua in 1844. The New Testament in Samoan most of the missionaries abandoned their work, was completed in 1848 and the Old Testament in and communication and support from England 1855. were difficult. Pomare II, a leading chief, re- Attempts by Williams to land teachers at Niue quested baptism in 1812, but this was delayed in 1830 resulted in the first of several rejections. until 1819 because of missionary anxiety about In 1846 two Niueans, Peniamina and Fakafi- his behavior. Literacy and the printed text, par- tiniu, who were converted in Samoa, returned to ticularly the Bible, People Movements, Power Niue and in 1849 Paulo, a Samoan, joined them. Encounters, the surrender of idols, and the in- W. G. Lawes, the first European resident mis- fluence of chiefs were important in the rapid sionary, arrived in 1861 and by 1868 he had movement of Tahitians toward Christianity after translated the New Testament. Initial LMS en- 1815. Similar developments occurred elsewhere deavors in the Tokelau islands in 1858 also met in Polynesia. Christianity spread through Tahiti with opposition and the first missionaries, a and the surrounding islands, often through in- Tokelauan converted in Samoa and two Samoan digenous agency. Missionaries, in cooperation teachers, were accepted in 1861. with the chiefs, attempted to control moral and LMS teachers from Tahiti arrived in Tonga in political behavior through codes of law and were 1822, the same year that Walter Lawry and his often disappointed at what they called “backslid- wife Mary, the first Methodist missionaries, set- ing.” tled on Tongatapu. Lawry abandoned Tonga in The expansion of Christianity throughout the 1823, but in 1826 John Thomas and John Pacific owes a great deal to John Williams who Hutchinson resumed the Methodist work. The began at Moorea in 1817 and shifted to Raiatea baptisms of leading chiefs, Aleamotu’a in 1830, in 1818. He emphasised morality and the acqui- Taufa’ahau in 1831, and Finau in 1832 and a re- sition of practical skills like carpentry and vival in Vava’u in 1834 encouraged the rapid ac- boat-building and attacked what he saw as Pa- ceptance of Christianity. There was some resis- cific indolence. Visitors from Rurutu were re- tance among rival families which resulted in civil turned with two Raiatean teachers to their home war. Methodists promoted the first code of laws island where they effected the conversion of in 1839 and the recognition of Taufa’ahua, as their people. In 1821 Williams took two Raiate- King George Tupou I in 1845 consolidated the ans, Papeiha and Vahapata, to Aitutaki in the Methodist dominance in Tonga. Cook Islands where by 1823 they had achieved Despite the agreement with the LMS over quick success. Papeiha was taken to Mangaia in Samoa, “Lotu Tonga,” or Christianity in a Meth- 1823 but was withdrawn after a hostile recep- odist form, had already reached Samoa through tion. Williams then took him to Rarotonga and a chief who had been in Tonga before Williams’ when Papeiha was visited in 1825, the mission- first visit. Peter Turner was sent to oversee Meth- ary was astonished at the progress he had made. odism in Tonga in 1835, but following LMS pro- Two teachers were taken to Mangaia in 1824 and tests was withdrawn in 1839. Support from Ton- within a few months many had accepted Christi- gans ensured the continuation of Samoan anity. Williams, Charles Pitman, and their fami- Methodism and in 1857 the Australasian Meth- lies went to reside in Rarotonga in 1827. Wil- odist Conference sent Martin Dyson to superin- liams began translating the Bible into Cook tend this work. George Brown joined him in Island Maori and introduced a code of laws. 1860 and made a notable contribution. A district With limited resources he built the Messenger of training college was started in 1864 and in 1868 Peace and with it was actively involved in visiting was transferred to Lufilufi and called Piula. other islands, stationing islanders, and giving Protestant beginnings in the Pacific were them support. Aaron Buzacott started a theolog- marked by initial opposition but the rapid accep- ical institution, Takamoa, on Rarotonga in 1839 tance of Christianity in most areas resulted from to train “native agents.” indigenous evangelism, the impact of literacy, 115 Power Encounter power encounters, people movements, and the College in Tonga under James Moulton reached significant role of chiefs. Missionaries intro- high standards. Indigenous ministry was pro- duced strict observance of Sunday, encouraged moted by Protestant missions although control of peacemaking between tribes, and codes of law the church remained in the paternalistic hands of which blurred the distinction between church European missionaries and missionary societies and state. Indigenous movements such as Ma- until well after the Second World War. maia in Tahiti and Sio Vili in Samoa and the re- The LMS churches gained their independence vival of traditional customs such as tatooing in- in the Cook Islands in 1945, in Samoa in 1962, dicate that the acceptance of Christianity did not and in Niue in 1972. LMS work in French Poly- always meet the missionaries’ expectations. nesia was taken over by the Paris Evangelical Catholic beginnings in Polynesia were closely Missionary Society in 1863 and gained its full associated with French missionary expansion independence in 1963. Samoan Methodism be- and drew a hostile reaction from the Protestant came an autonomous Conference in 1964. Ton- missionaries. Eastern Polynesia was assigned to gan Methodism separated from the Australian the Congregation of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus Conference in 1970 and its first indigenous pres- and Mary. Missionaries were landed at Tahiti in ident, Sione “Aminaki Havea,” was elected in 1836, the Marquesas in 1839, the Cook Islands in 1971. Samoa and Tonga became Catholic dio- 1894. The Society of Mary entered Western Poly- ceses in 1967 and Pio Taofinu’u, a Samoan, nesia under the leadership of Bishop J. B. F. bishop of Samoa in 1968 and a cardinal in 1973. Pompallier in 1837. Pierre Bataillon quickly con- Patelesio Finau, a Tongan, became bishop of his verted Wallis (Uvea) and, after the murder of homeland in 1972. Pierre Chanel on Futuna in 1841, the people ac- Christianity has penetrated all aspects of life cepted Catholicism. Returning Tongan Catholics throughout Polynesia and in its different denom- from Wallis and disaffected anti-Methodist fami- inational forms contributes to the identity of lies became the basis of “Lotu Popi,” Tongan Ca- both people and their country. Daily family wor- tholicism, and their first resident priests arrived ship, both morning and evening, and participa- in 1842. The Vicariate of Western Oceania was tion in services throughout the week and partic- set up in 1842. Catholic missionaries arrived in ularly on Sunday are the norm for village life in Samoa in 1845. Tokelauns were introduced to most parts of Polynesia. Churches have made Catholicism at Wallis and took it back to their notable contributions to education at the pri- own people in 1861. mary and secondary levels and through theologi- Missionary activity in Polynesia had ambigu- cal institutions. ous colonial connections. Only Tonga retained Considerable pressure is placed on small Pa- its independence. Shirley Baker, a Methodist cific societies by forces such as nuclear testing, missionary (1860–79) who drafted the country’s external migration, secularization, the impact of Constitution, together with the King established television, economic pressures, and material val- the Free Church of Tonga in 1885 which sepa- ues. The division of Christianity as a result of pen- rated from the Wesleyans who retained links tecostal and fundamentalist groups and the prolif- with the Australasian Conference until their re- eration of groups such as Latter Day Saints and union in 1924. The French protectorate accepted Jehovah’s Witnesses challenge small communi- by Tahitian chiefs in 1842 emerged out of French ties. Polynesian Christianity, however, finds vi- naval intervention in support of Catholic mis- brant expression in song and dance and the lan- sionaries. George Pritchard, British consul in Ta- guage of Pacific peoples. Through migration hiti and former LMS missionary, was deported Polynesian Christianity is significant in New Zea- in 1844 because of his attempts to provoke Tahi- land, Australia and the west coast of the United tian opposition to the French. States. Seventh-Day Adventists and Latter Day Saints Allan K. Davidson (Mormons) also entered Polynesia in the nine- teenth century. Protestants throughout Polyne- Bibliography. C. W. Forman, The Island Churches of sia, Samoa apart, maintained a Comity policy the South Pacific; J. Garrett, To Live Among the Stars: trying to avoid competition. Anglican church Christian Origins in Oceania; idem, Footsteps in the members in Tonga, recruited by a disenchanted Sea: Christianity in Oceania to World War II. Shirley Baker, were taken over in 1902 by Alfred Willis, former Bishop of Hawaii, but their group Power Encounter. The term “power encounter” remained small. was coined by Fuller missiologist Alan Tippett to Some one thousand Polynesian missionaries, label an event commonly experienced by the peo- starting from Williams’ visit to the New Hebrides ples of the South Pacific as they converted to (Vanuatu) in 1839, as catechists, teachers, and Christianity. Tippett noted that people usually ministers, along with their wives, made signifi- had come to Christ in large groupings (“People cant contributions to the evangelization of Mela- Movements”) soon after a major confrontation nesia. Their training was limited, although Tupou that tested the power of their ancestral gods 116 Power Ministries against that of the Christian God, resulting in an Pharaoh and Elijah defeated the prophets of obvious victory for the latter. These encounters Baal. So it has been in many of the power events were reminiscent of the scriptural encounters be- in the South Pacific and elsewhere. As always, tween Moses and Pharaoh (Exod. 7–12) and be- the crucial dimension in conversion is what hap- tween Elijah and the prophets of Baal (1 Kings pens after the turning, whether people feed and 18). grow in their new relationship with Jesus Christ South Pacific peoples were (and are) keenly or neglect it and let it die. aware of the presence, activity, and power of spir- Charles H. Kraft its. Their leaders were openly committed to the gods of their islands. They credited these gods Bibliography. C. H. Kraft, Christianity With Power; M. G. Kraft, Understanding Spiritual Power; A. R. Tip- with providing protection, food, fertility, and all pett, People Movements in Southern Polynesia; C. P. other necessities of life for them. But they also Wagner, Confronting the Powers. lived in great fear of their anger and vengeance. To challenge the ancestral gods was unthinkable Power Ministries. Proactive involvement in for most South Pacific peoples. Nevertheless, in power ministries has not been characteristic of turning to Christ, often after years of weighing the evangelical missions until recently. Two mind- consequences, it was chiefs and priests, those who sets which have been widespread among tradi- knew the gods and their power best, who chose to challenge them. In doing so, they wagered that tional evangelicals, including evangelical missi- the Christian God had greater power than their ologists, have made them very cautious about gods and cast themselves completely on him for participating in ministries that call upon the protection from the revenge of their gods. Holy Spirit to manifest outwardly the kinds of A typical power encounter would involve a power ministries prominent in the Gospels and priest or chief, speaking on behalf of his people, Acts. (1) The first mind-set is the doctrine of ces- publicly denouncing their allegiance to their sationism, which postulates that certain gifts of god(s) in the name of Jesus and challenging the the Holy Spirit which were in use by the apos- god(s) to do something about it. When the god(s) tles and first-century church leaders had been could not respond, the victory belonged to Jesus given to the church only until the New Testa- and large numbers of the people usually con- ment canon had been completed at the end of verted. As Tippett noted, power-oriented people the apostolic age, at which time they ceased and require power proof, not simply reasoning, if are no longer to be expected in the church. The they are to be convinced. power ministries being introduced into evangel- The value and validity of an approach to evan- ical missiology today would be included, for the gelism that involves power confrontations is most part, in the list of gifts which are thought widely accepted today in missiological thinking to have ceased, and therefore cessationists could and practice, since it is recognized that most of not accept the validity of contemporary power the peoples of the world are power-oriented. Cur- ministries. (2) The second mind-set among tra- rent theorists, however, have expanded Tippett’s ditional evangelicals is a worldview suffering original concept to include healing and deliver- from what missiologist Paul G. Hiebert called ance from demons as power encounters. They the Flaw of the Excluded Middle. The Western see Jesus’ ministry as including numerous such worldview, strongly influenced by scientific ra- power encounters. These encounters are usually tionalism, has a difficult time comprehending less spectacular than those Tippett described but, just how the supernatural powers of the invisi- it is argued, qualify as genuine power encounters ble world can and do affect daily life of human since they involve the pitting of the power of God beings. The non-Western worldview deals with to bring freedom against the power of Satan to such powers on a daily basis, and therefore is keep people in bondage. Furthermore, such much more in tune with assumptions made by “signs and wonders” frequently result in the con- Old Testament and New Testament writers than version of families and even larger groups who are many Westerners. Exceptions to this among accept the healing or deliverance as demonstrat- Third World leaders are generally those who ing the presence and power of God. There is, have been trained by Westerners in Western-ori- however, some difference of opinion over ented institutions. whether such encounters should be planned or Both of these mind-sets were seriously chal- simply taken advantage of when they occur. lenged by evangelical leaders over the final two It is important to note that conversion through decades of the twentieth century. As a result ces- power encounter does not assure that the move- sationism has weakened in popularity. The major ment will be stable and enduring. Throughout work reflecting this is Jack Deere’s Surprised by the Scriptures we see that people can observe the Power of the Spirit (1993). Changes in West- God’s mightiest demonstrations of power but ern worldview are taking place more slowly ex- soon go right back to the gods who were de- cept in circles influenced by the charismatic feated. Thus it was both after Moses defeated movement, by the New Apostolic Reformation, 117 Radio Mission Work by missiologists, and by the New Age. The book Spiritual Warfare (1997) (see also Powers, The) which has been influential in helping evangeli- and Chuck Lowe’s Territorial Spirits and World cals think through the paradigm shift is Evangelization (1998). Charles H. Kraft’s Christianity with Power: Your Spiritual Mapping. Prayer directed against World View and Your Experience of the Supernat- the forces of the invisible world is seen to be ural (1989). A consequence of this is that evan- more powerful if it is accurately targeted. The as- gelical mission leaders, although not in one ac- sumption is that the more we can discover about cord, are much more open to power ministries the devices of Satan (see 2 Cor. 2:11), the more as a component of mission strategies than they vulnerable he and his forces become, and the have been in the past. Of the many facets of less he will take advantage of us. Spiritual map- power ministries now being advocated and used ping is said to be to the intercessor what X-rays by evangelical missionaries, six may be noted as are to the surgeon. One of the leading figures in areas of particular significance. advocating spiritual mapping is George Otis Jr., Supernatural Signs and Wonders. Jesus sent whose principal works are The Last of the Giants his disciples out to preach the gospel of the king- (1991) and The Twilight Labyrinth (1997). dom of God accompanied by healing the sick, Identificational Repentance. Corporate re- casting out demons, and raising the dead. He pentance has been recognized as a principal told them that, by the power of the Holy Spirit, weapon of spiritual warfare. The enemy fre- they could expect to do even greater works than quently keeps people blinded to the gospel be- he did. In the framework of Third Wave think- cause unremitted corporate sins, both past and ing, John Wimber’s Power Evangelism (1993) has present, provide what is the equivalent of a legal been very influential in this area. right for the powers of darkness to afflict whole Prophecy. A frequent experience of the apos- populations. Present generations can identify tles was to hear God speaking direct words to with and repent for corporate sins of their ances- them for instruction or admonition or comfort. tors, removing the legal right of the enemy and The gift of prophecy is mentioned in the lists of opening the way for the healing of national spiritual gifts in Romans 12 and 1 Corinthians wounds, and for the expansion of God’s king- 12. Recently, beginning particularly in the 1980s, dom. The chief textbook describing this principle many evangelicals have begun to accept not only is John Dawson’s Healing America’s Wounds the gift of prophecy, but also the contemporary (1994). office of prophet. Two works have been particu- Prayer Evangelism. While prayer has always larly helpful in moving evangelicals out of the played a role in the process of evangelization, assumption that God does not exhibit any revela- some have felt that the potential power of prayer tory activity today, namely, Wayne Grudem’s The as a proactive evangelistic tool has been un- Gift of Prophecy in the New Testament and Today derutilized. The major work arguing that prayer (1988) and Jack Deere’s Surprised by the Voice of can be used as an evangelistic methodology, God (1996). rather than simply as a back up to other method- Strategic-Level Spiritual Warfare. Taking se- ologies, is Ed Silvoso’s That None Should Perish riously the biblical assertion that a major obsta- (1994). cle to world evangelization is the fact that Satan, C. Peter Wagner the god of this age, has blinded the minds of un- believers (see 2 Cor. 4:3–4), a number of evangel- Radio Mission Work. Radio is used extensively icals have argued that he does this by means of in mission. The first wireless broadcast sent out dispatching high-ranking demonic beings, some- to the world was an informal Christian program times referred to as Territorial Spirits, to keep on Christmas Eve, 1906. The program included a cities, nations, people groups, religious blocs, solo, “O Holy Night,” as well as a reading of the and other social networks in spiritual darkness. Christmas story from the Gospel of Luke. Chris­ They attempt to follow the lead of the apostle tian radio broadcasting as such began on Janu- Paul, who asserts that we do not wrestle against ary 2, 1921, when a church service was broad- flesh and blood but against principalities and cast in Pittsburgh. powers of darkness (Eph. 6:12). Under the guid- The first missionary station, HCJB, “The Voice ance of the Holy Spirit, they use the weapons of of the Andes,” began broadcasting in 1931 from Spiritual Warfare, principally intercession, to Ecuador. The Far East Broadcasting Company neutralize these powers to the greatest extent (FEBC) was founded in 1946, to be followed by possible in order to prepare the way for the har- Trans World Radio (TWR), Radio ELWA, and vesters who are the missionaries, the church others. Today powerful Christian shortwave planters, the pastors, and the evangelists. The radio stations cover the world, broadcasting in major apologetic for strategic-level spiritual war- numerous languages. There are also a few pow- fare is C. Peter Wagner’s Confronting the Powers erful medium-wave international stations, in- (1996), while the contrary position is expounded cluding TWR broadcasting from Monte Carlo in in Clinton Arnold’s 3 Crucial Questions about Southern Europe and FEBC from a powerful 118 Radio Mission Work medium wave station covering a large section of Broadcasting Company, Trans World Radio, and China. SIM (operator of radio station of ELWA in Libe- There are numerous local Christian stations, ria) launched the cooperative World by 2000 ini- broadcasting on FM or medium wave to a single tiative to provide every man, woman, and child city or community. Some are commercial sta- on earth the opportunity to hear Christian radio tions with professional staff, others are small broadcasts in a language each can understand. and simple stations that depend on volunteers. Soon thereafter, broadcasters FEBA Radio and For all, a high level of commitment is required. Words of Hope became active partners in the Christian radio broadcasters are today on the World by 2000 effort, which fostered an unprece- air in some 200 different languages with 1,000 dented level of cooperation among the various hours of transmitter time per week from major partner organizations. international broadcasters alone. This does not The World by 2000 strategically targeted large include local in-country stations, commercial language groups which had not been previously time, and public broadcast time. The English served by daily missionary radio broadcasts. (34%), Spanish (22%), Mandarin (8.6%), and These groups included many of the world’s least Russian (6.4%) languages dominate on the inter- evangelized peoples. By 1997, the World by 2000’s national broadcasts; with the remaining 190 lan- list of megalanguages (each spoken by at least guages and dialects accounting for only 29% of one million people) covered by Christian broad- the total. For example, there are eleven million casting increased by 80—raising up new groups English speakers in India, and a total of more of believers and planting new churches among than 102 hours of broadcasting each week is in many of these previously unreached peoples. English, but the fifty million Marathi speakers Because little or no broadcast media of any only get three hours a week, and the thirty-three kind had been available in many of these lan- million Urdu speakers get less than four hours guages, the sheer novelty factor of these newly per week. launched programs attracts positive attention In the hands of Christian communicators with almost immediately. Although many of these the knowledge, means, and courage to use it cre- peoples are relatively media-poor, the advent of atively, radio has proven to be a powerful and regular radio broadcasts in their language has effective tool in the task of world evangelization. attracted considerable interest. Early on, listen- Programs such as The Old-Fashioned Revival ing among such media-starved peoples has Hour, Back to the Bible, and others have made a tended to be avid, regular, and often a group ex- significant contribution to the religious life of perience. In northern Mozambique, for exam- America. It is estimated that Charles E. Fuller ple, clusters of Lomwe listeners gather each had twenty million listeners a week up until his night around one of the few radios to be found retirement in 1967. in their village. As the gospel message is thus In the international context, most of Southeast regularly heard in a group setting, listeners Asia’s mountain-dwelling Hmong people have often linger to discuss the program content been almost completely cut off from any direct after the conclusion of each Lomwe broadcast. cross-cultural contact. Yet, on rare occasions In time, such a listening group can naturally be- when outsiders were able to visit, some reported come the nucleus for a new Christian congrega- strong indications of thousands of Hmong con- tion. As the Holy Spirit enables such newly versions to Christianity. In the early 1990s, the formed fellowships to expand, each may blossom Vietnamese government conceded (somewhat into a larger church, and/or start a daughter con- regretfully) that hundreds of thousands of gregation. Evidence abounds that during the Hmong had become Christians. Far East Broad- first seven years of Lomwe broadcasting from casting Company’s radio programs in the Hmong Trans World Radio/Swaziland to northern Mo- language offered the only available means by zambique, over 300 new churches were thus which most of these Hmong converts could have started by listeners. Church planting progress possibly heard the gospel. Indeed, in 1995 when has since been reported among other Mozambi- two Hmong expatriates were able to conduct an can peoples who began receiving first-ever gos- extraordinary journey to several Hmong villages pel broadcasts during the 1990s, including the in northern Vietnam, they were greeted by multi- Makhuwa, Makonde, and Sena. tudes of Hmong believers who welcomed them Similarly, new churches have sprung up among to impromptu open-air worship services which listeners to many of the other pioneering radio included original Christian songs exclusively fea- broadcasts launched through the World by 2000 tured on FEBC’s Hmong broadcasts. Most had effort. The Banjaras of India, the Gypsies of cen- never met a Christian from outside their village, tral Europe, the Bariba of Benin, and the Chuvash yet many were quite familiar with the Hmong of central Asia are just some of the notable exam- songs heard only in FEBC’s broadcasts. ples. Although daily gospel broadcasts are still In 1985, mindful of radio’s potential impact needed for dozens of megalanguage groups who among many of the world’s hardest-to-reach peo- remain unreached by Christian radio, steady ples, the leaders of HCJB World Radio, Far East progress continues to be made toward the World 119 Ramabai, Pandita by 2000 goal. The accompanying examples of deeply concerned to contextualize the gospel. churches planted bear witness to the reliability of For example, she utilized ideas from Hindu the Lord’s promise that his Word will never return scriptures to communicate biblical truths, as void. In addition, recent political developments well as Indian music and Indian forms of wor- such as the fall of communist regimes in Europe ship to make worship relevant to Hindu con- and the end of apartheid in South Africa have led verts. In all of these ways God used Ramabai to to the added availability of many powerful inter- bring many women of India from physical, emo- national radio transmitters which had previously tional, mental and spiritual bondage into Chris- been used exclusively for the broadcasting of po- tian freedom. litical propaganda. As a result, transmitters in Sakhi Athyal Russia, Albania, Armenia, Poland, and South Af- rica have been added to the available inventory of Bibliography. S. M. Adhav, Panditha Ramabai; super-powered international transmitters which C. Butler, Panditha Ramabai Saraswathi: Pioneer in the are available for missionary broadcasting. Movement for the Education of the Child-widows of Radio can readily adapt to changing social and India; H. S. Dyer, Panditha Ramabai: The Story of Her cultural conditions, and it has several advantages Life. for Christian mission. It requires listening only, making it possible to reach all, including the Revival, Revivals. The term “revival” means dif- more than one billion nonliterates. Radio uses ferent things to different people. It has been used sound only, which makes programming fairly in- to describe renewed spiritual life, a series of expensive. It has wide coverage and can reach evangelistic meetings, unbridled religious emo- most people through the estimated 1.2 billion tionalism, wild frontier religion, and fanaticism. radio sets in use around the world. It crosses re- How should the term be used? ligious and political barriers. Furthermore, radio Definition. The word “revival” means to wake can handle a variety of program formats, limited up and live. The basic idea of revival is the re- only by the creativity of the producer. turning of something to its true nature and pur- Most Christian broadcasters ask for letter re- pose. It is a special movement of the Spirit of sponse from the listeners; in 1988, FEBC alone God in which he renews the hearts of believers. received approximately 615,000 letters from lis- Earle Cairns defines revival as “the work of the teners. Unfortunately, most Christian radio min- Holy Spirit in restoring the people of God to a istries have not developed feedback systems that more vital spiritual life, witness, and work by do not require mail, and thus non- and semi-lit- prayer and the Word after repentance in crisis erates are excluded. for their spiritual decline” (1986, 22). Viggo Søgaard and Lee DeYoung The following points summarize this under- Bibliography. E. G. Bowman with S. F. Titus, Eyes standing of revival. First, revival comes from beyond the Horizon; F. A. Gray, Radio in Mission. God. It is a work of the Holy Spirit. Second, re- vival primarily affects believers, those who have Ramabai, Pandita (1858–1922). Indian pioneer already experienced spiritual life. Third, revival in educational and medical missions. Ramabai presupposes declension. Fourth, prayer and the was one of the most popular native missionaries Scriptures are central in bringing and sustaining in India, an excellent example of indigenous mis- revival. Fifth, revival brings change, most specif- sion to women in the Two-Thirds World. Having ically renewed spiritual life and witness. Isaiah’s spent her early life in teaching pilgrimages with “revival” experience, described in Isaiah 6:1–8, her family, once her parents and sister died, she serves as a paradigm for genuine revival. Isaiah and her brother continued their pilgrimages. She encountered the presence of God and God’s holi- was called “Pandita” because of her knowledge ness overshadowed everything else. Isaiah recog- in the Hindu scripture. nized his sin and need for cleansing. This sense Married to a lower caste lawyer and widowed of brokenness in the presence of a holy God is an in her early twenties, she experienced the grief important characteristic of genuine revival. In and agony of women in India. She went to En- Isaiah 5, we read of Isaiah pronouncing “woes” gland in 1883 to learn how to educate Hindu on others six different times. He could clearly see women and there came know Christ as her Savior. the sin in others’ lives, and in his role as prophet Ramabai was involved in evangelism, educa- he forthrightly said, “Woe to you.” Yet when tion, Scripture translation, literature and social overcome by a deep awareness of God’s holiness, work, founding a mission, and organizing medi- Isaiah is not pointing his finger at anyone else. cal work. She ministered to women who were All he can say is, “Woe is me!” outcasts in society, giving them not only food When believers find themselves in the pres- and shelter, but also training for jobs and spiri- ence of a holy God during a time of revival, they tual guidance. In addition to translating the become acutely aware of even the smallest sin. Bible, she developed a Marathi concordance and When God powerfully makes his presence lexicon and wrote many books. She was also known, anything out of keeping with his holiness 120 Revival, Revivals is immediately brought to the surface. Sins being converted to faith in Christ. The 1858 which have been tolerated or excused as “little “Prayer Revival” saw scores of persons con- things” are suddenly brought to light and the verted, with estimates as high as one million fear of exposure pales in comparison with the converts in the United States alone. Other coun- need for confession and cleansing. tries which saw many come to faith in Christ It is after conviction, repentance, and God’s during this period were Ireland, England, Scot- cleansing that joy comes (cf. Ps. 51). Conviction land, Wales, South Africa, Scandinavia, Switzer- followed by confession and repentance leads to a land, Germany, and Canada. freedom and joy in the experience of forgiveness. The year 1860 saw revival in South India, the Joy comes through God’s cleansing and ulti- Ukraine, South Africa, and the Netherlands, mately leads to service. while the following year a powerful awakening The realization of being convicted and then took place in Jamaica. The awakening of 1903 cleansed by a holy God will make one eager to and following saw thousands converted in Wales, respond in gratitude to the Lord’s call: “Here am the United States, China, Denmark, Finland, Ger- I—send me!” Isaiah is available to God to be many, Korea, Madagascar, Russia, Germany, and used however God chooses. When the burden of Sweden. East Africa had a tremendous period of unconfessed sin is lifted there is freedom and revival from 1927 to 1935, as did China from willingness to serve. 1927 to 1937, Ethiopia from 1936 to 1948, Indo- Distinguishing between Revival and Revival- nesia from 1953 to 1971, and Canada in 1971–72. ism. Revival, seen as a synonym for spiritual This brief survey does not even begin to tell awakening, should be distinguished from reviv- the full story. Numerous other examples could be alism, which is generally identified with promi- cited of periods of awakening around the world. nent evangelists and mass evangelistic crusades During times of revival, thousands have come to focused on reaching the lost with the gospel. De- faith in Christ. Second, revival also has impacted spite a close relationship between revival and missions through the raising up of laborers to go outreach, revival should not be seen as the same to the harvest fields of the world. As the Isaiah 6 thing as Evangelism or revivalism. Confusion passage reminds us, a revived Christian is a has resulted from using the terms “revival” and Christian who has been reawakened to mission. “revival meeting” for settings designed for One can point to several examples from church preaching the gospel to the lost. One could drive history to illustrate this point. by two different churches and see the following In the 1720s a powerful movement of revival signs: “Revival every Sunday night!” and “Revival began in Germany under the leadership of Count every night except Sunday!” Given this confused Nicholas von Zinzendorf that resulted in a usage of the term “revival,” one could be led to major missionary thrust for decades to come. the absurdity of saying, “We had a revival, but no The Moravian missionary movement began in one was revived!” 1732 with the sending out of two missionaries. Yet even though revival and evangelism are dif- During the next 150 years the Moravians would ferent in nature (as revival primarily deals with send out over two thousand missionaries to vari- God’s people whereas evangelism focuses on un- ous foreign fields. Among those influenced by believers), they both flow from the same source— Moravian missionaries was John Wesley. the Holy Spirit. During times of revival, people Wesley, along with George Whitefield, be- call on the name of the Lord to be saved. Workers came key leaders in the eighteenth-century evan- are raised up to go to the harvest fields of the gelical awakening in Great Britain. In addition to world. An awakened church is an evangelistic thousands of persons being converted, many or- church. An awakened believer is an evangelistic ganizations were formed to promote Christian believer. When revival truly comes, evangelism work in Great Britain and beyond. These groups will follow. Revival reminds us that methods, as included The Religious Tract Society (1799), The important and helpful as they are, must always British and Foreign Bible Society (1804), the remain secondary in importance to the presence London Missionary Society (1795), the Church and power of the Holy Spirit in the life of believ- Missionary Society (1799), and The Baptist Mis- ers. sionary Society (1792), which sent out William Revival and Missions. Revival has had a pro- Carey as its first missionary. The astonishing found impact on missions. First, tens of thou- missionary advance in the late 1700s and early sands have come to faith in Christ in great 1800s can be directly attributed to spiritual sweeping movements of the Holy Spirit around awaking. the globe. John Eliot’s ministry among Native In 1806, the famous Haystack Prayer Meeting Americans in Massachusetts and the Plymouth took place at Williams College in Massachusetts. Colonies from 1647 to 1670 saw extraordinary Samuel J. Mills, a freshman at the college, helped results through periods of revival. From 1837 to lead a group of five students who were praying for 1843 a movement of revival swept Hawaii, with revival on the campus. Being forced to seek shel- estimates as high as 20 percent of the population ter under the side of a large haystack during a 121 Roman Catholic Missions storm, Mills challenged the others to join him in missions, we now look to the role that revival the task of taking the gospel to Asia. “We can do it might play in the future of missions. While some if we will,” he said. He led the group in prayer, biblical scholars believe conditions in the world providing the impetus for what would eventually will continue to get worse and we cannot expect become an unprecedented thrust in foreign mis- a great revival during the end times, others be- sions. Mills would soon play a major role in the lieve in the strong possibility of a coming world founding of the American Board of Commission- revival. This revival would result in multitudes of ers for Foreign Missions (1810), the American people responding to the gospel message and Bible Society (1816), and the American Coloniza- would raise up a host of workers for that great tion Society (1816). Thus, a plaque at the site of harvest of souls. the Haystack Prayer Meeting bears the inscrip- The Bible is clear that the Great Commission tion, “The Birthplace of American Foreign Mis- will one day be fulfilled. There will be persons sions.” from “every nation, tribe, people and language” Other mission societies were formed during gathered around the throne, worshiping the this period, including the New York Missionary Lamb of God (Rev. 7:9). While factors such as Society (1798), the American Baptist Foreign how one views the millennium, tribulation, and Mission Society (1814), the Methodist Episcopal rapture will influence one’s interpretation of Foreign Mission Society (1819), the American these events (see Eschatology), many believe the Tract Society (1826), and the American Home church will see a universal outpouring of the Missionary Society (1826). Awakenings at numer- Holy Spirit in the days ahead. This coming world ous schools and colleges during this period re- revival could take place in the midst of great suf- sulted in large numbers of students going to the fering. The situation in the world and in the mission field under the auspices of these newly church would go from bad to worse. The condi- formed societies. Missionaries were sent to exist- tions described in Matthew 24:5 and in Revela- ing fields, and new works were started in places tion 6–17 would become a reality. But out of this such as Hawaii, Indonesia, and Madagascar. adversity people’s thoughts would be turned to Following the 1858 Prayer Revival, a world- God. Many would acknowledge their need of a wide interdenominational student missionary Savior. movement began to flourish. In 1886, the Stu- The revival would sustain believers through dent Volunteer Movement was founded. This their affliction and bring them to the true beauty movement heightened missions awareness and of holiness. The church would be purified and over the next several decades helped recruit empowered for ministry. There would be a great some 20,000 students who went forth to serve on number of conversions as people cried out to the the mission field. Other significant organizations Lord. The revival would prepare the way for the that grew out of the 1858 Revival include the return of Christ as Matthew 24:14 would be ful- China Inland Mission (see Overseas Missionary filled (see End Times). Fellowship) and the African Inland Mission. In summary, while there is no consensus on The revival of 1904 and following brought the the likelihood of a coming world revival or on its call of missions to many, including E. Stanley timing in relation to other prophetic events, cer- Jones. Touched by a revival while a student at tainly the prospects of such a great revival is a Asbury College in 1905, Jones committed himself summons to pray for such a work of revival to go to India as a missionary. Jones was not around the world. alone in sensing God’s call to missions. As many Timothy K. Beougher as ten thousand missionaries went overseas from college campuses as a result of this awakening. Bibliography. E. E. Cairns, An Endless Line of Splen- dor: Revivals and Their Leaders from the Great Awaken- This period also saw the beginnings of the Pen- ing to the Present; R. E. Coleman, The Coming World tecostal Movement with the Azusa Street Re- Revival; W. Duewel, Revival Fire; R. H. Glover, The vival. Pentecostal and charismatic groups con- Progress of World-Wide Missions; K. J. Hardman, Sea- tinue to have a growing impact on the scene of sons of Refreshing: Evangelism and Revivals in America; worldwide missions (see Pentecostal Missions). I. Murray, Revival and Revivalism: The Making and While many other examples could be cited, this Marring of American Evangelicalism, 1750–1858; J. E. brief survey demonstrates the significant impact Orr, The Event of the Century: The 1857–58 Awakening; revival has had upon the missionary enterprise. R. O. Roberts, Revival! It would not be an exaggeration to characterize the history of the modern missions movement as Roman Catholic Missions. Roman Catholic the story of revival. When genuine revival comes, Missions and Mission Theology Before Vatican believers are reawakened to their evangelistic II. It was only in the context of the Counter-­ and social obligations. Mission efforts are a nat- Reformation in the sixteenth century that the ural fruit of revival. term “ missions” came to be used to designate A Coming World Revival? Having briefly the Catholic Church’s activity of preaching the traced through history the impact of revival on gospel. The early Jesuits used the term to de- 122 Roman Catholic Missions scribe efforts (1) to revive and nurture faith villages or “reductions” were developed in which among Catholics, (2) to win back Christians who people could live in Christian community. These had become Protestant, and (3) to convert to communities were developed especially by the Christianity those who had not yet been bap- Jesuits, who founded some twenty-three settle- tized. During this period the political expansion ments in Paraguay in the seventeenth century. of Europe to Asia and Latin America by the While life was peaceful in such communities, Roman Catholic kingdoms of Portugal and Spain their weakness lay in failure to develop a sense was intimately linked to missions in the third of initiative and independence among the peo- sense of the term. ple. Until the system met its nemesis in the eigh- Augustinians, Dominicans, and Franciscans teenth century, not one candidate was brought accompanied the explorers of the Philippines forward for priesthood, nor one order of women early in the sixteenth century, and relatively religious founded. quickly and with little opposition the majority of In the sixteenth century, missions were di- the population was baptized. Missionaries saw rected by the Portuguese and Spanish monarchs little of value in Filipino culture, however, and and the missionary orders. While this had a imposed European doctrinal formulations and number of advantages (royal protection, ready religious practices. Such a tabula rasa approach means of travel, financial assistance), the grave to evangelization was taken also in India, both disadvantages of mixing political interests and with the “Thomas Christians” found there, and trade with mission work, rivalry between the or- with new converts as well. The Jesuit Francis ders, and a limited pool of missionaries Xavier also shared this attitude, although, unlike prompted Rome, as it was centralizing all of Ca- other European missionaries, he stressed the im- tholicism in the wake of the Council of Trent, to portance of preaching and instruction in the place all missionary activity under a new curial local language. When Xavier traveled to Japan, body—the Congregation for the Propagation of however, he was so impressed by the level of civ- the Faith. Established in 1622, its aims were to ilization and natural goodness of the Japanese free missionary work from the stranglehold of that he abandoned this tabula rasa approach in Spain and Portugal, to create dioceses and pro- favor of one of Accommodation, wherever possi- mote local clergy, and to recruit diocesan clergy ble, to local customs. This more “inculturating” to balance personnel from the religious orders. approach was also championed by Alessandro In a famous set of instructions in 1659, the Con- Valignano, who first came to Asia as a Jesuit vis- gregation urged that missionaries should not de- itator in 1579. Valignano strongly supported the stroy what is good in a culture: “What could be work of Matteo Ricci in China, who advocated more absurd than to transport France, Spain, the development of a Chinese Christianity, com- Italy, or some other European country to China? plete with the possibility of venerating ancestors. Do not bring these, but the faith.” As missionaries from other orders began to work It was in this spirit that Robert de Nobili min- in China, however, such broad-minded accep- istered in India in the first half of the seven- tance of Chinese culture was opposed, and in teenth century. Influenced by the methods of 1742 any kind of adaptation was condemned at Ricci, he determined to immerse himself in In- the conclusion of the famous “Rites Contro- dian culture. He avoided eating meat and wear- versy.” ing leather shoes, wore the robe of the Indian By the mid-sixteenth century the conquest of holy man, mastered classical Tamil, and at- Latin America was complete, and with conquest tempted to recast traditional Christian teaching came Franciscan and Dominican—and eventu- with illustrations from the Indian classics. Any- ally Jesuit—missionaries. While the missionaries one converting to Christianity need not abandon were for the most part sincere, and made efforts the many Indian cultural practices that de Nobili to learn local languages and provide basic educa- deemed inessential to Christian life. Although tion, the success of their work was greatly ham- blessed with considerable success, de Nobili was pered by the cruelty with which the indigenous not without his critics, and in 1703 all his meth- peoples were treated by the conquerors. But the ods were condemned by the Roman legate native people did have their champions in men Charles Tournon. like Antonio de Montesinos and especially Bar- In what is now Vietnam, Alexander de Rhodes tolomew de Las Casas, who worked for fifty made two significant contributions to mission- years to convince the Spanish of the indigenous ary work. First, he formed a company of cate- people’s humanity and their need for basic chists, laymen whom he trained to give both reli- human rights. Evanglization was also hampered gious instruction and medical assistance. In lieu by missionary attitudes that demeaned the local of an indigenous Vietnamese clergy, such action cultures and insisted that converts adopt a Euro- assured that Christianity would be taught skill- pean lifestyle. In an effort both to protect the in- fully and accurately. Second, Rhodes developed a digenous population from exploitation by the way to write Vietnamese using the Roman alpha- colonists and to form them in Christian living, bet, and set Christian doctrine in the ordinary 123 Roman Catholic Missions language of the people. By 1658 it was estimated (1862), the Mill Hill Fathers (1866), the Comboni that there were 300,000 Christians in Vietnam. Missionaries (men, 1867; women, 1872), the So- Between 1645 and 1700 the Capuchins bap- ciety of the Divine Word (1875), Sisters of the tized 600,000 people in the region of the Congo Precious Blood (1885), and the Catholic Foreign and Angola, and from 1700 on the average an- Mission Society of America (Maryknoll, 1911). nual number of baptisms was 12,000. The reason The beginnings of large-scale lay participation in for this, it seems, was a rather lax policy of bap- missionary work can be traced back to Pauline tism. Elsewhere in Africa, by 1624 the Jesuits Jaricot, who in 1817 founded the Society for the had some twenty missionaries working in the Propagation of the Faith. The society solicited Zambezi region, and the Dominicans and Augus- prayers, disseminated information, and collected tinians had stations on Africa’s east coast, but funds for missionary support. the involvement of the missionaries in various As the nations of Europe entered a new age of tribal wars slowed progress considerably and Colonialism, they welcomed, for the most part, strengthened the impression that to become missionaries of all sorts to help in education and Christian was to accept the sovereignty of Portu- health care. While Catholics and Protestants gal. Despite heroic efforts, no real commitment often pioneered in their own missionary areas, was made to learn local languages or cultures, they occasionally competed, shamefully, against and there was little attempt to follow easy bap- one another. Missionary efforts in Africa flour- tism with extended catechesis. ished, despite the hardships of the climate. Both In the seventeenth century, France began to China and Japan opened up once more for mis- exert its influence beyond Europe, particularly in sionaries under the pressures of the colonial North America. The first group of Jesuit mission- powers. Korean Catholicism struggled to grow, aries was sent to Canada in 1632, and in 1639 but was severely hampered by persecution at Ursuline Marie de l’Incarnation and several com- mid-century. Such legendary figures as Peter panions were the first women missionaries to Chanel and Father Damien participated in the Canada. Work was slow and hard; the indige- evangelization of the South Pacific. nous people treated each other and the mission- In this great missionary era, however, there aries with terrible cruelty, and many missionar- was little creative thinking. Nineteenth-century ies lost their lives, among whom were Jesuits Catholic theology, with few exceptions, was in- Isaac Jogues and Jean Brebeuf and the layman spired by the false universalism of Neo-Thomism. Jean de la Lande. The Jesuit missionary Pierre Loyalty to the papacy did indeed revitalize the Marquette is especially known for his explora- church, but also made it Eurocentric and, like tions of the Upper Midwest. the colonial powers, derogatory of local culture. The great effort of Roman Catholic mission Any kind of adaptation was seldom considered, work beyond Europe faltered gravely in the eigh- and local vocations to priesthood and religious teenth century. The influence of Portugal and life were, in the main, rarely encouraged. Spain began to diminish as Holland’s and Brit- A sign of renewal in Roman Catholic mission ain’s grew; the Roman decisions regarding Chi- theology was the publication of five major mis- nese ancestral rites precipitated a persecution in sion encyclicals in the twentieth century, in- China; the suppression of the Jesuits in 1773 ef- spired no doubt by the emergence of the Social fected the withdrawal of several thousand mis- Sciences and the pioneering missiological work sionaries from Asia and Latin America; the of Josef Schmidlin, André Seumois, and Pierre French Revolution and its persecution of the Charles. Maximum illud (Benedict XV, 1919) church virtually dried up the sources for French taught the need to be sensitive to local cultures missionaries. and called for the training of local clergy; Rerum It is rather astonishing, therefore, that the ecclesiae (Pius XI, 1926), while likewise calling nineteenth century was to see an amazing revival for a local clergy, also affirmed the pope’s role in in the Catholic Church in general, and in its mis- global evangelization and enlisted bishops as pri- sionary efforts in particular. Napoleon’s humilia- mary agents in the task. In Evangelii praecones tion of the pope at the end of the eighteenth cen- (1951) and Fidei donum (1957), Pius XII stressed tury ultimately created a movement of papal the supranationality of the church, and called for support and religious renewal throughout the the development in Africa. John XXIII’s 1959 whole church. In 1814 the Jesuits were reestab- Princeps pastorum laid the groundwork for Vati- lished, and other orders discovered new life. In can II. addition, the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- From Vatican II to the Present. The Second turies saw the foundation of more new orders of Vatican Council (1962–65), the most important men and women dedicated to missionary work event of the Catholic Church in the twentieth than had any previous era. These included the century, thoroughly rethought the theology and Sisters of Saint Joseph of Cluny (1805), the Ob- practice of mission. The “Dogmatic Constitution lates of Mary Immaculate (1816), the Marists on the Church” (Lumen gentium, 1964) defines (1817), the Congregation of Mary Immaculate and describes the council’s teaching on the 124 Roman Catholic Missions church’s identity, its organization, and its author- rity of the gospel demands avoidance of Syncre- ity. In highlighting the universality of Christ, the tism. Dialogue and proclamation must eventually Catholic Church is also defining itself as “the come together. The gospel message needs to be universal sacrament (sign) of salvation.” It included at some point in the practice of dia- senses a “special urgency” in the task of “pro- logue so as to provide the belief and faith called claiming the gospel of Christ to every creature.” for in all Christians. The “Dogmatic Constitution” is noteworthy for Contemporary Roman Catholic Mission The- two particular reasons, the first being the ways ology. Contemporary Roman Catholic mission in which the Catholic Church continues to define theology revolves, then, around several interre- itself in terms of a hierarchical structure (chap. lated themes. The first theme is that of procla- 3) in spite of using the terms “mystery” (chap. 1) mation, which holds the permanent priority in and “the People of God” (chap. 2) as controlling mission. Proclamation is rooted in the witness of images of the contemporary church. The second Christian action and authentic Christian living, is the way in which the Catholic Church identi- and blossoms into communication of the word fies itself in relation to other religious and nonre- (by a variety of media) only after discerning the ligious realities. It is not clear whether the “Dog- presence of and listening to the Spirit in a partic- matic Constitution” intends to identify the ular context. people of God with the Catholic Church exclu- The second theme, interreligious Dialogue, is sively, but it is clear that the traditional rubric recognized today as an integral element of mis- “outside the church there is no salvation” is cited sion that finds its deepest justification in the dia- in a rather nuanced way. It is certainly ironic, at logue with which God effects salvation. While least from an evangelical point of view, that the proclamation is concerned with presenting groundwork is then laid for articulation of vari- Christ, dialogue seeks to discover him in other ous ways in which members of non-Christian re- faiths, ideologies, and secular situations, and ligions and even atheists can have a relationship calls for mutual conversion and transformation. with the church, even unconsciously (chaps. 14– Dialogue is like proclamation, however, in that it 16). It is encouraging to note, nevertheless, many entails both nonverbal and verbal witness to the statements of the Great Commission and of the reality of Christ. obligation of all disciples of Christ to use their Inculturation, the third theme, finds its theo- individual abilities in the urgent task of global logical roots in the doctrines of the incarnation, evangelization. sacramentality, catholicity, and revelation. Like The biblical principles of a theology of mission interreligious dialogue, inculturation looks for are outlined in the council’s “Decree on the Mis- the presence of God in human life and culture— sionary Activity of the Church” (Ad gentes, 1965), the foundation of which is that “the pilgrim and so goes beyond the former models of adapta- church is missionary by its very nature.” The tion; like proclamation, on the other hand, it first paragraphs of the decree include a thor- calls for renewal and refinement of the human in oughly biblical reflection on the trinitarian basis the gospel’s light—and so is always somewhat for mission, showing that the activity of preach- countercultural in intent. In theological articula- ing the gospel needs to be approached—even in tion, liturgical expression, and questions of Western culture—with different strategies. The church order, not only the classical sources of evangelical will be uncomfortable with the juxta- Scripture and tradition need to be taken into ac- position of a particularist understanding of sal- count, but also those elements (culture, location, vation and the assertion that “all people have a social changes) that make up present human ex- ‘mysterious’ relationship with the church perience. Pope John Paul II has characterized (which) enlightens them in a way which is ac- inculturation as the center, means, and aim of commodated to their spiritual and material situ- the new effort of evangelization. ation.” In the last several decades the theme of libera- Some months after the publication of Redemp- tion has emerged as central in theological reflec- toris Missio, two Vatican congregations issued tion on the church’s mission. While mission has “Dialogue and Proclamation,” a document which almost always been involved in some kind of attempts to explain more fully the church’s views charitable or developmental work, current think- of non-Christian religions and its efforts to inter- ing would push beyond to ways of changing the act with adherents of those faiths. The complexi- underlying unjust and oppressive structures that ties of religious Pluralism are to be explored by keep people poor. Working for justice and inte- means of dialogue, a Christian message is not to gral liberation has been called constitutive of be imposed in this situation, for sincere persons gospel proclamation, and inculturation is re- are “saved in Jesus Christ and thus already share garded as impossible without immersion in the in some way in the reality which is signified by reality of the poor and treating their religion— the kingdom.” Proclamation, on the other hand, popular Christianity or non-Christian faith— is based on solid biblical material; here the integ- with utmost seriousness and respect. 125 Saturation Church Planting

Finally, the church’s mission is more and more cantly from the theological and biblical disci- recognized in contemporary theological reflec- plines. tion as trinitarian in both origin and aim. Mis- Steven B. Bevans and John Nyquist sion is rooted in the God who is radically with and for humanity, and who calls humanity to be- Bibliography. W. M. Abbott, ed., The Documents of Vatican II; W. R. Burrows, Redemption and Dialogue: come partners in the divine work of reconciling Reading “Redemptoris Missio” and “Dialogue and Proc- all of creation. God does this in the warp and lamation”; C. Carlen, ed., The Papal Encyclicals, 1939– woof of history (Spirit) and in the concreteness 1958; C. Colson and R. J. Neuhaus, eds., Evangelicals of history (Jesus); humanity does this most con- and Catholics Together: Towards a Common Mission; W. sciously by aligning with God’s activity in the Jenkinson and H. O’Sullivan, eds., Trends in Mission. missional community of the church. The entire Toward The 3rd Millennium: Essays in Celebration of church is called to mission, and so laity as well Twenty-Five Years of SEDOS; R. Latourelle, Vatican II: as clergy and religious are to minister actively in Assessment and Perspectives 25 Years After (1962–1987), the world. 3 vols.; B. Meeking and J. Stott, eds., The Evangeli- Contemporary Roman Catholic mission theol- cal-Roman Catholic Dialogue on Mission, (1977–1984); K. Muller, Mission Theology: An Introduction; J. A. ogy is greatly influenced by contacts with other Scherer and S. B. Bevans, eds., New Directions in Mis- Christian churches, Orthodox, conciliar, and sion and Evangelization I: Basic Statements (1974– evangelical. “Christian Witness—Common Wit- 1991). ness” (1980), a joint agreement between the Vat- ican and the World Council of Churches, ex- Saturation Church Planting. Saturation church plores ideas for ecumenical cooperation in planting methodology takes seriously the Great global evangelization and witness. A contribu- Commission’s injunction to make disciples of all tion to the ongoing discussions between concil- nations (Matt. 28:18–20). It adopts the strategy iar Protestants and Roman Catholics, this docu- of mobilizing the entire body of Christ in whole ment affirms certain perspectives on the church, countries in the effort to reach the goal of the defines the characteristics and results of effective Great Commission in each country by providing witness, and even proposes various situations in an evangelical congregation for every village, which common witness can take place. The Evangelical-Roman Catholic Dialogue on neighborhood, and kind and condition of people Mission (ERCDOM) took place over eight years in the population. (1977–84). The discussions demonstrated that The strategy recognizes that world evangeliza- evangelicals and Roman Catholics can talk to- tion can never be attained apart from providing gether about issues of great importance without viable congregations of redeemed people among engaging in the usual polemics. The record of every People Group in the world. Saturation these meetings shows both integrity and candor church planting recognizes that no single type of regarding issues that have long divided the two church can provide the needed resources for groups. While there was considerable agreement evangelizing an entire population. Jim Montgom- on some of the basic points, there remains much ery calls for a comprehensive, systematic plan in that separates. “Evangelicals and Catholics To- each country to mobilize the church to push to- gether” (1994) represents a more recent attempt ward the goal of evangelizing whole nations. in North America to identify areas of common Saturation church planting also takes seriously concern to evangelicals and Roman Catholics the truth that every population, even in organized and proposes strategies for future cooperation. states, actually represents what Donald Mc- The document demonstrates that there is much Gavran termed a “vast mosaic” of different in common between the two groups, particularly groups of people, each with a different worldview when it comes to “cobelligerence,” that is, a com- and culture. Indonesia, for example, has some mon commitment against, for example, Relativ- 360 distinct people groups among its millions of ism, anti-intellectualism, nihilism, and social people. Even these groups can easily be subdi- abuse. Although areas of disagreement are ac- vided. knowledged, there is little theological reflection, To reach the people in all the groups demands with the unfortunate result of some oversimplifi- a vast diversity of churches to match the vast di- cation and confusion. In the main, three issues versity of peoples. Saturation church planting need further investigation and discussion: the provides the strategy for providing this needed significance of the Protestant Reformation, the diversity. criteria for membership in the body of Christ, The methodology understands that the evange- and the scope of the Great Commission as a man- lization of whole nations is rooted in the compre- date that engages all believers in Christ in all hensive purpose of God. This plan is seen in the parts of the globe. It is certainly good and right Old Testament (Gen. 18:18; 22:17–18; 26:4; that such discussions have taken place; in the fu- 1 Kings 8:43; Ps. 102:15; Isa. 45:22) as well as in ture, however, provision should be made for the the New Testament (Matt. 28:18–20; Acts 26:16– inclusion of those who can contribute signifi- 18; Rom. 16:26; 2 Peter 3:9; Rev. 15:4). Saturation 126 Scottish Mission Boards and Societies church planting takes seriously this plan for disci- sembly of the Church of Scotland declined in- pling whole nations and all nations. volvement, but theology students debated the The method is enunciated most thoroughly in needs of the non-Christian world. Local societies Jim Montgomery’s plan of DAWN (Discipling a were formed in many places. The Glasgow and Whole Nation). This strategy calls for 7 million Edinburgh societies supported their own mis- churches by a.d. 2000. If this goal is to be sionaries for a time. By 1800 there was little to reached, the important place of house churches show for the expenditure of money and lives. and unpaid workers must be stressed. Later success depended on persistence, the les- To evangelize the nations demands such a sons of experience, and the opening up of new strategy as envisioned in DAWN and a commit- opportunities, particularly after mission in India ment to a church among every people in order to became legal in 1813. In the early 1820s student bring whole nations to Christ. Every other strat- societies were founded in all four Scottish uni- egy should be judged in relation to how it con- versities. tributes to the goal of discipling whole nations In 1824 the Church of Scotland took steps to and all nations. engage in missions as the national church. By Ebbie C. Smith 1830 Alexander Duff was headmaster of the Church of Scotland’s school in Calcutta. That Bibliography. B. Fitts, Saturation Church Planting: Multiplying Congregations Through House Churches; year there were in Edinburgh, along with Bible J. Montgomery, DAWN 2000: 7 Million Churches to Go; societies, the Scottish SPCK and the Scottish D. A. McGavran, Understanding Church Growth; E. C. Missionary Society, societies connected with the Smith, Balanced Church Growth; C. P. Wagner, Church CMS, the LMS, Moravians, as well as others di- Planting for a Greater Harvest. rected at Jews and for the abolition of slavery. Visiting missionaries, publications, correspon- Scottish Mission Boards and Societies. Scot- dence, and systematic fund raising nurtured in- land’s contribution to world mission is related to terest. its experience of mission at home, the role of di- The 1830s were a peak of Scottish recruitment aspora Scots in other parts of Britain and around into the LMS. By the 1840s overseas mission was the world, and its changing circumstances as a an accepted, though not central, dimension of nation whose history is integral with that of Eu- Christian identity. After the Disruption of 1843 rope. It is also affected by its Celtic and Calvinist those who left the Church of Scotland for the heritage and marked commitment to education. Free Church were replaced. Livingstone’s exam- The evangelization of Scotland was associated ple as an explorer missionary calling for “Christi- with Celtic monasticism and new orders in the anity, commerce and civilization” in Africa was medieval period. By the 1500s responsibility for widely heeded. The Edinburgh Medical Mission- mission had shifted to rulers. Scots had limited ary Society began in 1841. opportunities, rulers in no position to extend Duff’s belief that a Christian worldview would their territory, no missionary orders, and closed demolish Hinduism captured people’s imagina- monasteries. Nevertheless the Confession of tion in Scotland at least, but Hinduism proved 1560, and the Westminster Confession and its resilient. Missionaries who preferred vernacular catechisms, allowed for world mission. In 1698 a education to English were vindicated in the long doomed attempt at colonization in Central run. Duff’s vision that missions were the chief America included Church of Scotland ministers end of the Christian church, and his occupancy with a missionary mandate. In 1723 Robert Mil- of the first chair of mission studies anywhere, set lar of Paisley’s History of the Propagation of up by the Free Church of Scotland in 1867, give Christianity called for mission to pagans. By the him a place in history. The chair did not last. The 1740s the Society in Scotland for the Propaga- elder Duff lacked the magic of his youth, mission tion of Christian Knowledge (founded in 1709) was no longer in question, and future problems supported work among North American Indians were not envisaged. Given the belief that mission as well as charity schools in the Scottish High- should be integrated with other theological disci- lands. Education and a bias toward English were plines, it was not difficult to believe it could also common to both. Its annual sermons show Scots be left to them. Scots missionaries offered the thinking about mission into the 19th century. best of their own experience of salvation, and ar- In 1842 the Cambuslang Revival inspired a call ticulated theologies, which took other religions for prayer which helped form the backdrop to seriously. A proclivity for higher education often the Baptist Missionary Society, founded in En- included an appreciation of artisan skills. gland in 1792. Scots were active in the formation John Wilson engaged in polite debate with of the Missionary Society in London in 1795 (see Hindus. James Legge became the most import- Council for World Mission) and provided many ant Sinologist of the nineteenth century. J. N. of its directors and some of its most notable mis- Farquhar talked in terms of fulfillment—Christ sionaries including David Livingstone, John as the Crown of Hinduism. Mary Slessor Philip, and James Legge. In 1796 the General As- achieved in Africa what was still difficult for 127 Second Vatican Council women in Britain. The World Missionary Con- tory—more than thirty-five years later—is to ference (Edinburgh 1910) had a strong Scottish understand the tension during the council be- flavor. James Hastings’ Encyclopedia of Religion tween theological conservatives and progres- and Ethics can be seen as a missiological state- sives. Changes are never easy and when one con- ment. Today the Board of World Mission of the siders the nature of the Roman Catholic Church, Church of Scotland maintains links with mission the task of renewal might seem almost impossi- fields and offers training back in Scotland. The ble. But when some of the bishops prevailed in Council for World Mission, formerly the LMS, their attempts to prod the church into engaging has links with the Congregational Union in Scot- the modern world, the outcomes were less than land and provides a model of post-colonial mis- predictable. And these winds of change were sion partnership. Roman Catholics share in mis- most obvious in the dialogue among the bishops sion overseas through Catholic orders and relative to the meaning of the church and the through the Scottish Catholic International Aid gospel mandate “to make disciples of all na- Fund. tions.” John Roxborogh The six documents which relate directly to world mission are as follows: Bibliography. E. G. K. Hewat, Vision and Achieve- ment 1796–1956. A History of the Foreign Missions of the Churches United in the Church of Scotland; D. Mac- 1. Lumen Gentium (“The Light of the kichan, The Missionary Ideal in the Scottish Churches; Nations”), The Dogmatic Constitution S. Piggin and J. Roxborogh, The St. Andrews Seven; of the Church; A. F. Walls, DSCHT, pp. 567–94. 2. Dei Verbum (“The Word of God”), The Dogmatic Constitution on Divine Second Vatican Council (1962–65). When in Revelation; 1959 Pope John XXIII made the unexpected an- 3. Guadium et Spes (“The Joys and nouncement of an ecumenical council, he called Hopes”). The Pastoral Constitution on the leaders of the global Roman Catholic Church the Church in the Modern World; together for the first time since Vatican I, almost a 4. Ad Gentes (“To All Nations”), The hundred years earlier. His convocation of this Decree on the Missionary Activity of the council reflected his genuine desire to update and Church; renew church life, and in particular to raise the 5. Unitatis Redintegratio (“Restoration of question of the central mission of the Church. The Unity”), The Decree on Ecumenism; Church needed to look outside as well as inside, and attempting to come to terms with a world which 6. Nostra Aetate (“In Our Times”), The had undergone deep and significant changes since Declaration on the Relationship of the the last council. Previous popes had addressed Church to Non-Christian Religions. A various problems facing the Church, but when seventh document on religious freedom Pope John called bishops from Africa, Asia, Latin (Dignitatis Humanae) is also significant America, and even from countries under the grip but due to space limitations is omitted of totalitarian political systems, he was taking an in this discussion. unprecedented step. From the Catholic perspec- tive, this would be the first truly ecumenical coun- Lumen Gentium (“The Light of the Nations”) is cil. a magisterial document which reflects an ortho- The council’s four sessions included two- dox Catholic theology on the nature of the month convocations in the Vatican with more Church as well as the implications of these re- than 2,500 bishops participating. Endless com- flections for the Church’s central mission. Essen- mittees and subsequent reports stretched the tially the Church is pictured by the images of hearts, minds, and bodies of the participants, mystery, the People of God, and a hierarchical and many of the documents reflect a sometimes structure, displaying again the distinctives of rough summary of the attempt to blend the re- both conservative and progressive ecclesiologies. ports with finished papers. And although few of Articles 13–17 represent the core of Catholic re- the bishops understood the impact those docu- flection on the universal nature of the Church’s ments would have, we now have a much clearer mission as it relates to its own, to non-Catholics, picture of the ways and means of the Catholic and to non-Christians. The ambiguities so char- Church. Not least in the catalogue of images was acteristic of this document raise concerns about the understanding of the Catholic Church re- Universalism and the nature of the gospel itself. garding world mission and evangelization. Many Scriptures are brought to bear on the text Sixteen documents of uneven significance and the Great Commission passages are in abun- emerged from the council and a wide consensus dance. Evangelicals would have welcomed even of observers and interpreters recognizes six of more reflection on the biblical texts, with more those in a special way. Perhaps the most helpful than what in many cases appear to be merely observation of the council at this point in his- parenthetical references to texts. 128 Second Vatican Council

Dei Verbum (“The Word of God”) is an import- this missionary effort pertains to the whole ant document for evangelicals to study for several church, and not just the clergy or those orders of reasons, not least the obvious awareness of the missionaries exclusively set aside for such minis- evangelical tradition of biblical scholarship and try. It should not be forgotten that ten years after church practice. The Scriptures are given promi- the conclusion of Vatican II, Pope Paul VI called nence in this document, particularly in reference another synod of bishops, after which he issued to the proclamation of the gospel. But it is unfor- an even more carefully worded (and one might tunate that some of the positive contributions of say “powerfully worded”) statement, the Apos- a fresh approach to the Bible are blunted by the tolic Exhortation, Evangelii Nuntiandi (Evangeli- traditional teaching of interpretations being sub- zation in the Modern World). This document, ject to the magisterial office. Evangelicals can be read alongside Ad Gentes, provides solid biblical encouraged to find the exhortation to the pastors and theological insights for missiologists and of the Church to give much more attention to missionaries alike. Bible study and sermon preparation, making the Unitatis Redintegratio (“Restoration of Unity”) Scriptures more accessible to the entire Church breaks new ground in the Roman Catholic universally. In the end, the traditional two-source understanding of its role in Christian dialogue theory of revelation prevails, even though it has with Protestants. Reflecting on the Ecumenical been recast with God being the original source Movement begun earlier in the twentieth cen- and Church tradition and Holy Scripture stand- tury, the bishops took some steps to recover lost ing equally in the life of the Church. ground since the schisms of the eleventh and six- Gaudium et Spes (“The Joys and Hopes”) is the teenth centuries. Vatican II began calling Ortho- lengthiest of the sixteen documents, and although dox and Protestant Christians “separated breth- there is some ponderous repetition, the docu- ren” and looked for openings for bilateral ment itself bears a sympathetic reading. The cul- discussions with various denominations. Four ture of modernity is addressed and the document notable points can be observed which will high- demonstrates the desire on the part of progres- light the contours of the document: (1) The sive Church leaders to interact with the secular Church’s willingness to share blame for separa- and material world. This pastoral constitution is tions in past centuries; (2) the Church’s affirma- unique in that the discussion surrounding it tion of genuine Christianity as consisting in “all arose during the council itself without following those justified by faith through baptism (being) the protocol of pre-council preparations and pa- incorporated into Christ”; (3) the calling atten- perwork. In the present situation where the West- tion to “an order of ‘hierarchy’ of truths (which) ern church is struggling with its relationship with vary in their relationship to the foundation of the its own cultural developments, Gaudium et Spes pioneers in certain areas where the Church has Christian Faith”; (4) the encouragement which avoided interaction with those outside the the Catholic Church takes from their observation Church and perhaps even critical of it. The Pref- of the “love, veneration, and near cult of the sa- ace, in fact, makes it clear: “. . . the Church now cred Scriptures (which) lead our brethren to a addresses itself without hesitation, not only to constant and expert study of the sacred text.” the sons of the Church and to all who invoke the These are significant movements which bear name of Christ, but to the whole of humanity.” even more reflection for future conversations. Ad Gentes (“To All Nations”) is the most “evan- Nostra Aetate (“In Our Times”) represents the gelical” document in the way it addresses itself shortest and, in the minds of many, the most to the understanding of the Great Commission controversial document. In our day of Religious and the strategic implications in the life of the Pluralism and political correctness, the “Decla- Church, locally and globally. The most quoted ration on the Relationship of the Church to sentence in the entire document is the first of the Non-Christian Religions” makes an uncertain doctrinal principles: “The pilgrim Church is mis- sound, particularly in the light of the high theol- sionary by her very nature” which represents a ogy of Ad Gentes. The document places Hindu- clear reflection of Lumen Gentium in the way ism, Buddhism, and Islam in the best possible that missionary activity was located within the light, mixing Scripture quotations in almost syn- center of the Church’s life instead of on its pe- cretistic fashion. There are two positive aspects riphery. It is also important to note that this doc- of Nostra Aetate: (1) the lengthy section on the ument on missions is the final product of a long Jews addresses issues especially significant in and arduous process that extended throughout light of World War II and correctly sees the most of the four years of the council. The several strong biblical connection between Judaism and principles stated in Ad Gentes stem from a clear Christianity; (2) toward the conclusion of the biblical understanding of the necessity of explicit document, the centrality of the cross of Christ gospel proclamation as the hallmark of mission- for salvation is brought into focus, restating the ary activity, incorporating those who respond necessity of the Church’s preaching in proclaim- into the local body, the church. Furthermore, ing the “cross of Christ.” 129 Secularist, Secularism

It is no exaggeration to say that when Pope only proclamation of the gospel but also exposing John XXIII called for “a new Pentecost,” few real- the inadequacies of secularism as a worldview. ized what kind of “depth charges” would be set William H. Baker off. It could also be said that Catholics living in the period even ten years prior to the council Bibliography. S. Bruce, ed., Religion and Moderniza- might not recognize the Church today. But in the tion: Sociologists and Historians Debate the Seculariza- tion Thesis; P. Sampson et al., eds., Faith and Moder- end, the emphasis on proclamation to those who nity; R. Webber, Secular Humanism: Threat and have not heard the gospel is biblical, and theolog- Challenge. ical reflection is always required when attempt- ing to carry out the Great Commission in the way Biblical expression that re- the Lord of the Church, Jesus Christ, intended. Signs and Wonders. fers to God’s powerful and miraculous interven- John W. Nyquist tions in creation. In Scripture, these acts were Bibliography. W. M. Abbott, ed., The Documents of performed by God through his servants and in- Vatican II; D. J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm cluded miraculous healings, demonic expulsions, Shifts in Theology of Mission; C. Butler, The Theology of control over natural phenomena, and Power En- Vatican II; H. Gensichen, IRM 56 (July 1967): 291–309; A. Glasser and D. A. McGavran, Contemporary Theolo- counters. Signs and wonders usually occurred gies of Mission; W. R. Hogg, IRM 56:223 (July 1967): in conjunction with the proclamation of God’s 281–90. message in the Old Testament or with proclama- tion of the Kingdom of God in the New Testa- Secularist, Secularism. A secularist is a person ment. The purpose of the signs and wonders was who has been secularized or who embraces secu- to reveal the glory of God and his grace and larism as a Worldview. The term “secular” is power, to authenticate God’s message and mes- from the Latin saeculum, meaning “generation” senger, to confirm Jesus Christ as the promised or “age,” signifying “belonging to this age or the Messiah, and to usher in the kingdom of God. world” rather than to a transcendent religious The healings and demonic deliverances of Jesus order. Secularism is a worldview which finds lit- and the disciples were considered part of the tle if any place for the supernatural and the tran- gospel itself. In the Book of Acts, signs and won- scendent. It is often linked with philosophical ders followed the apostles and accompanied the naturalism, which holds that this world of matter verbal proclamation of the gospel. There is a pat- and energy is all that exists. Secularism as a tern of growth and expansion of the church that world­view must be distinguished from Secular- followed these recorded miracles in Scripture. In ization as an historical process in which religious many cases Persecution followed the period of beliefs, values, and institutions are increasingly growth. marginalized and lose their plausibility and Records and references to different types of power. Secularization may result in the elimina- signs and wonders were prevalent in the writings tion of religion entirely, as in atheistic and agnos- of the early church fathers. From the fifth cen- tic societies. Or it may simply transform the na- tury until the twentieth century, reports of mira- ture and place of religion within society, resulting cles, however, decreased, although there are nu- in “this worldly” secularized forms of religion. merous accounts of miracles and power Secularization is often linked to modernization, encounters in conjunction with frontier missions. so that as societies become increasingly modern- For example, power encounters, demonic deliver- ized they also tend to become secularized. ance, and healings are attributed to missionaries In the West secularism has become identified such as Boniface (680–754) and Ulfilas (c. 311– with movement and ideology of secular human- 383). ism. The ideology of secular humanism is ex- pressed in the “Secular Humanist Declaration” In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the (1981), which affirms ten points: free inquiry, scientific, rational, Western Worldview shaped separation of church and state, freedom, critical the missionary perspective of supernatural phe- intelligence, moral education, religious skepti- nomena (see also Enlightenment). Emphasis was cism, knowledge through reason, science and placed on verbal proclamation without any dis- technology, evolution, and education. Underlying tinctive manifestations of God’s supernatural these points is a commitment to an agenda power, and supernatural phenomena were ex- which will reduce the influence of religion in so- plained in nonsupernatural terms. Recently, how- ciety and elevate the authority of a rationalism ever, many missionaries have found the need to based upon reason and science. combine the preaching of the gospel with some As the world increasingly is influenced by mod- form of power manifestation to reach the people ernization and secularization, missionaries in (see also Power Mission and Powers, The). This both the West and non-Western cultures will is most prominent in areas and cultures that ad- need to deal with secularists who have little inter- here to some form of supernatural worldview. In est in religion. Effective ministry will involve not many cases, these signs and wonders are fol- 130 Spiritual Warfare lowed by conversions and explosive church signs and wonders has been the deciding factor growth. for the conversion of many. A renewed emphasis on signs and wonders Mark Wagner brought forth by the charismatic and Third Wave Bibliography. G. S. Grieg and K. N. Springer, eds., movements has reestablished the need and place The Kingdom and the Power; E. N. Gross, Miracles, De- of signs and wonders in the evangelism process. mons, and Spiritual Warfare: An Urgent Call for Discern- This topic has become widely debated among ment; P. G. Hiebert, Anthropological Reflections on Mis- theologians and missiologists. The two main siological Issues; C. P. Wagner, comp., Signs and questions in the discussion are: Do signs and Wonders Today; V. J. Sterk, Missiology 20 (July 1992): wonders still exist today as they did in biblical 371–84; D. Williams, Signs, Wonders, and the Kingdom times? What part should they play in evangelism of God; J. Wimber, Power Evangelism. and missions today? On one end of the spectrum is the cessasionist Spiritual Warfare. Spiritual warfare is the view that signs and wonders ceased with the age Christian encounter with evil supernatural pow- of the apostles since their purpose was to con- ers led by Satan and his army of fallen angels, firm the message preached by the apostles. Signs generally called demons or evil spirits (see and wonders may occur today at the initiative of Demon, Demons). The original battle was be- God in areas were the gospel is introduced for tween Satan and God, but on the level of the the first time. However, such occurrences are heavenlies, the war has been won decisively by very rare. Generally it is assumed that healings God (Col. 2:15; 1 John 3:8). On earth the battles and other signs and wonders are no longer seen continue, but the issue is to determine not who today and that verbal proclamation of the gospel will win but whether God’s people will appropri- is sufficient. ate the victory won for them by the cross and the On the other end of the spectrum is the Pente- resurrection. costal view that every Christian and church The conflict began in the Garden of Eden as should experience and minister with signs and recorded in Genesis 3 and will continue until the wonders. Healings, deliverance, and power en- fulfillment of the events predicted in Revelation 20. Scripture makes it clear that Satan leads the counters are part of the gospel message. Effec- anti-God and anti-Christian forces as “the prince tive evangelism occurs where the gospel is pro- of this world” (John 12:31; 14:30; 16:11) or “the claimed with power, and the signs and wonders god of this world” (2 Cor. 4:4) and as a leader of that accompany such evangelism are the same as the fallen angels (Matt. 25:41). It is also clear, those in the New Testament. John Wimber popu- however, that although Satan gained some mea- larized one expression of this position and sure of control through the events in the garden, played a key role in the increased use of signs God retains ultimate sovereignty over his cre- and wonders among Western missionaries. ation. God’s people are assured of victory in the A third view affirms the presence of signs and battle when they engage the enemy on the basis wonders as important tools of evangelism and of faith and obedience—the conditions set by church growth, yet does not see them as norma- God in his covenant with Israel and the implica- tive. Proponents of this view affirm the need for tions of submitting to God in James 4:7. signs and wonders in mission, but caution Every battle Israel fought in the conquest of against an overemphasis and unbalanced view. Canaan was won or lost on spiritual consider- They caution that in practice, signs and wonders ations. When Israel obeyed God’s commands and have often taken center stage, at the expense of acted on the basis of faith, God gave them vic- the verbal gospel message. Furthermore, they tory no matter what the military situation. The warn that it is easy to fall into a formula ap- battle was ultimately between God and the gods. proach, an evangelical form of magic. Finally While idols are treated in the Old Testament with there is the concern that often miracles are re- contempt as utterly devoid of spiritual power ported and claimed where there are none. Signs (Ps. 114:4–8; Isa. 40:18–20; 44:9–20; Jer. 10:3ff.), and wonders are affirmed, but there is a need for the god or spirit behind the idol was treated as an overall balance in the reliance on the miracu- real (cf. Deut. 32:17; Ps. 106:37; 1 Cor. 10:18–20). lous in evangelism. Yahweh was often compared to the gods (1 Kings The debate remains as to the nature and place 8:23; 1 Chron. 16:25; Pss. 86:8; 96:4; 135:5). That of signs and wonders in evangelism and mission. was not a comparison with nothing. It was the The conclusion of these questions is based pri- sovereign God compared to the angels who were marily on the paradigm from which these issues in rebellion against him. are addressed. The evidence shows that many of This battle is portrayed in the Gospels and in those ministering with signs and wonders have the rest of the New Testament. Paul states clearly and are experiencing conversion growth. This is that “our struggle is . . . against the powers of especially the case among resistant peoples. The this dark world and against the spiritual forces proclamation of the gospel in conjunction with of evil in the heavenly realms” (Eph. 6:12). These 131 Spiritual Warfare are real enemies, and resistance against them it from God; is it true?” Many people end up with will involve spiritual warfare. While we are as- a spiritual stronghold in their lives because they sured of victory in the battle, we are never as- have fallen for Satan’s deceptive use of power. sured that we will not have to fight in the battle. Ultimately spiritual warfare is the battle for The influence of the Enlightenment and later the mind. Satan knows that people will always the evolutionary hypothesis began a process live what they really believe, even if they do not which has resulted in the secularization of the live what they profess to believe. Since one’s be- Western worldview. As a result, biblical refer- lief about God is foundational to all other beliefs, ences to the role of spirit beings in the realm of Satan will almost always begin by trying to per- the created world are often misinterpreted or ig- vert one’s belief about the character of God. It nored in dealing with the text, and many mis- happened in Eden. Satan said that God’s state- sionaries have gone to the field with a defective ment about dying if people ate of the fruit was a worldview, resulting in serious flaws in their ap- lie and that God could therefore not be trusted. proach to animistic belief systems. He also implied that God could not love them At the other end of the spectrum, there is a and withhold that beautiful, desirable fruit from tendency to overemphasize the role of spirits them. Once they began to question the integrity which produces a Christian Syncretism with An- of God, they came under Satan’s control. imism. People use the Bible as a good luck charm It appears that Satan’s great desire is to be God to protect one from evil spirits, prescribe certain (Luke 4:5–7; 2 Thess. 2:3, 4). This is also seen in words or expressions to be used in dealing with the Old Testament in the conflict between God demons, or assume that knowing the name of a and the gods. As noted above, the real power be- demon gives more power over it. People coming hind the “gods” in the Old Testament is Satan from animistic backgrounds also fall into syncre- and his host of evil spirits. This same principle tism, but that is usually because the Christians applies to all religious systems which set forth a who introduce them to Christ do not help them god other than the Yahweh of Scripture. So the understand the Christian worldview as it relates battle is still in process. Unfortunately, many to issues of spiritual power. missionaries have failed to help their converts Much of this confusion stems from the fact make a thorough worldview change from an ani- that Satan’s primary tactic is deception. That mistic view in which the spirit world is manipu- does not mean that everything a demon says is a lable to a Christian view in which a sovereign lie. Deception gains its power by concealing the God is in control. Not only can God not be ma- lie in surrounding truth. What is needed is dis- nipulated by us, there is absolutely nothing we cernment, not simply in responding to what a can do to commend ourselves to God. We are ut- demon may say but in dealing with the deceiving terly dependent on his grace as a means of deal- spirits that are constantly trying to confuse our ing with our sin and relating to him on a daily belief system (Rev. 12:9; 1 Tim. 4:1). basis. The very definition of sin is dependent on The primary issue in deception is always truth, one’s view of the holiness and sovereignty of and Satan deceives especially concerning the God. A low view of sin stems from a low view of source of power and of knowledge. God has pro- God. vided all the power and knowledge we need to Thus winning in spiritual warfare always live as “more than conquerors” in Christ; but needs to begin with a right view of God and with ever since the Garden of Eden, Satan has been a right view of what it means to be a child of trying to cause us not to trust God to provide the God. If we say that we are children of God by power we need and to doubt our ability to know faith but believe that we have to earn our daily God and to trust the Word of God. standing with God, we become the victims of an Satan uses his power to cause us to fear him. impossible situation. By grace God makes us For Christians to fear Satan they must first “co-heirs with Christ” (Rom. 8:17)—a standing doubt the power and provision of God for victory which we could never earn by our own efforts. over Satan. Thus he accomplishes two goals: to Believing that this is indeed our position “in cause Christians to doubt God and to gain some Christ” provides the only viable position from measure of control over them through fear. which to resist the enemy. The battle looks very But Satan will also seek to entice people—be- different from the vantage point of the throne of lievers or unbelievers—to take power from him God than it does from the context of the circum- rather than from God. He comes as an angel of stances of our lives on earth. light and makes his power seem desirable. This In missionary ministry this battle may well be brings one into contact with a long list of occult more like a Power Encounter than the battle for practices such as fortune telling, magic, sorcery, the mind which underlies it. Paul says that his and witchcraft. Satan has enough power to pro- call was “to open their eyes, to bring them from duce some striking results— “counterfeit mira- darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to cles, signs and wonders” (2 Thess. 2:10). Some God” (Acts 26:18). Thus evangelism is a kind of people only ask, “Does it work?” rather than “Is power encounter, and converts need to under- 132 Student Mission Work stand clearly that they are moving from one Bibliography. E. Elliot, Who Shall Ascend: The Life realm of spiritual power to another. of R. Kenneth Strachan of Costa Rica; W. D. Roberts, Often associated with conversion is the de- Revolution in Evangelism: The Story of Evange- struction of objects used in non-Christian reli- lism-in-Depth. gious practices. This is a visible renunciation of the old ways and old worldview, but it is also a Student Mission Work. Ever since Daniel and challenge to the “gods” behind the objects to de- his three friends were taken from their home- fend themselves if they are able. land and placed in the court of King Nebuchad- Missionaries may well see overt demonic activ- nezzar of Babylon, students have had an active role in being missionary witnesses in foreign cul- ity (see Possession Phenomena), and they need to tures. Students often have the enthusiasm and know how to minister with confidence in such a freedom to move easily into other cultures with situation. Many places have been opened to the the gospel. Furthermore, as in Daniel’s time, stu- gospel through seeing a person set free from evil dents have the abilities and educational qualifi- spirits. Spiritual practitioners in other religions cations that make their presence in a foreign cul- may challenge Christians to demonstrate their ture both acceptable and desirable to the host power in a variety of ways. The missionary needs culture. Consequently it is not surprising that to be prepared to respond appropriately. Ulti- many of the great missionary initiatives in the mately prayer may be the most important last few hundred years have come from students. weapon in the Christian’s arsenal against the In the early seventeenth century, seven law stu- enemy. dents from Lubeck, Germany, committed them- Timothy M. Warner selves to world missions while studying in Paris. Bibliography. N. Anderson, How to Help Others Find At least three of them went to Africa, including Freedom in Christ; M. Kraft, Understanding Spiritual Peter Heiling, who spent twenty years in Abys- Power; A. S. Moreau, The Essentials of Spiritual War- sinia (Ethiopia) where he translated the Bible into fare; E. Murphy, The Handbook for Spiritual Warfare; Amharic and eventually died as a martyr for the T. Warner, Spiritual Warfare. cause of Christ. The great Moravian missionary movement Strachen R. Kenneth (1910–65). American mis- began in the student days of Count Nikolaus sionary to Costa Rica and founder of Evange- Ludwig von Zinzendorf, who, while studying, lism-in-Depth. Born in Argentina, Strachan grew formed the Order of the Grain of Mustard Seed, up in Costa Rica in the family that had founded which had as one of its purposes “to carry the the Latin America Mission, of which he became gospel of Christ to those overseas who had never president when his father Harry died in 1945. He yet heard the message.” Much of modern world- was thoroughly familiar with evangelistic cru- wide missionary movement can be traced to the sades in many cities. But he felt something was hearts of those students who gathered together missing: the involvement of lay people in prayer, to pray for world evangelism. door-to-door witnessing, and bringing people to Charles Wesley helped form the “Holy Club” at hear the evangelists. He made a profound impact Christ Church College in Oxford in 1726. This group became involved in reaching out to the on the world of missions by applying the theory poor and those in prison. Subsequently in 1735, of total church mobilization to countrywide Charles and his brother, John, joined in a mis- evangelism in Central America, South America, sionary effort among indigenous Americans in and the Caribbean. He coined the phrase “Evan- Georgia. It was a continuation of their desire to gelism-in-Depth” for this movement, which was know God better which began in their student used in eight countries. His plan called for all days at Oxford. evangelical churches and missions to combine One of the most influential pastors in England their efforts for nationwide campaigns that in- during the early 1800s was Charles Simeon. He cluded a number of regional campaigns leading had become a believer in Christ during his stu- to one in the capital city. Strachan taught this dent days at Cambridge. After graduation he was concept widely and motivated many national ordained to the ministry and served at Holy Trin- church leaders to adopt it. Not all churches and ity Church in Cambridge for fifty-four years. It agencies cooperated, and he was criticized by was during these times that he influenced hun- some. Strachan believed in using national evan- dreds of students to know Christ and to serve gelists as well. Thousands of Christians were him throughout the world. The British and For- trained and revitalized. Evangelical unity was eign Bible Society began in Cambridge in 1811 demonstrated. More than one hundred thousand and the strongly missions-oriented Inter-Varsity people were converted to Christ, in spite of oppo- Fellowship of England traces its roots directly to sition from Roman Catholic priests in many Simeon and student work at Cambridge. places. Students in America were also key to mission- Jim Reapsome ary vision and commitment. In 1806 a group of 133 Swedish Mission Boards and Societies students at Williams College in western Massa- son at Yale who committed his life to the evange- chusetts met two afternoons each week to pray. lization of Native Americans. In the revival of One such meeting was particularly dedicated to 1904–8, E. Stanley Jones was a student at As- pray that students would have an increased in- bury College who committed his life to going to terest in foreign missions. However, the students India in missionary service. It has been esti- got caught in a thunderstorm and sought refuge mated that perhaps as many as 10,000 to 15,000 under a haystack. There they prayed and the re- students went overseas from this awakening. sult was the first student missionary society in In 1950, revivals at places like Asbury College America. According to Kenneth Scott Lato- and Wheaton College were dramatic. At Wheaton urette “It was from this Haystack Meeting that 39 percent of the class of 1950 devoted at least the foreign missionary movement of the part of their lives to full-time Christian ministry. churches of the United States had an initial main Another wave of revivals took place in 1970 with impulse.” at least 130 colleges, seminaries, and Bible Later in that century, in 1883, the Princeton schools being touched by unusual spiritual activ- Foreign Missionary Society was formed by stu- ity and commitment. The Wheaton revival in dents and in 1885, 251 students from eighty-nine 1995 has had a significant impact on students colleges in the United States attended a confer- praying for greater involvement in world mis- ence at Mt. Hermon with D. L. Moody. A direct sions. result of this conference was the formation of It is difficult to fully assess all of the dimen- the Student Volunteer Movement for Foreign sions of student mission work. However, it is not Missions in 1888. Its famous watchword was difficult to observe that students have had and “the evangelization of the world in this genera- will continue to have a significant role in world tion.” It is estimated that in the next fifty years missions. In our current “information age,” stu- more than twenty thousand students became ac- dent status provides access to all parts of the tive missionaries as a result. world. The most endearing qualities of students, In 1936 a new missionary thrust developed though, are their spiritual commitment and zeal among students with the leadership of Robert for the kingdom of God. They are not yet en- McQuilkin, founder and president of Columbia trenched in institutions and genuinely share the Bible College. This new movement became the freshness of their faith with those who do not yet Student Foreign Missions Fellowship and spread know Jesus. They accept the multicultural reali- rapidly to scores of primarily Christian colleges ties of the world without the prejudice of previ- in the United States. Later, in 1945, the SFMF ous generations. They have great passion and became the missionary arm at Christian schools compassion for those in need and are ready for a for InterVarsity Christian Fellowship. This full commitment to career missionary service. merger formed the backdrop for the first IVCF– Robert A. Fryling SFMF international student missions convention held at the University of Toronto in 1946. Two Bibliography. T. Beougher and L. Dorsett, Accounts years later the convention was held at the Uni- of a Campus Revival; R. Coleman, The Coming World versity of Illinois at Urbana, where it has been Revival; D. Howard, Student Power in World Evange- held since then on a triennial basis and become lism; D. McKenna, The Coming Great Awakening. known simply as “Urbana.” During the fifty-year history of Urbana, nearly 200,000 delegates have Swedish Mission Boards and Societies. Swe- attended these missionary conventions and ap- den, the most populous of the Scandinavian proximately 125,000 of these delegates have countries, has also made by far the largest con- made commitments to be actively involved in the tribution to the worldwide mission of the world mission of the church. church. Like the others, at least 90 percent of its In the 1950s other organizations focused on people are (for the most part nominally) related students came into being. Campus Crusade, The to the national Lutheran Church. But whereas in Navigators, The Fellowship of Christian Athletes, Denmark there are seven times as many parishes Youth for Christ, Youth With a Mission, Opera- of the national church as in all other Protestant tion Mobilization, and many other parachurch denominations combined, and in Norway and groups are actively involved in student missions Finland the parishes greatly outnumber the total projects. Church groups and most Christian col- of free churches, in Sweden the situation is re- leges send thousands of young people overseas versed. There are over twice as many free church in short-term missions teams every summer. congregations as parishes of the national church. One other dimension of student missions is Moreover, unlike in many countries, the free the tremendous impact on world missions of churches have been concerned almost since their campus revivals in the United States. Jonathan beginnings not only with national revival but Edwards observed that the First Great Awaken- also with worldwide mission. However, it is now ing had its greatest impact “chiefly among the widely recognized that the pervasive Seculariza- young.” David Brainerd was one such young per- tion of Sweden is affecting not only the domi- 134 Swiss Mission Boards and Societies nant church (where attendance rarely reaches 5 they spilled over into the deeply troubled coun- percent of the membership), but even the free tries of Burundi (where the Swedish Pentecostals churches which, whether Pentecostal or not, built the largest Protestant denomination) and have also been declining lately in active partici- Rwanda (where they were second only to the An- pants. The implications for future missionary ef- glicans). A crucial feature of Swedish Pentecos- fort are therefore ominous unless this is re- talism, typically not shared by many other Pente- versed. costal movements, is its strong congregational From the early 1970s into the 1990s, the num- nature. Perhaps this is a reaction to the connec- ber of foreign missionaries sent out through tionalism of the state church. The coordination some thirty agencies has been about 1,800. Prob- of the movement is maintained through confer- ably less than a fifth of these have been through ences and voluntary cooperation and various either of the two larger and some smaller Lu- specialized agencies. The mission agency, the theran agencies; about half of them have been Swedish Free Mission, upholds this pattern. For Pentecostals. Since 1912, in the wake of the Ed- missions this has meant that a large degree of inburgh World Missionary Conference, there responsibility has been accepted by the individ- has been a national missions council, but the ual congregations in sending out missionaries work is still basically carried on by the individual and a close personal attachment is felt toward agencies and denominations. them. The result was that by 1945 there were Within the framework of the national church some three hundred Pentecostal misssionaries there are two main agencies, quite distinct in with a 50 percent increase by 1960, and cur- how they relate to it. The older is usually trans- rently there are about three times as many as in lated as the Evangelical National Missionary So- 1945. ciety, founded in 1856. It is basically a voluntary The smaller free churches have generally and lay initiative to promote renewal within the maintained more centralized structures than the church and so most of its efforts are within Swe- Pentecostals. The older Baptist Union has had den. However, it also sent its first foreign mis- Congo as its main field, having entered in 1914, sionaries, in 1865, to Africa, and then in 1877 to and had thirty-five workers there in the 1960s India. In the 1960s it had 120 foreign workers, with only a few elsewhere. The Oerebro Mission five-sixths of them in eastern Africa. goes back to the 1890s and a split with the Bap- Unlike many national churches, in Sweden it tists that would now probably be called charis- was decided, through confessional pressure, to matic in nature. They are now roughly as large make missions an endeavor of the official struc- as the older Baptists in Sweden, and also seem to tures of the whole body, and so in 1874 the be much more foreign missions-minded (from Church of Sweden Mission was organized. An which interesting conclusions are obvious). earlier initiative dating from 1835 was soon in- Their first missionaries went to India in 1908, to corporated, but the intention of soon drawing in Brazil in 1912, and to Congo in 1914. By the the above society was not achieved. In 1876, the mid-1960s they had at least 160 foreign workers church sent its first missionaries to South Africa divided fairly evenly over Brazil, Africa, and and also to India. In 1918 it entered China. Mis- Asia. Like Oerebro, the Swedish Alliance Mission sionaries spread elsewhere in Africa, especially is also a denomination as well as a sending in Tanzania after the Germans had to leave be- agency, though it apparently began in the last cause of World War I. By the 1960s there were century just to be the latter. By the mid-1960s it nearly two hundred missionaries, all but 15 per- had about eighty-five missionaries mostly in cent in southern Africa. South Africa and Asia. Pentecostalism came to Sweden early in the Donald Tinder twentieth century and by 1907 the first mission- aries left for China. The key leader, Lewi Pethrus, Swiss Mission Boards and Societies. Swiss not only built up the huge Philadelphia Church mission boards and societies take shape accord- in Stockholm (which was expelled in 1912 from ing to the complex linguistic and political divi- the Baptists), but also promoted foreign mis- sions of the country. An authority of coordina- sions. In 1916 the first missionaries were offi- tion is the Swiss Council of Evangelical cially sent out to Brazil, and this vast country Missions, which includes three categories of has been a major and successful field for them members, while being itself a corporate member ever since. In 1920, outreach was begun else- of the World Council of Churches Unit on Mis- where in Europe. Pentecostal missions have sion and Evangelism. been distinguished from the Lutheran and even The first category is the mission board of the some other free church missions by their eager- established Reformed churches of French-speak- ness to witness in Latin America and elsewhere ing Swiss cantons. It is called Département Mis- in Europe. However, the more common areas of sionnaire, with headquarters in Lausanne. Half China and Africa were also entered. In the latter, of its budget supports the Evangelical Commu- a major field was the eastern Congo, from which nity for Apostolic Action in Paris. Together with 135 Syncretism other groups including evangelicals, it publishes velle Revue de Science Missionnaire. It is to be a review of missiology, Perspectives Mission- noted that the Orthodox Church with its center naires. at Chambésy, near Geneva, is increasingly mis- The second category is the umbrella organiza- sion-oriented. tion of German-speaking missions, known as Marc R. Spindler KEM [Kooperation Evangelischer Kirchen und Missionen]. This council acts on behalf of several Syncretism. Blending of one idea, practice, or established churches and mission boards in six- attitude with another. Traditionally among Chris- teen Swiss cantons. Its most famous member is tians it has been used of the replacement or dilu- the Basel Mission, established in 1815 as a Ger- tion of the essential truths of the gospel through man-Swiss missionary society, presently in pro- the incorporation of non-Christian elements. Ex- cess of fundamental restructuring, aiming at shar- amples range from Western materialism to Asian ing missionary power with its overseas partners. and African animistic beliefs incorporated into It publishes, together with the German Society of the church. Syncretism of some form has been Missiology, a missiological quarterly, Zeitschrift seen everywhere the church has existed. We are für Mission. KEM includes other old missionary naive to think that eliminating the negatives of societies, like the Moravian Mission, the East-Asia syncretism is easily accomplished. Mission, the Evangelical Methodist Mission To examine practices for syncretistic tenden- Board, the South-Africa Mission, the Nile Mis- cies, we must first use a phenomenological ap- sion, and the Kwango Mission in Congo-Zaire. proach in which we simply uncover what is actu- The third category includes associated mem- ally happening or being taught. Built on that, we bers without voting rights, belonging to non-de- use theological and cultural analysis to under- nominational groups and evangelical free stand what is happening. Finally, we evaluate churches. Among them are the Salvation Army, what we have discovered in light of biblical the Foundation for Church and Judaism, the truth. As a replacement of essential elements of Swiss Bible Society, the Blue Cross, the YMCA/ the gospel with alternative religious practices or YWCA, Scripture Union, the Evangelical Braille understanding, syncretism must be exposed and Mission, the International Missionary Alliance, challenged. The means by which this is done are and the Evangelical Missionary Service. critical, and must be culturally informed. The last named is in itself a significant Biblical Discussion. Case studies of syncre- French-speaking network, acting on behalf of tism are found throughout the Bible. Israel, for- forty evangelical free church assemblies. It con- saking the command to love God alone (Deut. tinues the Laos Mission founded in 1902, having 5:1–6:5), borrowed from the Canaanites ideas a particular concern for Asian diasporas in Eu- such as idolatry (Judg. 2:19; Ps. 106:35–39), rope while accepting new partnerships in Asia shrine prostitution (1 Kings 14:24), and witch- and Africa. It is a member of the Federation of craft (2 Kings 17:16–17). The attitude of syncre- Francophone Evangelical Mission. tism is captured in 2 Kings 17:41: “Even while Well-known international missionary societies these people were worshipping the Lord, they are represented in Switzerland: Wycliffe Bible were serving their idols.” Old Testament exem- Translators, Society for International Minis- plars who fought syncretism include the proph- tries, Sudan United Mission, OMF Interna- ets as well as David, Hezekiah, Josiah, Nehe- tional, Open Doors, WEC International, TEMA miah, and Ezra. [The European Missionary Association], Chris­ At the time of the New Testament, the domina- tian and Missionary Alliance, and Leprosy Mis- tion of Rome intensified the possibilities of syn- sion International. Some coordination is pro- cretism. Perhaps the most significant issue dealt vided in German-speaking Switzerland by the with in the early church was that of the nature of Working Group of Evangelical Missions, acting Gentile inclusion in the Christian community on behalf of 30 missions representing 900 mis- (Acts 15; Gal. 2). The author of Hebrews wrote to sionaries. Christians who were tempted to return to the Geneva is also the seat of the World Council Law (Heb. 5:11–6:12; 10:19–39). We also see of Churches Unit on Mission and Evangelism, warnings against syncretistic tendencies which implies significant interaction with Swiss throughout the Epistles (e.g., 1 Cor. 10:20; 2 Cor. missionary societies. It publishes the well-known 11:13–15; Gal. 1:6–9; 3:1–6; Col. 2:8–23; 1 Tim. International Review of Mission. 1:3; 6:3; 2 Peter 2:1; 1 John 4:1–6). Roman Catholic missionary societies (except Throughout the centuries since the New Testa- the Jesuits, prohibited until 1973) first worked ment era, the church has constantly wrestled for Catholic expansion in Switzerland, before over the issues of culture in relationship to joining fields overseas. The Bethlehem Foreign Christian commitment (Visser ‘t Hooft). Missions is the only Swiss-founded society Modern Discussion. Many scholars today (1921). They publish the scholarly quarterly challenge the need to define syncretism in its Neue Zeitschrift für Missionswissenschaft/Nou- negative traditional sense. The meaning of the 136 10/40 Window term has broadened to a more neutral concept of IBMR 17:2 (1993): 50–53; W. A. Visser ‘t Hooft, No interpenetration of two or more paradigms. In Other Name. this sense, since all churches are culture-based, every church is syncretistic. Such a broad defini- 10/40 Window. The term “10/40 Window” has tion, however, results in a term that loses useful been used to describe a rectangular-shaped win- analytic meaning. dow 10 degrees by 40 degrees north of the equa- A second significant issue is that the person or tor spanning the globe from West Africa to Asia, people who define syncretism are those who are including over 60 countries and more than 2 bil- in power. Practices which are threatening may lion people. The majority of the unreached peo- be labeled syncretistic simply because they ples of the world—those who have never heard threaten the established order. This highlights the gospel and who are not within reach of the need for hermeneutical communities com- churches of their own people—live within this prised of people of various cultures who together window (see Peoples, People Groups). examine the contemporary phenomena under At the Lausanne Congress on World Evange- question in light of the biblical worldview. lization (1974), Ralph Winter rocked the evan- A final issue is that all churches are in some gelical world with the challenge of unreached sense syncretistic. The human heart regularly peoples. At the Lausanne Congress II in Manila manufactures idols which find homes in the (1989), Luis Bush gave the ethnic orientation of churches of the people who generate them. No unreached peoples a new geographical focus. church in any culture is free of the accretions of There, during a plenary session of the congress, culture, and none of us is as objective in seeing he presented the strategic concept of the 10/40 syncretism within our own culture as we would Window for the first time. like to think we are. There are three major reasons for the dire spir- Suggested Guidelines. While “syncretism” itual state of the 10/40 Window. First of all, the does not appear in the Bible, it expresses a bibli- 10/40 Window is the home of the world’s major cal concept. The broadening of discussion on non-Christian religions: Islam, Hinduism, and syncretism in scholarly discussion has resulted Buddhism. Over 1 billion Muslims, and more in some observing that the Bible itself is syncre- than 1 billion Hindus and almost 240 million tistic. Such use of the term masks the biblical concept of gospel truth relevant to all cultures Buddhists live in this region. being normative for all Christians at all times. Second, the poorest of the poor live in the Biblically speaking, syncretistic ideas and 10/40 Window. The remarkable overlap between practices are wrong because they violate the first the fifty poorest countries of the world and the commandment. In saying this we are not ignor- least evangelized countries of the world is no co- ing the complexities raised by recent hermeneu- incidence. After observing that the majority of tical discussions. There are convoluted interpre- the unreached people live in the poorest coun- tive issues which the worldwide church must tries of the world, Bryant Myers concludes, “the tackle, but we cannot do so if we turn from the poor are lost and the lost are poor.” normative nature of the Bible as the cornerstone Third, there has been a lack of missionaries for discussion of the faith. serving among the peoples of the 10/40 Window. Because of the convoluted nature of culture, Only about 8 percent of the missionary force the declaration of syncretism in a particular set- presently focuses on this needy and neglected ting cannot be simply left in the hands of expa- area. Historically, the three religious blocs of this triate missionaries. The local community must region (Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist) have been be empowered to biblically evaluate their own considered resistant. But lack of fruit among practices and teachings. Missionaries must learn these people may not be due to resistance so to trust that indigenous peoples are able to dis- much as neglect. Generally, the church has made cern God’s leading and trust God to develop and little effort to reach these peoples. The Bible is maintain biblically founded and culturally rele- clear that little sowing leads to little reaping. vant Faith and Praxis in each local context. Fi- For these three reasons, the 10/40 Window rep- nally, Christians of every culture must engage in resents what some missiologists describe as Sa- genuine partnership with Christians of other cul- tan’s stronghold. From a careful analysis of the tures, since often the outsider’s help is needed to 10/40 Window, it appears that Satan and his enable local believers, blinded by culture and fa- forces have established a unique territorial strong- miliarity, to see that which contravenes scrip- hold that has restrained the advance of the gospel tural adherence to the first commandment. into this area of the world. In this region of the A. Scott Moreau world, Paul’s description of Satan as “the god of Bibliography. C. Colpe, ER 14:218–27; J. D. Gort, this age who has blinded the minds of unbeliev- H. M. Vroom, R. Fernhout, A. Wessels, eds., Dialogue ers” (2 Cor. 4:4) can be clearly seen. Clearly the and Syncretism: An Interdisciplinary Approach; H. Krae- forces of darkness stand behind the overwhelm- mer, Religion and the Christian Faith; R. J. Schreiter, ing poverty and spiritual bondage of this region. 137 Territorial Spirits

Therefore, the 10/40 Window serves as an im- nations: “In that day the Lord will punish the portant and strategic tool for the completion of powers in the heavens above and the kings on the Great Commission. It helps the church visu- earth below” (Isa. 24:21). alize its greatest challenge and focuses the These powers who have masqueraded as gods church on its final frontier. The 10/40 Window are, in reality, demonic spirits. The same chapter calls for a reevaluation of the church’s priorities, that reveals the allotments of humanity to an- a refocusing of its energies, and a redeployment gelic guardianship (Deut. 32:8) speaks of Israel of its missionaries. Luis Bush, the international provoking God to jealousy by embracing foreign director of the AD 2000 and Beyond Movement, gods (Deut. 32:16). Israel actually “sacrificed to sums it up well: “If we are to be faithful to Scrip- demons” (Heb. = shedim; Greek = daimonia) ture, obedient to the mandate of Christ, and if (Deut. 32:17). They forsook the one true al- we want to see the establishment of a mis- mighty God and gave their devotion to fallen an- sion-minded church planting movement within gels, to demonic spirits. Of course they did not every unreached people and city . . . so that all realize that they were worshiping evil spirits. peoples might have a valid opportunity to experi- These principalities and powers pulled off an ef- ence the love, truth and saving power of Jesus fective hoax by deceiving people into thinking Christ, we must get down to the core of the un- that they were the omnipotent rulers of heaven reached—the 10/40 Window.” and earth. Richard D. Love The Septuagint version of Psalm 96:5 also un- masks the true identity of the various gods of the Bibliography. C. P. Wagner, S. Peters, and M. Wil- nations: “For all the gods of the nations are de- son; eds., Praying through the 100 Gateway Cities of the mons, but the Lord made the heavens.” All of the 10/40 Window; J. D. Douglas, ed., Proclaim Christ Until rituals, prayers, sacrifices, and worship offered He Comes: Lausanne II in Manila, F. K. Jansen, ed., Tar- get Earth. to the gods of other nations were not really of- fered to “gods” at all. They were accorded to an- gelic imposters usurping the rightful place of the Territorial Spirits. The Bible speaks of evil an- one true God. gels or spirits that exercise significant influence A particularly appalling aspect of this grand and control over people groups, empires, coun- demonic deception is the horrific sacrifices that tries, and cities. These perverse powers not only these rebellious angels demanded of the people work to bring harm and misery, but more impor- as their “gods.” They went so far as to elicit tantly, they strive to keep people from coming to human sacrifice. The psalmist laments one of a knowledge of the one true God. Since the mid– these sad chapters in the history of Israel: “They 1980s, some evangelists and missiologists have worshipped their idols which became a snare to begun advocating an aggressive strategy for them. They sacrificed their sons and their daugh- doing spiritual battle with these so-called territo- ters to demons. They shed innocent blood, the rial spirits as a means of more effective evange- blood of their sons and daughters, whom they lism (see Powers and Mission, the). sacrificed to the idols of Canaan, and the land Although there is not extensive information in was desecrated by their blood” (Ps. 96:36–38). the Bible about territorial spirits, there is suffi- The Gods and Goddesses of the Canaanites were, cient discussion to affirm their reality and pro- in reality, demonic spirits. They tempted the peo- vide some insight into their nature and activities. ple of Israel and solicited their worship under In a passage that highlights God’s sovereignty the guise of local deities. They were what many over the nations, God is said to have divided hu- are calling today “territorial spirits.” manity “according to the number of the sons of The most well known and illustrious passage Israel” or, as the Septuagint and a scroll of Deu- about territorial spirits is Daniel 10. Since the teronomy from Qumran put it, “according to the text describes angelic powers that have specific number of the sons of God”—a reference to an- connections to the successive empires of Persia gels (Deut. 32:8). The passage thus appears to be and Greece, they might more appropriately be teaching that the number of the nations of the called “empire spirits.” These evil angels are earth is directly proportional to the number of mentioned to Daniel by an interpreting angel, angels. This passage was widely understood in perhaps Gabriel (see Dan. 9:21), who came to ex- Judaism to mean that certain angels are associ- plain a vision God had given to him. Gabriel re- ated with particular countries and peoples. veals that there was a heavenly struggle that hin- Some of these angelic rulers evidently have re- dered his coming to Daniel for three weeks: “The belled against God. Rather than direct the peo- prince of the Persian kingdom resisted me twen- ple’s worship to the one true God, they have ty-one days. Then Michael, one of the chief sought veneration for themselves and have princes, came to help me, because I was detained falsely presented themselves to the people as there with the king of Persia” (Dan. 10:13). Later, “gods” (Ps. 82:1–8). The prophet Isaiah foretells Gabriel informs Daniel that the heavenly warfare the future judgment of these patron angels of the would continue, but would not include a struggle 138 Theological Education by Extension with another angelic prince: “Soon I will return bombing. This is but one example of the risks to fight against the prince of Persia, and when I missionaries are confronting as they propagate go, the prince of Greece will come. . . . No one the Christian message of peace in a world of vio- supports me against them except Michael, your lence. Other areas of ongoing instability include prince” (Dan. 10:20–21). Both the prince of Per- Colombia, Peru, Liberia, Sudan, and Afghani- sia and the prince of Greece in these passages stan. are not references to the human rulers, but to Two of the main sources of terroristic activity angelic forces. There is a clear consensus among are fundamentalist Muslims and communist Bible scholars on this foundational point. This guerrillas. These fringe groups have no affinity interpretation is strongly suggested by the fact with Christianity. Therefore, the foreign mission- that the archangel Michael is also referred to as ary becomes a high profile person through a “prince.” The Septuagint (Theodotian) transla- whom they may make a religious or political tion of the Hebrew term sar is archon, a word statement. Missionaries are also usually un- that was used by Paul (see Eph. 2:2; 1 Cor. 2:6, armed and thus totally vulnerable as a “soft tar- 8), John (John 12:31), and other first-century get.” and early Christian writers for angelic powers. Evacuation of missionary personnel from The New Testament gives us little direct teach- areas of danger is an emotional topic in mission ing about angelic patrons over cities, territories, circles. One side holds to a “stay at all costs” po- regions, or nations. Jesus says nothing about sition. They demand the right to make an indi- these higher-level spirits. Neither does the Book vidual decision on the field level without refer- of Acts contain explicit teaching about them. ence to home base directives or to local embassy Paul’s references to the “principalities and pow- advisories. The other extreme represents those ers” are not directed toward issues surrounding who are ready to evacuate at the first sign of regional or city spirits. His teaching is focused danger. Most missionaries would be positioned on the variety of ways evil spirits directly oppose between these two extremes. believers. Some interpreters have seen territorial Nationals in Bangladesh, Liberia, and Ethio- dimensions in his list of principalities and pow- pia expressed serious reservation as to how the ers in Ephesians 6:12, but the whole context of missionaries fled their countries in times of dan- this passage has to do with the believers’ daily ger. The local people felt forsaken by their spiri- direct struggle with the demonic (see Spiritual tual guides. It would seem imperative that major Warfare). Paul’s most pertinent teaching is his decisions regarding evacuation be taken in tan- comment in 1 Corinthians 10:20 that “the sacri- dem with these national believers. fices of pagans are offered to demons, not to One of the few evangelical organizations that God.” Here he reaffirms the Old Testament no- is working with mission boards in risk assess- tion that idolatry and false religion are animated ment as well as in assisting in the release of kid- by the demonic as part of their attempt to sub- napped missionaries is Contingency Preparation vert the plan of God and seek worship for them- Consultants. This group has held seminars in a selves. number of countries for mission leaders. Throughout the Bible there is never any inti- Biblically, one finds the apostle Paul enduring mation that these powers rival God in any way extreme hardships as well as purposefully walk- or present a serious threat to the fulfillment of ing into dangerous situations. However, on at his plan and purposes. God is sovereign and is least seven occasions he fled from those who infinitely more powerful than any of the spirits threatened his life, almost always upon the ad- or angels. The Father earnestly seeks the full de- vice of the local people. This subject remains one votion of his people. He wants believers to call of the most difficult areas with which missionar- directly on him for wisdom, strength, and help. ies and missions boards have to deal. Clinton E. Arnold Phil Parshall Bibliography. C. E. Arnold, Three Crucial Questions Bibliography. L. Accad, EMQ 28:1 (1992): 54–56; About Spiritual Warfare; S. Page, Powers of Evil. A Bib- R. Klamser, EMQ 28:1 (1992): 48–52; P. Parshall, EMQ lical Study of Satan and Demons; E. Rommen, ed., Spir- 30:2 (1994): 162–66. itual Power and Missions. Raising the Issues; C. Wag- ner, Confronting the Powers: How the New Testament Church Experienced the Power of Strategic-Level Spiri- Theological Education by Extension. Theologi- tual Warfare; idem, Warfare Prayer: How to Seek God’s cal education by extension (TEE) is a term that Power and Protection in the Battle to Build His King- describes a method and a movement that ap- dom. peared in the missions world in the early 1960s. Responding to the rapidly changing patterns of Terrorism. In the two years following June 1991, the church, the ministry, and leadership training, in the southern Philippines there were four mis- TEE revolted against the residence type of theo- sionaries killed, two raped, and six kidnapped. In logical education. It espoused a new form of edu- addition, thirty-five were injured in a terrorist cation, “which yields to the life cycle of the stu- 139 Theological Education in Non-Western Contexts dent, that does not destroy or prevent his From there it has spread to Asia and Africa, productive relation to society, and does not make maintaining its basic principles while assuming the student fit into the needs of a residential different forms. TEE’s adaptability has been one school.” It was theological education for church of its strong points. It targets established leaders growth. instead of prospective leaders. Brief History of the Movement. TEE was born For almost a decade the TEE Movement met in Latin America, occasioned by the general different degrees of opposition from traditional needs of Latin American evangelicals, particu- theological educators. This was due to some un- larly by the Presbyterians in Guatemala in 1962. merited criticism of residential forms by TEE They had an excellent seminary of the traditional proponents. However, after realizing that TEE type in Guatemala City with a highly qualified was not necessarily a substitute for, but a com- faculty. But a survey revealed that in twenty-five plement to, resident theological education, the years the seminary had prepared only ten pas- two sides have gradually fused and see each tors who were actively serving the denomination. other as mutually beneficial. At that time only six students were enrolled— Methodology of the Movement. TEE can bet- hardly sufficient to serve two hundred rapidly ter be understood when one keeps in mind that it growing churches in one of the most fertile fields does not espouse the extermination of resident of all Latin America. Something was radically structures, but only their extension. TEE sug- wrong. gests that the seminary become student-centered Providentially, a trio of highly qualified, un- instead of institution-centered. The seminary usually creative, and evangelically concerned simply extends its theological education in sev- missionary professors made up their faculty. eral ways. Geographically, the seminary goes to Ralph Winter, Jim Emery, and Ross Kinsler all the student in his or her natural habitat. Chrono- had multiple degrees in engineering, anthropol- logically, the schedules of classes are drawn up ogy, and theology. They moved from the city to after consulting the students. Seasonal classes the rural area where most of the churches were, and schedules must be considered. Culturally, but this did not solve the problem. A radical the course material may be the same, but the change in structure was necessary. Center adapts the content to the needs, customs, The church leaders could not come for train- language, and thought patterns of the Center ing if it required residence away from their area. Academically, courses may have to be of- homes. From this sprang the idea of a decentral- fered at several different levels, geared to the ized seminary. If the potential students could not local environment. TEE is apt to reach people of come to the seminary, the seminary would go to different social and economic classes and pre- them! Regional centers were established. pare bivocational ministers. Finally, economi- Courses on three levels were adapted to the cally TEE avoids the enormous expense of main- schedules of the students. Textbooks were put taining institutional buildings and salaried into programmed instruction. Care was taken to faculties. maintain academic excellence. Enrollment im- The TEE Movement has spread to all areas of mediately increased from six to fifty students— the world of mission. Most missiologists agree and the TEE movement was born. that it is not a substitute for resident theological Five advantages of the new TEE program were education, but a needed complement, especially noted by the missionaries. First, the door was in theological education on cross-cultural mis- opened for leaders who desired to reach a higher sion fields. level of training. Second, the leaders could re- Justice C. Anderson ceive theological training in the context of their own subculture. Third, the system permitted Bibliography. R. Covell and P. Wagner, An Extension those students who had low motivation to leave Seminary Primer; V. Gerber, ed., Discipling Through without losing face. Fourth, instead of lowering Theological Education by Extension; F. R. Kinsler, The academic levels, the extension student learns Extension Movement in Theological Education; R. Win- better and develops better study habits in his or ter, ed., Theological Education by Extension. her home. Finally, extension is much more eco- nomical than the conventional seminary, and it Theological Education in Non-Western Con- saves much time for the professor. texts. Theological education refers to the inten- Thus a radical new form of theological educa- tional and supervised equipping of the church’s tion arose in a tiny country of Central America. leadership. As such, theological education is and Soon it became more widely known and its lead- always has been an essential element of the task ers went on the road to respond to requests from of missions. From the apostolic band of the New other fields with the same problems. The new Testament age and the catechetical schools of method spread to Bolivia, Colombia, Brazil, the postapostolic period to graduate seminaries Mexico, and Argentina during the 1960s and into scattered throughout the contemporary world, most Latin American countries in the 1970s. theological education is the most compelling and 140 Theological Education in Non-Western Contexts prominent form of Educational Mission Work. fectiveness of their training programs and deter- Nevertheless, Johnstone (1993) reports that an mined to change. TEE emerged as an attempt to inadequate supply of trained leaders—a failure make ministry training accessible to functioning of theological education—hobbles the vitality church leaders without disrupting their produc- and expansion of the church in nearly every na- tive social, economic, and ministry relationships. tion of the world at the close of the twentieth This was achieved through self-instructional century. textbooks and frequent (often weekly) “semi- The present failure does not reflect a lack of nars” led by a “center leader” or “tutor.” attention or effort. As Roman Catholic mission- Dialogue between TEE educators and faculty aries of the sixteenth century followed the Con- at “residential” schools sometimes has turned ac- quistadors to the New World and beyond, they rimonious. Nevertheless, TEE has brought sig- established universities for training indigenous nificant benefits to theological schools and the priests on the model of those in Europe. Early churches they serve. Although no firm statistics Protestant missionaries took apprentices, whom exist, thousands—perhaps hundreds of thou- they trained as “evangelists.” During the nine- sands—of church leaders in Latin America, Af- teenth and twentieth centuries, other missionar- rica, and Asia have received some biblical or ies founded hundreds of Bible schools in the ministry instruction through TEE and BEE (see non-Western world, beginning with Carey’s Col- Biblical Education by Extension) which they lege of Serampore. Lacking the skills needed to could not have obtained otherwise. Furthermore, design culturally appropriate educational pro- many theological educators in “residential grams, Protestant missionaries, like Catholics of schools” have been sensitized to educational is- an earlier era, replicated (with minimal adjust- sues and methods that challenge them to rethink ments) the Western schools in which they their approach to ministry training. trained. The results of this effort are mixed. On As part of TEF’s Second Mandate, regional as- the one hand, we observe the tragic lack of effec- sociations of Conciliar theological schools were tive leadership that Johnstone reports. On the organized to regulate academic standards. Evan- other hand, the vast majority of leaders in gelical educators founded the International non-Western churches today are products of Council of Accrediting for Evangelical Theo- these schools. logical Education (ICAA—now ICETE) in 1980. The most concentrated modern effort to re- Just as missionaries modeled schools on their shape theological education in the non-Western alma matters in the West, so the regional accred- world was launched in 1958 by the Theological iting agencies established during the 1960s and Education Fund (TEF), which came under the 1970s borrowed heavily—sometimes wholesale— World Council of Churches in 1961. In three from North American accrediting structures. “mandate periods,” stretching from 1958 to Many theological schools have been challenged 1977, TEF channeled substantial resources from by Accreditation to improve facilities and the West into theological education in the strengthen faculty qualifications and instruc- non-Western world. Twenty-seven theological tions. Nevertheless, assumptions underlying schools in Africa, Asia, and Latin America re- Western theological education and relationships ceived grants of $100,000 or more, further grants between the theological school and its constitu- were made to develop libraries at three hundred ent church have all too often gone unexamined. theological schools, and programs were estab- In 1983, ICAA adopted a “Manifesto on the Re- lished to write, translate, and publish theological newal of Evangelical Theological Education,” texts. More than four hundred Third World na- which pledged to “introduce and reinforce” tionals received scholarships for graduate and twelve critical aspects of theological education. postgraduate theological studies in the West. The stirring rhetoric of the ICAA “Manifesto” has The impact of TEF on non-Western theological been grist for faculty discussions in many theo- education was enormous. Unfortunately, sensi- logical schools, but educators must tap their own tivity to contextual issues surfaced late, and even creativity to discern how advocated commit- then the appropriateness of Western educational ments can be implemented. As a result, in most models went largely unchallenged. Since Third nations theological schools and churches con- World educators received scholarships to liberal tinue to await a renewal of ministry training that theological schools in the West, perhaps the will yield an adequate supply of leaders equipped TEF’s most enduring legacy is promotion of for effective ministry in church and society. Western liberal and postliberal theology among Robert W. Ferris Latin American, African, and Asian churches. Bibliography. P. Bowers and R. Kemp, eds., ERT, Theological Education by Extension (TEE) 19:3 (1995): 211–315; R. W. Ferris, Renewal in Theolog- also has dramatically impacted the training of ical Education: Strategies for Change; P. Johnstone, OW; the church’s leadership in the non-Western C. Lienemann-Perrin, Training for a Relevant Ministry: world. In 1963, the faculty of a traditionally A Study of the Contribution of the Theological Educa- Western seminary in Guatemala faced the inef- tion Fund. 141 Third World Women

Third World Women. Wherever Christianity has ing women. Generally most evangelical churches spread women have been deeply involved in that have not yet followed this practice, though many spread in a variety of ways. In recent discussion, of them are debating the issue. the term Third World (or Two-Thirds World) When we look at the missiological theories ap- has been used to describe the non-Western popu- plied in mission work by Third World women, lation. The simple truth is that throughout the we can see several gradual changes taking place. history of the church, everywhere the vast major- Initially their work was confined to ministry ity of the women involved have been marginal- among women and children. Later, in conciliar ized socioeconomically and culturally. circles, Third World women were deeply in- Focusing on the more recent historical context, volved in theological reflection and cooperation Western women were involved in educational, in different evangelical and non-evangelical or- medical, and social ministries, many of these ganizations, including the World Council of among Third World women themselves. Gradu- Churches (WCC), the Ecumenical Association of ally the recipients have become partners in mis- Third World Theologians (EATWAT), various Na- sion, even though they often lack access to the tional Christian Councils, the Lausanne Move- economic resources of their Western counter- ment, and the World Evangelical Fellowship parts. (WEF). Often separated from men in their social life, Slowly the emphasis has been changing to Third World women typically focused their own focus on both men and women in mission. Wom- mission work among other women. Examples of en’s leadership in the churches became an im- women from indigenous churches engaged in portant issue in the Ecumenical Movement of mission include the Mar Thoma Church of India, the 1970s, when the word “sexism” was used to who deployed women missionaries in 1919. describe gender discrimination. Throughout this Third World women have been engaged in a time, Third World women maintained a strong wide variety of missionary endeavors. Many biblical emphasis, rarely questioning the author- evangelists serve as missionaries within their ity of the Bible. However, they were struggling to own borders. Aleyamma Ommen of India, for ex- change some of the misunderstandings of the ample, traveled to different parts of the country teachings of the Bible in relation to women’s with a band of people singing and preaching. leadership. Many feel that unnecessary restric- Medical work was also started among women in tions were put on women because of these mis- India, China, and Africa, where culture forbade understandings. Following the UN “Decade of women from having male doctors. Medical and Women” (1976–85), on Easter Day in 1988 the nursing colleges were started and women were WCC launched a decadal emphasis on the em- trained as doctors and nurses to meet this need. powerment of women to participate in the deci- A similar situation evolved in social work. Mis- sions which affect them. Numerous activities sionary women wrote and fought against social promoting women’s development and empower- injustices, including widow burning, temple ment were organized in churches and church as- prostitution, foot binding, and so-called female semblies around the world. circumcision. By the 1950s, many Third World Third World women have also become more women had taken up the responsibility to engage actively involved among the evangelical organi- in this work. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, zations such as Lausanne Committee for World Pandita Ramabai was a pioneer in social develop- Evangelization, and the WEF. In 1980 only 9 per- ment for women. Many of the Third World cent of the participants were women, but by churches followed the Western example of orga- 1989 about 25 percent of the conferees at Laus- nizing women’s auxiliaries and organizations. anne Congress II in Manila were women. Many The Mar Thoma Church, for example, started a of these were from the Third World and a few women’s voluntary Evangelistic Society (Sann- were involved as committee chairs and speakers, adha Savika Sangam) in 1919. Even though including Juliet Thomas and Sakhi Athyal. One women’s participation in official church leader- result has been that women’s role as leaders in ship positions was limited, they were still vitally the churches is increasingly discussed and ac- involved in witnessing, social work, raising funds cepted. for churches, and training women to be models In their opportunity for mission women from in their Christian lifestyle. the Third World have come a long way. But Formal theological education for women in change is still needed in many areas. While the Third World settings started with the develop- process of change has already started, it is im- ment of training centers. By the 1960s many portant to recognize the possibilities of the criti- such centers had developed into theological col- cal importance of women as responsive entry leges. Though many women were trained, formal points to resistant people groups in evangelism leadership positions in the church were often un- and community development. In China, the obtainable. More recently, however, some of the house church movement has grown largely mainline churches in India have begun ordain- through the ministry of women. Of the fifty 142 Tilak, Narayan Vaman thousand prayer cells in Paul Cho’s church in TSPM seminaries reopened and renewed former Korea only three thousand of the leaders are patterns of pastoral and lay biblical training, al- men. So in many countries women’s leadership though no deviation was permitted from a pro- in mission is crucial. There is an urgent need to government political posture. Even so, during recruit, train, and support far more women if we those most difficult years, a growing “Christian- are to reach the unreached. It is not a matter of ity fever” throughout the countryside was widely competition between men and women, but of ne- admitted by both political and TSPM authorities. cessity of sharing the load together: men and This brought into being a “house church” move- women need to work together as a community of ment that functions beyond TSPM control (see believers in the Third World for the purpose of Chinese House Church Movement). Christians God’s mission and the church’s commission. are currently estimated at about 35 million. Sakhi Athyal Whether all congregations will eventually regis- Bibliography. S. Athyal, Indian Women in Mission; ter with the TSPM largely depends on the power V. Febella M. M. and M. A. Oduyoye, eds., With Passion struggle in Beijing between reactionaries and and Compassion: Third-World Women Doing Theology; progressives. J. S. Pobee and B. Von Wartenberg-Potter, New Eyes for Arthur F. Glasser Reading: Biblical and Theological Reflections by Women from the Third World; J. Webster and E. Webster, The Bibliography. D. H. Adeney, China: The Church’s Church and Women in the Third-World. Long March; A. Hunter and K.-K Chan, Protestantism in Contemporary China. Three-Self Movement (China). After the Peo- ple’s Republic of China (PRC) was established Tilak, Narayan Vaman (1862–1919). Indian (1949), a group of 40 Chinese Christian leaders poet, hymn writer, and contextualizer. Narayan met in Beijing in July 1950 to draft a manifesto Vaman Tilak was born in a Brahmin family in calling for the end of all Chinese church ties with 1862 in a village in what is now Maharashtra Western denominations and mission agencies. A state in western India. His mother and her father year later (April 1951) about 150 representatives introduced him from infancy to the devotional of China’s larger denominations met in Beijing (bhakti) piety of popular Hinduism. He was a and formed the Chinese Christian Three-Self Re- gifted writer who is acknowledged as one of form Committee. The designation “Three-Self” three poets responsible for a rebirth of Marathi was taken from Rufus Anderson’s definition of poetry at the turn of the twentieth century. the aim of missions as “the planting of churches Tilak was baptized in 1895 and his gifts were which would be self-governing, self-supporting, immediately employed for Christ; the many and self-propagating” (see Indigenous Churches). hymns he composed continue in wide use wher- This committee was charged to replace the Na- ever Marathi is spoken. Some ten years after his tional Christian Council (formed in 1922) as the baptism he intentionally adopted the poetic style voice of Chinese Protestantism, since the coun- (and even religious content to a large extent) of cil’s “cultural imperialism” (Western ties) and the Hindu bhakti poets, adding immensely to the theological liberalism (conservative churches re- power of his lyrics. He performed kirtans (recita- fused to join) were regarded as unsuited to the tion/song performances in traditional Hindu new era. In 1954, with the official endorsement style) to present Christ appropriately to Hindus. of the government the committee formed the He is most widely quoted for his claim to have Chinese Christian Three-Self Patriotic movement come to Christ over Tukaram’s bridge, Tukaram (TSPM) to represent Chinese Protestantism be- being generally acknowledged as the greatest of fore the PRC authorities. By 1958 this organiza- the medieval Marathi bhakti poets. tion had established branches in every province In the two years prior to his death, Tilak strug- under the direct control of the national Religious gled toward a truly fresh expression of Christian Affairs Bureau. Separate Protestant denomina- faith that would impact the Hindu world. He tions ceased altogether, and soon almost all concluded that he was called to be a Tukaram churches in China closed down. and a St. Paul combined in one, and began a Then followed the Cultural Revolution; mad- brotherhood of both baptized and unbaptized ness overtook the nation, and Christians suffered disciples of Christ. His early death ended this unbelievably. Fortunately, the coming of Deng striking effort, one of the few attempts in Protes- Xiaoping to national leadership and his stress on tant mission history to respond seriously to the “New Realism” eventually brought political re- demands of resistant Hindu contexts. laxation. The TSPM reappeared and began to en- H. L. Richard courage and oversee the reopening of churches Bibliography. P. S. Jacob, The Experiential Response along with the restoration of their properties. By of N. V. Tilak; H. L. Richard, Christ-Bhakti: Narayan 1990 more than 6,000 churches were function- Vaman Tilak and Christian Work among Hindus; ing, and over 15,000 other meeting points were L. Tilak, I Follow After An Autobiography; idem, From registered for religious use. At least fourteen Brahma to Christ: The Story of Narayan Vaman Tilak 143 Townsend, William Cameron and Lakshmibal his Wife; J. C. Winslow, Narayan resignation in 1888 from a mission-school over Vaman Tilak: The Christian Poet of Maharashtra. the issue of evaluating the Japanese (vis-a`-vis Christian) virtues, and the other was his forced Townsend, William Cameron (1896–1982). resignation from a public school when he ques- American missionary to Guatemala and founder tioned the Emperor’s divinity in 1891. Through- of Wycliffe Bible Translators. out his turbulent and prophet-like life, he was “Uncle Cam” Townsend was born in southern associated with such movements as weekly Bible California. He worked tirelessly to see the Bible lectures, adventism, and Mukyokai (Non-Church translated into minority languages. He founded Movement) as well as Christian pacifism and so- the Summer Institute of Linguistics (1936), the cial reforms. The missiological question he Wycliffe Bible Translators (1942), and JAARS posed, namely, relating Christianity and Japan, (1948). remains valid today. Townsend went to Guatemala in 1917 to sell Tadataka Maruyama Spanish-language Bibles. In 1919 he was chal- Bibliography. H. Miura, The Life and Thought of lenged by the fact that the Indian population did Kanzo Uchimura, 1861–1930. not understand Spanish well enough to benefit from the Spanish translation of the Bible. With United States Mission Boards and Societies. his wife, Elvira, he learned the complex Cak- Intercultural mission activities supported by chiquel language. By 1931 the Cakchiquel New church groups in the United States were already Testament was completed. underway among Native Americans in the late When Townsend returned to the United States, 1700s. The first organization established in the he decided to train others to translate Scriptures United States for overseas mission work was ini- for indigenous groups of Latin America. In 1934 tiated in 1810 by the General Association of Con- Townsend taught two students at what he called gregational Churches in Massachusetts and was “Camp Wycliffe.” Townsend founded the Sum- called the American Board of Commissioners mer Institute of Linguistics in 1936 and the Wy- for Foreign Missions (ABCFM). This action was cliffe Bible Translators in 1942. In 1944 taken, not without some misgivings, in response Townsend’s first wife died; he married Elaine to a petition presented by several students, in- Mielke in 1946. cluding Samuel J. Mills, Adoniram Judson, and Townsend was convinced that the heart lan- Luther Rice, from Andover Seminary. These and guage was the most effective tool for evangelism. several other students also volunteered to be AB- He emphasized the use of linguistics and mod- CFM’s first missionaries. ern technologies such as airplanes and radios. In 1816 the first specialized service mission He also promoted a nonsectarian strategy of ser- agency not part of a denomination, The Ameri- vice to all. can Bible Society, was formed. It united several Peter James Silzer local societies by pastors and laymen represent- Bibliography. J. Hefley and M. Hefley, Uncle Cam; ing several denominations “to disseminate the H. Stevens, A Thousand Trails: Personal Journal of Wil- Gospel of Christ throughout the habitable liam Cameron Townsend 1917–1919; idem, Wycliffe in world.” Most of the organizations in this period, the Making: The Memoirs of W. Cameron Townsend however, were denominational, with the Method- 1920–1933. ists (1820), Episcopalians (1821), Dutch Re- formed (1823), Presbyterians (1837), and others Uchimura, Kanzom (1861–1930). Japanese evan- mounting overseas mission efforts. The mission- gelist, Christian thinker, and social critic. Uchi­ aries of these agencies usually worked in the mura’s career can be summed up as an ellipse coastal areas. with the foci of “2 Js, Jesus and Japan.” Born in During this early period “auxiliaries” began to a warrior family and reared in Confucianism, he be formed by women to supplement financially became a Christian while studying at the Sap- and in other ways encourage missionaries. Ini- poro Agricultural School. After briefly serving tially only married women, whose primary duty the Japanese State he left for the United States in was to be that of a “missionary wife,” were sent 1884, and studied at Amherst College where he out. But by 1835 the Baptists had sent three sin- experienced conversion, but his short stay at gle women missionaries to Burma. However, seminary ended in disillusionment with institu- after one of them died of jungle fever in less than tional Christianity. His autobiographical ac- eighteen months, the board was reluctant to count, “How I Became a Christian” (1855), de- send more single women. In 1861 the Woman’s tailed his life until his return to Japan in 1888. Union Missionary Society was founded. Its Two later incidents seemed to indicate that he board consisted of women from several evangel- was an outsider to both mainline Christianity ical denominations and its focus was sending and the State and foretold the unique develop- single women to be missionaries among women. ment of his “Christ-nationalism.” One was his Following this, separate women’s boards were 144 Urbana Missions Conferences organized by many denominations and in less also needed to be seriously considered for suc- than thirty years women constituted 60% of the cessful evangelism and church planting to take missionary force. place. This set the stage for viewing world evan- By the 1880s new agencies came on the scene gelization in terms of ethnolinguistic peoples and desiring to go beyond the more accessible coastal sociologically defined people groups (see Peo- regions to reach those who had not yet heard. ples, People Groups). For example, the U.S. branch of the China Inland At the end of World War II in 1945, mission Mission (now OMF International) followed its boards and societies remobilized. Also new forms British counterpart in focusing on the inland ter- of missionary and mission support organizations ritories of China. The movement that became the appeared. Recruitment at the college student Christian and Missionary Alliance sent out over level was again a significant factor. As the SVM three hundred workers within a five-year period turned inward, an ongoing student mission con- to regions without churches. Many missions vention was organized by the InterVarsity Chris- started in the later 1800s were not related to a tian Fellowship under the direction of J. Christy single denomination but drew personnel and sup- Wilson Jr. in 1946. Student ministries of Campus port from churches of different denominations. Crusade for Christ, The Navigators, and others In 1886 Dwight L. Moody conducted a month- also presented the challenge of world evangeliza- long Bible study for 251 students from 89 col- tion. This resulted in thousands becoming mis- leges. The gathering was organized by Luther sionaries. Wishard, the national secretary of the YMCA In 1974, the people group approach became who possessed a world vision. From that confer- widely known after the Lausanne Congress on ence grew the Student Volunteer Movement World Evangelization. There an Unreached Peo- (SVM) which began asking college students to ples Directory was made available as a start in the sign a declaration card stating “It is my purpose, needed worldwide research and a plenary pre­ if God permit, to become a foreign missionary.” sentation called for continuing the transition to By 1891, the year of the SVM’s first national stu- an unreached peoples approach. dent missionary convention, 321 had responded In the late 1990s the long-term Protestant mis- and sailed overseas. sion force sent overseas by U.S. boards and agen- In the early 1900s there was a renewed empha- cies stands at a little over 33,000 men and sis on the work of the Holy Spirit by Pentecostal women. Short-term personnel serving terms of 1 and other believers. In 1914 the General Council to 4 years is around 6,500. With the opening of of the Assemblies of God was organized with one Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union, of the purposes being a united effort for world personnel involved in short-term service of less evangelism. By 1918 there were 73 overseas mis- than a year grew dramatically to over 63,000 by sionaries on the roster of the General Council. 1996. They and other Pentecostal mission agencies John A. Siewert continued to grow and had a significant impact Bibliography. B. L. Goddard, The Encyclopedia of in Latin America and other areas. Modern Christian Missions; D. J. Hesselgrave, Today’s The first Roman Catholic organization in the Choices for Tomorrow’s Mission; D. M. Howard, Student United States to send missionaries overseas was Power in World Missions; G. B. McGee, Called and Em- founded in 1911 in Maryknoll, New York. Prior powered, pp. 203–24; D. L. Robert, American Women in to that the United States was regarded as a re- Mission; J. A. Siewert and E. G. Valdez, eds., Mission ceiving mission field by the Roman Catholic Handbook 1998–2000; R. D. Winter, Perspectives on the Church and attention was focused on providing World Christian Movement, pp. B33–B44. churches for recently immigrated Catholics from Europe. The Orthodox Christian Mission Center, Urbana Missions Conferences. In 1945 the In- the official mission and evangelism agency of all terVarsity Christian Fellowship (IVCF) and the Canonical Orthodox churches in North America, Student Foreign Missions Fellowship (SFMF) was established in 1994. Prior to that some mis- merged, and SFMF became the missions depart- sionaries had been sent by individual Orthodox ment of IVCF. In the aftermath of World War II it bodies. was decided to experiment with a student mis- In 1934 an additional dimension in missions sions conference. Thus in December 1946 IVCF/ led to the formation of the Wycliffe Bible Trans- SFMF sponsored a conference at the University lators. This specialized service mission agency of Toronto that was attended by 575 students was co-founded by W. Cameron Townsend, whose from across Canada and the United States. The earlier experiences in Latin America had con- response was overwhelmingly positive. So IVCF/ vinced him that the Bible needed to be translated ­SFMF decided to hold another convention in a into the vernacular languages spoken by the more geographically central location. tribal groups to overcome language barriers. At In 1948 a second convention was held at the the same time missionaries, such as Donald Mc- University of Illinois in the city of Urbana. This Gavran in India, recognized that social barriers time nearly 1,300 students attended. It was so 145 Wheaton ’83 successful that it was decided to give every col- work done in the Wheaton Congress (1966), the lege student at least one opportunity to attend. Berlin Congress (1966), the Lausanne Congress Thus conventions have been held triennially (1974), the Pattaya Consultation (1980), and the from December 27 to 31 at Urbana. At Urbana Grand Rapids Consultation (1982), Wheaton ’83 1976 the capacity of 17,000 seats in Assembly gathered 336 participants from 59 nations, with Hall at the University of Illinois was reached, 60 percent coming from the non-Western world. and IVCF had to turn away students for the first The Consultation’s theme was “I will build my time. Since then, most of the conventions have Church,” with each element in the agenda stress- been filled to capacity. Today IVCF accepts up to ing the role of the local church as the central ex- 19,000 students, using closed-circuit television in pression of God’s kingdom in the world. There other campus locations. were three tracks within the consultation, with The purposes of the convention traditionally the following foci: (1) the biblical nature of the have been fourfold: (1) to present the biblical church and its mission; (2) the nature and mis- basis of world missions, helping students to sion of the church in new frontiers; (3) the nature understand what the Bible says about God’s con- of mission as involving both evangelism and so- cern and plan for the world; (2) to present the cial concerns. contemporary situation, exposing students to Wheaton ’83 continued the discussion with what God is doing in world missions and what evangelical ranks on the nature of mission and remains to be done; (3) to challenge students to the roles of evangelism and discipleship within respond to God’s claims on their lives, to commit mission. Within that debate, the tenor at Whea- themselves to whatever he wishes for them in ton ’83 was the recognition that alleviating pov- fulfilling the Great Commission; and (4) to chal- erty, bringing justice and transforming people lenge students to return to their campuses and and societies are all part of Missio Dei. share the vision for world missions that God has A. Scott Moreau given to them. The focus of Urbana is the college and university world. While some high school se- Bibliography. M. L. Branson, Theological Students niors have usually been allowed to attend, the Fellowship Bulletin 7:1 (Sept.–Oct. 1983): 11–26; R. Covell, Missiology 11:4 (1983): 531–33; A. F. Glasser, major purpose is to reach college students for IBMR 9 (1985): 9–13; R. C. Padilla, The Best in Theol- missions. Missionaries, pastors, and college pro- ogy, 1:239–52; T. Sine, ed., The Church in Response to fessors are also encouraged to attend, in order to Human Need; P. Sookhdeo, New Frontiers in Mission; be resource personnel to help the students. Mis- Wheaton ‘83, Wheaton ‘83: An International Evangelical sion agencies set up displays of their work, giv- Conference on the Nature and Mission of the Church: ing students opportunity to interact directly with June 20–July 1, 1983, Wheaton, Illinois. mission representatives. The program is very full. Students begin the Winter, Ralph D. (1924– ). American missiolog- day with small-group Bible studies in their dor- ical thinker and missionary to Guatemala. One mitory. Plenary sessions in Assembly Hall occupy of the most innovative missiological thinkers of most of the morning. Afternoons are given to the twentieth century, Winter served from 1956 several hundred workshops or seminars from to 1966 as a Presbyterian missionary to the Mam which students may choose; there is opportunity Indians of Guatemala following the completion at this time for personal conversations with mis- of his education at Cal Tech (B.S.), Columbia sion representatives at their display booths. Ad- (M.A.), Cornell (Ph.D.), and Princeton (B.D.). ditional plenary sessions fill the evening. Music While in Guatemala, Winter was one of those and prayer play a major role in these sessions as instrumental in launching the Theological Edu- do speakers from many nations and cultures. cation by Extension movement throughout The day closes with small prayer groups. Latin America. Traveling widely, he disseminated Decision cards give the students several op- extension concepts and helped forge a continen- tions for responding to God’s claims on their tal network of extension educators. His work lives. Half the card is kept as a personal prayer Theological Education by Extension provided his- reminder. The other half is turned in to IVCF, so torical perspective and practical guidelines for that follow-up materials can be sent to help the the movement. student fulfill the commitment made. It is proba- Called to the School of World Mission of Fuller bly safe to say that in the second half of the Theological Seminary, Winter taught in the areas twentieth century the Urbana conferences were of mission history and leadership training. In the greatest single factor challenging students in 1968, he and his wife Roberta founded the Wil- North America to commit themselves to world liam Carey Library to publish missionary litera- missions. ture. In 1972, he helped establish the American David M. Howard Society of Missiology and later the Interna- tional Society of Frontier Missiology. His 1974 Wheaton ’83. Sponsored by the World Evangel- address to the Lausanne Congress on World ical Fellowship and held as a continuation of the Evangelization helped awaken the global church 146 Women in Mission to the presence of people groups beyond the lem. Her missionary journeys started as she fled reach of established churches and mission ef- from Rome during the invasion by the Goths in forts (see Unreached Peoples). In 1976, he and a.d. 410. As a refugee, she and many other his wife founded the United States Center for women played an important role in this great World Mission and in 1977 the William Carey In- missionary movement. Some women were taken ternational University to provide for and coordi- as hostages to northern Europe, where they later nate thinking, training, and services needed to married their captors and evangelized them establish Christian movements among the re- (Malcolm, 1982, 99–100). Clare, who lived and maining unreached people groups. worked in the early thirteenth century, was a re- Ken Mulholland former where Christianity had forgotten the poor. She founded the Franciscan order of bare- Bibliography. R. D. Winter, ed., Theological Educa- foot nuns in Italy (ibid., p. 104). Women who tion by Extension; R. D. Winter and S. C. Hawthorne, chose to remain single served God through living eds., Perspectives on the World Christian Movement, rev. ed. the cloistered life and were given the opportunity through the accepted ecclesiastical framework to proclaim the gospel. Women in Mission. Women have a long history In the Catholic tradition, priests, bishops, and of responding to God’s desire to use them in car- nuns built churches and hospitals and founded rying out his purposes on earth. From Miriam, schools and orphanages to establish the faith. the sister of Moses (Exod. 15:20; Micah 6:4), Women who experienced a call to mission first Deborah, a judge chosen by God to rule (Judg. had to join a celibate religious order. Catholic 45),­ and Huldah, a prophet carrying God’s mes- mothers were to have families as their primary sage (2 Kings 22:14–20; 2 Chron. 34:11–33) to responsibility. Not until the mid-twentieth cen- Catherine Booth of the Salvation Army, Mother tury could lay women freely participate in offi- Teresa in her ministry to the poor of India, and cial foreign missions with the full sanction of the Elisabeth Elliot, the great missionary writer, Church. Catholic sisters were the first trained God has chosen and empowered women to do nurses in the United States. They nursed the his bidding through the ages. wounded during the Revolutionary War and In Jesus’ day, women traveled from town to vil- founded some of the first American hospitals for lage with Jesus and the disciples, helping sup- the poor in the early nineteenth century. Mother port them out of their own means (Luke 8:13).­ Mary Joseph in the 1920s founded the Maryknoll They remembered Jesus’ words concerning his Sisters, who focused on direct evangelism, see- death and resurrection and were ready for their ing themselves fully participating in the church’s first assignment of telling the disciples the Good apostolic work. Six of the Maryknoll Sisters went News that Jesus had risen from the dead. to China as missionaries in 1921. In the early church, women were active in the The Protestant Reformation in the sixteenth mission of the church. In Philippi, the Lord century brought about changes in the role of opened Lydia’s heart in response to Paul’s words women in Christianity. The Reformers reempha- and, after she and her household were baptized, sized that women’s role is in the home and sup- she opened her home for believers to meet and portive of men. Arthur Glasser writes: “The re- grow in their faith (Acts 16:14­15, 40). Priscilla formers also subjected women to the confining was used by God to touch people in at least three perspective that their only recognized vocation different nations: Rome, Greece, and Asia Minor was marriage. With the dissolution of the nun- (Rom. 16:3­5; 2 Tim. 4:19). Priscilla’s name is usu- neries women lost their last chance of churchly ally listed before her husband’s in the biblical re- service outside the narrow circle of husband, cord and, since this is not common for that day, home and children” (1979, 91). Within Protes- it most probably indicates her importance in the tantism the problem then arose as to whether minds of the New Testament writers and her women had the right to respond to the prompt- prominence in the church. ings of the Holy Spirit to proclaim the Word of Many women were martyred for their love for God. Jesus in the first two centuries of Christianity. Ruth Tucker emphasizes that because women Santa Lucia of Sicily, who lived about a.d. 300, were restricted in serving in leadership within was involved in Christian charitable work. After the institutional church, they were attracted to marrying a wealthy nobleman, she was ordered responding to serving God in mission work, to stop giving to the poor; she refused and was where the limitations were less restrictive (1988, sent to jail. There she was persecuted and con- 9). This was due to the fact that mission leaders demned to death. Melania, coming from a focused on reaching a lost world for Christ. wealthy family in Rome with estates all around Though male leadership within the church has the Mediterranean, used her resources to give to limited how women can use their God-given gifts the poor and build monasteries and churches for at home, the urgency of fulfilling the Great Com- both men and women in Africa and in Jerusa- mission has required all available assistance. 147 Women in Mission

In the early days of the Protestant mission ad- were mobilized into benevolent activity on be- vance, most women who went to the field were half of the soldiers. The death of the largest wives of missionaries. Many men even began number of men in American history created an looking for a wife to accompany them after they entire generation of single women. Since denom- were appointed as missionaries. Women often inational mission boards were still dragging felt a deep commitment to missions, but were re- their feet on sending single women to the field quired to marry before they could fulfill their and the supply of committed women was greater own missionary calling. Discerning male mis- than ever, the Women’s Missionary Movement sionaries recognized that contact with women in was born. The first women’s sending board was most non-Western societies was impossible. So it the Women’s Union Missionary Society, an inter- was that the missionary wives not only managed denominational board founded by Sarah the home and children but developed programs Doremus in 1861. In quick succession, women of to reach local women and girls. Ann Judson, wife many denominational boards founded their own of Adoniram, demonstrated how wives not only female missionary organizations. cared for the family and ran a household in a A. B. Simpson, founder of the Christian and foreign country, but developed their own minis- Missionary Alliance in 1887, held and promoted try as well. Ann ran a small school for girls, did an open policy for women in ministry. He saw evangelistic work with the women, was a pioneer the issue as “one which God has already settled, Bible translator in two languages, and was the not only in His Word, but in His providence, by leading female missionary author of the early the seal which He is placing in this very day, in nineteenth century. Her letters and journals of every part of the world, upon the public work of their work with the Burmese inspired many in consecrated Christian women” (Tucker and Leif- the homeland to support missions and consider eld, 1987, 287–88). When criticized for his views, missions as a vocation. he strongly suggested, “Let the Lord manage the Single women were first sent to the field to women. He can do better than you, and you turn care for missionaries’ children and serve along- your batteries against the common enemy” side the missionary family. Little by little as op- (ibid, 288). This mission, along with many other portunities arose, single women missionaries Faith Missions in their zeal to reach the un- began to supervise women’s schools for nationals reached and focus wholly on evangelism, at- (Beaver, 1980, 59–86). Quietly they helped reach tracted women who were usually restricted from out to the local women who were secluded from regular theological education and ordination, society. In 1827, Cynthia Farrar responded to a but who felt strong calls to ministry and service field request from India for a single woman to and were willing to live in poverty and insecurity supervise the schools for national girls that had for the sake of the gospel. For the task of world been started by the mission and was appointed evangelization, the whole church was mobilized by the American Board, the first unmarried and women were welcomed to serve as evange- woman sent overseas as an assistant missionary lists. by any American agency. In 1839, Eliza Agnew By 1900, over forty denominational women’s went to Ceylon to serve as principal at an estab- societies existed, with over 3 million active lished boarding school for girls. She held that women raising funds to build hospitals and post until she retired forty years later. Many of schools around the world, paying the salaries of her students became Christians. She endeared indigenous female evangelists, and sending single herself to her students and visited former stu- women as missionary doctors, teachers, and evan- dents in their homes. gelists (Robert, 1996, 129). By the early decades of By 1837, when it became recognized by evan- the twentieth century, the women’s missionary gelical missions that female missionaries needed movement had become the largest women’s move- a more advanced level of training, Mount Holy- ment in the United States and women outnum- oke Female Seminary was founded by Mary bered men on the mission field by a ratio of more Lyon. The five basic areas of education included: than two to one (Tucker, 1988, 10). (1) religious, (2) benevolence, (3) intellectual, The fifty-year Jubilee of the founding of sepa- (4) health, and (5) service. Students at the semi- rate women’s mission boards was celebrated in nary were guided to develop a spirituality of 1910–11. College-educated women were leading self-sacrifice for the sake of the gospel and oth- the woman’s missionary movement at this time. ers. By 1887, Mount Holyoke had sent out 175 Results of the Jubilee included the collection of foreign missionaries to eighteen countries (Rob- over $1 million for interdenominational women’s ert, 1996, 93–104). Soon graduates from Mount colleges in Asia, the founding of the World Day Holyoke were involved in starting similar train- of Prayer, and the founding of the Committee on ing schools for women in many parts of the Christian Literature for Women and Children in world. Mission Fields (Robert, 1996, 256–71). The latter The Civil War in the United States became a provided reading material from a Christian per- catalyst for change in women’s role. Women spective, often in the form of magazines that en- 148 World Congress on Evangelism couraged indigenous Christian artists and writ- poses. Women therefore often took the lead in ers. The Jubilee also spearheaded the most founding ecumenical mission organizations. successful ecumenical mission publication series Marguerite Kraft in American history. Of the twenty-one mission Bibliography. M. Adeney, Missiology 15 (1987): 323– study texts produced by the Central Committee 37; R. P. Beaver, American Protestant Women in World on the United Study of Foreign Missions from Mission: A History of the First Feminist Movement in 1900 to 1921, fourteen were written by women North America; A. Glasser, Women and the Ministries of and one by a married couple (ibid., 257). Sum- Christ, pp. 88–92; K. T. Malcolm, Women at the Cross- mer schools of missions were offered for training roads: A Path Beyond Feminism and Traditionalsim; leaders in the textbook material for teaching D. L. Robert, American Women in Mission: A Social during the year. “In 1917, for example, nearly History of Their Thought and Practice; R. A. Tucker, Guardians of the Great Commission: The Story of twelve thousand women and girls attended twen- Women in Modern Missions; R. A. Tucker and ty-five summer schools around the country. Mis- W. Liefeld, Daughters of the Church: Women and Minis- sion study, Bible study, pageants, and fellowship try from the New Testament Times to the Present. marked the summer schools” (ibid., 261). Gradually from around 1910 to the time of the World Congress on Evangelism (Berlin, 1966). Second World War, the institutional basis of the An international gathering of evangelicals to pro- women’s missionary movement was eroding mote the cause of missions, the Berlin congress through the forced merger of women’s mission- had its roots in a burden Billy Graham had over ary agencies into the male-dominated denomina- the worldwide lack of clarity and agreement on tional boards. Because of reduced giving from evangelism. It was the decision of the staff of the local churches in the 1920s and pressure Christianity Today to celebrate their tenth anni- within denominations, the women’s missionary versary by dealing with this burden. They invited movement was dismantled and the male-con- 1,200 delegates from virtually all Protestant de- trolled general boards took the money raised by nominations in a hundred countries, as well as the women (ibid., 305). Though women have Roman Catholic and Jewish observers, to partic- since had less place of genuine influence and ipate in a ten-day congress under the rubric participation in administrative offices, board “One Race, One Gospel, One Task.” The response membership, and policymaking, the trend now is was positive, and delegates came from the oldest to include women. R. Pierce Beaver writes, “The Christian church (the first-century Mar Thoma big problem is that of personal and congrega- Syrian of India) and from the beginnings of the tional commitment, involvement, and participa- Auca church whose members a few years before tion in world mission. The greatest loss conse- had participated in the slaying of evangelical quent to the end of the distinctive, organized missionaries in Ecuador. With the precedent of women’s world mission movement has been the the 1910 World Missionary Conference at Edin- decline of missionary dynamism and zeal in the burgh, where approximately the same number churches” (1980, 201). (1,206) of delegates pledged to carry to comple- Women have played an outstanding role in the tion the evangelization of the world, the Berlin Congress called the leaders of the World Coun- modern missionary movement. Dana Robert cil of Churches to rekindle the dynamic zeal for shows that women’s mission theory was holistic, world evangelization that had characterized Ed- with emphasis on both evangelism and meeting inburgh fifty-six years previously. human needs (1996, xviii; see Holistic Mission). Plenary sessions were devoted to reaffirming Women in mission have shown a deep commit- the divine authority and theological justification ment to and concern for women and children. for world evangelization as well as exposing the Education, medical work, and struggles against internal hindrances and external obstacles stand- foot binding, child marriage, female infanticide, ing in the way of its achievement. Serious atten- and oppressive social, religious, and economic tion was also given to reviewing how the biblical structures were commonly the focuses of their methods of evangelism could be adapted to the work. With their holistic approach to missions, various situations facing churches throughout women were committed to healing. Thus Medi- the world. Finally, “acting voluntarily, personally, cal Missions were dominated by women for and in wholesome unity, without committing many years. Women have been permitted great their churches,” the delegates pledged “to bring latitude in Christian ministry with their work the Word of Salvation to the human race in this ranging from Evangelism and Church Planting generation, by every means God has given to the to Bible Translation and teaching in seminaries. mind and will of men.” There were complaints Since women were less involved in denomina- that the congress failed to arrive at consensus on tional activities and more focused on human crucial issues such as the relation of Evangelism need, it was easier for them to be ecumenical- and Social Responsibility. But it did define ly-minded and risk cooperation for common pur- clearly the biblical nature of evangelism and was 149 World Consultation on World Evangelization (Pattaya 1980) later seen as an essential step in the movement ology 9:1 (1981) : 93–98; W. Scott, Missiology 9:1 of evangelicals worldwide to the launching of the (1981): 57–76. Lausanne Congress for World Evangelization in 1974. World Council of Churches (WCC). The rise of Arthur F. Glasser the WCC may be seen historically through the ecumenical conferences of the twentieth century. Bibliography. C. F. H. Henry and W. S. Mooneyham, From the World Missionary Conference (Edin- eds., One Race, One Gospel, One Task: World Congress on Evangelism, Berlin 1966, 2 vols.; Christianity Today burgh, 1910) three streams of the Ecumenical 10 (Oct. 14, 1966): 34; (Oct. 28): 67–93, 96–97; (Nov. Movement developed. The first stream, the In- 11): 131–39, 142–58, 177–79; (Nov. 25): 24–25, 34–36. ternational Missionary Council (IMC), whose roots can be traced directly to Edinburgh, was World Consultation on World Evangelization officially formed in 1921. The second stream, the (Pattaya 1980). Held June 16–27 in Pattaya, Faith and Order Movement, came from the vi- Thailand, this Lausanne Committee on World sion of cooperation generated at Edinburgh and Evangelization sponsored consultation gathered held its first conference at Lausanne in 1927. almost nine hundred people from around the The third stream, the Life and Work Movement, world to consider strategic issues of reaching the came largely as a result of the work of the World unreached. Chaired by Leighton Ford and di- Alliance for Promoting International Friendship and held its pioneering conference in Geneva in rected by David Howard, Pattaya’s primary focus was the seventeen miniconsultations included 1925. The last two streams merged when dele- gates from 147 churches and denominations within the conference. Pattaya’s five goals in- constituted the WCC at the Amsterdam Assembly cluded: “1) to seek fresh vision and power for the in 1948. After much debate during the 1950s, the task Christ has given to his church until he comes; IMC was merged into the WCC at the New Delhi 2) to assess the state of world evangelization, its Assembly in 1961. progress and hindrances; 3) to complete an ex- The WCC is composed of over 330 member tended study program on theological and strate- churches and denominations from more than gic issues related to world evangelization and to 120 countries and a broad variety of ecclesiastical share the results; 4) to develop specific evangelis- traditions. More than two-thirds of those mem- tic strategies related to different unreached people bers are from the non-Western world. Since its groups; and 5) to review the mandate of the inception the WCC has convened world assem- LCWE” (Scott, 1981, 60–61). While a larger state- blies at intervals of roughly seven years (see ment was produced (“The Thailand Statement”), World Council of Churches Assemblies). In ad- most of the consultations produced more volumi- dition to the assemblies, the three streams of the nous reports, which became Lausanne Occasional ecumenical movement (and more recently their Papers and were published separately. Organized related WCC program units) have held numer- to advocate a people group approach to mission ous confer­ences (see also World Council of strategy (see Peoples, People Groups), Pattaya ex- Churches Conferences). hibited the lack of unanimity over the concept of All member churches agree to hold to the ba- “people” found within evangelicalism at that time sics of the WCC: “The World Council of Churches in that the consultations were focused on reli- is a fellowship of churches which confess the gious, ideological, or socioeconomic distinctions Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior according rather than ethnolinguistic ones. to the Scriptures and therefore seek to fulfill to- While Pattaya did have good representation of gether their common calling to the glory of the non-Western participants, the lack of women in one God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.” This positions of prominence was evident and a point statement is not intended to be a confession of of contention for some in attendance (see Sand). faith, but a framework of convictions that all Coming within a month of the WCC-sponsored members share. Melbourne Conference (1980), if nothing else Over the years many evangelicals, a number of Pattaya highlighted the difference between the whom have been active within the WCC, have evangelical and the ecumenical orientation to the raised several issues of concern. The four most missionary task (see Bosch). Pattaya focused on significant are (1) a perceived lack of commit- evangelizing unreached peoples, while Mel- ment to full biblical authority, (2) an undue influ- bourne focused on the establishment of the King- ence of Pluralism, as seen in the implicit Univer- dom of God through acts of justice and libera- salism and lack of commitment to the traditional tion. understanding of evangelism, (3) social and polit- A. Scott Moreau ical biases and agendas that have tended to ex- Bibliography. D. J. Bosch, Journal of Theology for clude emphasis on personal salvation, and (4) Southern Africa 36 (1981): 43–63; How Shall They linguistic imprecision in WCC documents, allow- Hear? Consultation on World Evangelization Official ing an unacceptably broad range of interpreta- Reference Volume: Thailand Reports; F. A. Sand, Missi- tion. Accordingly, evangelical opinion has been 150 World Council of Churches Assemblies divided over cooperation with the WCC. Some trally by the church in mission, at Evanston the people and organizations participate fully, hoping legitimacy of the IMC was inevitably questioned. to steer it in a more biblical direction. Some or- Should not the IMC with its regional church ganizations maintain a working relationship with councils seek merger with the WCC? As for evan- the WCC but not official membership. Finally, gelism, Evanston enlarged the call to dialogue many evangelical individuals and organizations with people of other faiths. This was regarded as advocate separation from the WCC altogether. At- more congenial to the spirit of the age than was tempts have been made by both the WCC and a recourse to “outdated, conversionary forms of variety of evangelicals to find common ground, evangelistic mission.” but the concerns run so deep that at present the The Third WCC Assembly took place in New prospect of widespread cooperation of evangeli- Delhi (1961) with the theme “Jesus Christ, the cals with the WCC remains remote. Light of the World.” Agreeing that the IMC had A. Scott Moreau become redundant, WCC leaders welcomed the petition from the IMC Accra Conference (1958) Bibliography. H. E. Fey, ed., The Ecumenical Ad- vance: A History of the Ecumenical Movement, vol. 2; seeking merger with the WCC. This request was A. Johnson, The Battle for World Evangelism; R. Rouse heralded as the only way to bring the concerns of and S. C. Neill, A History of the Ecumenical Movement, mission and unity to the heart of the Ecumenical vol. 1; M. Van Elderen, Introducing the World Council Movement. Evangelicals reacted with much mis- of Churches; N. Yri, Quest for Authority. giving. They contended that the witness of church history is virtually unanimous in demon- World Council of Churches Assemblies. At the strating that church leaders invariably were so Amsterdam Assembly in 1948 the WCC came into preoccupied with maintaining present structures being as a nonlegislative fellowship of churches that they rarely had the interest, energy, and time united by their commitment to a common confes- to launch frontier mission efforts. Even so, the sion of “our Lord Jesus Christ as God and Savior.” WCC-IMC merger was enthusiastically wel- The assembly itself is the WCC’s principal author- comed, though it marked the beginning of the ity; a central committee representing the member eclipse of missionary outreach in the WCC. churches proportionately meets twice annually. New Delhi should be particularly remembered The theme selected for the First Assembly was for adopting a solid biblical basis to define itself: “Man’s Disorder and God’s Design.” Since this “The World Council of Churches is a fellowship was directly related to the mission concern of the of churches which confess the Lord Jesus Christ International Missionary Council (IMC), many as God and Savior according to the Scriptures were encouraged that the WCC agreed that evan- and therefore seek to fulfill together their com- gelism must be on the constant imperative for all mon calling to the glory of the one God—Father, Christians, and that the struggle to express the Son, and Holy Spirit.” This promotion of the unity of Christians for the sake of effective wit- Trinity coupled with the ferment generated by ness must continue. It unconditionally affirmed: the view of Jesus as “the Light of the World” “All of our churches stand under the commission meant that henceforth the WCC would be caught of our common Lord: ‘Go ye into all the world up in exploring the implications of his unique- and preach the gospel to every creature.’” Even ness, especially as the ecumenical movement so, two of Amsterdam’s key perspectives aroused seemed to be entering ever more directly into the a measure of concern within IMC circles: (1) the context of non-Christian religions. A hopeful ad- older pattern of missionary activity identified dition to the growing WCC interest in the Theol- with mission agencies was coming to an end; ogy of Mission was the call for a trinitarian basis and (2) participating churches should awaken to that could be related to all aspects of the church’s their societal responsibilities and the ways in focus on mission, service, and unity. But there which lay ministries might be stimulated and was a growing tendency to use “mission” to rep- augmented to this end. resent everything the churches were called upon The Second WCC Assembly was convened at to do in the world, a tendency promoted by the Evanston, Illinois (1954), with the theme “Christ, slogan “The Church Is Mission” (see also Mission the Hope of the World.” The theme’s eschatologi- and Missions). The inevitable result was further cal implications stirred up a measure of public devaluation of the traditional understanding of discussion, particularly among Jewish leaders the specific evangelistic role of missionaries and who had earlier reacted against Amsterdam’s call mission societies. to the churches to engage in Jewish evangelism. The Fourth Assembly at Uppsala (1968) The attention called to “the hope of Israel” (Rom. marked the beginning of widespread evangelical 9–11) provoked discord. In the end political as disenchantment with the direction of the WCC. well as theological considerations forced the Although the theme was eschatological, “Behold, issue to be dropped. In addition, given the fer- I Make All Things New!” this dimension was not ment generated at Amsterdam that the function given primary focus. Actually, preassembly docu- of mission agencies should be carried out cen- ments provoked such concern among evangeli- 151 World Council of Churches Assemblies cals that Donald A. McGavran raised the ques- The many evangelicals who attended the Sixth tion, “Will Uppsala Betray the Two Billion?” He WCC Assembly at Vancouver (1983) were filled reflected the heightened sense of impatience with hope. This had been generated by the re- among many evangelicals over the efforts of lease in 1982 of the long-awaited “Mission and some WCC leaders to reconceptualize the Chris- Evangelism—An Ecumenical Affirmation.” tian mission. The evangelicals determined to de- Evangelical counsel had been widely sought in fend mission as biblically defined. Two major its preparation, and many expected it would be conferences in 1966 (the Congress on the openly related to the assembly theme “Jesus Church’s Worldwide Mission in Wheaton and Christ—the Life of the World.” Strangely, no the World Congress on Evangelism in Berlin) re- speaker referred to it. The focus was on the fa- flected their impatience and spelled out their miliar issues of Christian unity, evangelism, and concern. Both gatherings not only reflected the what was described as “world affairs in ecumen- dramatic growth of evangelicals and charismatics ical perspective.” WCC pronouncements on the throughout the postwar world, but produced doc- Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and on Marxist uments marking the end of passivity regarding oppression in Central America were so selective the WCC. Whereas they agreed that many of the in their indignation that many voices in the reli- concerns discussed at Uppsala were valid and gious and secular press were outraged. Was lib- worthy of serious attention, they were troubled eration theology still the council’s reigning doc- when an undefined “Christian Presence” and in- trine for church and society? Was the WCC terreligious dialogue, not gospel proclamation, controlled by the political and theological left? were heralded as the means of lifting up “human- Despite these aberrations Vancouver gave evi- ization” as the goal of mission. This imprecision dence of vigorous evangelical currents within its of language and absence of biblical categories worship and prayer, its biblical expositions, and provoked concern as to the direction of the WCC. trinitarian theology. The emphasis on sin as Its truncated call to social and political activism causing social alienation, was accompanied by needed to be supplemented with the Berlin docu- emphasis on sin as spiritual alienation from ment “One Race, One Gospel, One Task” and with God. During the assembly about two hundred evangelicals caucused from time to time and the biblical urgency behind Wheaton’s reaffirma- eventually produced a statement encouraging tion of the watchword of the SVM. evangelicals worldwide to add their prayers and The Fifth Assembly was convened at Nairobi in gifts to the process of working for the renewal of 1975 with the theme “Jesus Frees and Unites.” the people of God. The delegates had been greatly influenced by two The Seventh WCC Assembly was convened at conciliar gatherings of significance: the Geneva Canberra (1991) with a prayer as its theme: Conference on Church and Society (1966), which “Come, Holy Spirit—Renew the Whole Cre- sought to define a “Christian response to the chal- ation.” This was appropriate. Many of the dele- lenges of revolutionary changes in our time”; and gates feared that the war in the Persian Gulf the Commission on World Mission and Evange- would dominate discussion; others feared that lism’s Bangkok Conference (1973), with its stress the issue of the suffering people in the Middle on celebrating salvation rather than seeking East would not be adequately addressed. All agreement on its meaning. The thesis that all peo- agreed, however, to expressing the council’s con- ples were already one in the cosmic Christ, thus cern with a peace march through Canberra fol- denying any frontier between church and world— lowed by a prayer vigil and liturgical celebration. the frontier biblically crossed in mission—made Only then did the assembly feel free to deal with mission redundant. Accordingly, WCC’s emphasis its crowded agenda. Unfortunately, not much on Dialogue with representatives of other living time was given to serious discussion of the Bap- faiths was intensified. Although prominent evan- tism, Eucharist and Ministry document (BEM) gelical leaders participated in Nairobi’s discus- that had been years in preparation as well as en- sions and their contributions were respected, Nai- thusiastically heralded at Vancouver as the great- robi is remembered for its earnest call for the est achievement of the Faith and Order Commis- visible unity of all Christians, but provided no sion. Time also prevented reviewing in detail definition of the factors uniting them. It advanced “Mission in Christ’s Way,” a document from the two separate definitions of evangelism (biblical San Antonio Conference (1989). and existential), but seemed reluctant to grant The Gulf war did not dominate the assembly. Scripture the determinative role in defining the Rather, the convention was unexpectedly set on mission of God’s people in the world. Nairobi di- fire by the issue of Syncretism, given prominence vided evangelicals. Some (Peter Beyerhaus) said by Chung Hyun Hyung of Ewha Women’s Univer- that the parting of the ways had taken place with sity in Seoul. Reflecting Korean folk culture, she the conciliar movement. Others noted Nairobi’s developed an innovative presentation with music, use of the covenant that arose from the Lausanne dance, and symbols, invoking the spirits of the Congress on World Evangelism (1974). dead in such a way as to magnify the spirit world 152 World Council of Churches Conferences and largely ignore all biblical categories. The pre- was accepted: the churches would seek to act to- sentation drew both a standing ovation and se- gether on all matters except those on which deep vere condemnation of syncretism and paganism. differences of conviction compelled them to act Needless to say, Canberra (1991) marked a de- separately. At Louvain (1971), Accra (1974), and cisive turning point in the history of the WCC Bangalore (1978) the emphasis was not on ana- and the ecumenical movement as a whole. In the lyzing past differences, but defining the hope at years that followed, serious concern grew among the center of Christian witness and discipleship. orthodox churches as to whether further associa- The Lima conference of 1982 addressed the rela- tion would be congenial with their theological tionship between the historic theologies of East heritage. The desire of evangelicals to continue and West and the newer contextual theologies of to serve began to diminish. Financial consider- the south. It also sent to the churches the text ations forced drastic reduction in budget and Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry to find out how staff. Questions were raised as to the future of far they could make common affirmations in the WCC. The adoption of the landmark docu- these areas. On the basis of an emerging consen- ment “Mission and Evangelism: An Ecumenical sus the conference also offered to the churches Affirmation” at the Salvador Conference (1996) the “Lima liturgy,” a eucharistic service for use by demonstrated that mission, unity, and service the churches as they wished, especially on ecu- continue to command WCC attention and re- menical occasions. More recently Faith and Order sponse. But uncertainty surrounded prospects conferences have been concerned with the inter- for future assemblies. relationship between ecclesiology and ethics (an Arthur F. Glasser attempt to bring together the old dichotomy be- tween Faith and Order and Life and Work). The Bibliography. A History of the Ecumenical Move- ment, vol. 1, ed. R. Rouse and S. C. Neill, and vol. 2, ed. conference at Compostela in 1993 focused on koi- H. E. Fey; A. F. Glasser and D. A. McGavran, Contem- nonia as a gift and calling as a way of advancing porary Theologies of Missions; J. A. Scherer, Gospel unity. Church and Kingdom; K. Raiser, Ecumenism in Transi- The thrust of the conferences concerned with tion; M. Reuver, et al., eds., The Ecumenical Movement Inter-church Aid, Development, and Diakonia has Tomorrow; J. A. Scherer and S. B. Bevans, eds., New been to eschew all forms of Paternalism in favor Directions in Mission and Evangelization, vols. 1–2. of developing genuine Partnerships of mutual re- spect. Churches have also been encouraged to World Council of Churches Conferences. The consider their responsibilities not simply in terms usual starting point in discussions of Confer- of relief, but increasingly in terms of nurturing ences that played a critical part in the develop- and enabling Development. The confidence of ment of the ecumenical movement is the great the 1960s that development was the solution to Edinburgh World Missionary Conference of the economic problems of the Two-Thirds World 1910, which revealed how closely related were had become less certain by the 1980s. A confer- the subjects of the mission and the unity (dis- ence at El Escorial in Spain in 1987 reinforced unity) of the church. After Edinburgh there de- the need for the ecumenical sharing of resources, veloped two principal strands in the ecumenical not simply in terms of economic wealth, but of movement. Life and Work conferences were held spirituality, faith, and testimony to faithfulness in at Stockholm (1925) and Oxford (1937), while suffering. Faith and Order conferences were held at Laus- The World Conference on Church and Society anne (1927) and Edinburgh (1937). A third convoked in Geneva in 1966 provided the first strand was that of the International Missionary opportunity for ecumenical leaders representing Council, which was formally constituted in 1921 all the regions of the world to give comprehen- and held conferences at Jerusalem (1928), Tam- sive consideration to the social and political con- baram (1938), Whitby (1947), Willingen (1952), text of Christian witness. Because that context and Accra (1958). was in a state of dynamic flux, the subject of All three streams continued to organize con- Christian attitudes to the ambiguities of revolu- ferences after the founding of the World Council tion was placed on the ecumenical agenda. Fol- of Churches in 1948, and indeed other ecumeni- lowing Geneva, conferences at Bucharest (1974) cal focuses were added. A major methodology and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for advancing the concerns of this worldwide (1979) considered the social significance of ad- body has been the convoking of conferences that vancing scientific knowledge and technological have proper representation by region, confes- competence, both of which were seen at that sion, and status. Prepared for by well-worked- time as developments to be welcomed. There out study programs, these conferences seek to were, however, warnings that unequal access to produce consensus documents. technological power could be an instrument of The Faith and Order conferences have searched injustice. Moreover, consumption of unrenew- for unity, though not uniformity, in church life. able resources, the pollution of seas and skies, For example, in 1952 the so-called Lund principle and the creation of the greenhouse effect ap- 153 World Evangelical Fellowship (WEF) peared to put ecology and life itself at risk. The purposes of the WEF were expressed in Hence the MIT theme “Faith, Science and the three phrases taken from Philippians 1: “fellow- Future” in turn led the WCC to its emphasis ship in the gospel” (v. 5), “defense and confirma- upon “Justice, Peace and the Integrity of Cre- tion of the gospel” (v. 7), and “furtherance of the ation.” Behind this lies the belief that issues of gospel” (v. 12). The desire was to unite Christians justice, war and peace, especially in their nuclear around the world in true fellowship, in defend- dimension, and ecology all belong together. The ing the gospel against constant attacks, and in interrelationship was most fully explored in the mission outreach to those without the gospel. world convocation at Seoul in 1990. Following the example set since 1846 by the John H. Y. Briggs Evangelical Alliance of Great Britain, the WEF emphasized spiritual unity, an annual week of Bibliography. H. E. Frey, ed., The History of the Ecu- prayer, encouragement and help to Christians menical Movement, vol. 2, The Ecumenical Advance, suffering persecution, and revival. A doctrinal 1948–68; J. H. Y. Briggs, M. A. Oduyoye, and G. Tsetsis, eds., The History of the Ecumenical Movement, vol. 3. statement was agreed upon, which has never been altered. Gilbert Kirby of the United Kingdom, who was World Evangelical Fellowship (WEF). The first general secretary from 1966 to 1970, coined a half of the nineteenth century saw a growing de- phrase that expresses well the ministry of the sire among evangelical Christians in Europe, WEF, “Spiritual Unity in Action.” To implement North America, and elsewhere for some visible this goal the WEF has formed various commis- expression of unity within the body of Christ. sions composed of men and women from around During the 1840s several consultations were the world: Theological Commission, Missions held, primarily in Great Britain, to consider how Commission, Communications Commission, best to pursue this vision. As a result, in August Commission on Women’s Concerns, Religious 1846, eight hundred Christian leaders gathered Liberties Commission, Youth Commission, Com- in London and formed the Evangelical Alliance. mission on Church Renewal, International The establishment of an organization for the Council for Evangelical Theological Education, purpose of expressing unity among Christians and International Relief and Development Alli- belonging to different churches was an innova- ance. The WEF has also taken an active role in tion in church history. Its goal was to be world- leadership training, especially in developing wide in scope. countries. Its Leadership Development Institute However, the worldwide vision foundered over has held training sessions throughout the world. the issue of slavery. England had abolished slav- The WEF has two types of membership. Full ery following the noble work of evangelical members are the regional and national evangeli- statesmen such as William Wilberforce (see Abo- cal fellowships or alliances from more than 115 lition), so its delegates adamantly opposed ad- countries of the world. They are composed of the mitting slaveholders to an evangelical alliance. local churches, denominations, and evangelical Most North American delegates agreed. How- agencies in each country. Associate membership ever, the social situation in the United States was is open to denominations, mission agencies, and such that some southern Christians still held parachurch agencies. The WEF is governed by slaves, and a few even tried to justify the practice the International Council, which is composed of on biblical grounds. Consequently, no consensus men and women representing each region of the was reached for a worldwide fellowship. This world and elected by the General Assembly, would have to wait for another century. In the which is held every four to six years. Delegates to meantime evangelical alliances, loosely knit to- the General Assembly are elected by the full gether in fellowship but with no organizational members. The International Council appoints ties, were formed in many countries. the international director. Following World War II a renewed desire for a From its founding in 1951 all of the interna- visible expression of unity among evangelicals tional directors (previously called the general led again to a series of consultations both in Eu- secretary or general director) of the WEF were rope and in North America. In August 1951, from the United Kingdom, Canada, or the United leaders of the Evangelical Alliance of Great Brit- States; likewise, the international office was lo- ain and of the newly formed National Associa- cated in Europe or the United States. But in tion of Evangelicals (U.S.) met with delegates 1987 the WEF took a major step by moving the from twenty-one countries near Zeist, Holland. international headquarters to Singapore. This After a week of fellowship, prayer, and careful move helped greatly to change the mistaken consideration, they formed the World Evangeli- image that the WEF was a Western organization. cal Fellowship. Key leaders were Sir Arthur In 1992 a further significant step was taken at Smith, Roy Cattell, and A. J. Dain of the United the General Assembly in Manila, when Augustin Kingdom, and Harold J. Ockenga and J. Elwin (Jun) Vencer of the Philippines was installed as Wright of the United States. the first non-Western international director. 154 Wycliffe Bible Translators, International

In its desire for Christian unity the WEF has Protestant. Edinburgh, however, brought in the attempted to work closely with other interna- Anglo-Catholics as well. tional evangelical movements. When the Inter- Edinburgh was primarily a consultative as- national Consultation on World Evangelization sembly with a working agenda. Unlike other mis- was held in Lausanne in 1974, the WEF re- sionary conferences, it did not try to inform, im- quested that, in the interests of evangelical unity, press, or educate the public. It aimed to analyze no new international body be formed, but that the Christian mission and to make plans to carry the WEF by made responsible for following up it to fruition by cooperation. The literature pro- the vision of that conference. Although this re- duced enhanced the growing field of missiology. quest was not granted, the WEF has worked The topics of the studies all treated the matter of closely with the Lausanne Committee for World Christian unity as a requirement for mission. Evangelization that grew out of the 1974 meet- At Edinburgh 1910 the “younger churches” ing (see Lausanne Movement). The AD 2000 and (today’s Third World churches) came into their Beyond Movement and DAWN (Discipling a own. Nationals from several churches, seventeen Whole Nation) are both associate members of in number, were given prominent participation the WEF. on the program. Some were named to the Con- The WEF has set a goal that an evangelical al- tinuation Committee. liance or fellowship be formed in every country Edinburgh 1910 was the training ground for of the world and linked with other such bodies many of the future leaders of the missionary-­ through membership in the WEF. This vision, ecumenical movement. J. R. Mott, Joseph Old- first proposed in 1846 and renewed and ex- ham, Charles Brent, and V. S. Azariah head a panded in 1951 is stronger today than ever be- long list of outstanding churchmen, theologians, fore, as the WEF seeks to help the church reach and lay leaders who continued the spirit of Edin- the world for Jesus Christ. burgh. J. R. Mott was made chairman of Edin- burgh 1910’s Continuation Committee. David M. Howard Three movements emanated from the work of Bibliography. H. Fuller, People of the Mandate; D. M. the Continuation Committee of Edinburgh 1910. Howard, The Dream That Would Not Die. First and foremost was the organization of the International Missionary Council (IMC) in World Missionary Conference (Edinburgh, 1921, which continued the original purpose of 1910). The World Missionary Conference held in Edinburgh 1910. It sponsored significant mis- Edinburgh in 1910 was one of those pivotal sionary conferences in Jerusalem 1928, Madras events whose significance is more clearly seen in 1938, Whitby 1947, Willingen 1952, and Ghana its impact on subsequent events. It was a water- 1958, before becoming a department of the WCC shed event, building on a long series of mission- in 1961. ary antecedents, and it stimulated a confluence The other two movements were the Life and of influences that greatly affected Christian ex- Work Movement (Stockholm 1925) and the Faith pansion and ecumenicity. It was the outgrowth and Order Movement (Lausanne 1927). Both of earlier gatherings through which Protestants held second conferences in 1937. After much dis- had been uniting in their purpose to give the gos- cussion, both Conferences approved plans for the pel to the world (New York, 1854; Liverpool, formation of a World Council of Churches 1860; London, 1888; and New York, 1900). Its (WCC), organized in Amsterdam in 1948. The various movements—pietism, revivalism, volun- central missionary motif of Edinburgh 1910 is teerism—came together and were given a fresh seen today in a myriad of evangelical missions as- impetus. sociations and movements, such as the World Edinburgh became the capstone of previous Evangelical Fellowship, the Lausanne Move- missionary conferences, but also the foundation ment, and the Evangelical Fellowship of Mis- stone of the modern Protestant ecumenical sion Agencies. movement. Here the International Missionary Justice C. Anderson Council (IMC) was born, and the movement Bibliography. W. R. Estep, Baptists and Christian which was to give birth to the World Council of Unity; N. Goodall, The Ecumenical Movement; R. Rouse Churches was initiated. and S. Neill, HEM. The Conference was composed of official rep- resentatives of missionary societies and denomi- Wycliffe Bible Translators, International. nations. Not all missionary societies were in- Founded in 1934 by L. L. Legters and William vited; only those operating among non-Christian Cameron Townsend, Wycliffe Bible Translators peoples. This brought an ecclesiastical compre- (WBT) is a multinational organization dedicated hensiveness to the Conference. Earlier meetings to enabling all of the world’s people to discover had been made up of those groups from the that God speaks their language. The founders Evangelical Awakenings who were emphatically envisioned making God’s Word available 155 Zwemer, Samuel Marinus through vernacular translations. WBT teams leges and seminaries that can help consultants to from over twenty nations have provided Scrip- gain expertise in the source languages and bibli- ture in over twelve hundred languages in sev- cal background. So while the founders’ vision re- enty different nations. mains, the methods and means of realizing that Maintaining the founder’s vision in the face of vision have changed dramatically. WBTI contin- present-day sociopolitical and economic con- ues to seek creative partnerships within the straints has required new directions and strate- framework of their mission statement—commu- gies. Of central focus is the shift from serving as nicating God’s Word in “other words.” primary, pioneer translators to training national R. Daniel Shaw translators and consulting. Accordingly, the term Bibliography. W. C. Townsend and R. S. Pittman, “international” has been added to the organiza- Remember All the Way. tion’s name (WBTI). Nationals trained in transla- tion principles can build on their own linguistic and cultural heritage. Working in combination Zwemer, Samuel Marinus (1867–1952). Ameri- with consultants who have expertise in the can missionary to the Middle East. Born in source text enables them to provide Scripture for Michigan of Dutch immigrant parents, he gradu- their own people. In partnership with missions, ated from Hope College and New Brunswick churches, and national entities, WBTI is continu- Seminary before ordination by the Reformed ing to adjust its training programs at all levels to Church in America. In 1890 he launched with meet field needs and to expand literacy and com- James Cantine the Arabian Mission, working in a munity-development projects. This has resulted number of locations in Iraq and the Arabian Pen- in establishing national Bible translation organi- insula. From 1912 to 1928 he was based in Cairo, zations as well as mobilizing national churches traveling extensively throughout the entire Mus- to support and encourage translators. Once lim world. From 1929 until his retirement at the available, translations are used for evangelism age of seventy-one he served as professor of the and church growth. history of religion and Christian mission at To bring God’s Word into the more than two Princeton Seminary. He continued an active thousand minority languages still in need of schedule of writing and speaking right up to his Scripture, Wycliffe, in conjunction with the death at age eighty-four. Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), presently A man of remarkable range and energy, maintains training programs around the world. Zwemer contributed to the missionary effort In cooperation with the Bible societies, missions among Muslims and the wider Protestant mis- and churches, increasing numbers of Wycliffe sionary movement. In addition to his pioneering personnel are being assigned to work primarily work in Arabia he was both scholar and motiva- in the areas of training and consultation. They tor. His writings on Islamics ranged from histor- assist missions and other translation organiza- ical studies to anthropological fieldwork on pop- tions by providing a wealth of resources such as ular Islam; he founded and edited for the Ethnologue (detailed linguistic, sociocultural, thirty-seven years the important journal, The and spiritual data on each of the recorded lan- Moslem World. Along with academic writing he guages of the world), The Translator’s Workplace produced a variety of evangelistic, theological, (a CD-ROM containing various translation mate- and devotional literature. He played a leading rials and aids—journal articles, the biblical texts role in international conferences devoted to in Hebrew and Greek, and translations in twenty Muslim evangelization, gathering and dissemi- primary languages), Lingua Links (a computer nating information and encouraging workers to database for anthropological, linguistic, and lit- increased effort. He richly deserved the title at- eracy research), and a plethora of technical, sem- tributed to him as the Apostle to Islam. itechnical, and popular books and articles. The Timothy Wiarda development of aids for national translators is an Bibliography. A. Neely, BDCM, p. 763; J. C. Wilson, increasing priority, as is partnership with col- Flaming Prophet; idem, IBMR 10 (1986): 117–21.

156