Preliminary investigation of a ritual site in the Puuc region of Yucatán, : Actun Xcoch

A thesis submitted to the Graduate School of the University of Cincinnati in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of

Master of Arts

in the Department of Geography of the College of Arts and Sciences by

Eric Weaver M.S. University of Cincinnati October 2011

Nick Dunning, Committee Chair Richard Beck Vernon Scarborough

Abstract Within the Lowland Maya site of Xcoch is a deep freshwater cave first described by John

Lloyd Stephens in 1843. Evidence indicates the Maya settled the area during the Middle

Preclassic (800 BC) and continued to maintain occupation at the site until the Terminal

Classic. The cave’s central location within the Xcoch site and its location at the base of a pyramid indicate that the cave played an important role in replicating Maya cosmology.

Initial exploration of the cave in 2006 by Michael Smyth revealed examples of the oldest ceramic known in the Yucatán - Yotolin Patterned Burnished. Mapping of the cave in

2009 and 2010 revealed a cave heavily used for ritual purposes. Throughout its reaches are broken ceramic vessels and the lowest chamber, which contains a pool of water, contains piles of ceramic meters deep. As few in this region contain freshwater and the land above is void of natural surface water, it is assumed that the focus of interest was the water in the cave and , the Maya rain god, was the principal deity for which the offerings were made. An blade found in a passage suggests evidence of bloodletting, and human bones indicate the cave was used for funerary purposes or for human sacrifice. It is evident that this cave was an important religious site for the Maya, and future excavations will produce a better understanding of the site.

ii iii Ackowledgements

I would like to thank Harry and Dorothy Goepel, Eden Dunning,

Tammy Otten, and Jane Slater for their assistance in surveying Actun Xcoch.

Thanks also go to Jon Paul McCool, Daniel Griffin, David Lentz, and Sebastian Suárez

Smyth for their involvement with the project. I am very appreciative of the hospitality of Manuel Bonilla Camal and his family and the assistance of the dedicated workers of Santa Elena. I also would like to thank Vernon Scarborough, Richard Beck, and Ann M. Scott for their helpful comments. My research was aided by the financial support of the National Speleological Society, and National Science Foundation

(#0940183), the National Geographic Society (#7989-06) and the Waitt Institute for

Discovery (W62-09). I would also like to thank Beth Cortright, John G. Jones, and

Chasity Stinson for their assistance in co-authoring the journal article that was produced as a result of this article. I would especially like to express my thanks to Nick Dunning and Michael Smyth for their support and assistance throughout the project and as I progressed through my thesis.

iv Contents Abstract ...... ii Acknowledgements ...... iv Table of Figures and Maps...... vi Introduction ...... 1 Modern Exploration and Mapping ...... 5 Discussion...... 15 References ...... 18 Appendix: National Geographic Society Waitt Report ...... 20

v

Table of Figures and Maps Figure 1 Overlay of Xcoch plaza with cave ...... 4 Figure 2 Inverted conical stone altar ...... 8 Figure 3 Slope of sediment and broken pottery in Chamber IV ...... 13 Figure 4 Broken pila or metate in Chamber IV ...... 13 Figure 5 Pool of water at the lowest level of the cave ...... 14 Map 1 Xcoch Archaeological Site ...... 3 Map 2 Xcoch Cave ...... 6 Map 3 Overlay of Xcoch Cave and main plaza at Xcoch ...... 38 Map 4 Interactive 3-dimensional model of Xcoch main plaza and Xcoch Cave ...... 39 Map 5 Detailed map of Xcoch Cave ...... 40

vi

Introduction The water was in a deep, stony basin running under a shelf of overhanging

rock, with a pole laid across on one, over which the Indians leaned to dip

it up…the sight of it was more welcome to us than gold or rubies (Stephens, 1843). Caves have been a significant component of Maya worldview and their assessment of the sacred landscape for millennia. The rain deity, Chaac, was believed to reside within caves where wind was formed that carried water to the sky. While caves were places connected with the supernatural and often malevolent forces, they were also places that the Maya considered as wombs of the earth, connected to the primordial water that was the source of creation (Halperin et al, 2003). This duality is best described as reflecting breaks in the quadrilateral fabric of the world through which destructive forces and essential elements could enter (Bassie-Sweet, 2008). The Maya connected with caves and their cosmic denizens by integrating caves into town and city plans (Ashmore and

Brady, 1999; Bassie-Sweet, 1991; Brady and Stone, 1986). Rituals were often performed both near and within caves. In 1841, John Lloyd Stephens and Frederick Catherwood were the first outsiders to visit one such cave, filled with the remains of past ritual activities, while visiting the ancient Maya site of Xcoch. This article reports on the first systematic exploration and mapping of Xcoch Cave undertaken in 2009 and 2010.

The site of Xcoch is located just outside of the town of Santa Elena in Yucatán,

Mexico, and approximately 10 kilometers east of the famous ruins of (Map 1).

Xcoch lies at the heart of the Puuc Hills, a region famous for its high density of ancient

Maya sites, most of which date to the Late and Terminal Classic periods (ca. 600– 900

AD). Located south of a line of fault block ridges known as the Sierrita de , the

1 permanent freshwater table in the Puuc lies tens of meters below the ground surface and is accessible through only a small handful of deep caves, including Xcoch (Dunning,

1992). Excavation of the site began in 2006 under the direction of Michael Smyth and has continued since then. Xcoch includes a 10 hectare acropolis (Map 2), primarily displaying megalithic-style architecture dating to the Middle and Late Preclassic periods

(ca. 800 BC – 150 AD). The largest pyramid, referred to as the Great Pyramid, is 30 meters high and exhibits Late Classic construction (ca. 600 – 800 AD) overlying massive, earlier Preclassic phases. Xcoch cave is located near the base of another pyramid, dubbed the Cave Pyramid. This edifice had four entrances and stairways indicating that it once may have been a radial pyramid, an architectural device used to align the site with the

Maya model of the cosmos (Dunning, 2011). The Great Pyramid and an associated plaza are connected to other parts of the site by two causeways, one of which runs due west from near the cave entrance to a nearby ancient reservoir. The central plaza is approximately 100 meters by 50 meters in size. An overlay of the maps of central Xcoch and the underlying cave system (Figure 1) indicates that the main plaza and associated monumental architecture were developed around/above the cave. A series of structures around the plaza form what appears to be an “E-Group Complex” (Preclassic solar observatory also used to cosmically align urban space) (Smyth, 2006). Most of the central architecture shows evidence of construction in early styles (e.g., Early Puuc,

Proto-Puuc, and Megalithic) that likely span the period between 800 BC to 600 AD. Very few buildings, mainly those on the outskirts of the acropolis, resemble the later (700 –

900 AD) Classic Puuc style of architecture for which the region is best known. Xcoch shows evidence of a significant population as early as 800 BC during the Middle

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I I I I I I I I I I B H I 4900 +---_g--~ - 1 lr1li 'fi7-b 1 [il H o ' I i "\ u ·~ I o I - I 1 o""; : I +------~------L------4800 1 I I 4800 I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1 I I I I I 3 ~------~------L------r ------~------4700 4700 I I 4600 4700 4800 5100 5200 5400 Preclassic. While the site is still in the early stages of excavation, it seems evident that

Xcoch was a major early center, but played a relatively minor role in the Late

Classic/Terminal Classic florescence of the Puuc region (Smyth and Zapata, 2008).

Figure 1 Overlay of Xcoch plaza with cave

The first published account of Xcoch Cave is from John Lloyd Stephens (1843) in his book, Incidents of Travel in the Yucatán. Stephens’ account of the cave expresses both disappointment, because it did not contain an underground cathedral as he had been lead to believe by the residents of area, and excitement because of what the cave did contain.

The next report of any exploration of the cave is from a group of entomologists in 1971, who indicated that the cave entrance required re-opening for them to gain access. They were unable to access the passage to the water pool in the deep recesses of the cave because it had been intentionally sealed. The cave was re-entered again in 2006 by

Michael Smyth during the course of mapping and excavating the Xcoch acropolis (Smyth and Zapata, 2008). The survey of the cave began in 2009 and continued in 2010. At the onset of the survey, very minimal excavation work had occurred within the cave;

4 however, some ceramics were collected including a rare, specialized ware known as Chac

Polychrome and the Middle Preclassic diagnostic ware Yotolin Patterned Burnished

(Smyth and Zapata, 2008).

Modern Exploration and Mapping After two field seasons in the cave, its total surveyed length is currently 641.8

meters with a surface length of 103 meters (Map 2). The depth of the cave is 34.9 meters.

There are two significant upper rooms (Chambers I and II) in the cave and two lower

rooms (Chambers III and IV). The cave entrance is situated at the bottom of a large

, with excavation in 2010 revealing a staircase that descended from the top of the

depression to the entrance of the cave. The entrance is a small pit (2.3 meters deep) in

which there is a carved rock at the bottom on the left-hand side. The rock is a “spool

element” common in the decorated facades of Puuc architecture, and it is unclear whether

this stone simply fell into the cave entrance or was deliberately placed. The pit

immediately becomes a crawl space (less than 1 meter in height) and then proceeds to a

stoop-walk (between 1 and 1.5 meters in height), where at this juncture a strong breeze

blows through the cave passage. Stephens aptly describes this breeze as capable of taking

a person’s breath away and, indeed, the breeze blows dirt directly into ones face when crawling into the entrance. The breeze seems to diminish after several meters of crawling.

Nearby is another carved rock that marks the location of what may be a blocked passage.

No current efforts have been made to remove the debris for further exploration.

5 Actun XcocJ, Magnetic Declination: 1.02 Total Surveyed Depth: 32.9 meters from zero datum Total Surveyed Length: 661.0 meters

' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' '

Connection to Up per Passage \ Chamber I '

Cave Entra nee

6 Eventually, the cave becomes large enough to accommodate upright walking, where the ceiling has multiple cupolas. There is a side lead to the left (the B passage), marked by a round stone, that loops back into the main passage. The main passage then begins to open up into a relatively complex room, referred to as Chamber I. It would have been an ideal meeting location in the cave as it is large enough to comfortably fit twenty or more people. Several significant passages branch from this room. The C Passage is a small passage that loops into the much longer E Passage. Multiple sets of human remains are identifiable at this location, primarily in the E Passage. From there, the E Passage continues in a southerly direction and eventually surpasses the entrance as the southern- most point in the cave. A major extension discovered during the second year of survey substantially increased the length of this passage. The connection of the A Passage with the E and D Passages is marked by an inverted conical stone altar (Figure2). On the surface such altars are typically found upright in the center of courtyards and are thought to represent “world trees” or cosmic centering points (Kowalski and Dunning, 1999).

The emblematic Maya world tree is the Ceiba (Ceiba pentandra), the branches of which created 13 celestial tiers and the roots of which formed 9 subterranean layers. The inverted cave altar may represent the roots of the world tree.

7 Figure 2 Inverted conical stone altar

The D Passage branches to the east and reaches the eastern-most point of the

cave. Human bones in the D Passage are marked off by wooden torches in a way that

appears to frame their location. When or by whom these bones were marked remains

unclear. While broken pottery and used torches are evident in the smaller passageway,

Chamber I is the point where torch fragments become visible in pronounced number.

Radiocarbon dates through this area range from Middle Preclassic through Colonial

(Smyth and Zapata, 2010). An area with a relatively high concentration of pottery is

found in a small alcove, and some human bones as well as a pila (carved stone water

basin) are also located in the vicinity. This location is almost directly above the deeper

subterranean water pool. During a heavy rainstorm, it was observed that water from the

entrance ran directly to the pila. Pollen analysis of sediment samples taken in this area

identified insect-pollinated plants, including Passiflora, Solanaceae, Anona, Bauhinia,

Ceiba (two species), Pachira, Sapindaceae and Tiliaceae. These pollens were likely

introduced into the sediments through bat feces, as they are normally not associated with

wind-borne, surface water assemblages in the Maya Lowlands. Gossypium (cotton),

Manihot (manioc; probably, both wild and domesticated forms) and Zea mays (maize) of

8 lower quantities were present in the sediment samples as well. Typically, grains from these cultigens are too heavy to travel far from their source and suggest that these were brought in as a result of human activity, possibly as dedicatory offerings such as flowers or honey.

Beyond Chamber I, the ceiling drops and there is a small crawl space before another smaller room opens up. A diminutive passage, the F Passage, breaks off to the right and may have once reconnected with the A Passage. A wooden beehive that appeared to have been ceremonially broken was found in this passage. After the crawl, the A Passage begins to expand into Chamber II. This large room appears to be the most geologically complicated in the cave and contains unusual ceiling features resembling boxwork. One large boulder, approximately three meters long and two meters high, has a peculiar hole (20 centimeters in diameter) at its tip with some of the rock around the hole appearing chiseled. A small passage that quickly ends in breakdown debris was found by climbing to the bottom of the boulder. A significant amount of pottery and a large number of human infant bones were identified at the base of the boulder. A polished iron ore mirror was also found in this area, and a charcoal sample taken from on top of the mirror indicated a Late Classic date of 700 AD (Smyth and Zapata, 2010).

Above a drop in the floor is a small traverse that connects the A Passage with the

H Passage. It is evident that the floor of this traverse was built-up as a trail. The H

Passage is composed of a combination of several interconnected passages, beginning as a large walking passage with a relatively steep incline. Evidence suggests that a significant amount of water ran through this passage in the distant past, with several winding holes in the ceiling that appear to have rapidly fed surface water at one time. The wall in this

9 area is likely with associated travertine pools that are now dried up and heavily weathered. Below this zone is a rounded out hole that may have been modified to isolate some of the flowing water, with an obsidian blade found in proximity. Small rock cairns of unknown origin and age were also located in this passage. The passage splits off to the left in a northwestern direction (HX and HE Passages) and to the right in a southeast/southerly (HN Passage) direction. Based on overlays of the site, this area rests underneath the megalithic staircase of the Great Pyramid. There is a climb that reaches an additional 10+ meters in height at this location, but it was not attempted because of the instability of the rocks in the area. Such an ascent has the potential to be another entrance to the surface or to a feature within the pyramid. In the second year of field work, further investigation revealed a significant extension of the HX passage. A small alcove at the end of this passage presented heavily calcified walls and the only remaining in the cave. Unfortunately, none of the speleothems were of sufficient quality to assist in paleoclimate studies of the site. Several stone tools and markings on the walls suggested that the ancient Maya extracted crystallized crust and speleothems, which were commonly used in rain-related rituals, from this location (Brady, 1997; Brady and

Rissolo, 2006; Moyes, 2002).

Past Chamber II is a junction of several passages. It is the pivot for the continuation of the A Passage, and the HN passage connects here as well as the G

Passage. This is another location that figured prominently in Stephens’ (1843: 215) description of his descent into the cave:

We…came out upon a ledge of rock, which ran up on the right to a great height,

while on the left was a deep, yawning chasm. A few rude logs were laid along the

10 edge of this chasm, which, with a pole for a railing, served as a bridge, and,

with the torchlight thrown into the abyss below made a wild crossing place. The drop here is approximately 5.5 meters before it is choked up with break down. A small opening in the breakdown reveals a further drop that reaches into a room below,

Chamber III. An old decaying log “bridge” is still present and is used to prevent slippage into the chasm rather than a true bridge across the chasm. The A Passage goes around a bend on the right, and then proceeds to wind downward into a room through a small trail that maneuvers through a large breakdown pile. A wooden barrel (probably a Colonial

Era artifact) was noted at the top of this climb-down. At the bottom of this route is a large room filled with breakdown, Chamber III. A large number of bats are present in this room and the rocks are coated in a layer of guano. The breakdown pile contains significant amounts of broken pottery, and Chamber III contains some very small but active and flowstone. A marked drop in the oxygen level at this point is apparent, and breathing becomes increasingly difficult. A test of air quality indicated oxygen levels as low as 12 %. From this point to the end of the survey at the water pool, the oxygen levels remain low and any movement results in labored breathing and profuse sweating.

A steep drop in the floor of Chamber III is the continuation of the A Passage, a location directly below the chasm. The remains of an old wooden ladder are scattered near a hole in the floor, apparently once used to assist with the difficult climb down in this passage necessary to reach the lower chambers of the cave. The climb-down leads into a further downward-sloping crawl. Another climb-down after this descent reaches the lower passage. This lower passage begins as a crawl and is filled on each side with many broken pottery sherds. The floor of the passage changes from black, fine sediment

11 and guano to primarily charcoal and a hollow sound is heard when travelling across the charcoal. Whether this indicates the floor has been built up or that it is a result of the acoustics is unclear. The passage proceeds into a large room, Chamber IV. At the entrance of Chamber IV (the point where one transitions from a hands and knees crawl to a full standing position), there are two deep deposits of charcoal (dubbed “fire pits”) to the left and right of the trail. These are the likely origin of the charcoal used to develop the trail. Two radiocarbon dates obtained from one of the fire pits indicated Postclassic usage (Smyth and Zapata, 2010). Directly past these two pits one can follow a small path up a slope, with the entire slope composed of sediment and broken pottery (Figure 3). At the end of the trail is a small alcove that has a broken pila or metate (corn-grinding basin) set near its center (Figure 4), and it is possible that this was used to hold vuhuy ha,

“virgin water” taken from the water source. Its location at the center of the alcove at the top of the hill of broken pottery indicates that it was the primary focus for whatever ceremonial activity that occurred in the chamber for countless generations. Many ancient

Maya rituals involved the breaking or “killing” of objects in order to make the essence of the material available to deities or ancestors (Brady, 1997; Brady and Colas, 2005). The

“mountain” of broken artifacts attests to thousands of such rituals.

12 Figure 3 Slope of sediment and broken pottery in Chamber IV

Figure 4 Broken pila or metate in Chamber IV

Returning to the main trail, the survey continues towards the water source, a small pool of water trapped in a drop in the floor. The entire pool is encircled with layers of broken pottery. It is the lowest point in the cave and is located 32.6 meters (106.8 feet) below the entrance and 16.259 meters (53.342 feet) above sea level. The bottom of the pool is littered with the skeletal remains of a significant number of bats. The rather anti- climactic pool (Figure 5) is ten to fifteen centimeters in depth and has a visible presence of about a square meter before dipping under a stone shelf. However, in a dry land -- within the confines of an oxygen-starved chamber of a dry cave--a pool of cool water containing translucent invertebrates swimming over a layer of broken ceramics becomes

13 a mesmerizing image. The cave passage continues through breakdown past the water source. This area has not been mapped or extensively explored, but it does not appear that any human activity has occurred in this area. This marked the end of the survey of the primary passage.

Figure 5 Pool of water at the lowest level of the cave

Further exploration of the E passage in 2010 resulted in a significant amount of new cave passage to survey. The total passage surveyed was 397.8 meters (1305 feet).

The passage is very distinct from the rest of the cave. In particular, it is much larger in comparison with the majority of the rest of the cave with the air quality better, the temperature much cooler, and significant air movement present. While it was evident that the Maya had used this passage, it did not show the same kind or intensity of use that is present in the rest of the cave. No evidence of heavy traffic or even footprints was encountered during the survey. A small number of spent torches were found, as well as vines used to wrap torches. A sample from one large torch appears to be a dicot, possibly

Vitex gaumeri (2011 personal communication, David Lentz). Radiocarbon dates derived from the torch indicate the remains are from the Colonial era (Smyth and Zapata, 2010).

Small amounts of broken ceramic were also located in the passage. The most prevalent

14 indicator of past usage of the passage was large cairns used to mark off the maze of side passages. An unusual aspect of these cairns is that they do not resemble the few others found elsewhere in the cave. Charcoal was noted in various areas of the passage. Toward the terminus of the main passage in E and EK, it was noted that the floor was coated with a layer of charcoal. The E Passage was also interesting because its terminus appears to be several meters higher than the known entrance to the cave. This strongly suggests that the

E Passage once had an entrance to the surface that has now been buried. This assessment is further reinforced by the presence of ground termite nests in wall and ceiling cracks as well as some leaves and roots present in the passages. Using the coordinates drawn from the , a surface examination of the area above the E Passage was conducted. A surface ground feature was identified in an ancient plaza situated above the location of

EK and E junction. This feature is a significant depression that appears to be ringed with carved stones. Several workers were dispatched in an attempt to locate an entrance to the

E Passage by digging into the bottom of the surface feature. While a physical connection was not made with the surface, voice and tapping communication was established indicating a very close proximity from the workers digging from the surface to the surveyors in the cave.

Discussion “As a mere cave, this [place] was extraordinary; but as a well or watering-place for an ancient city, it was past belief, except for the proofs under our own eyes (Stephens, 1843).”

John Lloyd Stephens was absolutely correct that Xcoch Cave is an extraordinary place.

However, his assessment of the cave and its pool as the sole water source for an ancient city was erroneous. Recent mapping and excavations have revealed that water was

15 supplied to the ancient city of Xcoch by an elaborate system of rain-fed reservoirs and

household cisterns (Dunning et al., 2012). Nevertheless, there is compelling evidence

that the cave was the symbolic heart of this water system and of the ancient population

that depended on it. The cave has been used ritualistically from the time of the Preclassic

Maya (ca. 800 BC) through Classic Maya times and into the Colonial Era. Ritual activity

at Xcoch cave appears to have even occurred when the center above it experienced

periods of abandonment. Based on the spatial arrangement of some of the earliest structures at the site, it is posited that the cave was a key rationale for original settlement

at Xcoch. Because the cave was one of only three caves in the area known to contain a

permanent water source, there is no doubt that it was seen as a very special place to the

Maya. The suffocating, low-oxygen experience of reaching the water --if present during

the time of the ancient Maya--may have only reinforced the supernatural nature of this

cave. Certain caves are known to have functioned as places to communicate with the rain

deity in bringing forth rain (Moyes, 2006; Prufer, 2002; Brady, 1989); Xcoch appears to

have been such a cave. A radial pyramid close to the cave entrance and abundant

deposits of broken pottery suggest that ritual activity also occurred outside of the feature

(Smyth et al, 2012). Of special note is the causeway that runs from the cave entrance

area to a nearby reservoir, suggesting that virgin water may have been brought forth from

the home of the rain god and processed to the reservoir, replicating the passage of Trade

Wind-borne rain clouds, to begin filling the reservoir and initiate the onset of seasonal

rains.

It is evident that other rituals occurred in Xcoch cave that may not have been as

closely associated with water. Obsidian blades indicate at least some bloodletting

16 occurred in the cave. At present, it is unclear whether the human bones found within the

cave represent human sacrifice rituals within the cave or important burials. Both

practices are known from other caves in the Maya Lowlands, probably reflecting the

belief that caves were entrances to the Maya Underworld and places to communicate with

a variety of deities as well as venerated ancestors (Vogt, 1993; Thompson, 1970;

Redfield, 1941; León Portilla, 1988). One can imagine that the ritually broken beehive

might provide an interesting story, if it were ever retold. The E passage may be the most

perplexing. While it was obviously known to the Maya, it has very little evidence of

ritual activity despite the fact that the passage is much more comfortable than any other

spot in the cave. In short, while our survey work has greatly expanded our knowledge

concerning Xcoch Cave, much remains unknown. Test pits during the next field season

should help to increase the stratigraphic integrity of the samples. Future research,

including systematic excavations, will begin to shed more light on this sacred place of the

ancient Maya.

17 References

Ashmore, W., and Brady, J.E., 1999, Water: Ideational Landscapes of the Maya, in Ashmore, W. and Knapp, A.B., eds., Archaeologies of Landscape: contemporary perspectives: Malden, Mass., Blackwell Publishers, p. 124-148.

Bassie-Sweet, K., 2008, Maya sacred geography and the creator deities: Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.

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Brady, J.E., 1989, An Investigation of Maya Ritual Cave Use with Special Reference to , Peten, . Unpublished PhD dissertation. Department of Anthropology, University of California, Los Angeles.

Brady, J.E., and Colas, P.R., 2005, Nikte mo' scattered fire in the Cave of K'ab Chante': epigraphic and archaeological evidence for cave desecration in ancient Maya warfare, in Prufer, K.M. and Brady, J.E., eds., Stone houses and earth lords : in the cave context: Boulder, Colorado, University Press of Colorado, p. 149-166.

Brady, J.E., and Rissolo, D., 2006, A Reappraisal of Ancient Cave Mining: Journal of Anthropological Research, v. 62, no.4 p. 471-490.

Brady, J.E., 1997, breakage, movement, removal, and caching: An aspect of ancient Maya cave modification: Geoarchaeology, v. 12, p. 725-750.

Brady, J.E., and Stone, A., 1986, Naj Tunich: Entrance to the Maya Underworld: , v. 39, p. 18-25.

Dunning, N.P., 1992, Lords of the hills: ancient Maya settlement in the Puuc region, Yucatán, México: Prehistory Press, Madison, Wisconsin.

Dunning, N. P. 2011, Hill country chronicles: Puuc landscapes as texts, in Pallan, C., Cobos, R., and Pescador Canton, L., eds., Memorias del VI Mesa Redonda de : Arqueología, Imagen y Texto – Homenaje a Sir Ian Graham: Mexico City: Instituto Nacional de Antropologia e Historia. In press. Dunning, N.P., Weaver, E.M., Smyth, M.P., and Zapata, D.O., 2012, Xcoch: Home of Ancient Maya Rain Gods and Water Managers, in Stanton, T.W., ed., The archaeology of Yucatan: new directions and data: Oxford, BAR Press. In press.

Halperin, C.T., Garza, S., Prufer, K.M., and Brady, J.E., 2003, Caves and Ancient Maya Ritual Use of Jute: Latin American Antiquity, v. 14, p. pp. 207-219.

18 Kowalski, J. K., and Dunning, N. P., 1999, The Architecture of Uxmal: The Symbolics of Statemaking at a Puuc Maya Regional Capital, in Kowlaski, J. K., ed., Mesoamerican architecture as a cultural symbol: New York, Oxford University Press, p. 274-297.

León Portilla, M., 1988, Time and reality in the thought of the Maya: Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.

Moyes, H., 2006.The sacred landscape as a political resource: a case study of Ancient Maya cave use at Checham Ha, , Central America. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Department of Anthropology, State University of New York, Buffalo.

Moyes, H., 2002, The use of GIS in the spatial analysis of an archaeological cave site. Journal of Caves and Studies, v. 64, p. 9-16.

Prufer, K., 2002. Communities, Caves, and Ritual Specialists: A Study of Sacred Space in the Maya Mountains of Southern Belize. Unpublished PhD dissertation. Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale.

Redfield, R., 1941, The folk culture of Yucatán: Chicago, Ill., The University of Chicago Press.

Smyth, M.P., and Zapata, D.O., 2008, A Preclassic Center in the Puuc Region: A Report on Xcoch, Yucatán, Mexico: Mexicon, v. XXX, p. 63-68.

Smyth, M.P., Zapata, D.O., Dunning, N.P., and Weaver, E.M., 2012, Settlement Dynamics, Climate Change, and human response at Xcoch in the Puuc region of Yucatán, Mexico.

Smyth, M.P., and Zapata, D.O., 2010, Un Estudio de la Antigua Comunidad de Xcoch, Yucatán, México: Investigaciones Arqueológicas del 2010: Report Informe Técnico Final de la Temporada de 2010 a El Consejo de Arqueología de El Instituto Nacional de Antropología e Historia, México, DF.

Stephens, J.L., 1843, Incidents of travel in Yucatán: New York, Harper & Brothers.

Thompson, J., 1970, Maya history and religion: Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.

Vogt, E.Z., 1993, Tortillas for the gods : a symbolic analysis of Zinacanteco rituals: Norman, University of Oklahoma Press.

19

The Beginnings of Complex Society in the Puuc Region: Survey and Exploration at Xcoch (Cave), Yucatan, Mexico

Final Report to the National Geographic Society Waitt Program (W62-09).

Michael P. Smyth The Foundation for Americas Research, Inc.

Eric Weaver Beth Cortright Harry Goepel Dorothy M. Goepel Tammy Otten University of Cincinnati

Xcoch was a significant center with potential for addressing the beginnings of complex societies in the Puuc hills region of northern Yucatan. Built around a deep water cave with settlement that radiates from a massive, multi- level acropolis topped by a gigantic pyramid and platform, of large stone block construction--typical of the early Megalithic-style--numerous pyramid quadrangles, widespread Preclassic surface pottery, Middle Preclassic and Early Classic water jars recovered from the Xcoch cave, and early water management features (aguadas). These data suggest that Xcoch had a large occupation and may have been a complex society in the early Middle Preclassic period (~800-700 BC) and was also an important Early Classic settlement, but not a major player in the great Terminal Classic florescence. In 2009, survey and exploration took place in the Xcoch cave to show that the cave had a complex geological and cultural history, was the watering hole for a large early Maya center, and was a place where Maya priests performed intensive dark rituals related to water perhaps related to past climate change. The thin air in the lower chambers made mapping and exploration difficult but there is evidence for other entrances into the cave including one near the Great Pyramid. Though considerable further work is required, this research is beginning to place the beginnings of the Puuc region and the development of complex societies in greater chronological and geographical context of , with the potential to establish new insight and understanding of the beginnings of Yucatan Maya prehistory.

The beginnings of complex societies in Puuc region is a crucial unanswered question in the Maya archaeology of

Northern Yucatan. When sedentary farming communities and hierarchical societies first became established, whether or not they were indigenous to the region, and how they were organized as they adapted to the region's challenging environmental conditions constitute important hypotheses that must be addressed with new data sets. Survey work begun in

2006, with support from the National Geographic Society (#7989-06) suggests that Xcoch was a significant Preclassic

Maya center with monumental architecture of large stone block construction--typical of the early Megalithic-style-- numerous pyramid quadrangles, and widespread Preclassic surface pottery (Fig 1). Xcoch can be now added to a growing list of Puuc sites such as Kiuic, Paso de Macho, Huntichmul, and Xocnaceh that had Middle Preclassic occupations comparable to northwest Yucatan (Robles Castellanos and Andrews 2003). At Xcoch, preliminary results also indicate that density of settlement and scale of monumental architecture, often seen as measures of social complexity, are early at both urban and rural settings and appear to be organized differently from later time periods. Also, Middle Preclassic (~800/700-

400/300 BC) water jars collected from the Xcoch cave beneath the second largest pyramid at the site, and numerous aguadas (or water-holding ponds) and linear features suggest early concerns with water shortages and water management strategies. These multiple sources of data suggest early occupation like other initial Puuc communities (Bey 2006; Bey and

May C. 2005; Gallareta and Ringle 2004; Smyth and Ortegón Zapata 2006, 2008).

This report presents findings of work completed at the Xcoch cave in 2009 with funding support from the National

Geographic Waitt Program (W62-09). This work included the logistics of opening and preparing the cave for exploration and systematic mapping by a team of experienced cavers as well as pottery collections, soil sampling, and geological and biological survey. These data provide a more comprehensive understanding of the natural and cultural factors that formed this important cave system as well as the early occupation of the Puuc region.

Xcoch Cave

The Xcoch cave contains a permanent water pool with almost inexhaustible surface concentrations of pottery sherds and near-complete vessels, including Early Classic Chac Polychrome and Slateware water jars (Smyth 1999). There are Preclassic diagnostic types such as Ucu Negro, Sierra Rojo and sherds of at least three vessels with long, narrow necks, globular bodies, and long monopod supports identified as Yotolin Patterned Burnished (Brainerd 1958; Folan 1968).

Yotolin pottery, found only in caves/ near Mani, Sacalum, Loltun cave, , and now Xcoch, appears to date to the early Middle Preclassic period or contemporaneous with the Early Nabanche phase pottery defined at

(Andrews V. 1988, 1990; Ringle and Andrews 1988). These finds begin to provide the context for chronological placement of Yotolin and the more important question of early Middle Preclassic occupation in the Puuc region.

The first known published account of Xcoch Cave comes from John Lloyd Stephens in 1841 from his “Incidents of

Travel in the Yucatan.” Stephens’ (2008) account of the cave expresses both disappointment and wonder in that the cave fails to live up to claims made by the local residents but he was still excited about what the cave did actually contain. There are mentions of the cave at Xcoch in Hubert Bancroft’s (1883) “The Native Races of the Pacific States of North America” and the 1854 third volume of the “Illustrated Magazine of Art;” all seem to be retelling Stephen’s account. “The Fauna of the Caves of Yucatan” makes a reference to collecting invertebrates in what they referred to as Santa Elena cave in 1939.

“Bulletin #1 of the Association of Mexican Cave Studies Activities Report” indicates that several caves in the vicinity of

Santa Elena were explored in October 1974 including Xcoch Cave. This report indicates that the explorers had to re-open the entrance and that it had been sealed for forty years, which is close to the 1939 date in “The Fauna of Yucatan Caves.”

Written correspondence with one of the explorers, Dave McKenzie, recounted that the cave had poor air quality on their visit and consequently was explored for only approximately the first 300 m. The primary interest of the trip was the collection of cave invertebrates. The cave was apparently sealed up again after these visits. The Xcoch Project re-opened the cave in 2006 and the site entrance was cleared, expanded, and prepared for exploration and mapping for our team in 2009.

The total surveyed length of the cave is currently 641.8 meters (2,105 feet) with a surface length of 103.0 meters (337.9 feet).The average diameter of the cave passage was 3.9 meters (12.7 feet). The depth of the cave is 34.9 meters (114.4 feet) and drops 34.9 meters (114.4 feet) in 0.24 kilometers (0.15 miles). The average inclination of the cave was 9.8 degrees, indicating a relatively steep slope to the cave passage. The upper passages of the cave are composed of a white powdery limestone that is relatively friable. In some areas of the upper passage, especially in the D Passage, the limestone contains a reddish tint with a more solid texture. The lower passages are composed of a more solid, harder grey limestone. Some boulders in the D Passage present a band of an unidentified that is also evident in a wall in the chamber located at

Station A15. Whole fossils are not significantly represented in any of the cave limestone. The cave appears to have been hypogenic in origin, with several of the large side passages showing evidence of epigenic (hypergenic) development

(Klimchouk 2007, 2009). These two processes are so distinctly different within the cave that one may go from one passage/chamber to the next and get the impression of being in two separate caves.

The cave is largely composed of four chambers that trend from the southwest to northeast. Chamber I is located between

Stations A9 and A12; Chamber II is between A14 to A16; Chamber III is between A24 to A26; and Chamber IV is located between A29 to A35. Many of the side passages are mazes of break-aways and reconnections with the main passage.

Numerous pillars in the cave present an even more complex framework to these chambers. The overall layout of the cave appears to be sponge work with some passages exhibiting an anastomotic pattern (Figure 1a). The cave contains cupolas, ceiling pendants, boxwork, dogtooth spar, rising water channels, and possibly folia bubbles. Meteoric water may have infiltrated the cave in some high passages through openings with sharp inclines resembling chutes. The ends of these passages reach levels almost as high as the entrance. There is no evidence of current water activity in the cave or even water seepage from the walls. The passages have been abandoned and dried out with vague remnants of stalactites, flowstone, and travertine dams. A rose diagram using the passage inclinations shows that the flow of water occurred in a northeast, southeast, and easterly directions (Figure 1b).

A small pit about 6 meters deep contains large boulders that are at least partially composed of gypsum. The survey team did not initially notice this because the boulders are covered in a hard coat of an unknown deposit. These boulders slightly obstruct a larger drop, which is an opening in the ceiling of Chamber III. Chambers III and IV have low levels of oxygen.

There is not a complete explanation for this phenomenon. Chamber IV, the chamber closest to the water source, may act as a trap for other gases which could be displacing the oxygen. It is located after a significant change in the depth of the cave and the entrance to the area is restricted by breakdown which must reduce airflow.

Figure 1: Passage direction (a) and water flow (b)

(a) (b)

Throughout the cave, the ceiling is coated black from the soot of the torches used by the Maya over the past 3000 years.

In some areas the soot when touched produced an oily residue. The floor of the cave is covered by a loose layer of a rich, black soil. The upper passage has a well-defined trail carved or worn (15-20 cm in depth) into the floor surface. It has not been determined the depth of the soil layer throughout the cave but near the entrance remnant pollen was recovered and suggests that a record of ancient vegetation outside the cave can be reconstructed. The floor of Chamber IV is covered by a hill of broken ceramics and compacted soil and is the only time that the floor is not level; a portion seems to have been built up as a platform.

Xcoch Cave Survey

The standards employed for the survey of Xcoch cave are those set forth by the Cave Research Foundation. These standards are similar to what the National Park Service uses for sensitive cave systems like Lechuguilla Cave in New

Mexico. The Xcoch cave survey would be classified as a Grade 5 survey based on the British Cave Research Association grading system. Two sets of calibrated instruments were used in each survey, one for front sight and one to obtain a redundant back sight. The instruments used were the Suunto KB14 compass and Suunto inclinometer. A minimum standard of accuracy of two degrees was implemented for inclination and azimuth readings between two sets of readings.

Fiberglass tapes and Leica Distos were used for distance and passage measurements. The survey produced 120 stations and maintained the established accuracy throughout. The goal was to maintain a distance between stations no greater than 15 meters in length in order to ensure the quality of the survey and ease the sketching of the cave passages. The average shot length upon the completion of the survey was 5.9 meters (19.5 feet). Sketches were done on all surveyed passages. These sketches included plan, profile and cross-sections. Sketches were done at a scale of 1 cm to 2.5 m to capture a significant amount of detail in the cave. The symbol set used was established through the International Union of (UIS).

An inventory was conducted of each passage station that detailed archaeological, geological and biological features. An attempt was made to cordon off locations of archaeologically-significant materials using flagging tape in order to help re- locate the items and to protect from inadvertent damage during the survey. Red polka dot flagging tape was used because it is the most visually detectable. Side passages and leads were marked with black and yellow striped flagging tape. The survey team was compiled of five members. Eric Weaver primarily coordinated the survey project and did the plan sketch of the cave. Tammy Otten primarily did the running profile, cross-section sketches, and plan sketches for many segments of the cave. Harry Goepel and Beth Cortright primarily read instruments and also created some of the cross-sections of the

cave. Dorothy Goepel was primarily responsible for conducting the cave inventory. In addition, Dorothy was responsible for taking photographs at each significant station of the cave survey.

The cave is a relatively complex system with multiple side passages and brief deviations in the main passage that eventually reconnect to the trunk. Our primary goal was to map the main passage to the water source. As we mapped the main section of the cave, we marked potential side passages to return later. We were able to map these side leads to a level where they appeared to terminate and where no previous activity had occurred. The low oxygen areas of the cave created additional obstacles. It was decided that we would initially survey the cave passage one day and then return the next day to complete the sketch. For this part of the survey, we used a DistoX, a laser device that obtains measurements for distance, azimuth, and inclination. The instrument allowed us to survey the passage at a relatively fast pace with the same accuracy as using traditional survey methods.

Data were input into a software program called Compass Cave Survey, a proprietary program similar to AutoCad but designed specifically for cave surveys. This program derives x, y coordinates from data and produces a line plot of the plan and profile view of the cave. Additionally, it can produce a representation of the cave walls and a 3-dimensional image of the cave. This can be geo-referenced and exported as a shapefile to be used in ArcGIS. The inventory was input into a SQL database that could be combined with the cave line plot. This software program is also capable of checking for blunders by anticipating where the next station should be and locating all shots that are three standard deviations away from this location. The program makes assessments of the quality of loop closures. Our loop closures showed a high level of accuracy, indicating that the survey was well-conducted. We had a total of six loop closures with an overall standard deviation of 0.58, based on the Least Squares algorithm with compensation for the inaccuracy of the instruments (2 degrees). A standard deviation of 0-1 is considered a good closure, 1-2 a closure within a tolerable range, and over 2 is an unacceptable closure.

The cave entrance, Station A1, is situated at the bottom of a large depression. The actual opening is a small pit (2.3 m deep) and there is a carved stone colonnette at the bottom on the left-hand side (Figure 2). The pit immediately becomes a crawl (less than 1 m in height) from Stations A1-A3 and then proceeds to a stoop walk from A3 to A5 (between 1 and 1.5 m in height) where a strong breeze blows through the cave passage. Stephens aptly describes this breeze as being capable of taking a person’s breath away and is strong enough to blow dirt directly at the person crawling into the entrance. This breeze is lost at Station A4 where another carved stone is located and where there is evidence of a filled passage. A relatively strong breeze for such a small cave is often related to a large discrepancy between cave temperature and outside

temperature. There may also be a chimney effect where a dome in the cave is opened at the surface in a location higher than the entrance. This effect may be caused by the D Passage.

At Station A5 the cave becomes large enough to walk upright, where the ceiling has multiple cupolas. There is a side lead

(the B passage) to the left of A8 that loops back into the main passage. This side lead has a rounded stone that may mark this particular passage. The main passage begins to open into a larger room at A8. The room is relatively complex with several bedrock pillars, pronounced belling, and ceiling pendants. Several significant passages branch out from this room.

The C Passage is a small passage that loops into the much longer E Passage. The E Passage heads in a southern direction and surpasses the entrance as the most southerly point in the cave. The convergence of the A Passage with the E and D

Passages are marked by a conical shaped altar stone. There are significant remains of human bone at this location, primarily in the E Passage. The D Passage branches to the east and reaches the most easterly point of the cave. Around the

D Passage there are also human bones that appear to be marked to designate their location. While broken pottery and used torches are evident in the smaller passageways, this room where the A and D Passages pass through is the point where these remains become more visible and in significant amounts. An area of relatively high concentration of pottery is found at a small alcove between Stations A11 and A12. Some human bones also are located in this same vicinity and is almost directly above the water source (A38).

After A12, there is a drop in the ceiling and a small crawl is necessary to enter another smaller room. A small passage, the F Passage, breaks off to the right and may have once reconnected with the A Passage. Between A13 and A14, the passage begins to expand into a larger room. It immediately branches off from a side passage to the left. This passage, the

K Passage, is the first passage that shows significant evidence of being formed by groundwater penetration resulting in rapid downward . There are several columns and stalactites in the passage that have dried out and are in a state of dissolution. There is also evidence of sizable travertine dams that are also dried out. A small hole in the floor near the start of the K passage is viewable but impassable. Station A15 is the center of a large room that exhibits several unusual ceiling features and are the most geologically interesting in the cave. A rising wall channel is present in the ceiling and some of the walls and both are covered in indefinable calcite formations. This room is brilliantly striking when a light source is shown upon it and is referred to as the Crystal Chamber. This chamber may have held great significance to the ancient Maya given the quantities of pottery and wood remains found there. Some boxwork is also apparent. One wall has a small karst window and one large rock has a peculiar hole (20 cm in diameter) at its tip. Some of the rocks at this hole appears to have been chiseled and may have been a quarrying area. Station A15 is on a large rock in the room next to a drop in the floor where a

Figure 2: Map of the cave survey passages and stations

small passage was found at the bottom of the drop. A small amount of pottery is present and the passage quickly dead-ends in breakdown. Dogtooth spar as well as an unidentified mineral band is also seen in some of the walls.

Above the drop in the floor is a small traverse that connects the A Passage with the H Passage. It is very evident that the floor of this traverse was artificially built-up as a trail in prehispanic times. The H Passage is made up of a combination of several interconnected passages and begins as a large walking passage with a relatively steep incline. There is evidence that a significant amount of water once ran through this passage with several winding holes in the ceiling that appear to have channeled surface water in the past. The wall in this area shows flowstone with pools and there is a rounded out hole that may have been humanly modified to isolate some of the flowing water. An obsidian blade was found near this hole and small rock cairns of unknown origin were heaped in this passage. The passage splits off to the left in a northwestern direction (HX and HE Passages) and then to the right in a southeast/southerly (HN Passage) direction. Station

HX2 is the most northern point in the cave and is approximately 77 m from the center of Xcoch Pyramid. The HX2

Passage extends further than what has been mapped; however, the continuation encounters a significant amount of breakdown. The continuation is heading at a steep upward incline and may lead to the surface and an alternate entrance to the cave. The highest location in the cave is at the entrance station (A1) which is 44 m above sea level based on a reading from a Garmin GPSMAP 60CSX altimeter. The HE Passage contains the second highest passage in the cave (38.545 m) but an additional 10+ m was visible at the final station. A climb up to ascertain if there is an alternate entrance was not attempted because of the instability of the rocks in the area. The HN Passage is a long loop that connects with the bottom of the pit in the A Passage at Station A21. The final climb down into the pit showed some unusual gypsum encrusted boulders.

Station A21 is at the junction of several passages and the pivot point for the continuation of the A Passage; the HN passage connects here as does the G Passage. This is the location of the chasm that Stephens describes in “Incidents of

Travel in the Yucatan” and is approximately 5.5 m in depth and choked-up with breakdown. A secondary drop extends into a natural room further below. An old wood log bridge is still present but appears to have been used more to prevent slips rather than serving as a span to cross any drop-off. The A Passage begins to wind downward into a room via a small trail that maneuvers through a large breakdown pile. A wood barrel was noted at the top of this climb down at Station A27.

Another large room filled with breakdown is at the bottom of this route housing a large number of bats with rocks that are coated in a layer of guano. The breakdown pile also contains a significant number of broken pottery vessels including

Preclassic wares such as Yotolin Pattern Burnished water jars discussed above. This room contains some very small but active stalactites and flowstone and there is a significant drop in the oxygen level at this point making breathing increasingly difficult. A simple test of air quality using a cigarette lighter indicated oxygen levels as low as 12 percent (the

8 lighter did not light). From this point to the end of the survey at the water source, the oxygen levels remained low causing all movement to result in laborious breathing.

A steep drop in the room’s floor directly below the chasm is where the A Passage continues. This passage was previously accessed by a wooden ladder but its remains have been subsequently removed and set aside. The descent becomes a downward crawl and another climb down reaches the lower passage that is filled on each side with broken pottery sherds.

The floor of the passage changes from soil to a charcoal surface creating a hollow sound when walked upon. Whether this sound indicates that the floor was artificially built up or is just a result of the chamber’s acoustics is unclear. The passage then opens into a large room with limestone that is of a harder, gray quality as opposed to the soft, white powdery limestone seen in the upper passages. At the entrance of the large room (the point where one transitions from a hands and knees crawl to a full standing position), there appears to be two fire pits: one to the left and another to right of the trail.

This may explain the origin of the charcoal paving the trail. Directly beyond these pits, one can follow a small upslope path composed of sediment and broken pottery. At the end of the trail is a small alcove at Station A34b that exhibits a broken stone basin (pila or metate). The stone basin shows a relatively deep trough in comparison to other examples seen at the

Xcoch site and may have been unusable because the trough is too deeply worn for grinding activity and would seem more suitable for holding water from the nearby water pool. This observation is reinforced by its location at the center of an alcove at the top of a hill of broken pottery. To the right on the wall is an area that resembles flowstone; however, if this is the case, it has long since stopped flowing. About 3 m above, is a passage emerging from the wall. While not impossible to ascend, it would be risky and perhaps dangerous without formal climbing gear given the low oxygen levels.

Returning to the main trail, the survey continued towards a small pool of water trapped within a drop in the floor located at Station A39. The entire pool is encircled with thick layers of broken pottery as is the adjacent chamber and is the lowest point in the cave at 16.259 m (53.342 ft) above sea level. The bottom of the pool is littered with the skeletal remains of a numerous bats and isopods, crayfish, and shrimp were seen living in the water. The cave passage continues past the water source through considerable breakdown, though this area has not been mapped or extensively explored and shows no obvious evidence of human activity.

The Biology of the Xcoch cave

Xcoch cave contains an abundance of life, as well as evidence of past lives. Both terrestrial and aquatic fauna are present.

Throughout the cave, there are beetles (Tenebrionidae sp.), which are black with six red spots; two on the thorax and two on each elytron. A beetle was seen feeding on a dead adult cockroach. Adult and juvenile cockroaches are abundant in the

beginning sections of the cave, but their numbers dwindle in the areas that contain large amounts of bat guano and where the oxygen level abruptly drops. The adults have wide flattened light gray bodies. The juveniles are more brightly colored with orange and black forewings, an orange prothorax, and a black head.

The arachnids that live in the Xcoch cave include spiders and whip scorpions. Most of the higher passages have many small, red-brown spiders that make webs on the floor, walls, and ceiling of the cave. In the D Passage, one adult tarantula was found with a red-brown cephalothorax (prosoma), black abdomen, and black legs. Tailless whip scorpions are found in most of the cave and vary in size.

There are hundreds of bats living in Xcoch cave. They appear to move to and from the larger rooms of the cave resting in different locations each day. In the lower reaches of cave, where the floor is composed of mostly charcoal and near the location of the water source, small terrestrial cave isopods are found. These isopods are white and less than 7 mm in length.

Within the small pool of water, there are aquatic isopods that are larger in size compared to the terrestrial isopods and are also white and range in sizes from about 15 to 35 mm long. Alongside the aquatic isopods, we saw one large (about 70 mm long), white cave crayfish and there are also some smaller cave crustaceans seen in the water. It is not known whether these aquatic organisms are able to reach any other source of water, but it is possible, though unlikely, that they were trapped in this small pool, isolated from the rest of the water table. The main source of food for the aquatic fauna appears to be deceased bats because the bottom of the pool contains remnants of many bats.

The bones found in Xcoch Cave appear to have a variety of origins. Around station D2, there is a skeleton of an immature equine. A mandible, metacarpal, and other bones belonged to a horse relative that was not fully grown (donkey or mule?). This is curious because there is a local legend told by the residents of the town of Santa Elena about a ceramic donkey (Burro Kat). At certain times in the evening, especially during a full moon, it is said that the Burro Kat will come to life and can be heard braying loudly and will do mischief and even harm to any person who happens to wander near the cave. This Maya “boogy man” story, it seems, is designed to discourage youngsters and others from venturing into the cave.

Further on in the D passage, a small concentration of human bones was sectioned off by two pieces of wood approximately 40 mm and 50 mm long and perpendicular to each other. The identity of the person who placed the wood is unknown as is the remains of the individual interred there. At the entrance to the E passage, about three m from a large altar, human bones and teeth were found. The majority of the bones are located under a ledge to the left of the passage.

Human vertebrae, tibias, skull fragments, femurs, ribs, pelvises, and more are identified in a linear bone concentration

suggesting that there were multiple individuals laid out in extended body positions. There are small amounts of human bones around Station A11, just to the left of the trail. This includes skull fragments and probably the leg bones of a young child.

No bones in the cave can be accurately dated without the aid of radiocarbon dating, though the immature equine remains are surely post-Contact period (16th century) and may be even historic (19th century). Due to the process of decomposition that occurs after death and possible fossilization, a time of death cannot be estimated for the animals in the Xcoch cave without closer examination of these fauna remains and without laboratory testing.

Ceramic Collections

The Xcoch cave contains as much prehispanic pottery as there can found in any one place in Northern Yucatan. There are literally thousands of broken pottery vessels scattered throughout the cave passages and chambers. The highest concentrations are found throughout the A Passage, most notably near Stations A34 to the water source at Station A39. A sample of pottery was collected during the clearing and reopening of the cave entrance but within the cave itself larger samples came from the B, D, and H Passages. In total, 555 potsherds and vessel portions were collected and analyzed employing type-variety classification and formal ceramic analysis. This collection weighs 37.29 kg (~82 lbs) with an average sherd size of 67.19 grams (~2.4 oz) indicating that many of these sherds are from large diagnostic vessel portions such as rim, handle, body, and basal sherds. In fact, virtually all of the vessels from within the cave are for water storage/transport or serving vessels consisting of large lung-shaped cantero jars with triple handles and smaller double handled chultunera forms used to draw water; only a few sherds were from plates. The majority (59%) of the cave pottery is identified as Chac Polychrome and Chemax Slateware types—all are decorated water jar forms and date to the Early

Classic period (AD 300-600). Interestingly, the cave contains no Late Classic pottery, though typical Late Classic types were found immediately outside the cave entrance. There were, however, vessel portions of a number Sacpukana water jars, a red ware dated to the 16th century Contact Period in Yucatan. Preclassic pottery was also present in the cave including diagnostic types such as Ucu black and Sierra red that have been found in great quantities on survey and from excavations across the site of Xcoch. The remains of more than 3 vessels of Yotolin patterned burnished, unusual hemispherical shaped water jars with long narrow necks and one single monopod support dated to the Middle Preclassic period, were found in the A Passage near station A27. Other Yotolin vessels were seen but not collected throughout the lower chambers of the cave. Curiously, it is not known how these vessels were stood up since they only have one single support. It is speculated that they were leaned against a wall surface or perhaps were suspended using a chord of some sort.

Yotolin was certainly an important ritual ware during the Preclassic period and is only found in certain cave contexts within or near the Puuc region. There is still an ongoing, unresolved debate of whether this pottery dates to the Early

Preclassic (1000 B.C.E.) or the early phases of the Middle Preclassic period (700-800 B.C.E.) as assumed here.

Conclusions

Xcoch Cave is an interesting cave from archaeological, geological, and biological perspectives. The mapping of the cave was much more complicated than originally anticipated. This was due to the complex maze and lack of oxygen in the lower chambers of the cave. The majority of the cave passages have been pushed to their terminus; however, there are several leads remaining that need to be explored further. For example, the H Passage is relatively close to the surface and is the passage nearest to the Xcoch Pyramid. We were not prepared this season to explore or map this newly discovered and nearly inaccessible passage. The H Passage is interesting in that it appears to have had a path constructed through it, so it is reasonable to assume that it was heavily utilized in the past. Though there are few ceramics in this passage, an obsidian blade was found here and it also seems to have been a place of active water flow from rainfall runoff.

The D Passage is sizable though this passage has not been fully explored or mapped. A tarantula and large mammal scat was noted in the D Passage indicating a potential opening to the surface. The E Passage is connected with the D Passage and is the most southerly point of the cave. While this passage could not be fully explored or mapped, it does not initially show evidence for human activity. The K Passage appears to have had running water passing through it in the past and is located in the vicinity of the H Passage. The K Passage survey was abandoned because a narrow constriction made it difficult and perhaps dangerous to proceed further. While there is no evidence of past visitation in this area, the K Passage may contain active speleothems that can be used to reconstruct paleoclimate related to past rainfall patterns—a major objective of the Xcoch Project. The A Passage continues past the water pool but does not show signs of visitation past or present. The low oxygen levels here made continued exploration and mapping virtually impossible with specialized breathing equipment.

The cause of the low oxygen in the cave continues to be undetermined and somewhat of a mystery. There is no evidence of rotting debris that could have caused reduced oxygen levels. While organic levels are higher in the lower chambers due to bat populations, it seems unlikely that there are enough bats there to have created this condition. The lower chambers descend significantly and could form a trap for other gasses especially given the tight restricted spaces between chambers.

A critical question that must be answered is what other gasses, if any, are displacing the oxygen. This could potentially create a dangerous situation if there are episodic events where spikes occur in the concentration of these unknown gases.

Interestingly, it is unlikely that poor air quantity was problem in the cave for the Prehispanic Maya. Because matches and lighters fail to ignite in such low oxygen levels today, it would have been impossible to light torches in a similar oxygen environment in the past. Additionally, there are two fire pits in Chamber IV indicating a well-ventilated chamber. Stephens acknowledged a breeze at the entrance that took his breath away but fails to mention the low oxygen levels in the bottom chambers. They also used torches as a light source. The difficulty of withstanding oxygen-starved chambers is a memorable experience that he would not have soon forgotten or left his out of his otherwise accurate descriptive account.

Obviously, some condition has resulted in reducing ventilation of the cave. If caused by a surface obstruction, it could be related to the breakdown of the H Passage. If not a ventilation issue, then oxygen must be being displaced by another gas.

We are unfamiliar with the potential dynamics that would create this phenomenon. It is advisable to employ a five gas detector, such as the Altair 5 Multigas Detector, to determine the safety of the atmosphere in the bottom chambers. This is particularly required if prolonged excavation takes place in the future. While low-oxygen environments can be mitigated with proper equipment; the presence of certain gases to this environment (in particular, carbon dioxide and hydrogen sulfide) could produce significant complications.

The work completed in the Xcoch cave shows that this location had a complex natural and cultural history. It is clear that there must be at least one additional entrance into the cave that was sealed sometime in the distant past. This could have occurred more recently because John Stephens was able to reach the water source in 1841 using torches as a light source suggesting that there was sufficient air in cave’s lower chamber unlike today. One such opening may be near the Great

Pyramid since the H Passage ascends in this general direction. Another possible entrance is found to the east within a building group about 400 m from the current cave entrance. One cool morning in November 2009, steam vapors were seen rising from this settlement group indicating an opening allowing warmer subterranean air to escape. This is the same vicinity as the D Passage which runs in this general eastern direction. Clearly, this is much more work to be undertaken in this fascinating cave setting. Given the enormous quantities of ceramics and other cultural remains such as human and animal bone, wood fragments, worked stone, etc., the Xcoch cave was obviously a significant venue for Maya priests to perform complex dark rituals related water perhaps inspired by periods of drought or unpredictable rainfall—problems that still plague the Maya of this area. Such a cave located in the middle of a large Maya center with major occupation in the

Preclassic period is testament to the key role played by the residents of Xcoch among the earliest occupants of the Puuc region of Northern Yucatan.

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Table 1: Cave Stations and UTM Coordinates

Xcoch Cave Project

Station Above-Ground Coordinates (UTM NAD 1983 16N) Index Station Parent east north vertical to entrance ======

0 A1 Ent 220053.8 2255140 44.000 m. 0.000 m. 1 Entrance1 A1 220043.3 2255136 48.665 m. 12.320 m. 2 A2 A1 220053.5 2255142 42.325 m. 2.329 m. 3 A3 A2 220053.3 2255146 41.333 m. 6.578 m. 4 A4 A3 220056.3 2255152 40.413 m. 13.628 m. 5 A5 A4 220062.1 2255159 39.029 m. 22.988 m. 6 A6 A5 220064.5 2255161 38.875 m. 25.707 m. 7 A7 A6 220073 2255164 38.755 m. 34.906 m. 8 A8 A7 220089.2 2255168 37.236 m. 51.505 m. 9 B1 A8 220088.5 2255171 37.669 m. 54.434 m. 10 B2 B1 220090.5 2255174 36.030 m. 58.586 m. 11 B3 B2 220092.2 2255175 36.429 m. 60.585 m. 12 B4 B3 220099.3 2255177 35.864 m. 68.205 m. 13 B5 B4 220102.6 2255174 35.765 m. 72.756 m. 14 D3 B5 220112.8 2255169 35.518 m. 84.067 m. 15 A9 A8 220097.6 2255163 38.011 m. 61.384 m. 16 C1 A9 220098 2255156 37.072 m. 67.733 m. 17 D1 A9 220107.9 2255160 36.520 m. 72.094 m. 18 E1 D1 220105.1 2255152 36.667 m. 80.485 m. 19 D2 D1 220112.3 2255158 34.959 m. 77.285 m. 20 A10 A9 220106.3 2255175 35.015 m. 77.084 m. 21 A11 A10 220110.6 2255185 34.476 m. 87.383 m. 22 A12 A11 220109.4 2255192 34.279 m. 94.912 m. 23 A13 A12 220104 2255199 33.034 m. 103.861 m. 24 A14 A13 220100.1 2255205 33.034 m. 110.880 m. 25 A15 A14 220101.7 2255216 33.223 m. 121.725 m. 26 A16 A15 220107.4 2255212 32.690 m. 128.516 m. 27 A17 A16 220111.9 2255208 32.845 m. 134.426 m. 28 A18 A17 220113 2255206 32.732 m. 136.575 m. 29 A19 A18 220116.4 2255207 32.624 m. 140.135 m. 30 A20 A19 220118.9 2255203 32.663 m. 144.704 m. 31 F1 A12 220113.6 2255191 33.375 m. 99.261 m. 32 F2 F1 220120.7 2255195 33.655 m. 107.280 m. 33 F3 F2 220120.7 2255195 33.655 m. 107.280 m. 34 G1 A13 220110.8 2255201 33.253 m. 111.042 m. 35 H1 A15 220109.6 2255217 34.297 m. 129.845 m. 36 H2 H1 220106.2 2255220 34.993 m. 134.914 m. 37 H3 H2 220109.5 2255226 35.339 m. 141.513 m. 38 H4 H3 220100.7 2255225 35.119 m. 150.492 m. 39 H5 H4 220092 2255227 34.824 m. 159.401 m. 40 H6 H5 220088.8 2255227 34.678 m. 162.611 m. 41 H7 H6 220082.1 2255232 34.408 m. 170.770 m. 42 HE1 H7 220080.6 2255233 35.489 m. 173.160 m. 43 HE2 HE1 220078.9 2255235 38.858 m. 177.150 m. 44 HX1 HE1 220084.1 2255235 35.531 m. 177.189 m. 45 HY1 HX1 220089.2 2255233 36.636 m. 183.139 m. 46 HX2 HX1 220083.5 2255239 36.474 m. 180.929 m. 47 HX3 HX2 220080 2255237 35.317 m. 185.230 m. 48 HY2 HY1 220092.6 2255235 37.300 m. 187.248 m. 49 HY3 HY2 220091.8 2255233 37.354 m. 189.058 m. 50 HY4 HY3 220099.5 2255233 37.785 m. 196.788 m. 51 HP1 H3 220112.5 2255221 33.884 m. 147.322 m. 52 J1 A20 220118 2255200 32.863 m. 148.224 m. 53 J2 J1 220118 2255200 32.863 m. 148.224 m. 54 A21 A20 220126.1 2255201 37.054 m. 153.354 m. 55 A22 A21 220127.2 2255200 37.021 m. 155.253 m. 56 A23 A22 220126.9 2255195 36.368 m. 160.093 m. 57 A24 A23 220127.1 2255190 31.783 m. 167.082 m. 58 A25 A24 220134.1 2255200 37.754 m. 181.082 m. 59 A26 A25 220138.9 2255204 33.060 m. 188.723 m. 60 A27 A26 220138.6 2255204 31.269 m. 190.564 m. 61 A28 A27 220138.2 2255203 30.267 m. 192.643 m.

62 A29 A28 220136.5 2255199 30.079 m. 196.361 m. 63 A30 A29 220137.7 2255197 30.157 m. 198.580 m. 64 A31 A30 220139.3 2255195 25.335 m. 204.131 m. 65 A32 A31 220141.5 2255191 24.350 m. 208.989 m. 66 A33 A32 220136.2 2255188 24.671 m. 215.119 m. 67 A34 A33 220124.8 2255181 22.609 m. 228.448 m. 68 A35 A34 220117.8 2255180 21.276 m. 235.629 m. 69 A36 A35 220115.1 2255180 19.178 m. 239.097 m. 70 A37 A36 220111.2 2255183 18.288 m. 243.938 m. 71 A38 A37 220111.5 2255183 18.323 m. 244.416 m. 72 A39 A38 220111.3 2255183 16.259 m. 246.537 m. 73 E2 E1 220107.7 2255141 35.971 m. 91.885 m. 74 E3 E2 220115.1 2255137 36.581 m. 100.636 m. 75 E4 E3 220113.9 2255131 37.120 m. 106.817 m. 76 E5 E4 220113.4 2255127 37.581 m. 110.469 m. 77 E6 E5 220116.3 2255120 38.033 m. 118.448 m. 78 E7 E6 220116.3 2255120 38.033 m. 118.448 m. 79 C2 C1 220098.2 2255152 37.072 m. 72.283 m. 80 C3 C2 220101.5 2255152 37.491 m. 75.603 m. 81 D4 D3 220117.4 2255173 35.771 m. 89.867 m. 82 D5 D4 220120.3 2255171 36.255 m. 93.577 m. 83 D6 D5 220118.1 2255164 35.606 m. 100.675 m. 84 D6Z1 D6 220118.1 2255160 44.174 m. 109.984 m. 85 D7 D5 220124.5 2255169 35.018 m. 98.356 m. 86 D8 D7 220133.7 2255174 35.814 m. 109.097 m. 87 D9 D8 220136.6 2255172 37.281 m. 112.776 m. 88 D10 D9 220141.5 2255174 36.352 m. 117.997 m. 89 D11 D10 220141.6 2255180 35.867 m. 123.566 m. 90 D12 D11 220142 2255180 35.155 m. 124.547 m. 91 D13 D12 220142.8 2255185 35.339 m. 129.247 m. 92 D14 D13 220145.2 2255187 34.314 m. 132.966 m. 93 D15 D14 220146.3 2255193 34.216 m. 138.577 m. 94 D16 D15 220146.3 2255193 34.216 m. 138.577 m. 95 D5Z1 D5 220115.3 2255172 36.708 m. 98.777 m. 96 D5Z2 D5Z1 220112.8 2255177 37.901 m. 104.077 m. 97 D5Z3 D5Z1 220120 2255178 42.623 m. 108.277 m. 98 D8Z1 D8 220129.9 2255176 36.561 m. 113.398 m. 99 D8Z2 D8Z1 220126.8 2255181 35.575 m. 119.698 m. 100 A34A A34 220121.9 2255177 24.075 m. 233.766 m. 101 A34B A34A 220125.7 2255171 25.085 m. 241.027 m. 102 A34C A34B 220125.7 2255171 25.085 m. 241.027 m. 103 K1 A14 220094.5 2255204 32.858 m. 116.641 m. 104 K2 K1 220089.4 2255205 32.947 m. 121.771 m. 105 K3 K2 220085.6 2255207 33.094 m. 125.980 m. 106 K4 K3 220088.7 2255213 32.568 m. 132.679 m. 107 K5 K2 220088.5 2255205 32.929 m. 122.840 m. 108 K6 K5 220088.5 2255205 32.929 m. 122.840 m. 109 HN1 H1 220116 2255217 34.689 m. 136.264 m. 110 HN2 HN1 220118.2 2255217 35.122 m. 138.535 m. 111 HN3 HN2 220119.4 2255216 34.935 m. 139.876 m. 112 HN4 HN3 220126 2255221 35.754 m. 147.706 m. 113 HN5 HN4 220127.3 2255217 34.350 m. 152.248 m. 114 HN6 HN5 220128.6 2255212 36.899 m. 157.676 m. 115 HN7 HN6 220126.6 2255204 33.130 m. 166.335 m. 116 Entrance2 Entrance1 220050.6 2255132 48.953 m. 20.571 m. 117 Entrance3 Entrance2 220056.2 2255133 49.361 m. 26.420 m. 118 Entrance4 Entrance3 220056.7 2255140 50.019 m. 32.720 m. 119 Entrance5 Entrance4 220054.3 2255147 51.140 m. 40.770 m. 120 Entrance6 Entrance5 220046.9 2255144 49.456 m. 48.869 m.

Interactive 3d model of Xcoch main plaza and Xcoch Cave Lower Passage Connection