Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology Self-distancing as a Mechanism for Processing Negative Emotional Experiences

Lena Etzel Queens University of Charlotte

ABSTRACT. Human beings share the motivation to analyze and understand their negative emotions in hopes of achieving resolution and ridding themselves of the negative feelings. However, reflecting on such emotions may backfire and instead trigger dysfunctional responses such as cognitive escape or rumination with the intention to protect oneself. A wealth of scholars has examined a strategy known as “self-distancing” as a mechanism that may allow individuals to adaptively process negative events without causing further negative affect. Given the ability of humans to shift their point of view, individuals can distance themselves from their own experience and take on an observer’s perspective. According to this line of work, analyzing stimulating material from a self-distanced perspective allows individuals to reconstrue their experiences in ways that facilitate adaptive processing and promote insight. In contrast, a self- immersed perspective has been linked to a concrete focus on emotionally arousing details, thus making individuals vulnerable to rumination. Researchers have examined the emotional, cognitive and physiological benefits associated with the self-distancing strategy when recalling both depression- and anger-related experiences. More recent studies have also considered its role in the context of different populations (children, clinical populations). Implications and future directions are discussed.

Numerous self-help guides fill the Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000; Wilson & aisles of bookstores in Western societies. Gilbert, 2008). Successful resolution of They provide readers with a range of negative experiences may then not only resources that are supposed to help them change the distressing emotional reaction associated with these events, but insight may work through various stressors. Indeed, also benefit individuals when facing similar human beings share a general motivation to situations in the future. make sense of their negative feelings; most In clinical practice, patients seek seek to achieve this resolution by examining professional help in order to better cope with the causes and assigning meaning to their experiences that provoke uncomfortable experiences (Wilson & Gilbert, 2008). By thoughts and feelings. However, the so- understanding one’s emotions, it is called “self-reflection paradox” highlights a possible underlying problem in this process reasonable to assume that individuals can (Kross et al., 2011; Kross & Ayduk, 2011). achieve resolution and create a sense of Although several studies outline the relief associated with distressing events. This advantages of emotional processing, others assumption is consistent with previous work, point out that attempting to understand suggesting that processing negative events negative experiences can also trigger facilitates important insight and may weaken dysfunctional mechanisms associated with maladaptive consequences (Cribb, Moulds, the frequency and intensity of these & Carter, 2006; Wilson & Gilbert, 2008). emotional disturbances (Kross, Duckworth, Instead of understanding one’s emotions to Ayduk, Tsukayama, & Mischel, 2011; achieve insight, this attempt may backfire in

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology ways that may make individuals become shown to be particularly dominant in the particularly vulnerable to their negative context of (negative) emotional material experiences. compared to neutral information (Wenzlaff Recently, a wealth of scholarship has & Wegner, 2000). Previous work has shown advanced self-distancing as a mechanism that the attempt to avoid thinking about these that may allow individuals to process negatively-laden events may initially provide negative events in adaptive ways (Ayduk & benefits, such as emotional relief and Kross, 2008a, 2008b, 2010b; Kross & reduced depressed moods (Kross & Ayduk, Ayduk, 2008; Kross, Ayduk, & Mischel, 2008; Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Nolen- 2005; Kross et al., 2011; Kross, Gard, Hoeksema, Morrow, & Fredrickson, 1993; Deldin, Clifton, & Ayduk, 2012; White, Nolen-Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyobomirsky, Kross, & Duckworth, 2015). Given 2008). contradictory findings regarding the efficacy However, this strategy is not only of reflecting on negative experiences, the assumed to eventually backfire, but engaging present paper will review the literature in avoidance predicted unique variance in surrounding rumination and distancing for depression scores among participants (mal-) adaptive self-regulation. In particular, (Mischel, Shoda, & Rodriguez, 1989). the review intends to illustrate the adaptive Further, it has also been linked to increased implications associated with self-distanced accessibility of unwanted thoughts and may perspective-taking in the context of past thus pose disastrous long-term implications distressing experiences. by leading individuals to think repeatedly 1. Maladaptive processing about their negative experiences (Moulds, The motivation to reflect on and Kandris, Starr, & Wong, 2007; Wegner et process experiences is particularly strong al., 1987; Wenzlaff & Wegner, 2000). when individuals experience distress Rumination is defined as “a mode of (Wilson & Gilbert, 2008). However, it is responding to distress that involves also assumed that this mental strategy may repetitively and passively focusing on activate corresponding emotions and thus symptoms” (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008, p. trigger the need for cognitive escape, 400) and thus serves to maintain or worsen avoidance and distraction in order to protect depressive episodes. Such responses are oneself (Kross & Ayduk, 2008). Although often symptom–focused and contemplative distraction and avoidance may initially as individuals circle around the experiences, appear to be adaptive responses, the well- causes, and consequences of their negative known “white bear” study illustrates their emotions with no end in sight (Nolen- limitations on the basis of a seemingly Hoeksema, 1991). Being fixated on the unimportant topic (Wegner, 2011; Wegner, thoughts and feelings that occupy their inner Schneider, Carter, & White, 1987; Wenzlaff world prevents individuals from generating & Wegner, 2000). alternative cognitive and behavioral Wegner et al. (1987) demonstrated pathways that could enable them to initiate the so-called “rebound phenomenon” by change (Cribb et al., 2006; Nolen- prompting participants to suppress the Hoeksema, 1991; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., thought of a white bear. Despite this prompt, 2008; Moulds et al., 2007). Not surprisingly, individuals not only experienced elevated Davis and Nolen-Hoeksema (2000) levels of thought occurrence during suggested a close link between rumination suppression, but they also became and cognitive inflexibility that affects preoccupied with the target thought once individuals on a variety of levels. Indeed, reactivated (in this case, a white bear). rumination does not only promote negative Although emotional valence of events varied thinking and depressed mood, but it also across multiple studies, this finding was

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology interferes with problem-solving and Cribb et al. (2006) demonstrated a direct link proactive behavior (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991). between avoidance, rumination and Given its perseverant nature, several depression. Higher levels of depressed mood researchers conceptualize rumination as a were linked to a greater ruminative style of mechanism that serves an affective and thinking and a tendency to engage in various cognitive avoidant function (Cribb et al., forms of avoidance. These maladaptive 2006; Moulds et al., 2007). Ironically, responses that frequently result from the ruminators often share the belief that they attempt to process negative thoughts are constructively processing and making demonstrate the necessity to find alternative sense of their negative experiences (Nolen- and adaptive processing styles. What can Hoeksema et al., 2008). Individuals may also enable individuals to work through negative feel as if this way of processing their thoughts and emotions without engaging in experiences facilitates understanding, while avoidance or rumination? instead they seem to get caught up in a 2. Self-distancing as adaptive mechanism vicious cycle. Scientific and clinical interest in the Multiple studies have demonstrated development of mechanisms that allow the consequences of this dysfunctional and adaptive emotional regulation has grown in self-focused response (Nolen-Hoeksema, the last decades. Cognitive-behavioral 1991; Morrison & O'Connor, 2008). therapy (CBT), coined by Aaron Beck Rumination has not only been associated assumes that psychological problems are the with higher levels of depressive symptoms, result of dysfunctional misconceptions but researchers also illustrated its predictive (schemas) that influence one’s cognition, force in regards to the onset and maintenance affect and behavior in maladaptive ways of depressive episodes (Nolen-Hoeksema, (Beck, Rush, Shaw, & Emery, 1979). With 2000; Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 1993). the help of a therapist, cognitive (self- Further, rumination has been shown to questioning) techniques are implemented to negatively affect cardiovascular activity by help clients identify and eventually change creating elevated levels of blood pressure their distorted thought patterns. Experts and poor physiological recovery (Gerin, assign importance to “decentering”, which is Davidson, Christenfeld, Goyal, & Schwartz, described as the “capacity to take a present- 2006). Even more severely, Morrison and focused, nonjudgmental stance in regard to O'Connor (2008) conducted a systematic thoughts and feelings and to accept them” review of 11 studies examining the (Fresco, Segal, Buis, & Kennedy, 2007, p. relationship between rumination and 448). Also labeled as “distancing”, it is suicidality among clinical and non-clinical assumed that an objective perspective allows samples of varying age groups. With one clients to process thoughts in a controlled exception and despite varying methodologies mode. across the studies, researchers consistently Consistent with this approach, found a direct link between these key several “third-wave” forms of cognitive variables. therapy, including both mindfulness-based Given that avoiding thoughts and acceptance and commitment-based surrounding negative experiences has therapies, utilize this approach in order to previously been demonstrated to undermine prevent individuals from getting adaptive self-reflection, attempting to overwhelmed by their thoughts (Ayduk & understand one’s emotions seems to pose Kross, 2010b). Instead of further relying on maladaptive consequences as well: maladaptive assumptions that fuel biased Individuals begin to ruminate while avoiding thinking, CBT requires individuals to step direct confrontation and proactive back and develop reality-based engagement. Taking these findings together, interpretations to undermine this

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology dysfunctional process. Although work egocentric point of view to an ego- discussed thus far may suggest that focusing decentered perspective (Kross et al., 2005; on one’s internal world will generate Kross & Ayduk, 2011). Utilizing the negative reactions and should thus be hot/cool model as a foundation, Kross et al. avoided, working with dysfunctional thought (2005) later transformed this theory when patterns has been a component of therapy for conducting their work on self-distancing and several decades (Beck et al., 1979). emotion regulation. In order to successfully Past work on self-control further process distressing material, the researchers supports the possibility of adaptive self- suggest that considering mental events from regulation without triggering intense levels a distanced, ego-decentered perspective of affect (Kross et al., 2005; Mischel et al., would inhibit “hot” emotional reactions, 1989). Mischel et al. (1989) demonstrated in while allowing individuals to stay in an various studies with children that they were abstract, “cool” space. able to cognitively represent arousing stimuli Contrary to the work on self- in a way that enhanced their self-control and distancing, Cribb et al. (2006) suggested that thus sustain delay of gratification. Compared greater rumination is associated with a focus to a control group that considered the on less concrete (more abstract) details. arousing characteristics associated with the Their line of work led to the assumption that desired object, individuals adopting rumination allows individuals to cognitively alternative strategies outperformed the avoid the confrontation with “concrete former group. Both individuals who image-based thought content” (Cribb et al., distracted themselves or those with an 2006, p. 172) and that ruminators generally altered perspective and a focus on the adopt an abstract focus. Therefore, their abstract qualities were better able to over-generalized perspective would then be withstand their impulse. associated with more rumination. This observation is based on the Opposed to this, Kross and Ayduk “hot/cool model” that is said to substantially (2010b) argue that self-immersion makes drive our reaction and our ability to regulate individuals vulnerable to rumination and that emotions (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999). an abstract (distanced) focus would allow Focusing on concrete details of an adaptive processing. Again, this type of experience may elicit strong (hot) emotional perspective entails that one focuses on the reactions that may, in turn, trigger arousal concrete (not abstract) details by recounting and protective mechanisms such as the causes and consequences of the avoidance behaviors. In contrast, an abstract, distressing memory. Instead of linking reflective (cool) mode has been associated rumination to an abstract focus, their train of with a distanced perspective, which in turn, thought suggests a link between (concrete) is assumed to inhibit overwhelming self-immersion and rumination. When emotions in response to the affect-arousing instructing participants to adopt an immersed stimuli (Metcalfe & Mischel, 1999; Mischel or distanced perspective before analyzing a et al., 1989). personal, negative experience, self-immersed Taking these findings together, individuals recounted the detail-oriented, various experts in social-behavioral and concrete features of an event. clinical disciplines suggest that one’s type of These opposing views demonstrate perspective in the context of arousing inconsistencies between the work on material may be a fundamental key rumination and distancing research. Building ingredient for adaptive regulation (Kross et on Nolen-Hoeksema et al.’s definition al., 2005; Mischel et al., 1989). This (2008) of rumination, tenaciously and cognitive process is possible because repeatedly focusing on the arousing material humans share the unique ability to shift their may even suggest that rumination entails a

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology perspective that is geared towards a focus on One of the initial studies in this line details of an event that are too specific. This of work asked participants to recall an definition would align with Kross and interpersonal conflict and then instructed Ayduk’s work (2010b). them to adopt an immersed or distanced In support of this, adopting a self- perspective (Kross et al., 2005). Further, distanced perspective and mentally stepping they were asked to focus on their felt out of one’s point of view presumably emotions (what focus) or on the specific requires a substantial amount of cognitive reasons underlying their sensations (why flexibility – an ability that has been shown to focus) associated with their anger-related be inhibited among ruminators (Davis & memory. Regardless of the conflict status, Nolen-Hoeksema, 2000). It seems safe to only individuals in the distanced-why group conclude that this compromised perspective demonstrated reduced emotional reactivity taking might force these individuals to attend as their results displayed significantly less to the emotionally arousing details which, in (implicit and explicit) anger and global turn, trigger maladaptive reactions. It is negative affect. important to consider that the mood In contrast, having individuals with manipulation in the study conducted by an immersed perspective question the Cribb et al. (2006) occurred through an underlying reasons (why) did not create an emotion-eliciting film clip. Although the effect. Given that concrete vs. abstract investigators do not differentiate between construals were previously identified as these mood manipulation techniques, it is mechanisms that substantially influence reasonable to assume that a film clip would one’s emotional response to arousing influence participants in a different (and less stimuli, Kross et al. (2005) examined emotionally relevant) way than recalling a participant’s written stream of thoughts. As personal, negative experience. Before predicted, adopting a distanced perspective drawing rash conclusions, future work may was associated with more abstract construals want to follow-up with this discrepancy of as individuals utilized a greater proportion of concrete versus abstract focus during insight and closure statements. The rumination and distancing. researchers also revealed a mediating i. Emotional & Cognitive benefits relationship in this context by demonstrating When reflecting on emotion eliciting that fewer concrete construals mediated the experiences, Kross et al. (2012) and effect of the distanced-why perspective on Verduyn, Van Machelen, Chezzi, Van emotional reactivity. When controlling for Bever, and Kross (2012) suggest the self construal type, the effect of condition on reflecting on and originally experiencing the emotional reactivity diminished. These event is the same person when adopting an findings established a basis for subsequent immersed, first-person perspective. Given research by suggesting that individuals seem human’s innate ability to shift one’s point of to experience a shift in thought content view, individuals can distance themselves depending on their perspective which in turn from their experience and take on an influences their emotional reaction. observer’s perspective (Kross et al., 2005). A specific example can help clarify Based on the work mainly conducted by this process of distancing that has been Kross and Ayduk, this type of self- demonstrated across multiple studies (Ayduk perspective is assumed to determine whether & Kross, 2008b; Kross & Ayduk, 2008, individuals can cognitively process 2009; Kross et al., 2012). Take, for example, emotional experiences in adaptive ways Laura who has just had an argument with her (Ayduk & Kross, 2008b; Ayduk & Kross, partner. As she attempts to understand the 2010a, 2010b; Kross, 2009; Kross & Ayduk, uncomfortable incident, she can adopt 2008; Kross et al., 2005; Kross et al., 2012). different perspectives while reflecting back

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology on this experience. A self-immersed decreased as self-distancing increased. Kross perspective would entail recounting and Ayduk (2008) suggested that individuals emotionally arousing details and episodic in both immersed and distanced conditions features of the argument including the chain focus on their emotions (recounting), but of events and her specific feelings (Kross, they argue that the balance of relatively less 2009). Assuming that Laura would like to recounting and more reconstruing accounts avoid reliving the negative emotions that she for the regulatory benefits linked to self- associates with this event, researchers argue distancing (Ayduk & Kross, 2010a). that a self-distanced perspective would In support of this, participants in enable her to reconstrue the experience in subsequent studies were merely asked to ways that promote enhanced understanding. analyze their feelings and thoughts from Through a distanced perspective, she would their assigned perspective without giving be able to perceive the “big picture”, make further instructions regarding their focus sense of the event while possibly identifying (Ayduk & Kross, 2008b; Kross et al., 2012; the causes as well as underlying motivations Kross & Ayduk, 2008). Manipulating one’s on both sides. perspective would then be sufficient enough Several researchers were able to to trigger the shift in thought content and replicate and extend these findings to thus lead self-distanced individuals to favor different sets of emotions. Cueing the use of abstract (why) construals without individuals to take a step back and adopt a inducing a specific focus. “fly on the wall” perspective has been shown However, the importance of to benefit self-regulation following the recall analyzing a memory after its recall should and analysis of negative interpersonal/anger- not be undermined. Prior work suggests that related (Ayduk & Kross, 2008a, 2008b, creating mental distance might be 2010b; Kross et al., 2011; White et al, 2015) comparable with third-wave mindfulness and as well as depression-related (Kross et al., acceptance-based approaches during which 2012; Kross & Ayduk, 2008) experiences. In individuals observe and accept, but do not contrast, these studies have shown that analyze their experience (Ayduk & Kross, adopting a self-immersed perspective 2010b; Kross et al., 2012). As a intensifies one’s emotional reactivity. In consequence, individuals may not experience support of these findings, Verduyn et al. the adaptive benefits associated with self- (2012) demonstrated that self-immersed distancing. This idea may suggest that the individuals experienced negative emotions analysis of one’s emotions is fundamental longer compared to the ones who self- when adopting a self-distanced perspective distanced. As a result, this strategy may not and that immersed individuals may be only buffer against a heightened negative unable to engage in this high-level, abstract emotional response but it may also be able to thinking. Drawing from this, it is not shorten the duration of negative emotions. surprising that asking immersed individuals Although the initial study of Kross to adopt a “why” focus during analysis did and colleagues (Kross et al., 2005) induced a not yield an effect (Kross et al., 2005). certain type of focus (why vs. what) after Consistent with this assumption, experts manipulating the type of perspective, distinguish between recalling (and subsequent work suggests that individuals observing) as opposed to analyzing an engaging in self-distancing naturally tend to experience as these mental processes are reconstrue more and recount less (Ayduk & believed to affect different areas of Kross, 2010b; Kross et al., 2012; Kross & information processing. Ayduk, 2008). In particular, Ayduk and ii. Spontaneous self-distancing Kross (2010b) demonstrated that the Although a majority of the studies proportion of recounting over reconstruing presented thus far intentionally manipulated

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology participant’s perspectives, it remains extent to which they adopted a self- questionable whether individuals immersed vs. self-distanced perspective may spontaneously self-distance outside of the not be able to consciously grasp the laboratory and without researchers cuing complexity of this cognitive approach. them to adopt a certain perspective. Although spontaneous self-distancing Collectively, recent research on the external seems to be an established process in adult validity of self-distancing seems promising samples, only one study has examined the (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b; Verduyn et al. effects of distancing in a sample of fifth- 2012; White et al., 2015). grade students (Kross et al., 2011). To In two separate studies, Ayduk and extend this line of work, White et al. (2015) Kross (2010b) demonstrated that participants asked a sample of African-American did not only engage in the self-distancing adolescents to reflect on an anger-related process without being cued, but doing so has experience and assessed the degree to which also been linked to various adaptive (and whether) participants spontaneously consequences. After recalling a negative, adopted a distanced perspective. Similar to interpersonal experience, participants past experiments, memory age was treated as identified the perspective they adopted when a covariate. Past work has demonstrated age- reflecting on the event. This approach differs related differences in emotion regulatory from other studies by relying on spontaneous control, thus suggesting that maturation may perspective-taking rather than induced. be closely linked to one’s ability to regulate Overall, participants were more likely to emotions (Orgeta, 2009). reflect on their experience from a self- The adolescent sample was not only immersed rather than self-distanced able to spontaneously adopt an observer’s perspective. perspective, but this cognitive process has Given that memory age (duration also been linked to the same benefits of between experience and experimental recall), distancing shown in previous studies with baseline negative affect, and the resolution adult samples (Ayduk & Kross, 2008b, status of the recalled experience can 2010b; Kross et al., 2005). Although only influence the relationship between the key three construal items (as opposed to thought variables, Ayduk and Kross (2010b) content essays) were used to examine the controlled for these covariates in their degree of maladaptive (recounting) vs. analyses. Consistent with previous studies adaptive (reconstruing) reflection, the that have relied on the experimental researchers were still able to illustrate the manipulation of the examined perspectives, relationship between distancing and a higher spontaneous self-distancing was predominance of reconstruing over associated with lower emotional reactivity recounting. Further, the researchers and thought content fully mediated this demonstrated a growing strength in the relationship. Given that these findings were relationship between self-distancing and replicated in the second study when emotional regulation with age, thus participants reflected on an anger-related supporting previous work suggesting that interpersonal experience, spontaneous self- older individuals may be better able to distancing seems to occur in response to engage in adaptive regulation. different emotions. According to White et al. (2015), this However, it is important to mention finding may be due to age-dependent that studies examining spontaneous self- physiological (brain) development, distancing have relied on a single-item suggesting that distancing may require the measure which can limit the reliability of the maturation of late-developing brain regions. finding (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b; White et An increased exposure to social- al., 2015). Individuals who self-reported the environmental situations that demand

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology emotional regulation may also explain these responsible for increasing the likelihood of age differences. Future studies need to move some individuals to self-distance during beyond a predominantly adult sample in reflection. Cross-cultural studies have order to better understand the demonstrated differences in types of self- generalizability of this strategy to different awareness between individuals from age cohorts. individualistic, Western countries or Although individuals have generally collectivistic, particularly East Asian been shown to favor a self-immersed countries (Heine, 2016). Subjective self- perspective when reflecting on their awareness entails that one’s attention is experiences, the extent to which participants directed towards the external world and spontaneously engaged in distancing still away from ourselves. In contrast, individuals yielded significance across various studies who focus on themselves and monitor their (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b; Verduyn et al., interactions from an outside perspective 2012). These findings generate two would adopt an objective focus. questions that have not received enough Given the value of interpersonal attention in the studies conducted up to this connection in collectivistic countries, it is point. It is reasonable to assume that not surprising that individuals in East Asian adopting a self-distanced perspective countries were shown to be more likely to requires cognitive flexibility because habitually adopt third-person, objective individuals need to mentally step out of their perspective (Heine, 2016). Although the point of view to take on an observer’s studies discussed in this review were perspective. Supporting this assumption, conducted in a Western context which cross- researchers have demonstrated that this cultural researchers would argue to favor a ability seems to be inhibited among subjective inside-out perspective, ruminators (Davis & Nolen-Hoeksema, participants still spontaneously engaged in 2000). Indeed, Ayduk and Kross (2010b) distancing which could be equated with the demonstrated that spontaneous self- latter version (objective self-awareness). distancing was associated with more More research is needed to better understand problem-solving behavior, which reasonably the role of culture and different tendencies in requires extensive cognitive resources. In adopting certain perspectives as this line of contrast, compromised perspective taking work may suggest that socio-environmental might force these individuals to focus on the factors could play a role in spontaneous self- emotionally arousing details which may in distancing. turn further enhance rumination. On this b. Physiological benefits note, some individuals may be particularly i. Cardiovascular susceptible to rumination because they Prior work has linked a ruminative spontaneously adopt a self-immersed style to delayed physiological recovery perspective when reflecting on stimulating which may over time contribute to a material and are consequently more likely to heightened risk of cardiovascular disease re-experience the negative event. To better (Gerin et al., 2006). Given these data, provide suggestions for these vulnerable researchers have extended their work beyond populations, future research may need to self-reported measures to examine the effect examine the specific relationship between of distancing on physiological markers self-immersion and rumination. (Ayduk & Kross, 2008b). Ayduk and Kross It also remains unclear why and how (2008b) asked participants to recall an anger- certain people (choose to) engage in this related autobiographical experience and then adaptive process. None of the studies analyze this memory from their assigned reviewed have examined whether certain (distanced or immersed) condition. Blood characteristics/dispositions or abilities are pressure activity was recorded throughout

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology the entire study including baseline, ii. Health benefits manipulation and recovery. Although Ayduk and Kross (2008b, Even when controlling for the 2010b) demonstrated that the beneficial vividness and the resolution status of the effect of distancing on immediate recalled memory, researchers replicated the physiological regulation is promising, future attenuating effect of self-distancing on work needs to examine the long-term emotional reactivity. Preceding the memory outcomes in this context. Given that recall, the experimental groups did not differ prolonged levels of heightened distress are on the variables. However, the self-distanced associated with a greater risk of group displayed lower levels of cardiovascular disease, identifying effective physiological reactivity during each phase mechanisms can hold important implications (recall, analysis, and recovery phase). Given for physical health outcomes over time. It the nature of the recalled experience, seems reasonable that the promising effects individuals across both conditions displayed of distancing on physiological reactivity can, elevated levels of emotional and in turn, positively affect one’s overall health. physiological reactivity, but the scores on As an inclusive part of a these variables were lower for individuals comprehensive three-part study on who self-distanced. expressive writing, Park, Ayduk, and Kross To build upon this finding, Ayduk (2015) examine the relationship between and Kross (2010b) later demonstrated these distancing and lasting physical health soothing effects when individuals outcomes. In this recent study, combined spontaneously self-distanced. By monitoring data of a baseline measure of physical health participant’s blood pressure and cardiac and health center visit records provide output, researchers computed the amount of support for the above-mentioned path. constriction occurring in the peripheral Increased self-distancing was linked to lower autonomic nervous system (TPR). Elevated levels of emotional reactivity which in turn levels of TPR reactivity demonstrate a led to fewer physical symptoms over time. maladaptive response to stress. While Although this study provides a starting point, baseline reactivity did not differ among the more research is needed to gain confidence groups, spontaneous self-distancing was in the prolonged physical health benefits of linked to lower physiological reactivity distancing. across all three phases of the study (recall, iii. Brain areas reflection, recovery). Comparable with the popular idiom In contrast to rumination, which has of the chicken and the egg, prior work has previously been linked to heightened distress identified that individuals with a greater and delayed physiological recovery, these degree of depressed mood are more prone to findings suggest that the regulatory benefits rumination and that this maladaptive associated with self-distancing can be response has also been shown to interact extended to physiological markers. It should with depression in various ways (Nolen- be noted that both studies examined the Hoeksema et al., 2008). Rodríguez-Cano et effects of self-distancing on physiological al. (2014) have demonstrated a link between recovery in the context of an anger-related depression and heightened activity in certain (interpersonal) experience. Although it is brain regions including subgenual anterior reasonable to assume that similar outcomes cingulated cortex (sgACC). Given that this ought to be expected in response to other region has previously been linked to self- emotion-eliciting events, future studies may referential processing and emotion want to examine this relationship. dysregulation, increased activity may explain the emotional experience of these individuals often characterized by self-focused

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology rumination (Rodríguez-Cano et al., 2014). In is consistently used as a comparison strategy contrast, self-distancing has been shown to and referred to as the “distancing strategy facilitate adaptive emotional processing and “(Kross & Ayduk, 2011, p. 189). As thus provides a foundation for the individuals observe their experiences from a assumption that it may also alter the activity distance but do not analyze the underlying in certain brain regions. context, they are missing the analysis Kross, Davidson, Weber, and component that has previously been said to Ochsner (2008) asked participants to recall a be crucial in combination with distancing series of negative autobiographical (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b; Kross et al., 2012). memories and examined the effect of Instead, “simply” observing and accepting different cognitive strategies on emotional the mental events that are passing by would and neural reactions. Although these then match the conceptualization of strategies are only conceptually similar to mindfulness and acceptance-based the “traditional” ways of experimentally approaches. Although individuals in both inducing distanced and immersed “accept” and “analyze” strategies reported a perspectives, authors of previous literature down-regulation of self-reported negative reviews regard this study as a clear affect, neural activity only correlated with cornerstone to demonstrate the neural effects the “accept” and “feel” condition. Analyzing of self-distancing (Kross, 2009; Kross & the event, which seems to better match a Ayduk, 2011). The “feel” condition, in distanced perspective, did not yield a which participants were directed to focus on significant correlation. the specific emotions associated with a Given these findings, it is no surprise distressing event can possibly be equated that these studies conclude that distancing with the process of self-immersion. Indeed, a (“accept” condition) lowers the neural significant effect of strategy revealed activity in the discussed regions; this is a increased brain activity in this region when strong indicator for the neural benefits of individuals implemented the “feel” strategy. distancing (Kross, 2009; Kross & Ayduk, Given that self-immersion has been 2011). As only mentioned in one review conceptualized as the maladaptive contrast to (Ayduk & Kross, 2010a), researchers need to self-distancing, these findings would provide interpret these findings with caution to avoid a neural explanatory approach regarding the false conclusions. Future studies that intend regulatory difficulties associated with to assess neural activity in this context may immersion. Although the relationship has not want to rely on “traditional” strategies to yet been examined, the results could possibly manipulate the type of perspective. Given be interpreted as depressed individuals that distancing may potentially have a reflecting on their feelings from a self- buffering effect for neural activity and may immersed perspective. thus especially benefit individuals who tend Nonetheless, the conceptually to engage in rumination, conducting further different strategies require caution when work in this area is much needed. drawing conclusions about the neural effect 3. Avoidance and Distraction of self-distancing. In the “accept” condition, Previous work has demonstrated that experiences were regarded as passing events avoidance mechanisms, including distraction that are mentally distant from the person. and suppression, may initially provide relief, Participants in the “analyze” condition were but could eventually trigger individuals to instructed to consider the causes and reasons repeatedly ruminate about their negative underlying their feelings. Although the latter experiences (Kross et al., 2005; Moulds et one better aligns with the description of the al., 2007; Wegner et al., 1987; Wenzlaff & thought content (reconstruing) associated Wegner, 2000). Both, distancing and with self-distancing, the “accept” condition distraction then seem to benefit an individual

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology in the short-term when exposed to assessment (Ayduk & Kross, 2008a, 2010b). distressing stimuli. However, a majority of In contrast, Kross and Ayduk (2008) the studies on self-distancing have only illustrated that participants previously examined the short-term implications which assigned to the distraction condition reported prevent researchers from making statements greater depressed affect as well as elevated about its lasting efficacy. Building on this, levels of recurring thoughts over time. The researchers have conducted various studies long-term benefits only associated with to examine the long-term effects of self- distanced-analysis may suggest that only this distancing (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b; Kross & strategy facilitates emotional processing in Ayduk, 2008). ways that can buffer individuals during After having participants recall a future recall and may aid coping over time. depressing event, they were randomly Although the immediate reduction in assigned to one of three experimental depressed affect may be tempting for both conditions (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b). The strategies, the emotional and cognitive instructions of the distanced- and immersed- implications of the distraction condition analysis were adapted from previous work further highlight the long-term limitations (Kross et al., 2005). Individuals in the associated with this cognitive strategy distraction condition were asked to think (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008). about a series of neutral statements presented Although distraction, which is a type to them. Given that the strength of task of avoidance, has been shown to embody engagement presumably influences one’s long-term limitations, several researchers emotional reactivity, the researchers were interested in further examining whether controlled for this variable when analyzing distancing facilitates emotional processing the results. via avoidance (Ayduk & Kross, 2008a, Compared to the distraction and 2010b; Kross et al., 2011; Kross & Ayduk, distancing condition, which did not differ in 2008). According to Ayduk and Kross their effect on emotional reaction, self- (2008a), this motivation was based on a immersion was shown to increase depressed claim suggesting a direct relationship affect. In order to examine the long-term between those variables. However, several effects of these cognitive strategies, studies were able to provide objections to participants returned to the laboratory one or this assumption. Following the analysis of a seven days later and were asked to recall the distressing memory, Kross and Ayduk same experience without being cued to adopt (2008) revealed a non-significant negative a specific kind of perspective. At session relationship between distancing and two, only individuals who self-distanced at avoidance after explicitly asking individuals session one were able to further facilitate to indicate the degree to which they tried to adaptive regulation. Without manipulating avoid thinking about the distressing event. the participant’s perspective, those in the Further, Ayduk and Kross (2010b) found original distancing condition continued to that the initial extent of distancing negatively experience lower levels of depressed affect predicted negative affect at a seven-week (at session two) and expressed a reduction in follow-up. Conversely, previous work has recurring thoughts during the time preceding demonstrated a positive relationship between the second assessment. avoidance and depressed affect (Kross & Consistent with this, having Ayduk, 2008). participants return to the lab for a second Longitudinal findings further showed session has demonstrated that individuals that individuals high in self-distancing did high in self-distancing reported lower levels not report engaging in avoidance to a greater of intrusive ideation, such as unwanted extent (Kross & Ayduk, 2008). In fact, thoughts during weeks prior to the second Ayduk and Kross (2008a) even demonstrated

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology that this cognitive group experienced the further investigate the effect of duration by largest decrease in avoidance over time. possibly extending the reflection period after Given that individuals in the distancing manipulating the participant’s perspective. condition continuously displayed emotional Seeking clarity in this context allows reactivity across all studies, it seems safe to investigators to better provide suggestions exclude self-distancing as a form of and possibly identify a time period to emotional avoidance which would be maximize adaptive benefits. associated with the suppression of emotions 4. Clinical application (Kross et al., 2005). Further, thought essays Distancing has long been considered revealed that individuals in both the to be a therapeutic precondition in the distanced- and immersed-analysis groups cognitive behavioral interventions, because it focused on concrete emotions as indicated presumably allows patients to constructively by the use of recounting statements (Ayduk work through their irrational and distorted & Kross, 2010b; Kross & Ayduk, 2008, thought patterns (Beck et al., 1979). 2009; Kross et al., 2005; Kross et al., 2012). However, the construct of distancing, as it is However, the balance of people’s thought presented in this paper, is assumed to require content was shifted as participants adopting a substantial amount of cognitive flexibility a distanced perspective engaged in relatively because individuals mentally step out of less recounting than their counterparts. their experience and then utilize it in a way Drawing from these findings, it seems safe that allows adaptive and analytic processing. to conclude that distancing does not facilitate When considering Gotlib and Joormann’s avoidance among individuals who utilize this findings (2010), the researchers argued that strategy (Ayduk & Kross, 2008a). individuals with depression demonstrate Given that a majority of the studies inhibitory control deficits when processing discussed thus far restrict the analysis period negative information as well as difficulties to 30 to 60 seconds (Park et al., 2015), it is disengaging from unpleasant material. Other reasonable to question whether individuals scholars have emphasized that clinically would possibly start ruminating when depressed individuals who attempt to extending the duration to reflect on the analyze such experiences often face an memory. By measuring the duration of an overwhelming feeling, which may suggests open-ended recall and reflection period, that they possibly adopt an overly immersed Ayduk and Kross (2010b) intended to perspective (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1991; Nolen- examine whether their ethnically diverse Hoeksema et al., 2008). sample engaged in behavioral avoidance Consistent with these ideas, previous with a shorter response time indicating work has highlighted the inverse relationship greater avoidance. The researchers revealed between trait rumination and spontaneous that one’s tendency to spontaneously self- self-distancing (Ayduk & Kross, 2010b). distance did correlate with neither of those The researchers concluded that distancing time periods, thus suggesting that the effect may protect individuals against maladaptive of distancing is not linked to the duration processing styles such as rumination. one spends analyzing the experience. Building upon this work, it is questionable While this may seem like it could be whether individuals with depression are an answer to our question, participants could cognitively able to adapt a distanced have possibly stopped their response time perspective and whether this approach is shortly before the onset of rumination. In associated with the same benefits previously addition, researchers examined the extent of described. spontaneous distancing instead of By combining data from five samples experimentally manipulating one’s that were used to examine the effect of perspective. Future researchers need to perspective (immersed vs. distanced), Kross

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology and Ayduk (2009) analyzed the Beck effect. This suggests that both high and low Depression Inventory data (BDI) collected as depression symptom scorers displayed part of these studies. Other results of all five significantly higher levels of reconstruing in studies have been discussed in other parts of the distanced-analysis group. In sum, the this paper and follow the dominant study demonstrated that individuals with methodology in this line of work (Ayduk & higher depression symptoms seem to be able Kross, 2008b; Kross & Ayduk, 2008; Kross to engage in and benefit from a distanced et al., 2005). Participants across all five perspective. studies were asked to recall an anger-related To examine the effect of distancing or depression-related experience and then in a population most vulnerable to analyze it from their assigned perspective. rumination, Kross et al. (2012) randomly Both, emotional reactivity and depressive assigned a group of adults clinically symptoms were examined in all studies diagnosed with major depressive disorder following the manipulation and thought (MDD) and a healthy control group to an content was assessed in four of the five immersed or distanced-analysis condition studies. As a result, the combined sample of following established procedures. After high BDI scorers was large enough to recalling and analyzing a depressing provide sufficient power thus allowing the experience, participants completed a set of researchers to examine the effect of dependent variable measures including a distancing among participants vulnerable to lexical-decision task to measure maladaptive processing styles. In their depressotypic thought accessibility and analyses, researchers controlled for the negative affect. MDD participants in the severity of the experience recalled as it can distanced-analysis group reported lower possibly influence participant’s self-reported levels of negative affect compared to their depressed affect. counterparts, thus suggesting that individuals Across both perspective conditions, with and without depression seem to benefit individuals with lower depressive symptom from the strategy in similar ways. displayed reduced negative emotional Using the baseline affect data, the reactivity compared to the high BDI scorers. researchers completed a repeated measures However, a distanced analysis seemed to analysis of variance (ANOVA) in order to alleviate this positive relationship, as high examine the change in negative affect over BDI individuals in the distanced-analysis time. MDD participants in the distanced group and low BDI individuals in the condition reported a trend toward a decrease immersed-analysis group had similar affect in negative affect relative to baseline, scores. This suggests that both, high and low whereas MDD participants in the immersed BDI scorers successfully utilized distancing condition reported an increase in negative in a way that allowed them to maintain a emotions. This finding supports the relatively low score of negative emotional assumption that the buffering effect reactivity. In contrast, reported negative previously demonstrated by Kross and affect among participants in the immersed Ayduk (2008) can be extended to vulnerable condition increased as depressive symptoms populations. It seems safe to conclude that scores increased, thus creating a greater this cognitive approach buffered depressed difference between high BDI scorers in both participants against an increase in negative perspective conditions. affect when analyzing their negative Consistent with other findings, the emotions. Furthermore, MDD participants in shift in thought content moderated the the distanced condition also displayed a relationship between condition (perspective) slower response time to depression words, and emotional reactivity, but depressive thus suggesting that a distanced perspective symptoms did not influence this moderating might counteract their tendency to focus on

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology the negative information and their experiences in adaptive ways. By analyzing difficulties to disengage from unpleasant distressing experiences from a distanced material (Gotlib & Joormann, 2010). perspective, individuals were shown to In light of documented associations, experience a shift in thought content and to a self-immersed perspective does not only attenuate their emotional experiences in seem to drive a maladaptive response when ways that extended to the regulation of analyzing negative experiences, but the physiological responses. Additionally, the promising benefits associated with self- paper lists a number of directions and distancing can be extended to clinical highlights multiple avenues for future populations. The findings may hold research. profound practical implications for A majority of the studies follow an therapeutic settings as it may be beneficial to established process when manipulating the induce this type of perspective when participant’s perspectives. Given that the working through negative stimuli. Further time period for reflection and analysis is investigation is needed in order to examine quite brief, researchers may want to examine the efficacy of distancing in the context of different durations in order to provide other disorders. suggestions for individuals implementing Individuals dealing with anxiety this strategy outside of a controlled setting. disorders could greatly benefit from a Additionally, more longitudinal research on strategy that allows them to distance self-distancing is needed. Although the themselves from their overwhelming strategy seems to outperform the initial feelings of fear in regards to past, present benefits associated with distraction when and future stressors. Patients diagnosed with placed in a long-term context, future studies PTSD constantly face debilitating flashbacks may want to follow up with the efficacy of triggered by traumatic events. It is necessary self-distancing over an extended period of to examine whether self-distancing would time. Further, several studies have relied on provide therapeutic benefits for this people’s tendency to spontaneously self- population and whether there are certain distance. Although this approach has yielded clientele groups who may not benefit from significant findings across various studies, it this intervention. In fact, features of the self- remains questionable why some individuals objectification theory in regards to body were more likely to adopt a distanced or image suggest that many women adopt an immersed perspective. It is possible that observer’s perspective by habitually differences in individual dispositions or monitoring their own appearance (Calogero, one’s habitual way of dealing with such Tantleff-Dunn, & Thompson, 2010). experiences are responsible for varying According to the authors, there is a tendencies. substantial wealth of support suggesting the Furthermore, studies examining the negative effects of self-objectification that physiological benefits are limited. In order to may hold serious implications for individuals draw confident conclusions, future work dealing with eating pathology and disordered needs to investigate the effect of self- eating. Taken together, these areas of work distancing on physiological as well as may present certain conditions under which physical functions. Lastly, clinical distancing could potentially be harmful and populations seem to be the ones who would demonstrates avenues for future research. most benefit from a strategy that undermines Conclusion maladaptive response styles. Although The present literature review outlines initial studies have examined the benefits for the array of benefits associated with self- individuals diagnosed with clinical distancing, thus proposing a strategy that depression, other populations including may allow individuals to process negative individuals dealing with anxiety and/or

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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology trauma need to receive attention when Heine, S. (2016). Cultural Psychology, W.W. Norton & Company conducting further studies in this field. With Kross, E. (2009). When the self becomes other. Values, the refinements of these suggestions for Empathy, and Fairness across Social Barriers, future research avenues, self-distancing can 1167, 35-40. doi: 10.1111/j.1749- 6632.2009.04545.x be a powerful mechanism in helping Kross, E., & Ayduk, Ö. (2008). Facilitating adaptive individuals process negative experiences emotional analysis: Distinguishing distanced- adaptively. analysis of depressive experiences from immersed-analysis and distraction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34, 924-937. doi: REFERENCES 10.1177/0146167208315938 Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2008a). Asking why from a Kross, E., & Ayduk, Ö. (2009). 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Yale Review of Undergraduate Research in Psychology Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in Psychological Medicine, 44, 3263-73. doi: depressive disorders and mixed 10.1017/S0033291714000841 anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Verduyn, P., Van Machelen, I., Chezzi, C., Van Bever, F., Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504-511. doi: & Kross, E. (2012). The relationship between 101037/10021-843X.109.3.504 self-distancing and the duration of negative and Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Morrow, J., & Fredrickson, B. L. positive emotional experiences in daily life. (1993). Response styles and the duration of Emotion, 12, 1248-1263. doi: 10.1037/a0028289 episodes of depressed mood. Journal of Abnormal Wegner, D. M. (2011). Setting free the bears: Escape from Psychology, 102, 20-28. doi: 10.1037/0021- thought suppression. American Psychologist, 66, 843X.102.1.20 671-680. doi: 10.1037/a0024985 Nolen-Hoeksema, S., Wisco, B. E., & Lyobomirsky, S. Wegner, D. M., Schneider, D. J., Carter, S. R., & White, T. (2008). Rethinking rumination. Perspectives on L. (1987). Paradoxical effects of thought Physiological Science, 3, 400-424. doi: suppression. Journal of Personality and Social 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00088.x Psychology, 53, 5-13. doi: 10.1037/0022- Orgeta, V. (2009). Specificity of age differences in emotion 3514.53.1.5 regulation. Aging & Mental Health, 13, 818–826. Wenzlaff, R. M., & Wegner, D. M. (2000). Thought doi: 10.1080/13607860902989661 suppression. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, Park, J., Ayduk, Ö., & Kross, E. (2015). Stepping back to 59-91. doi: 10.1146/annurev.psych.51.1.59 move forward: Expressive writing promotes self- White, R. E., Kross, E., & Duckworth, A. L. (2015). distancing. Emotion, Advance online publication. Spontaneous self-distancing and adaptive self- doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/emo0000121 reflection across adolescence. Child Development, Rodríguez-Cano, E., Sarró, S., Monté, ,G.C., Maristany, T., 86, 1272-1281. doi: 10.1111/cdev.12370 Salvador, R., McKenna, P. J., & Pomarol-Clotet, Wilson, T. D., & Gilbert, D. T. (2008). Explaining away: A E. (2014). Evidence for structural and functional model of affective adaptation. Perspectives on abnormality in the subgenual anterior cingulate Psychological Science, 3, 370-386. doi: cortex in major depressive disorder. 10.1111/j.1745-6924.2008.00085.x

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