Handbook of Furniture Styles

FOREWORD

In scanning my library of books on old fu rnitu re

o o on of th em m and peri d dec rati , some huge volu es , I have o ften wondered why no one had ever pub li shed a small book of ready reference on the historic

I o n . fur iture styles Such a volume, realized, w uld

n c o n be e essarily inc mplete, its treatme t perhaps

m n o frag e tary and superﬁcial , and it w uld possess other obvi ous defec ts when viewed either as a stand

o of n o r ard w rk refere ce as a readable treatise . It

o n o f to n w uld be ecessary, course, omit many i ter

n and n o esti g importa t details , and the average auth r

o o o is l ath t d this . But it seemed to me that the unavoidable short comings of such a book would be j ustiﬁed by its

. A on practical usefulness c cise, abbreviated survey of the decorative peri ods would often be most help

o not o r ful , particularly for th se who have the time

e oo the inclination to study th large b ks . Something like a concordance of the peri od styles was what I

I n had i n mind . had reaso to believe that there [V ] FOREWORD was a need for something i n the way of a printed guide which would most effectively assist th e average person in ans wering those universally puzzling ques tions of how to identify any period style or place

n and any piece of fur iture, by what speciﬁc means

n u one o to disti g ish style fr m another . I have consequently se t aside my principles of sci entiﬁc c c o n for m n ac ura y and c mplete ess the ti e bei g, and have made the attempt to produce such a brief

bad e me cu m n or survey, , ma ual , syllabus, whatever

o o I y u may ch ose to call it . have presumed to add ano ther volume to an already extensive literature on the furniture styles because I believed that this par ti cu l ar kind o f v olume would meet a genuine and

n particular eed . Such condens ation of a big subj ect must inevi

n tably result in sins of omissio , if not of commission . I am fully aware of the defects inherent in this sort o f treatment ; I kn o w j ust what the critics and re viewers will say ; and I am moved to forestall their

c on and and criticism by ertain admissi s disclaimers , to i nform th e purchaser o f this volume exactly what he is getting for his money .

o in t In the ﬁrst place , there is n thing new his

o book . It does not pretend to be the result f orig

n ot inal research . There is a fact or a conclusion in [vi ] FOREWORD it that is not to be found in any one o f a dozen

o n larger and hands omer volumes . I do n t thi k I have added one j ot to the sum of human knowledge on this subj ect ; I have merely sorted ou t that knowl — edge and now present it in a new dress or undress .

This work does not pretend to be exhaustive , com

h o o of prehensive, complete . W le bl cks facts are

o one o f deliberately omitted . My pr blem has been

n o I n o selection a d eliminati n . have e deav red to

ff o to reduce a large , di use subj ect to l west terms ,

o o n to to n and b il it d w , strip it its esse tials , the reader need l ook fo r little mo re than a wo rking ou t

n li e .

I not c c o do even laim pre ise accuracy . Abs lute truth in these things demands subtle distinctions and ﬁne discriminations whi ch take up Space and are

o often tedi us . I have sought to interpret these

o n things more br adly, satisﬁed with correctness i its larger sense . If I have strained a point now and then in the effort to accentuate the lines o f demarca

o f I find u stifi tion and the bases classification, my j cation i n the belief that I have thus simplified what

too o I is often made c mplicated, and that have ren dered more comprehensible and more easily remem bered a matter that many persons tell me they still

ﬁnd confusing . [vii] FOREWORD

I c have, in short, sacriﬁ ed other ends to the single

o o f o o purp se c mpiling a small , handy v lume on the

n o o pri cipal hist ric furniture styles, in the h pe that it will ﬁll the l ong-felt want for the essential facts

n i n m prese ted quickly available for , and that it may

o f serve as the primer a fascinating and useful study . For the convenience of such persons as may be

n o to n o e c uraged delve more deeply i t the subj ect,

I shall add at the end of this volume a list of books .

on It is not a complete list , but it is l g enough for

c o n all pra tical purp ses, and it i cludes the works of

To t I the leading authorities . many of hese authors

n n n am personally i debted, havi g co sulted their works

n th e o f t oo freque tly in preparation his handb k . The greater part o f th is volume ﬁrst appeared in “ ” th e form of magazine arti cles in The Art World

I o o am indebted to its edit rs for permissi n to reprint . A po rtion of Chapter II appeared originally i n Arts ” 81 o o f n Decoration . The maj rity the illustratio s are from photographs of authenti c examples of an tique furniture i n the collections of the Metropolitan f s o . Mu eum Art, New York

W . A . D .

[viii] CON T E N T S

CHAPTER I PERIOD FU RN IT U R E I N MODE RN HOMES

II ITA LI A N RE N A ISSA NC E

III TH E RE N A ISSANCE ELSEWH E RE

IV LO U I S X IV

V LO U IS XV

VI LO U I S XVI

VI I TH E EMP IRE

VI II JACO BEA N AND R E STORATION

IX AN G LO -D U TC H

X G E ORG I A N

XI AME RICA N STYL E S

CH RO N OLOG ICA L TA BL E S

BI BLIOG RAP HY

INDEX

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PAG E Th e s a on of ar i e n oi ne e at on ai ne e au ou i s XIV l M A t tt F t bl , L ' s tyl e Fr onti spz e ce

i o hi oa i r a i E ngl sh G t c k l ve y c b net . Fi fte enth centu r y 5

i s oak a i n i i nen- ar E ngl h c b et w th l fold c vi ng . Fi ft e enth centu r y 5

i en Ita li an car ve d ch es t . S xt e th cent u r y

r r i h i n C a v ed mar age c est or cassone . S xt e e th centu ry

r i n h n r It ali an ca ve d wal nu t b ench . S xtee t ce tu y

- i h ac e a i an ar mch ai r u ho s er e wi h e e . E ar H g b k d It l , p l t d t v lv t ly sev enteenth centu r y

S ixte e nth c entu ry It ali an cu r u le or S av onar ol a ch a i r with br o cad e u phol st er y

Typi cal Ital i an t abl e of th e s ixt ee nth cen tu ry

or en i ne si e oar or cr e ence s i e e n h c en u r Fl t d b d d , xt t t y

r e nch cr e ence o f th e a e ee n h c en u r w i h ﬁne o hi c F d l t ﬁft t t y, t G t tr acer y and l i ne n-fo ld c ar vi n g

A Fl emi sh Ren ai ss ance cabi ne t of e b ony w i th b one i nl ay . Abou t 1 600

i e n h e n u r Fr ench Renai s sance car v ed che st . S xt e t c t y — ar e w a nu a e . r e nch e nai ss ance 1 0 1 600 C v d l t t bl F R , 5 5

- i o r u oar w i h car e u orm s u or s . E ngl sh oak c u t c pb d, t v d b lb f pp t Ab ou t 1 575-1 600

n i sh oak w ai nsco ch ai r car e wi h th e Tu or r os e . Si x E gl t , v d t d te e nth centu r y

r a wi h s a and ac o f cane whi ch w as A Lou i s XI V a mc h i r t e t b k , l ess common th an u phol s te r y [xi i ILLUSTRATIONS PAG E oui s XIV a rmch ai r of th e mi e e r i o wi h cu r e e s A L ddl p d, t v d l g and cu r n r br a i ved u d e ce s . G ld e d w ood and t ap estr y

i ca ou i s XI V so a u h o s e r e i n a es r s i ne i n A typ l L f p l t d t p t y, d e g d th e manne r of B er ai n

A ﬁ n e ly c ar v e d Lou i s XI V t abl e of gi ld ed w ood w i th ma r bl e top from the Ch at e a u d e Vaux

L at e Lou i s XIV s i d e ch ai r s of oak w i th u ph ol s te ry of G e noe se v e lv et

A ou i s XI V a e and sma ca i n e i n th e st e of B ou e L t bl ll b t yl ll , made of eb ony w i th gi lt and b r on ze mou nts

a e ou i s XIV ar mch ai r wi h cu r e e s u h o s e r i n L t L t v d l g , p l t ed tap Th ai a r a an e stry . e d e t l s e b l ced

m h a i r a r ou i s ar c of c e w a nu u h o s ere i n r oc a e . L XV v d l t, p l t d b t ll e Note th e u nb a l anced d et ai ls i n th e ca r vi ng 59

ou i s conso e of car e and i e w oo wi h mar e to 60 L XV l v d g ld d d , t bl p

A Lou i s XV t able of po li sh e d oak wi th carvi ng typi cal of th e p er i od

A Lou i s XV ar mch ai r wi th cane se at and b ack

ou i s a r mch ai r of w a nu u h o s er e w i h a es r L XV l t, p l t d t t p t y

A Lou i s XVI ar mch a i r wi th s qu ar e b ack and s eat of cane and f r ame of car v e d w a l nu t

ou i s ar mch a i r wi h o a ac of ai n e and i e A L XVI t v l b k, p t d g ld d woo d u phol ster e d

o i s ar or i n th e o e anha an New Yor . oo L u XVI p l H t l M tt , k A g d e xampl e of th e mo d e r n a ppli cati on of the s tyl e

Typi ca l Emp i r e consol e t a bl e of mah ogany w i th or mol u d ecor a ti ons and a mi r r or at th e b ack

T - e r ou n a e wi h mosai c to r hon su or s hr ee l e gg d d t bl t p , g yp pp t , and th e ﬂ ami ng tor ch i n th e cent e r

r - r o s of the E m i r e er i o showi n th e A typi ca l d op f nt d e k p p d , g r ou n i ar s er i ca orm and or mo u mou n s d p ll , v t l f , l t [xii ] ILLUSTRATIONS PAG E

a uteu i l ond ol e . No e the conca e ac cu r e r e ar e s A f g t v b k, v d l g , and sw an-neck ar ms

no h e r u i o f mah o an wi h r oc a e u ho s e r n A t , b lt g y, t b d p l t y a d wi th met a l mou nts

A i ca bed of th e Em i r e er i o u i of maho an e n typ l p p d , b lt g y, r i ch ed wi th o r mol u mou nt s

’ i r Na o eon s h ron e r oom t o Th e Emp e s tyl e . p l t a F nt ai ne bl e au — o r oa r 1 Typi cal J ac b ean p ess cu pb d of oak . 650 1 675 — a i r 1 1 Di ni ng t abl e of th e pl ne J acob e an typ e . 6 50 67 5

ma a e a e aco e an of o ak and w a nu s howi n th e S ll t bl , l t J b , l t , g pop u l ar sp i r al tu r ni ng

An o ak a e-l e a e of a ou 1 6 8 w i h c ar e e s and s u g t g t bl b t 5 , t v d l g p

or s r n s r mor e common p t . Tu e d l eg w e e

O ak w ai nsco ch ai r of a ou 1 6 0 s h ow i n the aco e an ar i a t b t 5 , g J b v ti on of the Tu dor r ose i n th e car vi ng

i ca e s or a i on ch a i r w i h scr o -wor car i n c an e s e a A typ l R t t t ll k v g, t a nd ac and th e emi sh ee b k, Fl f t

ou n a ou ch ai r of th e a e s e e n ee n h c e n u r wi h r u sh R d b t l t v t t t y, t b ottom and w i th th e Sp ani sh foo t i n f r ont

E n i sh c a i n e e m e i sh e wi h mar k etr of th e D u ch e gl b t, b ll d t y t typ P e r i od of Wi lli am an d M ar y

ahe- ac ar mch ai r s of th e i i am and ar e r i od s howi n C b k W ll M y p , g th e Fr ench i nﬂue nce of D ani e l M ar ot

H i gh ch es t of d r aw e r s of th e Wi ll i am and M a r y p e r i od w i th Fl emi s h p ane li n g and b e ll -tu r ned su pp or ts

a e u e en nne h i h o of w a nu eneer w i h D u ch e s L t Q A g b y l t v , t t l g

ro e n-ar ch e i men an d r ass i n s b k p d t, b ﬁtt g

sma s an of th e u e en n n e er i o wi h two r o e a e s A ll t d Q A p d , t d p l v su ppor te d o n swi ngi ng cabr i ol e l egs of th e D u tch typ e 1 1 3

- E a r e or i an ch ai r of w a n u eneer sh owi n th e a and ly G g l t v , g b ll c l aw f ee t of 1 7 1 5 and after [xiii ] ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE A cabi ne t for chi na d e si gn ed by Chi pp end al e i n modi ﬁ ed Chi nes e s tyl e

- Tr i pod te a t abl e wi th l acqu e r e d pi ecr u s t top and b all-and -cl aw f e e t

hi en a e ch ai r wi h i e r ce s a C pp d l , t p d pl t

hi en a e ch ai r a e r - ac e C pp d l , l dd b k typ

Heppl ewh i te shi e ld -b ack ar mch ai r

S her aton ch ai r wi th r ect an gu l ar b ack

e ewh i e mah o an i er a e wi h s u a re e s i n ai w i h H ppl t g y p t bl t q l g , l d t s ati nwood

A typi cal Sh e r aton tabl e wi th i n l ay on th e f ro nt and wi th a er i n r ee e e s t p g, d d l g

” Amer i can fancy ch ai r of the e ar ly ni nete enth ce ntu ry

A typi cal lyr e-b ack ch ai r mad e by D u ncan Phyf e

Th r ee types of Amer i can Wi ndsor ar mch ai r s of th e l ate e i gh t eenth centu ry

i r ar s an of mah o an h e L b y t d g y, by P yf

oo e am e of the wor of D uncan h e the mer i can A g d x pl k P yf , A i n - r o - e a a of mah o an 1 cab e t maker . A d p l f t bl e g y 34

’ i - a ane s ar eau On e of Phyf e s e ght l e gged so fas . Th e b ck p l e b ti f u l ly car ve d and th e s li ght swi ng of th e ar ms most gr acefu l

Handbo o k o f Fu r ni tu r e

Style s

CHAPTER I M MD H P ERIOD FU RN I T U RE I N O ERN O ES

Y NQUESTIONABL , American home makers are taking a more and more i ntelli gen t in terest i n the historic styles i n fu rn i

SO- a n and ture . Rapidly have the c lled moder styles designs Of no particular peri od given place to these

o c o n . hist ri styles, or what purp rt to represe t them

I n c for o f n n o f fa t, the vogue this sort thi g has bee almost too rapid a growth ; it has led to superﬁcial knowledge and slipshod execution . The American purchaser appears willing to pay good prices for

o o peri d furniture, while his knowledge Of the peri d

as as of on styles , well that the salesman, is ast ish

n i gly slight . I doubt whether he would buy pic tures o r phonograph records on such slight in forma — ti on certainly not books or theater tickets or auto

o m biles . [s] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLE

The way this vogue for the historic styles as caught on is impressive to one who follows art ma e

e ' ments and similar tendencies . At the pres nt 0 ment the furniture and department stores of NW York are displaying almost noth ing but peri od fi n i

he ture , and window labels and Show cards mention names of Queen Anne or Thomas Chippendale . It “ has proved to be good selling stuff .

i All this is somethi ng we must take account f. To this increased demand for peri od furniture ne manufacturers have responded readily with an n creased output of more o r less meritorious re 0 d c ‘-a u ti ons of period furniture . Should there no e an equally ready response from those whose bu si nss o r pleasure it is to disseminate inform ation and ry to co rrect the prevalent American tendency to ;0 wrong in matters artistic $

o f be do e As a matter fact, something ought to , not only because education is always be tter than g norance od r , but because , to put it bluntly, go Ar r ican dollars are being spent for trash . I said that the New York stores were displ ayl g

‘ . was period furniture That a euphemism . e ri od e furniture it is called , and period furnitur it

r . o looks like to the uninfo med shopper Some f t,

is fo r u se indeed, period furniture, there are , of co , [4]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLE S

The way this vogue for the historic styles h as caught on is impressive to one who follows art move ments and similar tendencies . At the present mo ment the fu rniture an d department stores o f New York are displaying almost nothing but period fu rni

n l o on th e ture, and wi dow labe s and Sh w cards menti names of Queen Anne or Thomas Chippendale . It “ has proved to be good selling stuff.

All this is something we must take account of . To this increased demand for peri od furniture the manufacturers have responded readily with an i n creased output of more o r less meritorious repro du cti ons of period furniture . Should there not be an equally ready response from those whose business o r pleasure it is to disseminate inform ation and try to correct the prevalent American tendency to go wrong in matters artistic$

As a matter of fact, something ought to be done, not only because educati on is always betterthan ig m m orance, but because, to put it bluntly, good A er ican dollars are being spent for trash . I said that the New Yo rk stores were displaying

P e period furniture . That was a euphemism . ri od furniture it is called, and period furniture it

. of looks like to the uninformed shopper Some it,

i s o indeed, peri d furniture, for there are, of course, [4]

a i a a r e It l n c v d ches t . S i xte e nth ce ntu r y

Car e ma rr i a e es or i x v d g ch t cass one . S te e nth ce ntu r y

i r e e Ita l a n c a v d wa ln u t b nch . S i xte e nth ce ntu r y PERIOD FURNITURE

o plenty of conscientious , studi us, skilful designers , and there are manufacturers who are honest enough and wise enough and possessed of enough of the spirit of craftmanship to impel th em to seek for beauty and

n accuracy in their reproductio s , and to tell the truth about them .

n The uninformed shopper, alas , has no mea s of distinguishing between the products of the honest and careful manufacturer and those of the other sort . When I look into New York shop windows

o and observe, beautifully displayed , the usual s rt of reproduction that is two ﬁfths peri od style and three ﬁfths the j oint product of a Grand Rapids drafts

o c n o n man and an aut mati turni g lathe, the wh le thi g gracefully termed a William and Mary dining-room

o suite, I s metimes wonder what the more particular

n E glishmen or Frenchmen must think o f u s . For a large portion of the so-called period furniture dis

i n ou r o —a played st res is j ust that hybrid, mongrel

n o style, with j ust e ough hist ric details to produce a

o OPE- to s rt of hand resemblance the genuine thing, compounded with the most casually designed and executed machine work showing neither taste nor

n imagi ation .

me Permit to remark, parenthetically, that my reference to Grand Rapids was not intended as a [7 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

n o f n slur upon the fair ame that city . For Gra d Rapids h as become not only the greatest furn iture

o o be pr ducing center in the w rld, but it is rapidly

o n o n n so as c mi g s methi g very like an art ce ter, far

applied art is concern ed . Time was when the art

was she o of Grand Rapids a j oke, but has outgr wn the days o f Missi on furniture and crude imitations and is probably producing as much ﬁne furniture to- — u day tr e to type, beautifully designed and hon estl —as an y executed y city in the world . But Grand Rapids and o ther cities where fu rni ture is made are con tinually producing so-called perio d furniture that is j ust wrong enough to be

n nd . I n n a n da gerous proportio , workmanship, ﬁ ish ,

r oo not it may even be ve y g d furniture, but it is what

o o n it purp rts t be . It ﬁ ds a ready customer in the man or woman of fairly goo d taste who almost knows

not . what the historic styles are , but quite I do not mean to in timate that one should pur

’ chase nothing but genuine antiques ; there wouldn t

to o n o ffo be enough go ar u d, even if we c uld all a rd

o o them . Our h mes are the m re beautiful because o f the reproduction o f historic styles by modern

n o ma ufacturers . N r must every piece be an exact

of copy o f an authentic antique . The requirements modern life call for pieces Of furniture that were not [8] P ERIOD FURNITURE

made i n Jacobean or Geo rgian days . But it is quite possible for a well -equipped designer to fashi on a

o r oo for m i n c r library bedr m suite , exa ple , whi h eve y

n and detail is authe tic, which exempliﬁes the true

o to n . spirit of the peri d that it seeks represe t This, n n C n and i deed , requires greater skill tha mere opyi g, n ot all design ers possess that skill . The result is the mass o f near-period furniture o f which I have been speaking .

Now o n n o what shall we do ab ut it, si ce we ca n t hope to reform the manufacturers $ Shall we go on n fl n o buyi g it, atteri g urselves that we have the real thing$ Or shall we learn to discriminate be tween the true and the not-quite-true $ Furniture o f this type should last a lifetime . Shall we con demn ourselves to a life-l ong assoc iation with styles that are essentially counterfeit $ This is not an argumen t for or against the use of period furniture . The fact is that the historic styles

o and c are p pular, furniture whi h claims to be true to n on n an type is bei g c sta tly bought d sold . If

ou r we desire period furniture in homes , let it be

n i n genui e design . How can we be sure o f what we are getting$ We

’ n sa - cannot depend on a salesma s y so . He may be

o honest, but no better p sted than we are . Our only [9 ] HANDBOO$ OF FURNITURE STYLES safeguard is a more thorough education along these lines, and the time to get this education is before

c n not pur hasi g, after . When purchas ers are at last able to distinguish for themselves between the tru e

c and the false, the manufa turers will be forced into - line, and we shall ﬁnd less of the pseudo period

o styles in our sh ps . The average American likes a quick and easy path to k to fa nowledge, but that is not the way become

o f th e miliar with the essentials historic styles . One must visit museums and make a study of authentic

n o — examples . O e must read books n the subj ect o f which many good ones have been printed . One must study the illustrations in these books until one can of recognize at a glance the period a piece , as one recognizes the make of a motor car by the shape

of n . n the hood or the proportio s of the body The ,

one when sees a chair or a table in a shop window, one can tell at a glance whether or not it possesses the fundamental characteristics of the style indi cate on d the label . It must not be expected that this handbook will supply that education in tabloid form . The chap ters which follow are intended rather to serve as a

of or as sort primer to the complete study, a guide and ready reference for the refreshment of memory . [ 1 0]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

The Renaissance movemen t was European in

n and scope, but it had its begin ing, focus, highest

n c n o devel opment in Italy . New life was i j e ted i t

o almost every ﬁeld of endeav r . There was a verita

o f n c ble outburst i tellectual energy, from whi h

o n n o and o n sprang disc veries , i ve ti ns the devel pme t ”

n n n . n o a d dissemi atio of ideas Duri g that peri d, “ o n n on on n n o says J h Addi gt Sym ds , the e tire ati n (Italy) seemed to be endowed with an instinct for the beautiful and with the capacity for producing it ” n i n every fo rm . A other writer has termed this “ awakening an exhibition of emancipated modern

and of genius , ﬁred illuminated by the masterpieces ”

. o o the past It was a natural , j y us , free feeling,

i n on of expressed every ﬁeld, a liberati ideas marked

and n u ntram by originality spo taneity, guided but mel ed by the traditions o f antiquity . The creative impulse was supreme ; it was a Golden Age of

n achieveme t . Architecture was the basis and guide of furniture design , and Italian architecture may be divided

1 1 00 1 00 roughly into periods , as follows to 4 ,

o 1 00 Byzantine , Romanesque, Lombardic, G thic ; 4

1 00 to 1 600 to early or free Renaissance ; 5 ,

1 600 to 1 00 high or classic Renaissance ; 7 , baroque or rococo Renaissance and the Decadenza . The [ 1 2 ] ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

o c n i n was G thi , ever very ﬁrmly established Italy,

b o n or o-c c and supplanted y a R ma esque pseud lassi , the ﬁrst impulses o f the Renaissance movemen t were

l i n o n n fe t the f urtee th ce tury, called in Italy the tre

n o o i n o- n o ce to . This was f ll wed the quattr ce t by a

o n to n s c m re deﬁnite retur the classic feeli g, under u h leaders as Luca della Robia and Filippo B r unelles

n o of c chi . The came a purer adaptati n the lassic

n n - n o or n c duri g the ci que ce t , sixtee th entury, which had its culminati on in the architecture o f Andrea Palladi o of Vicenza ( 1 5 1 8 It was during the Sixteenth century that the arts

o n and ﬂ urished luxuria tly, the styles became imbued

of n o n an d with the spirit the a tique, albeit rigi al based upon a genuinely creative impulse . I n$9 1 “ Leonardo da Vi nci was appoin ted Directo r Of Pain t i ng and Architecture i n the Academy by the Duke Of

n on to n o Mila , and he began at ce i tr duce Greek and

o n R man styles . Excavati ons of Roman a d Tuscan ruins discl osed antique works o f art th at aroused

o n n extra rdi ary interest . Leo X became Pope i

1 1 and of c 5 3 , the powerful Medici family, whi h he

on o was a member, patr ized and encouraged the m ve

. o n ment Great artists ar se, whose ames will ever

s n n — c o be a sociated with the Re aissa ce Mi hael Angel ,

o Corre Titian , Andrea del Sart , Raphael Sanzio, g [ 1 3 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

and . n gio, others Palladio studied a cient archi tec ture and built new palaces ; Benvenuto Cellini an d Lorenzo Ghiberti designed and fashioned master

i n o pieces gold, silver, and bronze ; w nderful tapes

of s s e t tries were woven, and an era arti tic activity in

’ l asted th rou h ou t th e which g century, to be followed at last by the inevitable decadence .

cl assrc i i ff so The sp r t, which e ected great a change in o architecture, was further exempliﬁed in the f rm and ornamentation of furniture . Carved wood

th e o n work became v gue in i teriors , and the furniture

n - n styles followed this lead . Cabi et maki g became

as an hono red craft . The furniture w nearly as architectural in type as that of the Gothic period

o . massive, and f llowing architectural lines Columns

n and pilasters were a feature . Cabinets and pa eling

$ o or o f the t ok on the f ms temples and palaces , fronts o f cupbo ards and presses often representing temple

as facades . The furniture w better placed in the rooms and assumed a greater individuality . It was

the in the ornamentation , however, especially carv

n ing, that the Renaissance spirit fou d its fullest ex pression .

o f o n n The wealthy nobles Fl re ce, Mila , Rome,

i c to su m Ven ce , and other ities began desire more p ou s and t furnishings for their new homes , elabora [ 1 4]

Typi ca l Itali a n ta ble of th e S i xt e e nth ce ntu r y

F r e i e s i e a r or r e e e s ix e e e u r lo nt n d bo d c d nc , t nth c nt y ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

and handsome chests, cabinets, tables , chairs , and other furniture were made for them . Artists and cabinet-makers from oth er co untries went to learn

o f so at the feet the Italian masters , that furniture

or made then soon after in Spain , France, Flanders ,

to n n o Germany, and some exte t in E gland, is s me times not easily distinguished from that o f Italy . The spirit and styles of the Italian Renaissance

o o n swept acr ss th e c ntine t .

o f In general , the style this furniture was palatial ,

n o . o n rather tha d mestic, in character Fl re ce led in a vivacious but digniﬁed treatment of classic de

of o o n tails . Sense line and pr p rtio was innate in

c su bordi the Florentine school , and even olor was n ated o of to form , th ugh the wealth ornamental de

no tail was t to be suppressed . Venetian furniture

was n . , if a ything, even more richly elaborate

- of The cabinet makers the Renaissance, with their m i pulse toward ﬁnely wrought carving, partially

- c abandoned the coarse grained oak, whi h was the

mon of o be com est material the G thic period , and

to u se gan walnut, chestnut, and other woods . In

of O the matter rnament, carving assumed the ﬁrst

of . importance, and some it was masterly The

a or st ndard of workmanship was high . The dec a tive styles lagged somewhat behind the architecture, [ 1 7] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES and Goth ic details persisted more o r less until the

n tr ue classi c revival o f the sixteenth ce tury . The lives of saints c ame to play a less prominent

n an d n c i n . part in the carvi g, the paga element rept

o o and o c c be Mythol gical , alleg rical , hist ri al subj e ts

o and co n o of came p pular, that Skilful mbi ati n purely decorative scroll-wo rk and picto rial fo rm which we have come to ass ociate with the Renaissance style .

n Symmetry and balance were gu iding pri ciples .

n th e an The details i cluded the fret, the arabesque, th emi on n o o o r , the aca thus , the scr ll , the cart uche

c con o pier ed shield, ventionalized fruit and ﬂ wers , the o n th e n and d lphi , huma ﬁgure, fanciful , half

c n human fo rms . The arvi g became more and more

n o and n l i tricate , in b th high and low relief, ﬁ a ly

n n o n n fa tastic, u til the bar que te de cy became pre domin ant and Italy han ded the scepter of furniture design to France . Some of this Ren aissance furn iture was also en

c n . o and o en ri hed with i lay Iv ry b ne , sometimes

on and o graved, let into eb y, walnut, rosewo d, had

o n been popular for m re than a ce tury i n Venice .

o of n T ward the end the fourteenth ce tury, Italian cabinet-makers began to copy marble mosaics by

n o f n o mea s of inlays atural or dyed woods , sc rched

and or and o . etched with hot sand iron , p lished with [ 1 8]

HANDBOOK OF FURNIT URE STYLE S

paneled, and sometimes ornamented with gilding and

erm g . The ceilings were vaulted and coffered .

The walls were usually hung with fabrics , above a

n paneled wai scot . There were rich brocades and

Genoese velvets, softer and richer than the glar i n c o of g ol rs the Gothic period, and also stamped and gilded leather . In the sixteenth century the

u se famous Renaissance tapestries came into . The cabinet became one of th e most important pieces of furniture in the homes of the period, and one of the most imposing . It was always a thing

u of dignity . Large, sometimes mon mental in their t proportions , and richly carved or inlaid, hese cabi nets often displayed great magniﬁcence and artistic skill . They were decidedly architectural in form , sometimes being designed with the steps and col umns o n f a temple . At ﬁrst their outli es often followed those of Roman arches and sarcophagi , but later they

of were modiﬁed, and those the sixteenth century exhibit considerable grace and variety . Toward - the end they became over elaborate and even bizarre . “f an Chairs were, naturally, important item in the

n and t Renaissa ce household, during the sixteen h cen tury they became fairly abundant . Those that have come down to u s are chieﬂy of the high-backed and

- e the cu rule forms . The high backed chairs wer [20] ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

and n huge and stately, richly carved ha dsome, with

c perpendi ular backs , ﬂat, square seats, and arms . They could scarcely have been c onsidered comforta

o f oak n an o . d ble They were made , wal ut , ther

o o o of woods , without uph lstery, th ugh cushi ns

and leather, silk, velvet were used with them .

c o r oo The curule hair, faldst l

o n s metimes called the Savo arola chair, was smaller

on and more comfortable . It was fashi ed on a R 0

i n o of fre man model , the f rm a curved X , and was

c quently construc ted as a folding hair . It became especially popular i n Fl orence and Venice duri ng

n o f the sixtee th century, where it was Often made

c and o and Italian walnut, arved s metimes gilded , frequen tly furnished with a back and seat o f

c or o r n stret hed velvet leather, with a woode seat upon which a cushi on was placed . Toward the e nd of c c o o the century, hairs were oc asi nally uph lstered i n c o r and Silk, tapestry , bro ade, leather, there was a - ff oo c . oo and sti , rather ugly, all w d hair Carved st ls

o o i n o of settees were also c mm n the h mes the period . The tables of the Ren aissance were less stiff and

n ugly tha those which had preceded them . The typical Renaissance table was Obl ong and supported at the ends by solid carved and shaped suppo rts o r

n o o n o r o co s les, ften terminati g in large claw scr ll [2 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

feet, and usually connected by a heavy stretcher or

‘ shelf u on a lower , p which smaller supports some

so times rested . These tables were often made high as to seem impractical from the modern point of

n view . They were freque tly richly embellished with i n lay and gildi ng as well as carving . The tops were

n o r of o thick pla ks, sometimes Slabs marble or Fl r e nti ne mosaic .

off c C ers and hests were commonadj uncts , partie u l arl carmne or c n y the , marriage hest, inte ded for

and n th e trousseau wedding gifts . It was the li eal

c and descendant of the medieval hest, was made of

or and solid walnut chestnut, sometimes oak, occa

on o si ally f cypress or camphor wood . Some ex amples are shaped like sarcophagi ; others have per p endi cu l ar sides and ends . Some are carved with scrolls and ﬁgures ; others are painted and gilded or

’ o o o rn amented with i nfarr za and ﬁne gerr w rk .

n Often they are masterpieces of orname t . There was o o f ba be l also a higher f rm chest, called a . These are the principal pieces of furniture that b interest the collector . Elaborately carved uffets

n and crede ces are sometimes to be seen . Several

o 1 600 n new forms were intr duced about , addi g

n greater variety to the home furnishi gs, though less — — admirable in their wo rkmanship serving tables [22 ] ITALIAN RENAISSANCE

c o f and fo r and Sideboards , hests drawers dressers

co c o c s and n - the bedroom, u hes , bo k a es , writi g tables

n co n or desks . The beds were heavy, havi g mmo ly

o o on o and n a ro f supp rted f ur columns , existi g ex amples are rare .

of o or c Mirrors p lished steel , with metal ri hly c arved and gilded frames are among the extan t

and o of treasures of the period , s me them are exquis ite examples Of design and craftsmanship . Glass

o not n o n mirr rs were i tr duced until later, the ﬁrst o es

o n c . nc c mi g from Veni e Italian Renaissa e bellows ,

- c wall bra kets , candlesticks, and other small obj ects ,

n o o too o n t ofte richly carved , th ugh s metimes r a e ,

c o are also much sought by connoisseurs . Su h cl cks

and as were used were small usually had metal cases ,

n o -of- and i laid with iv ry, horn, mother pearl , lapis

o o f lazuli . There were als screens stamped and painted Spanish leather .

Chirnne i eces a c yp , while they can h rdly be lassed

S n n o th e as furniture , have ometimes bee take fr m old and o palaces , in many cases represent the ﬂ wer of

n n Re aissa ce design and carving . With the exception of the Savonarola chairs and

o n c n the mirrors, and possibly an ccasio al table, abi et , or c n n c c hest, Italian Renaissa ce fur iture is s ar ely

u se i n o o suited to actual the modern h me . M st of [23] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

i n of it Should be preserved museums , where students art and the development of decorative Styles may

o have access t it . It is not to be assumed that all o f it is admirable

oo and or worthy of equal praise . There were g d

t now. o bad workmen in those days, as here are S me authentic pieces display unpardonable extravagance

n o f or poor workma ship , while the furniture the later Renaissance shows a tendency toward confusi on o f

- o o f a ideas , over ornamentation , and ther marks p p roach ing decadence . But no artistic education is co in of mplete, the ﬁeld decorative and applied art, without some knowledge of the best wo rk o f the carvers and cabinet-makers of the Italian Renais sance . CHAPTER III

TH E RENAI SSAN C E E LS EWH ERE — ( 1 500 1 650)

HAVE begun with the Italian Renaissance

t n because it is of prime impor a ce . Before

proceeding, however, it may be well to take a

the hasty glance at styles of an even earlier era . The furniture of those ancient times now in exist

e ence may be considered negligible . It is but t motely related to ou r modern Styles . The student of of co the history ornament, however, must take g ni z ance of n of ma y diverse styles , some them primi

hi s tive in type, in order to round out subj ect . Ori

a — — ental orn ment Chinese, Persian , etc . as well as

in Scandinavian , Celtic, etc . , all played a part the general evolution of decorative styles .

o ﬁ Peri d decoration , however, as exempli ed in the furniture styles of Europe, Shows a fairly direct de vel opment from ancient Egypt to modern America . The antique Egyptian had a recrudescence in both

and France England in the time of Napoleon , and it formed the basis of some of the art o f Greece . Its [25 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES deco rative features included th e column and entab

l atu re o n . , the papyrus , l tus , palm , sphi x, and scarab With cl assic Greek and Roman architecture we are fairly familiar ; we are always harking back to it . The decorative Styles of Greece and Rome were adapted by the style creators of the Italian Renais sance and by the promoters o f succeeding classic re

c - o vi vals . Allied to the Gre o R man was the Pom

one of o of peian style, the m st beautiful all the w c . n as E classi types Its origi , in turn , partly gyp tian . It employed the pillar, the pilaster, the carved

o th e co a nd on supp rt, the panel , ﬂuted lumn , , the

o on o furniture, modeled br nze . W derful use of c lor

o n n in interi rs was an outsta di g feature . Then came the decadence of the Dark Ages and the gradual emergence therefrom . In southern Europe during the tenth to the fourteenth centuries we have the Slow developmen t of the Saracenic and

. n n o o n Byzantine styles The Byza ti e, f ll wi g the

n c n In Roma , had its enter in Consta tinople . the

o n n north we ﬁnd the R ma esque a d Gothic . These styles foun d expression chieﬂy i n archi tec

. o and o ture After the R man P mpeian , the Gothic was the ﬁrst to make itself vitally felt in furniture / design . The Gothic school originated in northern France and its inﬂuence spread over a large part of [26 ]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES tant example is the coronati on chair at Westminster

c oak o Abbey, whi h is Of carved and was built ab ut

1 0. For o n 3 the most part, stools , f rms , and be ches h were used, some plain and some ornamented wit

c n n carving. The common people o ti ued content

r o f c oo with the udest kind tables, hests, and St ls , of no style at all .

n n In England duri g the ﬁftee th century , when the

n Renaissance moveme t had already begun in Italy,

ﬁn d t o r o c we a ransition late G thic style, haracter i z e d by too much ornament . The cinquefoil and

n o f to to gue ﬂame were added the decorative motifs . — The furniture was rather extravagant in Style less

o f o worthy, in fact, than that the previ us century Well-constructed presses and c upboards and ornate chairs and bedsteads are among the pieces that have been preserved . At last the Spirit of the Renais sance touched England , having already inspired

and o f France Spain, and the era practical , movable

n c n furniture was i augurated, in whi h there was ma i

ffo o o fest the e rt to c mbine comf rt and beauty .

o f n The powerful inﬂuence the Italian Re aissance, which affected the applied arts of all Europe s ooner or i n n later, made itself felt F rance duri g the reigns of Charles VIII and Louis XII ( 1 453 and [28]

Fr e R e a i ssa e a r e nch n nc c v d ches t . Sixte e nth ce ntu r y

Ca r e a l u a — d e . Fr e R e a i s sa e 1 v w n t t bl nch n nc , 5 5 0 1 6 00 THE RENAISSANCE ELSEWHERE formed the dominant note in French decorative

c n o o f Styles, with some ha ges , up to the cl se the

o reign of Louis XIII . This was the peri d of the

French Renaissance . It has sometimes been divided

n o o o ti - o : n i t f ur ep chs or S b periods , as foll ws tra si

n V 1 —1 1 tio , Charles III to Louis XII, 453 5 5 ; early

o 1 1 —1 c n n Renaissance, Franc is I , 5 5 547 de li e , He ri

1 —1 6 1 0 II, to Henri IV, 5 7 ; later Renaissance, — 4 o 1 6 1 0 1 6 . L uis XIII, 43 The ﬁrst of these four epochs witnessed the be

n ginnings of the new awakeni g . A freely orna mented Go thic remained the predominant style . The reign of Francois I was a peri od of great artistic development in France, during which the Renais

a n . s nce movement came i to full ﬂower Architecture ,

and furniture design , interior decoration all felt this

n impulse . The king e couraged the adoption of the Italian styles and sent to Italy for such great artists and craftsmen as Leonardo da Vinci , Andrea del

o e ali o S r n . o Sart , , and Benvenuto Celli i The G be

n o li s established their tapestry works ab ut this time . Francois ﬁnished building Fontai nebl e au and com mence d o n of the Louvre, empl yi g the services da

n o and . n Vi ci , del Sart , others The Fre ch nobles

’ on followed their m arch s lead , building chateaux in [3 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES the Italian Style and supplying them with fu rniture — construc ted after Italian models some of it Of ex ce llent o w rkmanship .

I n n oo o of n o the mai , the w dw rk Fra c is I was pat

n n on ter ed after the Italian, but the orname tati was

o and con . lighter, the carving m re open less servative The French chairs were s omewhat more graceful and

n o f of lighter tha those Italy, with the same type

n o or n carvi g, but ften with spiral turned ru gs, legs ,

o h o and . supp rts Still , t ey were s lid and Of generous

o on . n n . pr porti s Oak was ﬁrst used, the wal ut The use of cushi ons was foll o wed by upholstery and a tendency toward greater comfort and luxury . The

of and seats the chairs were broad, the legs Straight, t the backs not as high as those o f Italy . O her pieces

o o o o f ll wed Italian m dels more r less closely . Chests and cabinets became less architectural i n character and o were s metimes furnished with drawers . — The reign o f Henri II ( 1 547 1 559 ) was even more productive in the realm of the industrial arts

— n n - fur iture, textiles, faie ce, and book bindings . The furniture was distingu ished by wonderful carv

n ing, the cabinets bei g especially notable . The

and strap band, the pierced Shield, arabesque,

n as loze ge, and ﬂat cartouche were introduced de sign motifs . [3 2 ] THE RENAISSANCE ELSEWHERE

n n o n o Duri g the ext f ur reigns (Fra c is II , Charles

n n o IX, Henri III, He ri IV) a sort of decli e r weary

n o i g f the art impulse se t in . Henri IV ( 1 589

1 6 1 0 for n ) endeavored to revive it, but the time bei g

n and l its force seemed to have been spe t, the sty es

n o c n were marked by mea ingless and ill gi al cha ges . The shell came into promin ence as a detail of o rna

’ ‘ the of o r omzl l e e Z co u zll e ment, forerunner roc co ( g ,

and rock shell) . There followed a rise i n the artistic curve during the reign of Louis XIII ( 1 6 1 0 when Cardi nal Richelieu was prime minister and Simon Vou et

o m o u xu ri a leader in the art w rld . Life beca e m re l ou s and the demand for ﬁne home furnishings more

o f o n n o general . The styles r ame t became m re

t n . varied, wi h much scroll and shell carvi g

’ Vou et s o f furniture was the Italian type, with — much ﬂorid ornament the heavily scrolled car

o n and t uche, fancy pilasters , ponderous garla ds

o f and o . swags fruit ﬂ wers , and fantastic Shells Oth er designers followed the Flemish school and displayed greater restraint . An inc reasing variety of fo rms appeared ; there were more kinds of furniture made fo r every-day

n o of c an o use . Ma y f rms hairs d sofas became c m

and and o o c o f mon, the divan c ns le were produ ts this [3 3 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

\ I

i . c i o o re gn The ha rs , as a rule, were more c mf rtable, and were more commonly used for o rdinary domestic

o and purposes . S metimes they were made in sets,

o oc were usually uph lstered in velvet, br ade, tapestry,

n c o and needlework . Bedroom fur iture be ame m re

m on luxuri ous . The walls were co m ly decorated

n o n n with orname tal friezes ab ve pa eled wai scots .

of n n and The styles the Germa , Spa ish , Flemish

nc o o Renaissa e were all cl sely related . The m ve ment gained strength in Hollan d and Flanders later

nc o f than i n Fra e . Margaret Austria became gover n or of n i n 1 0 n o the Netherla ds 5 7 , and i tr duced the

n n k n Italia Styles and Italia wor me , but the Flemish

. n nc o Re aissa e was at its best after 1 6 00. Bef re that Italian models were copied ; afterward the Lo w Countries established a Renaissance style of their own n , which was interpreted by tale ted designers

- n and wonderful wood workers . Remarkable carvi g

was o nc n o o f o . d ne, i ludi g ﬁgure w rk a high rder At ﬁrst o ak was the only medium empl oyed ; later ebony

n o and other woods were i tr duced . F lemish furniture o f the seven teenth century was

n n n and excellent i desig and workma ship, exerted a

n . powerful inﬂuence over E gland For example, a

o i n c and n chair that was ad pted both Fran e Engla d ,

to u nde rbrace and with high back, carved p and , _ cane [34]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

n o encouraged . Fi e needlew rk and tooled leather

o were pr duced . The lustrous Spanish chestnut became the chief

n c fur iture material , with some cedar, ypress , and

n of n n o pi e . The art i layi g with ebony, iv ry, etc . ,

n f c was in troduced from Flanders . Cabi ets o hest nut were richly o rn amented with repoussé plaques of

and o f o o - n and Silver later t rt ise Shell , ebo y, rare

o woods from the tropics . Elab rate desks and other

r he o of pieces were manufactured . T Flemish f rm ‘

- c m high ba ked chair was modiﬁed . It com only had hoof feet and a solid back of dark-brown Co rdova

and s leather, stamped Studded with bra s nails and

. o was mounts This , like the riginal Flemish form ,

o n n n o 1 imp rted i to E gla d ab ut 660.

n o n was The Renaissa ce m veme t , strictly Speaking,

i n n C less marked E gland than on the ontinent, but there was a gradual devel opment o f styles during the

o c . Tud r period whi h parallels it Roughly, Eng lish furn iture may be divided into that of the age of oak o 1 66 0 of n , lasting until ab ut ; the age wal ut,

1 660 o 1 2 o f till ab ut 7 5 ; and the age mahogany, to

n n of n the begin i g the ni eteenth century . That is

o ' the ﬁrst br ad division . Up to the close Of th e Cromwellian perio d oak was the predominant wood in English furniture . The earliest furniture was [3 6 ] THE RENAISSANCE ELSEWHERE crude and heavy and included only such articles as i — were essent al to domestic life chests , tables,

and benches, beds, occasionally, chairs . Emerging from the crudities and limitations o f the

n Gothic period, English furniture yet retai ed the Gothic traditions of sturdiness and virility for many

n te years , until Continental inﬂue ces , which at ﬁrst

i t th e of ﬁned , led it at length into extravagance the

n Fre ch rococo .

m : n First, to sum arize the dates The Norma and

ot o 1 066 to G hic periods covered, r ughly, the years

o n of 1 485 . The Tudor peri d i cluded the reigns

1 8 - 1 r contem or Henry VII ( 4 5 Hen y VIII, p ary with the Renaissance movement ( 1 509 Edward VI ( 1 547 Mary ( 1 553 and Elizabeth ( 1 558 This last half century is

as n e o sometimes referred to the Elizabetha p ri d .

I wh o was n - Henry V II, an a ti Papist, desired a change from the Go thic styles which he associated

o with Catholic ecclesiastical architecure . He br ught John of Padua from Italy and installed him as court

o o architect . John was doubtless full f the Spirit f

’ n n the Italia Renaissance, but the ki g s attitude was

— - o negative, rather than positive anti G thic, rather — than pro-Renaissance and th e Ren aissance move

o f . ment was , slow growth in England Holbein , [3 7] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES .

‘ wh o i n n o 1 26 to 1 r e lived E gland fr m 5 543 , was sponsible for the introduction o f Flemish Renais

and sance ideas , Such as ﬂorid and graceful carving - inlay o f scroll work with elegant leafage and ﬁgures . — The stylesof the early Tudo r period ( 1 509 1 558)

o f o Show a mixture G thic survivals, with Italian,

and nc o a on o r Flemish , Fre h imp rt ti s , all more less

. was modiﬁed It a less plastic, less imaginative

of was of emascu Style th an that Italy . It a sort

V and o o lated Renaissance . Henry III his f ll wers appear to have caught something o f the decorative

’ not o and n n idea, but the idea of c mfort , E gla d was only half-awake to the art impulse of the Renais sance .

n n- o The familiar li e fold m tif, a substitute for per

endi cu l ar n o p Gothic lines, was i troduced int Eng

o c o r n as land, probably fr m Fran e Fla ders , early as

and i s o n on o . the ﬁfteenth century, f u d Gothic w rk

on c It now appeared with Tudor details chests , hoir

oo o f e tc . n Stalls, f tboards beds , The aca thus was

o and o intr duced from Italy, also the cart uche and

u éll ouclz e o n o n the g , a strap r ament f rmi g a succes sion o f circles . There were also Italian furniture

n forms and termi al shapes . After 1 53 6 the co arser German and Flemish fea

n n tures became more commo tha the Italian . There [3 8]

THE RENAISSANCE ELSEWHERE

of - o was a greater variety formal Strap w rk, more

on tu rned work, diamond Shapes superimposed square

f o n o . panels, and panel work made up m uldi gs n Other details were the Tudor rose, the dolphi , the

’ n n of lion s head, rou d portrait medallio s , series

- and - or fan round headed arches , a semi circular pat tern . These details were employed largely in church

t as in eriors, well as on wall panels and movable

o of furniture . The cabinet was a pr minent piece

i s furniture . There a remarkable example in the South $ensington Museum in the form of a Roman

of n . triumphal arch , like some the Italian cabi ets

of n It is chieﬂy pear wood , enriched with carvi g and inlay of the German type in a profusion of detail .

The tables were plain trestle affairs , often covered l an Ch ai rs with embroidered cloth or carpet . ( were and rare, were used only by the master and mistress of the n house, other persons usi g more or less crude

n of oak settles , be ches , forms , and stools, usually ,

and occasionally of ebony . The chairs were heavy

S a and solid, with tr ight backs ﬂat, wooden seats , sometimes furnished with cushions of embroidered

o velvet or other stuffs . There were also huge, elab r

n o ate beds and wo derfully carved aken chests . The main room of the private house was usually furnished [4 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

' dr ermzr - fo r n with a , or service cupboard drinki g

. or two s vessels , etc , a chair , some stools and benche ,

on and a board trestles . W rou s reign of Elizabeth o R enaiMement that s mething like a devel

e d b of pp , It was an era marked y a revival interest _

n o and in lear ing and the arts, by literary pr duction ,

o and om o . by s cial , political , c mercial pr gress The

n fur iture styles took on a more distinctive character .

a ori i l t n ga i g c g ﬁ y Occasionally pure Italian or Fre ch Ren aissance work give evidence of the presence of

n h was imported craftsme , but t ere actually less of th e Italian feeling than fo rmerly ; the Style was be

o an d coming more distin ctly British . B th Flemish English carvers were widely employed ; th e material

oak r e was chieﬂy , the carving being in rather high lief . Among the decorative details introduced during

i n n this period were heraldic motifs the carvi g, the diamond o r lozenge on the backs of chairs and the n d pa els of chests and cupboards , and designs embo y

r u . ing f it, foliage, and ﬂowers There were occa s i onally Renaissance pedestals or terminals in the

o n s i w o . f rm of huma bu ts , taper ng do n to a fo t The

o r bulb, drum, melon form , often carved with gad [42 ]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

- o o . great, can pied, f ur post bedsteads Mirrors were n o c i tr du ed about this time . The styles that followed were so much an ou t gr owth of these that some knowledge of the Renais sance period is necessary for a clear understanding “ o f wv the the rest . The later styles , ho e er, are ones - h Chi cﬂ for t whic y concern us , it is upon them tha

ou r o . m dern styles are based Beginning, then, with the style of Louis XIV in F rance and the Jacobean

o n peri d in E gland , we will proceed with a somewhat

o m re detailed Study .

[44] CHAPTER IV

LO U I S XI V — ( 1 643 1 7 1 5 )

T is not an easy matter to epitomize brieﬂy the salien t characteristics o f the French deco rative

o ou r a peri ds , but we shall render t sk a little less diffi cult if we omit the earlier periods whi ch were sketchily touched upon in Chapter III . There is j ustiﬁcation for this , for Americans have been mainly interested in four of the French periods

o i Louis XIV, L uis XV, Louis XVI, and the Emp re and these are the only ones that exert an inﬂuence - on of . o the furniture design to day It w uld be well ,

fo r n n of however, the Stude t to k ow something that

of n s n source great inspiratio in the art , the Re ais

n sa ce, for the later Styles are best understood when

c that ba kground is kept in view . The art impulse was reawakened during th e reign of o and of L uis XIII , this paved the way for a sort second French Renaissance that held sway during the reigns of Louis XIV, Louis XV, and Louis XVI, [45 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES and exerted a powerful inﬂuence o ver the contem

n p orary arts of England and the Low Cou tries . During these three periods furniture was p ro du ced that was mo re readily adaptable to mo dern n eeds than any that had gone before and that reached a higher plane of artistic excellence . They are rep resented by three distinct styles marking a deﬁnite devel opment . The Louis XIV style is marked by

n o ff not dig ity, grandeur, b ld e ects, lavish but ex

cessi ve n . ornament , and faultless workma ship In the decoration the conventionalized anthemion and

c n n n and n n t a a a thus were promi e t , the or ame tal de ils

an o were symmetrical d balanced . The L uis XV period marked the culmination o f the rococo peri o d o f n o f o o design , with the i ﬂuence Madame P mpad ur

n n o on paramou t . Less atte tion was paid to pr porti

n and form than to elaboration o f detail . The a the mion and acanthus continued to be employed in

n u nbal or ament, but the details were generally ance d . Pastoral scenes by Watteau were used in

c on and o o n o de orati , roc c details , atural ﬂ wers , fes oo and ff . t ns , baskets , ribbon and lace e ects The Louis XVI Style shows a return to simpler lines and

o m re restrained and delicate ornament, under the n n i ﬂue ce of Marie Antoinette . Fine marquetry and

u se painting were employed , and a lavish of dainty [46 ] LOUIS XIV i ﬂorals . o f an d The legs chairs tables , generally

’ e i n s n curv d Louis XV time, became sle der, straight, and taperi ng So much fo r a general survey o f this interesting

a o nd pr ductive period . Many historical changes took place during the

’ seventy-two-years reign of Louis XIV which had a

n n n of direct effect on the art i dustries . The i ﬂue ce the Queen Regent and Cardinal Mazarin during the

’ o f o years L uis s minority was toward greater luxury, which always means o rnateness i n decoration . More powerful Still was the constructive inﬂ uence o f Jean

o o f n n wh o Baptiste C lbert, Minister Fi a ce, became

o o Prime Minister in 1 66 1 . C lbert f stered the grow i ng art impulse among the French people and en cou ra e n n c g d the art i dustries . He fou ded the A ad

of n c o n c emy Pai ters and S ulptors , rga ized the la e

n and n i n n i dustry, was instrume tal the governme t

o f o o purchase the G belin Tapestry W rks , at the l head of which he placed Char es Le Brun .

o n o ow As royal works , the G beli fact ry became a p e rf l n o u inﬂuence i the development f style . Le Brun became manager i n 1 66 0 and a di ctator o f style . In 1 69 0 h e was succeeded by Mignard . The Beauvais Tapestry Works were also established dur

H vart . ing this reign , with Louis y as manager The [47] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES tapestries produced by these two factories were typi

an of th e i d, cal the tastes of t mes , were characterized by pomp and grandeur, with a preference for serious classic and martial subj ects .

i 1 66 di rec These things, culm nating about 7, gave tion to the popul 1 r hn p u l se and resulted i n the crys

1 660 o talli z ati on of the Louis XIV style . In L uis adopted his title of Le Grand Mon arque and became a powerful king . He aided Colbert in encouraging

n and the art i dustries, gave every opportunity for devel opment to such artists and designers as Daniel

E s ou n n o Co Marot, De p y, Hardoui Ma sart, N el y

and P au tre . n pel , Le Great fur iture designers and - cabinet makers were encouraged and thrived , includ é ing J . Charles Berain and Andr Charles Boulle .

o of an d B ulle was the chief this group , his work is

on Le stamped the Louis XIV style in furniture .

to o of Brun is said have drawn s me his designs , and

Marot worked for him . His furniture is distin gui shed by wonderful workmanship and lavish orna

u se o f o ment . He made rmolu and introduced an elaborate marquetry of tortoise-Shell and brass which

a or o . c me to be known as Boulle Buhl w rk Shells,

’ c s rolls, the acanthus , and the ram s head were among

n his or amental details . Under royal patronage the palace was built at [48] A t i a L u i s XIV s a u s e r e in a e s r d e s r n e d i n th e ma e r Be r a i yp c l o of phol t d t p t y , g nn of n

A ﬁn e ar e L u i s X IV a e i e i ma r e r m th e C a e a u d e Va u x ly c v d o t bl of g ld d wood W th bl top , f o h t La te Lou i s X I V S i de cha i r s of a k W i th u phols te r y of Ge no e se vecv e t

A L u i s X IV a e a nd s ma a i e i n th e s e B u e ma e e i i o t bl ll c b n t tyl of o ll , d of bony W th g lt a nd br on z e mou nts

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

an tables d consoles bec ame c ommon . Beds were designed chieﬂy with a view to supporting elabo rate

. o [ i f 5} l a d u cberr e draperies A c uch , called , gilded,

n nc . pai ted, and varnished, made its appeara e Carved and inlaid panels were much used on chests and a o of wardrobes , and there were m ny f rms chests

ne and cabinets in vogue . O chest was shaped like

n a sarcophagus , after the Italian Re aissance man

and se t on c o ner, was carved s r ll legs , like a table,

n n with drawers be eath . A common form of cabi et

n n n n had a serpe ti e fro t and carved feet and pa els , and was deco rated with Buhl work . These are but a few of the numerous forms that appeared during

o the Louis XIV peri d .

s i n c - n oak The chief woods u ed abinet maki g were ,

o n or walnut, chestnut, and ebony, with rname tal p

n n o n - o tio s freque tly done in r sewood, sa dal w od, - o . tulip wood, and various exotic w ods There was

an d n much gilding, marquetry carvi g, with mounts

of n o - o o and inlay o yx, p rphyry, lapis lazuli , rm lu ,

s o o oo . o r and bra s , and c l red w ds G belin tapest y

n Lyo s velvet were the principal upholstery materials .

of c n Toward the end the reign the styles ha ged, developing toward that o f the Louis XV period .

n The pedestal legs gave place to more sle der, curved legs . Elaborate carving became an even more [52 ] LOUIS XIV

prominent feature, with a more graceful rococo and

o - more scr ll work . In other respects very similar to

o o the L uis XV style, h wever, this late Louis XIV

o on n o n w rk c ti ued to Sh w bala ced details, while one o f the distinguishing features of the succeeding

nc f o on not . reign is a bala e harm y, but of detail Throughout the Louis XIV period the great de signers continued i n their effo rt to perpetuate the

of n spirit the Renaissance . It was a disti guished pe riod in the devel opment of French applied art and one n for as worth studyi g its own sake, as well for the sake of a better understan ding of the styles that

o foll wed .

The Louis XIV style has been somewhat neglected in the past by modern manufacturers of peri od fu rni

who o n th e of and ture, have f u d Styles Louis XV

o o to n . L uis XVI m re their liki g Of late, however, Louis XIV reproduc tions and adaptati ons have been

c on i n n n pla ed the market increasi g umbers , and to day the style is enjoying someth ing of a popular

o o and r v gue , in c mmon with the William Ma y style o n f E gland . Its dignity and distinction render it Suitable to the more formal rooms i n the modern home .

[53 ] CHAPTER V

L O U IS X V ( 1 7 1 5- 1 774)

G o URIN the L uis XV period in France,

n n o exte di g ver three score years , there was developed a decorative style that was dis

n e o to ti cti v . The ﬁrst eight years are ften referred as the Regency peri od ; they were the years o f the

’ o o o r king s minority, when Philippe de B urb n , Philip

c of Orleans, a ted as regent . Philip became the leader in matters of French

an d th e fou nda decorative art, it was he who laid

on o o ti s for the L uis XV style . He to k pleasure in

n n of upsetti g traditio s , and established an era luxury

and n . I n o extravaga ce art, as in life, f rmality was

and o o f th e thrown overboard , gaiety to k the place

o of o martial p mp the previ us reign .

n o o Under the rege t , L uis was br ught up to a life o f indulgence and ease in the midst of a pleasure

o and was loving c urt, it only natural that his should be a gay and extravagant reign . Among his favo r ites were the Comtesse du Barry and Madame Pom [54] LOUIS XV

adou r the p , who helped to encourage gaiety and

ff o f o luxury that a ected all the Styles the peri d , with which their names have always been closely con

nected .

n In ma y respects it was not an effete period, how

ever ; i t was far from barren of artistic results . In

i t o f deed , was the most exuberant the French dec orati ve n n to en periods . The state ateliers co ti ued j oy royal Support and were the centers of artistic

o pr duction . The list of clever and talented masters o f applied art who ﬂourished during this reign i s too l ong to

. o n n give in full Interior dec rators , desig ers , pai t

- - and ers , potters, tapestry weavers, cabinet makers, metal-workers coOp erated in an extraordinary man ner to make this a most productive peri od . The designers of decorative sculpture exerted a domi

n nating i ﬂuence . Oudry and then Boucher became

o o f o n direct r the Gobelin Tapestry Works , pr duci g wonderful reproductions o f paintings in which syl van and amatory scenes took the place of the mar

c o f o m tial and classi al subj ects the previ us reign . U

o u s f rtunately for , many of the delicate colors they used proved not to be permanent . Charles Cres

n n co sent, who rose to promi e ce as a de rative sculptor

th one of during e Regency, was the best designers [55 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

- Ri esene r and cabinet makers of the cen tury . Jean

- c was another Louis XV cabinet maker of prominen e .

affi G ou thi ere Jacques C eri and Pierre , Skilful metal

o n - h to w rkers and cabi et makers , added t eir part the

h n and n o f t e . developme t styles La cret Watteau,

n th e ll and pai ters , embellished wa s furniture of the

Me i ssonni e r was i n period . , a designer, a leader the

o f dominant rococo school . He deﬁed the laws bal

nc o n k n one of con or n a e , fte ma i g side a sole cabi et quite differen t from the o ther without disturbing

o to the sense o f harmony . His w rk is said have

nd greatly inﬂuenced the English Chippendale . A

n o c n o o f there were ma y ther masters , in ludi g a h st interi o r decorators . In 1 753 Louis made a royal institution of the

e o c o n n ew i n S vres p rcelain fa t ry, addi g a impetus

n this ﬁeld of applied art . U der Madame Pompa

e o n en dour S vres p rcelai —plaques were much used to n e tc . rich cabinets, writi g desks ,

n too h It was duri g this reign , , t at the Martin

and Ve mi S- he family ﬂourished, Martin lacquer

o - came p pular . The Martins were carriage painters who inven ted a lacquer ﬁn ish in i mitation o f the

n popular Oriental lacquer, and the developed the

o n - n m re disti ctly French Vernis Marti . Simon Etienne Martin established the Vemi S-Martin works [56 ] LOUIS XV

1 . in 744 This lacquer was made in red, brown , gold, speckled bronze, and even black, and was used on n n o f ma y ki ds furniture , such as tables , cabinets, an d elaborate sedan chairs . Watteau and Boucher painted pictures for these Vern i s-Martin pieces and

o Ve mi s- o ve rrn antel s als for Martin panels, , and

o d ors . The later styles of the Louis XIV period gradually merged into those o f Louis XV through the medium o th o and o o f e Regency . The taste f r curves r coc

of details had already made itself felt . The Styles

i o n the Louis XV per d are marked, in ge eral , by a

n n of o greater supple ess in the li es furniture , a m re

o u se o f oco c nstant ornamental metal sculptures, r co

n f and o . details , the irregular harmo y related parts

The n o Rege cy Style was a medley of myth logical ,

n c classic, and moder , expressed with mu h parade and o on o to stentati . The austere and her ic gave place

n abandon, frivolity, and extravaga ce in decorative

o — n n art . Ab ut 1 720 25 a Strong Chi ese i ﬂuence was

i n n s u se of felt, both the i crea ed lacquer and in some o f n the desig details .

o The Louis XV style pr per, however, was a purely

n o o o Fre ch devel pment, built up n the L uis XIV,

n with very little foreign inﬂue ce . It was a capri

on ci s , whimsical style, exaggerating the late Louis [5 7] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

XIV forms , with a freer use of curves and rococo

s o f detail . It was a less restrained style than that

o o n and L uis XIV, m re elega t , in some ways more graceful . Often, however, it lacked the merit of

e the previous style, when it carried its extravaganc too far . The dominant decorative motif was th e rococo or

’ r amall e i n , used irregular symmetry with skilful

i n audacity . It was used combination with ribbon

ff n and lace e ects , atural ﬂowers and hanging baskets ,

n h en the broke shell , the twisted acant us, the curled

‘

and o n o . dive, the ﬂ wi g scr ll It was the master

- o ffi n or metal w rker, Ca eri , who i troduced the endive celery motif to supplant the classi c acanthus .

o f As has been stated, the lack precise balance in the use of ornament is a distinguishing mark of i n the Louis XV Style . Unbalanced details were trodu ce d during the Regency, and later, under the

o f Me i ssonn i e r all to leadership , attempts have the design alike on both sides of a given center were

o . t aband ned Nevertheless , hough the details were ff different, the e ect of balance was retained by Skil ful arrangement of unlike sections . These o rnamental details were used lavishly i n

o —on n interior woodw rk cornice, wai scot, mantel ,

- e door and window casing, and panel and pictur [58]

L an d i e i ma r e ou i s XV cons ole of ca r ve d g ld d wood , W th bl top

L oa k i c a r vm i a th e e r i A ou i s X V t able of pol i s he d W th g typ c l of p od LOUIS XV

was frame . Furniture designed to conform with

t . hem Plain surfaces were avoided , everything

o being profusely rnamented, chieﬂy with elaborate

of o . mounts br nze and ormolu , as well as carving

’ Toward the end o f Louis XV S reign there was a Slight reaction toward greater symmetry and simpli c

n of ity , foreshadowi g the Style Louis XVI . The furniture of the Louis XV period reﬂected the spirit of the times in form and in decoration . Many

n o n ki ds of wo ds were used , includi g mahogany to some extent, as well as cherry and cheaper woods

r o painted and gilded . Marquet y was not empl yed

of extensively, though we sometimes ﬁnd inlay tulip,

oo and on o of rosew d, maple , amaranth s me the larger

o of pieces . The do rs and panels commodes, cabinets ,

. e of etc , wer often veneered , with the grain the wood running diagonally . All the larger pieces were em belli shed an d a li u e with metal mounts carved pp q ,

o f most it exhibiting superb workmanship . k Indeed , good wor manship was a characteristic of i Louis XV furniture . Wh le the chairs of the period were perhaps its most interesting product , there were many other noteworthy pieces in the typical style—tables and elaborately carved con

o o and s les, and w nderfully decorated cabinets com modes . The boudoir was highly developed as a [6 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

o o f n o c o - oo an d c and s rt i f rmal re epti n r m , mu h care skill were exercised i n the development of its dec o on and n n rati fur ishi g .

n and There were scree s with carved gilded frames , surroundin g specially wo ven ﬂo ral and pictorial tapestries ; also sc reens pain ted by Watteau and

c . oc n Bou her Cl ks , ca delabra, mirrors, etc . , were all

i n n designed the extravaga t style of the times .

o n o c o n i n c Mirr rs were i tr du ed ver ma tels , pla e of the

c n o f o heavy arvi gs the previ us reign . Panels were much i n eviden ce on walls and ceil

n o m o f i gs , s meti es painted, s metimes ramed tapes

o or c o tries fr m the Gobelin Beauvais fa t ries, lovely

and o n c n n in design col ri g, depi ti g pastoral sce es and

o - n o o and c n affec l ve maki g, c ntemp rary life Ar adia

r on - o ta i s . Over elab rate draperies were a feature of

n the i terio rs .

o o and The L uis XV chair suggests c mfort, ease,

u . i n an lux ry Curved Shapes were vogue, hardly - angle appearing in the chair frames . Sometimes

o on these Shapes b rdered the fantastic, but they were always luxurious and the workmanship was excel

n le t . The back was shaped to ﬁt the bo dy and was

o n as o usually s ftly upholstered , though ca e w s me

for n o times used seats and backs . I deed, the w od work of the back was merely a decorative frame for [62 ] LOUIS XV

n an upholstered cushio . At the top was often a central shell o r ﬂower from which ﬂo ral carving fell

o th e n gracefully ver rou ded corners of the back . Legs and arm supports o f Louis XV c hairs were

t no gracefully curved, the legs being slender, wi h

n and n u derbracing, usually decorated with carvi g at the knee and foot . Upholstery was one of the prominent features o f

n n c these chairs . The large patter s i fabri s that had

’ been popular i n Louis XIV s day were replaced by

n smaller ones . Lyons velvets a d silks i n ﬂo ral pat

c . n o c terns were mu h used Stripes were i tr du ed , but were used less than during the succeeding peri od .

i n n and co o Beauvais tapestries , beautiful patter l r,

and n i n c were designed wove to ﬁt the chairs , whi h

o . they were framed by the wo dwork, like pictures Such are the outstanding features of the furniture

and o styles of the Louis XV period . A proliﬁc n te

o o i t m too o and w rthy peri d was , but so ewhat ﬂ rid, from an artistic point of view it was surpassed by that which followed .

[63 ] CHAPTER VI

LOU IS X VI — ( 1 774 1 793 )

ETWEEN two decorative periods there is

of always a period transition . of “Signs change are to be noticed i n the styles of the “ n “.

L i o . late ou s XV peri d Nevertheless , the transition

t ou h leadi n a le at his time, th g w y radically dif ferent m , was co paratively brief, and we ﬁnd the ele ments of the new style in full swmg early in the

. o r reign of Louis XVI It was , indeed, a more less “ arbi trar chfri e ou t of y i g , carried by some the same artists who had worked under Louis XV . Though some of the features of the Louis XVI style doubt less owe much to the dainty taste of Marie Antoi nette, perhaps she has received more credit than was

she as her due , for when came from Vienna the

o f sh e bride the young dauphin , found the new style already under way .

a the As a matter of fact, the marked ch nges in French decorative styles which developed during the brief reign of Louis XVI were due to a more or less [64]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

bo ri of o n o ot c Though s r rnate ess , it d es n la k ele __

n . n . su ga ce Though quiet, it is ever vulgar It g

i n i o te gests , deed, ar st cracy . It is a reﬁned style,

m ‘ o as o from the m ved as far p ssible monstrous , ugly,

I an d rOteS u e and c i c ou t g q , haracter zed by deli acy of

n an n li e d ﬁne ess o f detail . There is a certain purity about the style and a quality which in dicates that its Simplicity was not the result o f poverty of imag

m n - n of . i atio , but self imposed restrai t Finally, the style was executed with the best of workmanship

n n and pai staki g ﬁnish .

AS to of XVI s t l e details the Louis m y , it may be

in said to be rectangular i n pri nciple . Straight l es and the simplest curves replaced the reversed curves and ﬂowing scrolls and give the keyn ote to the style .

Ornamental details, which were used with restraint, were largely classic in type and derivation and were

o o f used with great skill . They were ften copies

n o Pompeian and Italian Re aissance carvings . R

o o n on o n c c or ament was aband ed, the h rizo tal Greek band taking the place of the Shell in mouldings . The overdone acanthus and the endive made way for oak- the laurel and the leaf, the latter appearing

on of n as especially large pieces fur iture, such cabi

on nets, bureaus, and consoles, and also clocks , mir [68] LOUIS XVI ros o on , and sconces , th ugh less commonly chairs and tables . The ﬂuted column became an important feature

n o o n o o of co structi n and rname t, b th in wo dwork and

- n metal work . On cabi ets and such pieces this

o n o c lum appears in the f rm of a ﬂuted pilaster,

n to n sometimes taperi g the ﬂoor, sometimes resti g

- ﬂu ti n s on claw feet . Frequently the g were ﬁlled

n s or . at i tervals with quill husks, often gilded On chairs and tables the column takes the form o f

o Straight, r und, vertical legs, ﬂuted and slightly tapering .

Of and Flat Surfaces walls furniture, always deco

t n o o o n ra ed duri g the previ us peri d, were now fte left i n o of n c n n o the f rm plai , re ta gular pa els , surr unded

o n i n o f n n by m uldi gs , place irregular pa els e crusted

o c n with o rnament . The c rners of the re ta gles were

o n and o on o r usually br ke , ften there was a medalli

n n n o o n n . pai ti g i side, s mewhat in the P mpeia man er

’ c o o and V o In pla e of arms , arm r, weap ns , the ict r s

of o or W and c palm L uis XIV, the atteau Bou her

of o on pastorals L uis XV, these medalli s were classic

’ or n r in subj ect, musical i st uments , Cupid s quiver,

of baskets and garlands ﬂowers, wreaths and bay leaves . [69 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

Many artists and cabinet-makers contributed to

o of o f the devel pment this style, including men great talent and ability . Probably the greatest cabinet

o f Ri esene r who maker the period was , had gained fame and experience during the previous reign . He

o f n was a master marquetry, usi g woods like pig

man e no ments . A younger , qually teworthy, was ” ROnt en o to David g , m re often referred as David , wh o n i A o n was patro ized by Mar e nt i ette, and who

not to n c o is be co fused with Ja ques L uis David, the

n o was o of o pai ter . He als a pr ducer w nderfully

- o o minute marquetry . The greatest metal w rker f

o G ou thiere who o coO e rated the peri d was , ften p with

R i e sene r . And o n there were ther artists, craftsme , and deco rato rs whose work should be discussed if space permitted . Many woods were empl oyed by the cabinet

t o c oak n and makers of his peri d, hieﬂy , wal ut , ma

o n o bogany . Mah ga y became more p pular than

for walnut, but the latter was much used the frames of o r uph lstered fu niture, either natural or enameled

O rrnol u o in soft colors . mounts c ntinued in use on

and a of the larger furniture, lso inlay tulip , rose ,

n pear, amboyna, holly, mahogany, ebo y , etc . Lac

was o to quered furniture als in demand some extent .

o Light tints prevailed in woodw rk and upholstery, [70] LOUIS XVI the wood often being stained or ﬁnished with white

enamel and gilding .

- o The metal w rk of the period was , as a rule,

of . superbly executed, some it appearing like j ewelry

in Chinese porcelains were much used, mounted

e fu rni bronze, and S vres plaques were inserted in

ture . Interior decoration and woodwork partook of the

oo and same general character as the furniture . D r window-frames became more strictly rectangular; with the carved orn ament much smaller and ﬁner . Walls were frequen tly divided by ﬂuted pilasters into panels whi ch were decorated after the Pompeian

n or Italian Renaissance man er .

not Furniture , when gilded or enameled , was

o c o o f oo o n highly p lished, mu h m re the w d sh wi g

o o n on n than n L uis XV fur iture . Br ze mou ts were i st ll used, particularly on the dark wood pieces , but

’ Boulle s inlay of tortoise-shell had gone ou t o f fash

i on . n ne com Large pieces , such as vitri es , cabi ts ,

s o of modes , desk , etc . , were comm nly made this dark,

o polished wo d, with metal mounts and occasionally inlay . Sometimes they were furnished with marble

. i tops Tables were often made in th s style, too, of h dark polished wood, frequently mahogany, wit metal mounts or inlay, and with marble tops , but [7 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES they are not so pleasing as the lighter stands and $ b tables in white or tin ted enamel or gilt . The ma le tops sometimes look a bit too heavy for the slender

o m o e legs of chairs, s fas , tables, co m des,

o n n n desks, etc . , c mma d particular atte tio because they were distinctive and differed radically from those of the previous reign . These pieces of fu rni

and on not u n ture stood squarely h estly straight, but

o c o gracefully s . The urved and cabri le leg was

n go e , and in its place appeared a straight, compara ti vel o n y Slender, s mewhat taperi g shaft with no

n h as underframi g . The typical Louis XVI leg

n never seemed as graceful to me as the more sle der,

s a reeded leg designed by Sheraton , but , as I y, it was distinctive . It was classic in detail and generally

ﬂ u ti n of ﬂuted , the g being varied with lines threaded

or ﬂu ti n s or i beads , husks , Shorter reedings g , w th

n and headi n s lini gs of brass metal g . The feet were often shod with bronze ferru les or ﬁn ely ﬁnished with

n an or - m a ri g, acanthus cup, a vase like ter inal adapted from the Pompeian . The top o f the leg was row of headi n often carved in a tiny wreath , a g, o r - or a torch like ornament, it was topped with a - bronze cap . Table legs often had female heads in o o rm lu at the top . [72 ] LOUIS XVI

n As is often the case, 5the chairs were amo g the

i o most interesting products of the per d . Walnut

oo c o for was the w d most omm nly used chairs , either

an ﬁn ished natural or en ameled and gilded . Oak d

oo n n i n or other w ds, freque tly pai ted soft colors

for . white , were also used chairs

i n o f - s S u us curves disappeared rom the chair back ,

n or which were usually rectangular, rou d, oval in

o shape . They still produced the effect f exquisitely

ho o f carved frames for upholstery . Often a w rib

was o r o bon carved at the top . Square r und seats predominated . The arms were rather high at the j uncture with the back and were straight or gently

on or curving, resting Straight slightly curved Sup

c i n on o ports , whi h, turn, rested squarely the fr nt legs . The ne w type of leg h as already been men tioned

n c n a Straight , sle der, verti al shaft, usually rou d , — ﬂ u tE d and o o r n . , m re less taperi g This was used

o o n - c - with b th the r u d ba k and the square back chairs . The effect was saved from stiffn ess by the propo r

o on ti ns and the decorati . A great variety appears

n was in the ﬂuti g, and the foot always given b a neat ﬁnish . There was seldom any u nde r rac ing . The u se of can e increased for the backs and seats [73 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES of ou chairs , and is frequently to be f nd with painted, - and n . oo gilded, natural wal ut frames Dining r m chairs of the peri od very often had cane seats an d k bac s , or were covered with material to match the walls and hangings .

of - o u The maj ority the chairs , . h wever, were p

ﬁne n c holstered in materials, includi g bro ades and

Gobelin, Beauvais, and Aubusson tapestries . Deli

o o o cate col rs prevailed in the uph lstery g ods , suited to the gilt and white or light-tinted enamels used on

o . ff the wo d The stu s were rich , but the designs

of were smaller than those the Louis XV upholstery,

‘ the d etai l of th e to match ﬁner woodwork . The popular patterns i ncluded stripes of ﬁne lines and

ﬂ oral s as o and o small , well as larger ﬂ wers f li age,

n ff baskets , ribbo s , etc . The e ect was nearly always

oo light and dainty . L se cushions of eiderdown were much used with chairs and so fas .

o i n S fas were upholstered the same materials , were

o r n and o o i n usually gilded e ameled , f ll wed, general , the lines of the chairs . The Louis XVI sofa was l onger than that of the previous period and had more legs .

Br i eﬂv n , these details represe t the style developed

’ i co o f V dur ng the s re of years Louis X I S reign . In [74]

’ Th e E m i r Na e o p e s tyle . pol n s th r one r oom at Fonta in e ble a u — k . 1 6 0 1 6 Typ i ca l Ja cob e a n pr ess cu pbo a r d of oa 5 75

-1 6 ea e . 1 6 5 0 75 Di n i ng ta ble of th e pla i n e r Ja cob n typ LOUIS XVI some respects this period marks the climax of French

on decorative art . Then came the Revoluti , the ruin

r of of the state ateliers , and the ab upt termination the Louis XVI period .

[77] CHAPTER VII

T H E E MPI R E — 0799 1814)

HE peri o d of the French Empire was the “

co o last o f the great historic de rative peri ds .

o f The Styles the period were, unlike most o not o f thers , the result a gradual development, but

n o f a rather abrupt cha ge .

o c After L uis XVI ame the Revolution, and for a e i i n e . t me the arts Franc languish d Indeed, the

Revolution may be said to have destroyed art . The

c o of aristo racy, the patr ns art, were ruined, and there was a general disl ocation of the art industries .

o 1 2 o The Revoluti n began in 79 , the Direct ry was

i n 1 n o o established 794, the Consulate u der Nap le n

1 an d th e 1 802 . in 799 , Empire in The decorative period o f the Empire is usually given as extending from 1 799 to 1 8 1 4. For the ﬁrst few years chaos reigned i n the French art world . During the Directory there was an at

a s tempt t reconstruction . An art commission wa [78] THE EMPIRE

n of Ri es ene r and on appoi ted, which David R tgen were members . A treatment of the classic came into

u on o n vog e, sometimes rather dainty, based the R ma

n an not and Pompeia but it was artiﬁcial style , that

o n n n . AS of a peri d of atural tra sitio a rule, bad taste reigned and art traditi on was largely ann ihi lated . Then came Napoleon to dominate the art world as

n he dominated everything else in Fra ce . He pro ce eded to reﬁt the royal palaces i n accordance with hi s o own ideas, and the people f llowed his lead in

of or decorative matters . The Style the Direct y was

n o n an attempted return to the a tique , but Nap leo diverted the trend o f taste into somewhat different

o o channels , th ugh he als found his inspiration in

Rome . Under Napoleon the French artists and designers

new c n so n o were given a ha ce, long as they co f rmed

’ to the empero r s ideas and sought to interpret his

o f n o desires . The result was a period otew rthy if somewhat restricted production . David and Rie

wh o o o sener, had w rked under L uis XVI, were the

o leaders at ﬁrst . They were foll wed by the archi teet-decorators Charles P e rci er and Pierre Fontaine

o oo of and thers . A b k designs published by P erci e r

‘ and Fontaine in 1 8 1 2 offers a good record of the [79 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

Empire style . Their work at least combined mod ern comfort and Greek beauty .

o The furniture f the period expressed not a court, not an epoch o f French life ; it expressed the over n whelming personality of Napol eon Bo aparte . It

was of of n . a period of heroics , ceremony, ovelty

ae and Napoleon aped the grandeur of the C sars , the design details of the period were suggested by the idea o f imperialism and conquest .

The decorative styles , which were based largely on o the imperial Roman , became cold, f rmal , heavy,

o with little f the light or fanciful about them . They

o f were not lavishly magniﬁcent, like the styles Louis

ff co XIV, yet, though somewhat Sti and nstrained, they were not without a certain dignity and grandeur and were never eﬂ e tely luxuri ous . Empire furniture was characterized by good cabi net work,fi nel y executed metal moun ts beautiful

c . mahogany, and ri h upholstery Construction was

' ‘ bii t was heafr f rmal for the most part Simple, it a yj p

m th e . si plicity, not graceful simplicity of Louis XVI

' M Was the ahogany wood most used by the cabinet

a makers , both solid and veneered, enriched with p e w pliqu . Marquetry was discarded and there as

of o only a moderate amount carved w od, but much

i s plain surface embellished w th ﬁnely modeled bra s, [80]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

o co o n o n f und the ﬂuted lumn uph ldi g a t rch , the plai ,

o n o n c n and o of r u d , supp rti g olum , various f rms the

’ on oo li s f t .

The chairs o f the peri od ranged from fairly simple

' - r - side chairs to el aborate th one like affairs . In gen

n o two . eral , they may be divided i t types The

c n o an d larger hairs were massive, prete ti us , lavishly

n enriched with metal mounts and Structural carvi g . Sometimes a sweepin g ho rn o f plen ty c urves down

o or n int the arm , the arms are termi ated with the

of n . o n heads rams , lio s , etc S metimes stra ge gry

on o on o th e o n ph s f rm the fr t supp rts , heads supp rti g the arms of the chair and the bodies drawn ou t into

’ n of o oo the si gle Shaft the leg, with a li n s f t resting

' on o n torch es an d r on the ﬂ or . Flami g g yph s appear

no o n for where there is l gical eed them . There were also armchairs fashi oned on the model of n n c r n o o f the a cie t u ule seat, heavier tha th se the

’ n n nc n n n for Italia Re aissa e, Ofte with swa s ecks

o c . arms , supp rted by upids The typical Empire

conc b armchair, with its wide , ave ack, was at least

o o c mf rtable .

n form s on o Ofte these verged up the gr tesque, but

i o f there was, happily, a s mpler type Empire chair

was o f not o c that full dignity and with ut gra e .

These chairs , severely simple in form , had square [82 ] THE EMPIRE

o n frames and straight, r u d legs , the back legs often curving slightly outward . They were made o f plain

o n o r of o mah ga y some other wo d enameled white .

c n Little arvi g was used on them , but they were usually orn amen ted with well-modeled o rmolu mounts and were elegantly

on - n on Am g the tables, the medium sized rou d es

on o o on were comm est, th ugh there were als square es , while the consoles and pier-tables were usually

o on o o f stiffly rectangular . A c mm f rm table had short c law feet upon which rested a l ow shelf ; this

o o n c c supp rted straight, r u d , verti al pillars whi h , in

o to . o c turn , supp rted the p S metimes su h tables were suppo rted by carved gryphons resting on a

o f on shaped base , while some the heavier es were

n o suppo rted by sphinxes . Ofte the r und tables had

c n c n n on a e tral olum , with a broad base resti g three

’ on o o n li s feet , a f rm which served as a m del for ma y “ of ou r Ameri can Col on ial tables ; or a three cornered plinth on three carved feet supported three round columns .

of o n Most of the tables were mah ga y, either solid or n o n ve eered, though there were als e ameled tables .

- o o n of The table t ps were fte marble, usually white

n or nearly black . Metal mou ts were much in evi

and - dence, and metal feet pillar caps . A common [83 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES feature of secretaries and tables was a round column of mahogany,with an ornamen tal cap o f bronze in

’ o o the form of a sphinx s head , and a br nze f ot at the O base . ften the caps were modeled in the anthe mion form .

o of o o Often the supp rts cons les, cabinets bo k

o i n n cases , etc . , sh wed little style the rear, bei g some

n times merely ﬂat boards , but the fro t legs were

n n o t usually more elega t , ofte tapering, cr wned wi h

o . the female bust, and with feet of orm lu Mirrors

o set be were ften into the under parts of consoles,

o neath the top and against the walls . Gryph ns and sphinxes sometimes took the place of the round

n n o o f o colum s as the fro t supp rts c nsole tables .

In the form of the bed a great change took place . The ove rdrape d forms of the preceding periods gave

to n o or place plai but stately c uches to heavy, box

f and o - o f like a fairs , with head f ot boards the same

or o n height, either straight r lli g, and with no posts or canopy . Interi o r decoration foll owed the same general scheme as furniture design . The walls were largely

o o plain , strongly col red panels , rather P mpeian in

i n type, sometimes relieved by the gold N a wreath

n or one of the other Napoleoni c symbols . Hangi gs were often rich velvets . Candelabra and Sconces [84]

i i N e th e a e a e r , u ma a , br o l . A f a u te u i l gon do e ot conc v b ck , Anoth b lt of hog ny W th - u r e d r e a r e gs a n d s a e ar ms a de u p s e r y a nd i m e a m un s c v l , w n n ck c hol t W th t l o t

A i a be d the E m i r e e r i u i l ma a e r i e i rm u m un s typ c l of p p od , b t of hog ny n ch d w th o ol o t THE EMPIRE

n ff m were frequently wi ged ﬁgures, sti in odeling but

n good in material and ﬁ ish . Such are the salien t features of the style which was predominant in France during the ﬁrst decade

n ro- n i n of the last ce tury . Americans were p Fre ch

o n th se days , and after the Sheraton i ﬂuence had passed we began bo rrowing more freely from France

n n of nc than from E gla d . The styles the Fre h Em

n be pire, therefore, have a peculiar i terest for us

u n n i n cause, though we wro ght ma y cha ges the proc ess of of adaptation , they formed the basis American decorative styles during the ﬁrst quarter of the nine teenth n o n n ce tury . Mah ga y was ple tiful here, the

- n and cabinet making trade was ﬂourishi g, we turned out a large quantity o f so-called American-Empire

n and col fur iture, constructed largely with posts u mns o i n c n and c n , ften carved oarse pi eapple a a thus

i n n o leaf designs , but ge eral f llowing the Empire

. And not o f Spirit all it was bad . A few years ago one occasion ally heard o f a draw

- o - o n n - oo o r ing r om , music ro m, di i g r m , hall , other

n o formal apartme t , being furnished and dec rated in

and n o re the Empire style, whe it was well d ne the

no n sult was t without beauty and distinctio . Amer i cans h o n , owever, have apparently f u d the style too

for c for i n cold their liking, espe ially use the home , [87 ] HANDBOO$ OF FURNITURE STYLES and it seems to have fallen in to general disfavor . Manufacturers inform me that they are making p rac tically n o reproductions o r adaptations of Empire

n to fur iture ; there is no call for them . It seemed

o o as c me, h wever, that this style sh uld receive mu h

n n o o i n atte tio as the styles of more p pular peri ds, o rder to round ou t logic ally the subj ect of the F rench decorative Styles .

[88]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

co o r to The term Ja bean , Stuart, is often given

n 1 6 0 1 68 the e tire period from 3 to 9 , but a distinct

n n oo c cha ge i styles t k pla e in the middle of it, and it is much more l ogical to divide it into two periods . The Jacobean peri o d proper included the reigns of — James I ( 1 603 1 625 ) and Charles I ( 1 6 25

n on or so- There interve ed the Comm wealth , called

Cromwellian period ( 1 653 followed by the

o f o o n period the Rest rati n, includi g the reigns of — Charles II ( 1 66 0 1 685 ) and James II ( 1 685 After that came William and Mary and

i n the period to be discussed the next chapter . Up to the cl ose of the Cromwellian period oak was the predomin an t woo d i n English furniture: About

1 660 began the age of walnut . The furniture of the reign of James I was that a transiti on Stage .

Elizabethan features , brieﬂy described in Chapter

n o . o III , ge erally pred minated The true Jac bean style reached the height of i ts development during

o n the reign f Charles I . Duri g the period under dis cu ssion we ﬁnd the n ative sturdiness o f the Jacobean oak foll owed by the more o rnate and graceful forms of the Restoration . During the Jacobean period proper the general

n n n fo rm of the fur iture remai ed severely recta gular .

o f The legs tables and chairs were perpendicular, the [90] JACOBEAN AND RESTORATION

- c . hair backs straight, and the seats ﬂat Such articles

n as stood on legs were heavily u derbraced . It was in decorative carving that Jacobean fu rni

c . nc of ture ex elled The typical designs i lude, ﬁrst

n n of and on all , the run i g pattern ﬁgure eights c tigu

c - of o ous ircles . Other hall marks the peri d are the

c o and o n semicir le ﬁlled with petals , ge metric l ze ge

n n o or o pa eling, the rou ded arch , and m re less elab

o o an n c rate d uble sc rolls . M re d more i tri ate strap

o c and w rk was introdu ed, a Spiral form is frequently to be found in chair-legs and on cupboards and chests o f drawers .

n on Chairs were still u comm , but appeared in - greater variety . The wainscot chair persisted , but

i n c became gradually lighter form , with the ba k s ometimes pierced . There were also various forms

of n or . n tur ed chairs , with three four legs Duri g

c the reign of Charles I a Fren h chair was introduced ,

o i a much lighter f rm , with turned legs and wth the

c o o o ba k and seat c vered with leather r embr idery .

o f o and o n n The use sto ls f rms co ti ued . Toward the close of the peri od couches and day-beds were i n

trodu ce d .

o o f oak The typical table of the peri d was , similar

- n to the Elizabethan , with bulb tur ed legs giving place later to simpler baluster forms , and often with [93 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

rails c arved in arabesque o r lunette patterns . Occa s i on ally smaller tables were made with a single leaf — and a swinging leg to support i t th e forerunner of

- the gate leg table .

o n c Chests and cupboards, fte ri hly carved, were

o c o n w as on e o f th e c mmon . The upb ard, i deed,

o n o of o . One o m st i teresting pr ducts the peri d f rm ,

-c o c o i n on an called the press upb ard, was l sed fr t ;

th e - o was o n o n other, court cupb ard, pe bel w , bei g

n on merely an elevated chest resti g Spiral , turned, or carved supp orts . These were the outstanding features of the fu rni

s -c ture o f the Jacobe an period . The o alled Crom welli an peri od was characterized merely by an added

t n an d a on th e n and s iff ess severity m g Purita s, by

o c n c very little f artistic signiﬁ a e . The Cromwellian c was n of n hair a desce dant the wai scot, with a half

c of t i n c on o n ba k padded lea her pla e the s lid pa el , and usually a seat o f the same material fastened with - brass headed nails . Legs , stiles , and stretchers were

o k o th e en d of om o of turned a . T ward the C m n

' ' e n to come into wealth walnut b ga vogue, and a

o tendency t ward greater lightness . Spiral or simply turned legs and the use o f cane seats and backs be gan to appear in chairs . Chests became less popular, [94 ]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

c ba ks were tall and narrow with carved cresting,

an n b n s r d u der races . T u sides , hey were ofte

a . mounted by Tudor rose or a crown Slender, twisted columns and rich scrolls carved in high re

an lief became a feature . Cane d upholstery were

for c n con used ba ks and seats, the backs freque tly Si sti ng o f n arr o w cane panels within an elaborately carved frame . — These chairs were of two general types Flemish

con and Spanish . In the Flemish type the back

c sited of turned Stiles, within whi h was a cane panel

- n bordered by scroll work carvi g . The legs were

S- and o o usually shaped, with scroll feet a br ad scr ll

$ n work underbrace in front . In the Spa ish type the

and of o legs were turned the backs were s lid cane,

o oo . uph lstery, or t led leather The feet were square , . — n n o . cha neled, and ﬂari g the typical Spanish f ot Toward the end of the period the day-bed or canc

n n sofa became fashio able , with orname tal details

o n o o closely foll wi g th se f the chairs .

oak n n - o Long, di i g tables, sh wing more reﬁnement

o n o f and than f rmerly in the turni g legs struts , and

n o With carved apro s , belong to this peri d, but these gave place to tables with two swinging leaves . The

o o of most n tew rthy table of this type, and one the

n n of was most interesting i troductio s the period, the [96 ] k n d a u sh o wm th e a e a e a e a , o a a , g Sma ll t bl , l t J cob n of w ln t popu lar s p i r a l tu r n i ng

- u 1 6 8 i a r e e s a nd su r s . An oa k ga te leg t abl e of a bo t 5 . W th c v d l g ppo t mm Tu r n e d le gs we r e mor e co on

R IX

AN G LO-DU T C H — ( 1 689 1 720)

OLLOWING the abdication o f James II

n n n of E gland , furniture Styles u derwe t a

n on n marked cha ge . A str g foreign i ﬂuence was r n c c n felt, pa tly Fre ch, partly Dut h , ausi g alter ati ons n two n in taste which marked the ext reig s , with a gradual but steady tendency to assimilate and nati onalize these foreign elements . The so-called Anglo-Dutch peri od i ncludes th e — reigns of William and Mary ( 1 689 1 702 ) and Queen Anne ( 1 702 and part of the reign of George I ( 1 7 1 4 It has always seemed to me that th e furniture of the reign of William and Mary h as received less at

o n c tention th an it deserved . I have f u d it ommonly

o f con fused with that Queen Anne, though in many

n fundamental respects it is quite different . If ot

n n e tirely graceful , it is at least interesti g, and it is not to be neglected by the Studen t of style develop

I ﬁnd a re ment . ndeed, I that Willi m and Mary [ 1 00] ANGLO-DUTCH productions are now becoming mo re popular with the

American furniture trade than ever befo re .

n o o f Whe William , the Stadth lder the United

s c n of n n Netherlands , a ended the thro e E gla d as the

o of o cons rt Queen Mary, he br ught with him all his l ove for the styles and workmanship o f the Low

e was for Countri s . At ﬁrst the vogue largely Flem i sh c n features , but the purely Dut h soon gai ed the

n n o n asce de cy . Ideas and w rkme were imported

o o n c c on fr m H lla d, the ommer ial relati s between the two countries being very cl ose at the time . The peri od was one in whi ch fo reign inﬂuences

o n —not n were param u t merely Dutch , but Fre ch

o o o c o als . F ll wing th e revocati on o f the Edi t f

n 1 68 n no o n Na tes in 5 , ma y Hugue t refugees f u d

n o n o their way i t E gland , and am ng them were de signers and artisans wh o brought with them the

of o for th e styles L uis XIV, which way had already been prepared during the reigns o f Charles II and

m of was n o Ja es II . The chief these Da iel Mar t,

nc i n 1 686 n to n who left Fra e , we t live in Holla d ,

o to n n i 1 6 0 was summ ned E gla d by Will am m 9 , and

c n to be ame the royal architect . He clu g the styles o f o and hi s n n on co L uis XIV, i ﬂue ce English de ra tive art was very powerful for the next ten or ﬁfteen

. o years We ﬁnd, theref re, a decided French ele [ 1 01 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES men t in th e styles of the ﬁrst half of the so-called

o- c o Angl Dut h peri d .

u n In general , it may be said that the f r iture pro d u ced during the reign of William and Mary was better suited to domestic uses than any that had

c . o c o pre eded it It was lighter, m re omf rtable , and

a characterized by greater simplicity . Curves p

eare d n n o not so n p more abu da tly, th ugh u iversally

n o n as duri g the f llowing reign . Marquetry conti ued to be used on all ﬂat surfaces in place of carved

n o . pa els , that being a fav rite art among the Dutch

n i n on Carvi g, deed, almost disappeared the purely

n Dutch pieces, though panels made of mouldi gs were

n o on o f used , and carvi g was empl yed the furniture

n c the Fre ch type . Toward the end of the entury

n n and n n n j apa ni g became popular, wal ut ve eeri g

o was not uncomm n .

n o o of Chi ese bj ects were imp rted, as a result the

n o n growi g East India trade, and c llecti g became a

n n fad . This inﬂue ce was reﬂected in the j apanni g

c m and the fret designs whi h were someti es used, though the Chinese craze did not reach its height until about 1 740. The chairs o f this perio d are interesting as rep re senting many variations in the transiti on from the chairs o f the Restorati on to those o f a truly Dutch [ 1 02 ]

6 HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

The William an d Mary fo rm of the high chest of was drawers , which the forerunner of the high

was o o o boy, raised fr m the ﬂ or on six legs, ften

W - o t n turned ith the cup shaped f rm , wi h rou d feet,

o n n u and with vari usly shaped u derbraci g . The p

on was and or per porti severely square, the top c nice

and Straight ﬂat . Sometimes the drawers were

o n and o paneled with m uldi g, s metimes the ﬂat sur faces were enriched with more or less elaborate mar

u etr q y .

c and n Oak, hestnut, beech , wal ut were all used

th e during this period, but chieﬂy walnut.

of of The style the reign William and Mary was ,

n o o indeed, a mixed style, the style of a tra siti n peri d . But by the end of the century this transition had been passed and purely Dutch styles were in the ascend

n n 1 02 n e cy . The , in 7 , began the brief but stro gly

of n n and marked reign Quee An e, the foreign ele men ts were at length assimilated and a genuine

o c n English style was developed n the Dut h li es .

1 00 th e The year 7 , indeed, roughly marks divid i ng line between what may be called the ancient and the modern types of furniture . Straight lines

n o melted i t curves . The turned leg was superseded

c o n o by the abri le . Underbraci g disappeared . M re

o o attenti n began to be paid to f rm than to ornament . [ 1 04] ANGLO-DUTCH

of During the reign Queen Anne, carving was em

r s n ployed to some extent, but in simpler fo m tha

o o and on during the Rest ration peri d , it was cut the

o . surface, instead of f rming the outlines Common

n on o rn amental details i cluded the Shell , mascar , car o o f o o t uche , swags ﬂ wers , acanthus leaves, and s me classical designs .

o c n and Highb ys , abi ets , bureaus , small tables , large chairs were the more noteworthy productions

o f o . n the peri d F urniture was made in wal ut, oak,

c o n on bee h , h lly, birch , and yew, but wal ut c tinued to hold the leading place . Veneer continued p op u

and to o n . lar , s me exte t, marquetry The cabriole

was —on leg used everywhere chairs , tables , high

o . n c or boys , lowb ys , etc , with the rou d, Dut h , splay

o cc o o fo t . O asi nally the cabri le was given a shell o na n o u nde co r me t at the knee , th ugh usually it was

as was to rated, walnut not as well suited this sort o c n th e o o f arvi g as later mah gany f Chippendale . The Windso r chair and the straight slat-back and bani ster-back chairs were introduced during Queen

’ n c o f cot An e s reign , but these were the hairs the

and o o do no t o o f tagers c untry pe ple, and f rm part the style devel opment . The chair which most con

n u s o - c o - ﬁddle cer s was the br ad seated, abri le legged

. c o f on back This was the hair fashi , built usually [ 1 05 ] HANDBOO$ OF FURNITURE STYLES

i . of walnut, somet mes plain and sometimes decorated

’ It was the forerunner of Chippendale s styles .

Usually the front legs were cabriole, the back legs being simple curves or straight . Shell ornaments

on n of sometimes appeared the k ees , at the center

of of to the front the seat, and at the middle the p ’4 h to of the back . The backs were hig , curved ﬁt the P ' back of the si tte r and the outline formed a continu

o f c ou s curve . In the center the ba k appeared a - - - o ﬁddle or . s lid vase shaped , shaped , lyre shaped Splat

and o and The seats were broad , ﬂat, uph lstered , were usually shaped i n curves both on front and

o co sides, with r unded rners .

o n o o r om -c c The r u dab ut, c er hair, whi h had its beginnings i n the turned chairs of the sixteenth cen

n o f th e tury, became popular duri g the early years

n eighteenth ce tury . It was a square chair, stand

c and ing cornerwise , with semicircular ba k arms run

two and o n and ning around sides, the f urth cor er leg

n . o in fro t The Queen Anne type had cabri le legs, i with upright spindles in the back, or three upr ghts

’ n t and two splats , as did Chippendale s rou dabou s

o later, only the Queen Anne splats were s lid and

’ Chippendale s were pierced . The seats were rush,

o wooden, or uph lstered . Queen Anne tables i nclude a number of light [ w e]

CHAPTER X

G EORG IAN — ( 1 720 1 8 1 0)

T is no easy matter to condense a characterization

of n of o the fur iture styles the Ge rgian period, for the reason that those styles varied widely with the ascendency of one master cabinet-maker

no was n o c after a ther . It , i deed, a peri d in whi h the n ames of th e master-designers o f furniture

o o f n o n eclipsed th se the reigni g s vereig s . In general it includes th e reigns of Geo rge I ( 1 7 1 4 whi ch was the early Georgian peri od ; George II ( 1 72 7 embracing the transition and Chip p endal e peri ods ; and George III ( 1 760 the

o an n classic Ge rgian d the decade ce . The peri od was marked by the decline o f walnut and the rise of mahogany as the fashion able fu rn i

n o ture material . Mahoga y was kn wn and used in

’ n not Queen An e s day, but it did reach the height of

’ 1 its pop ularity until about 745 , in Chippendale s time . English furniture o f the early Georgian and tran [ 1 1 0] G EORG IAN si ti on periods shows a tendency to drop the purely

o - Dutch characteristics f Queen Anne . Chair backs

ca o and be me sh rter and more varied in outline, new types o f furniture and new forms of decoration came

o o u . to int v g e The cabriole leg persisted , be sure , but the ball-and-claw foo t superseded the round

o Dutch f ot .

’ It was not un til Chippen dale s time that the

o o Georgian peri d may be said t have really begun .

on c n From that time the Dut h eleme ts passed away, and English furniture styles passed through peri ods i n o oco o n which the French r c of L uis XV, Chi ese

o and n and o and G thic elements , ﬁ ally classic L uis

XVI features became successively paramount . Thomas Chippendale began to work obscurely during

o f o f o n the latter part the reign Ge rge I , maki g wal nu t n i n a n n ot fur iture the tr nsitio styles , but it was until 1 73 5 o r later that the real Chippendale began to emerge and the Geo rgian peri o d was ﬁrmly e s h tabl i s ed .

o o f Chippendale was a w nderful adapter styles, o n n o o btai ing his inspiratio from vari us s urces . He was remarkably versatile . Hi s was the ability to

n i n on o combine inco sistent elements a harm ious wh le . His workmanship and skill as a carver were o f the

n d highest order . His desig s were daring, and varie [ 1 1 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

$ from the bizarre to the exquisite . They ranged

o of o fr m the Dutch school the early Georgian peri d,

o o o of ‘ XV thr ugh the r c co Louis , the Chinese and

h and Got ic fads , ﬁnally leading up to the classic V Louis X I . Chippendale was the dominant ﬁgure in English

for of furniture design a quarter a century, or up

o n of oo to ab ut 1 770. The ﬁrst editio his b k of

’ n an d n - designs , The Gentlema Cabi et Maker s Di

o i n 1 o rect r, appeared 753 , and the third editi n in

1 76 2 . He impressed his personality on the styles of the period more than any other designer o f furniture had ever been able to do .

n n s n He bega ﬁrst with Queen A ne type , maki g

n - ﬁddle - c a on ba dy legged, backed hairs, m g other

o and -and things, very br ad in the seat with ball

of i on n claw feet . As the style the trans ti adva ced , Chippendale improved his cabriole leg and aban doned the Queen Anne chair-back for a Squarer form

o oo with rounded corners , to be foll wed s n by the bow-shaped or slightly curved top rail with which hi s name is chieﬂy associated . The attempts that are often made to divide Chip pendale ’ s work into three distinct periods—Anglo

and - — o Dutch , French , Chinese Gothic are s mewhat

i n mislead ng, for though fashions cha ged, there were [ 1 1 2 ]

GEORGIAN

no such Sharp divisi ons as these . He began to de sign furniture i n the Louis XV manner somewhere

1 and on to o c n about 745 , he c tinued pr du e Fre ch

of h is . how designs till the day death It is true,

hi s o o i n fai rl v u n ever, that best w rk is f und the — mixed French designs o f 1 750 6 0. After that the

o o f oco o and n combinati n r c Chi ese , with a dash of

o c too . G thi , proved much for him

’ Chippendale s typical chair-back consisted of a

o n n m derately carved frame, recta gular in its ge eral

n and o o outli es, a pierced splat, devel ped fr m the s olid splat o f the Queen Anne period . This Splat appeared in the earlier chairs o f the D u tch type and i n o of n th se the Louis XV type, i cluding the famous

o - ribb n back chairs . He also made a roundabout chair with these splats . Almost as familiar is the

- or bow- ladder back chair, with its four ﬁve shaped c - ross pieces . The Chinese and Go thic designs were made up of vari ous forms of fretwork i n the chair backs . The Chinese elemen t appeared in a more elaborate form i n the pagoda an d waterfall carving of o - oo c s - mirr r frames , b k a e tops, etc . Chippendale did not always u se the cabriole leg

t hi s nc o wi h Fre h chairs , but s metimes the straight,

on o Square legs that also appear his ther types . His

u co and u seats were sually wide, square rnered, p [ 1 1 5 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

o of hi s u m holstered . S me chairs were made with

b o d e r races ; s me without them .

of - a He also made a wide variety card tables, sof s,

c . settees , desks, bureaus, secretaries , book ases, etc ,

c n - ot and in Fren h and Chi ese G hic styles , he pub l i sh ed c - - designs for clo k cases , mirror frames , and n o c umerous ther pie es . Toward the end o f his career his work Showed a

c o on n n n ro de ided deteri rati , havi g a lea i g toward g tesqu e mixtures of style .

n was -c Chippe dale a master arver, and seldom if

co on o n ever used i nlay for de rati . Mah ga y was his

oo o o n favorite w d, but he als empl yed wal ut, maple,

an d cherry , birch . Robert and James Adam must be mentioned in

n on o f n o any co siderati the Georgia peri d, for though

not c n - they were abi et makers, but architects and

co o and de rat rs , they designed furniture exerted a

o strong inﬂuence on style . T them is due the credit for c e n i n the classi revival , which had already b e

i n Spired architecture by Sir Christopher Wren, and which in the realm o f furniture design was in full swing as early as 1 760 and persisted throughout the

o f n h rest the ce tury . Bot Hepplewhite and Shera ton o wed much to the pioneer work of the Adam

o br thers . [ 1 1 6 ]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES n and i n arrow often oval Shape, the legs straight

o . and slender, but never cabri le

’ It was no Hepple whi te s work be

o n 1 6 came p p ver, somewhere betwee 7 5

1 . and 775 , that the new taste became crystallized , though Hepplewhite was never as thorough a clas

i cis s t o r o . as Adam Sherat n Hepplewhite built, as

n of o well as designed , a large amou t furniture, th ugh

not his output was as great as that of Chippendale .

n o o It marked , in a way, the tra siti n fr m the Chip

endal e n n i oo of p to the classic i ﬂue ce . H s b k de

“ ’ - o signs , The Cabinet Maker and Uph lsterer s

1 8 two Guide, appeared in 7 9 , years after his death ,

nd Co . a was published by A . Hepplewhite , the u n n n b si ess havi g bee carried on by his widow . Hepplewhite is best known for his Shield-back

n o n n chairs , his square, taperi g legs , fte endi g in

and fo r S n o the spade foot. his ple did Sideb ards . The sidebo ard was bei ng gradually devel oped dur

’ i n to g Chippendale s later years , and was brought perfection by Hepplewhite and Shearer. Hepple white also made wardrobes that supplanted the old

o n - - highb y, dressi g tables with heart shaped mirrors ,

i . and cabinets with long, taper ng legs His chairs - were mostly made with Shield shaped o r oval backs; and were distinguished by their beauty of curve and [ 1 1 8] ‘ i r 5 3 19»t - C i ppe da e C al l . i p e e d 1 i e a e a i r a e r a e h n l h W th c Ch pp nd l ch , l dd b ck typ

- S e r a a i r i r e a gu a r a He pple wh i te s h i e ld ba ck a r mch a i r h ton ch W th ct n l b ck

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

” in Designs of Household Furniture, published

1 1 79 , shows a style Similar to that of Hepplewhite , but a triﬂe heavier . During the Geo rgian period there were a number of pieces o f furniture made by o ther cabinet-makers

on o that are worthy of attenti , n tably desks and

an cl o kc o secretaries d c ase s . Tall cl cks were made - with both square and broken arch tops, and often

c an o veneered or inlaid . Se retaries d escrit ires de vel O ed n p in similar fashion, ﬁrst havi g ball feet,

o - - then short cabri le legs with ball and claw feet,

o then gee or bracket feet, and ﬁnally short, turned

of th e - legs Adam and Sheraton school . Four poster

o c l beds became lighter and m re gra efu , those of

n Hep plewhite bei g particularly graceful .

on Thomas Sherat , the last of the great Georgians, and o r in many respects the m st a tistic, published “ ” hi s Drawi ng-Book in 1 79 3 and pro duced his de

n signs well i to the nineteenth century . His later

hi s work was degenerate, but in best period it was

for o unsurpassed delicacy, grace of prop rtion , and restraint . Though less versatile than either Chip

endal e or p Hepplewhite, he was artistically more

Hi s I correct . style, leaning toward the Louis XV ,

o th e n sh ws strongly Adam i ﬂuence . Sheraton loved straight lines and rectangular [ 1 22 ] GEORGIAN

. treatments , and handled them masterfully His - n . furniture is fragile looki g, but is well made A

n u su allv distinguishing feature is the taperi g leg,

n an d . rou d, often reeded , exquisitely shaped

o n ot n i n Sherat n was o ly an artist design , but a

o o n master in the u se o f w ods . He empl yed sati wood

as n o o almost much as mahoga y, and also ther ex tic

oo Not of n was and native w ds . a little his fur iture

n n beautifully decorated with gilding and pai ti g . Carving was always a secon dary matter with

o o o Sheraton ; form an d c l r were what he s ught . He

o f was a mas ter at inlay . Some his ﬁnest work shows classic ornamen ts and bo rders in marquetry o f S m n o n oo and - n yca ore, ki gwo d , sati w d , green stai ed whitewood set into both light and dark mahogany .

n and nc His carvi g was always in low relief, i luded

o as such classic m tifs the urn , vase, lyre , cornucopia ,

u n wreath , and m sical instrume ts . Sheraton used an oval chair-back borrowed from

m t - was n Ada , but his ypical chair back recta gular,

n n n th e with the top li e broke . Withi frame were

o of - o or various f rms straight line w rk, such carv i n or o g as the vase urn . He seld m used the shield shaped back of Hepplewhite and n ever the pierced

Splat of Chippendale .

W of n i n Sheraton designed a ide variety fur iture , [ 1 23 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

cluding tables , Sideboards, bureaus, ingeniously ar

n - o ra ged desks and writing tables , s fas , slender four poster bedsteads , exquisite bij ou pieces , etc . With Sheraton the developmen t of English style

n in furniture properly e ds , for after him came con

r fusion , followed by the heavy, graceless fo ms of the ni neteenth century .

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

More o ften the name is given to all old Ameri can t furniture up o 1 840. One ﬁn ds it particularly ap plied to n ineteen th cen tury or American Empire

n o n not Chi en fur iture, to describe s methi g that is pp

o . o ic r . dale, Hepplewhite, Sherat n All of wh h is

n o and n . o careless , erro e us, misleadi g Obvi usly, the only proper use for the word Col onial is to distin guish the products o f the colonies befo re they became

o o - on n states . F r p st Revoluti ary fur iture and other o bj ects we must ﬁnd a m ore accurate n omenclature .

nn n n o o Begi i g, the , with the furniture of the c l

ﬁn d o f n n nies , we that the homes the seve tee th cen tury were furn ished partly with things brought o ver from the old coun try and partly with things made

o Not here after imp rted patterns . a little variety is to be discovered when the various colon ies are con si de ed n n Hu e r . a d u The E glish , the Dutch , the g

o n n nots all c ntributed their natio al eleme ts . In New Englan d there was chieﬂy English and home

n o n n . made furniture, the plai er f rms predomi ati g

I n o the S uth the furniture was nearly all imported,

oa an o u and more carved k d uph lstery was to be fo nd .

o th e n In New Y rk pure Dutch prevailed , includi g

o n n th e lear such pr mi e t pieces as , a large wardrobe o r cupboard which was usually gaily painted or i n laid . [ 1 26 ] AMERICAN STYLES

The furniture o f New England is typical of most o f that whi ch was brought to this country or made

n th e n n here . Duri g seve teenth ce tury there were

c n - o of many Ameri an cabi et makers at w rk, greater

o c n o r less skill . They pr du ed the current E glish

as n o n not styles , as well local variatio s , empl yi g o and oo nly oak walnut, but such native w ds as came

n — c n easily to ha d hi kory, ash , elm , maple , pi e, cedar,

e tc . cherry, birch , During the ﬁrst half of the eighteenth c entury we

th e of o- o ﬁnd English Styles the Angl Dutch peri d, though always lagging a few years behin d the con

n n temporary E glish fashions . The Queen An e ﬁd

- o dle back chair, for example, became p pular here about 1 73 0. Much cottage furniture was used dur

— - o n ing this period rush bottomed r u dabout, slat

- — com back and banister back chairs, etc . as well as b forta l e o s . , uph lstered easy chairs with wing

on o 1 0 be Mahogany became comm ab ut 74 , and tween 1 750 and 1 775 Americ an furniture-mak ers pro duced wo rk that compared favo rably with

h fol t at o f England . Early Georgian styles were

o on th e lowed, shortly before the Rev luti , by Chip

c pendal e vogue . The Hepplewhite wave rea hed us so soo n after the war that it never gained the foot hold that the Sheraton style did . Still , we ﬁnd a [ 1 27 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

good many Chippendale, Hepplewhite, and Sheraton

of h pieces , particularly chairs, some t em made di rectl y from English designs, others displaying more

ki n o or less stri g m diﬁcations . Before taking up Arne ri can furniture of the nine teenth h n n and century, t ere is one i teresti g rather i—mportan t American contribution to be considered o c an n n the Winds r hair . There was E glish Wi d sor o chair, and ours was based up n it , but the Amer ican chair-makers carri ed its developmen t much far ther and produced something much more varied and graceful . The Windsor chair ﬂourished from 1 740 — to 1 820 and appeared in many fo rms Side-chairs and o - oo - c s fan- armchairs , lo p backs, h p ba k , backs , - - and l ow . o comb backs , backs These variati ns offer an in teresting oppo rtunity for special study which it will be necessary for us to forego . All forms were

of . and n . made hickory, ash , etc , were pai ted The back was a graceful outline ﬁlled with parallel spin dles . The legs were turned and raked ; the wooden

n seats were pleasi gly shaped . Between 1 790 and 1 8 1 0 the Sheraton inﬂuence

i n n . predom nated, and it was a reﬁni g inﬂue ce t Furniture was made here after the Sheraton pat erns , and there was also a not u nsuccessful attempt to

on originate designs here, based Sheraton lines and [ 1 28]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

But America had broken away from Englan d and

ot on did n at ce follow her into the artistic quagmire .

too th e of th e We, , fell under spell Empire , but

not o o and . we did take it ver, lock, st ck, barrel

c A tually, the Empire inﬂuence was merely an active n n of c c i i gredie t a truly Ameri an style , whi h ex sted n o and was not on where else which without distincti ,

and character, artistic merit . This is the style sometimes referred to as late

i s ac o on o r . C l ial , American Empire Neither term

o cu rately descriptive . S me one h as suggested Jef

fe rsoni an and not not fi c . , I am sure that it might suf e Jefferson was an amateur architect and something of

t o e o f a leader in ar istic th ught, a devot e the classic an d n Ho c do a frie d of France . w mu h he had to

do not o with the furniture styles I kn w , but it was probably as much as Queen An ne had to do with

o c he ar . was th se whi h her name It , quite markedly,

e ffersoni a o a J n peri d .

The furn iture of this time sho wed Empire i nﬂ u

nc o ff o e e str ngly, but it di ered materially fr m the French Empire furn iture o r the English imitation o f

. i s c o for it There a tually little in c mmon , example , between a F rench Empire chair and an American

ff on n Je ers ia chair .

o of 1 8 1 0 1 820 R ughly speaking, the furniture to [ 1 3 0] AMERICAN STYLES

o f n was mo re elegant than that the ext decade . It

o o . was a pr liﬁc peri d, and mahogany was plentiful

The demand was for an abundance o f carving .

- ﬁni al s and Carved columns , claw feet, pineapple , ornamental brasses were features . They were all a

ou r oo bit coarse, but at least forefathers had the g d sense not to import the exotic Egyptian extravagances

c whi h debased the styles o f France and England .

o and Su Massive furniture was the rule, with p sts p ports often carved i n pineapple and acanthus-leaf patterns . The plainer type o f Jefferson ian furniture bel ongs

o i n c 1 820—0 o pr perly the de ade 3 , th ugh there was an overlappi ng o f the two types . It lacked the ele

n and n o of c o n and ga ce disti cti n the arved mah ga y, the sense o f grace and proportion seems to have been

n o t weaken ing . Qua tity f material appears o have

n n n c an d bee a requireme t, with wide, ve eered surfa es

n n r . fra k, rudime tary cu ves But with all its faults ,

o . c o n we l ve it It was native Ameri an ; it was u r ow . And not infrequently we discover a j ustiﬁcati on for ou r prej udice in the won derfully grained c ro tch ma bo n was on c of ga y that used mu h this furniture .

Following the chairs o f Sheraton type c ame a so rt o f or o f transition mixed style, and then a type chair

o in which the Empire inﬂuence may be traced . R ll [ 1 3 1 ] HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES i n i n and g back, continuous curves sides , stiles , legs ,

- and n b lyre shaped splats , occasio ally rass feet, were

of among the disti nguishing features . Some these c o hairs were made of solid mah gany, some of maple

c e for and bir h , and some w re painted, but the most

o part they were of veneered mah gany . A popular

o f 1 8 0—0 o t chair the 3 4 peri d had a ra her heavy, - and . curved back, a vase shaped Splat, ﬂat legs The type is said to have been based upon an original in

o f o on the library Napole n at Malmais .

on l n o The sofas were, the who e, more otew rthy than th e chairs . The best of them were distin

h e oo n gu i s d by g d proportio s and good workmanship .

the o and n fol Apart from Sherat n types, ge erally

n h h t o o lowi g t em , t ere were ra her elab rate s fas , with

o r o o carved paneled top rails , dolphins or c rnuc pias

o of and on the fr nts the arms , carved feet in the

’ n form of large lions paws , surmou ted with wings or

n with fruit a d ﬂowers . The curved lines of legs and

n o en arms were pleasi g, and the proporti ns were g

’ n -n erally good . After 1 8 1 0 the sweepi g swan s eck

o arm became popular, and a t uch of the Egyptian

th e of sometimes appeared in the feet, in form winged

. a i claws Later c me plainer, heav er forms , with less

of carving or none at all , plain surfaces veneer, and rolling arms and backs

a go i u L i r a f ma a P e r y s a d O g y , y y b t n ho n b h f Pliy ft fhe Re] leaf ta ble of m ahoga ny

’ - Th e a a e s a r e e a u i u ar e an d th e s i s i On e of Ph yfe s e i ght le gge d s ofa s . b ck p n l b t f lly c v d l ght w ng H r Ha s e m i m s r a e u . O e R . T . a e s E s . of th e ar s s o t g c f l wn d by n l y , q AMERICAN STYLES

The tables o f delicate Sheraton character gave place to sewing-tables and Pembrokes with four

o n vertical legs, ften spiral , and freque tly drawers

su with glass knobs . Another form had a central p

n o . port, tur ed or gadrooned , and c ncave , tripod legs The acan thus and pineapple carving appeared on central supports which rested on plinths supported — by claw or ball feet an elegant an d symmetrical

m . o for , if not delicate Then came heavier nes, with

oc on veneered surfaces , round , tag al , Square, and lyre

n on o shaped supports, and plinths resti g four scr ll feet .

o f n With the passing the Sherato designs , the side

o b ard became less graceful . The body was brought

o n d w nearer to the ﬂoor . The slender legs gave

c to or - pla e massive, round, twisted , rope shaped pil

n o n lars , extendi g to the ﬂoor, ften ﬁ ished with a

’ ’ o bear s r lion s foot of carved wood or brass . This

was n sideboard usually lo g, and had three drawers beneath the top . Below these were usually three

one o cupboards , the middle being wider than the ther two and ﬁtted with double doors . The cupboard doors were generally paneled with selected mah og

or any veneering. The fronts were straight, simply - - curved . The drawer pulls and door handles were

or or se t brass glass knobs , brass rings in rosettes or [ 1 3 5 ] HANDBOO$ OF FURNITURE STYLES

’ o was lions heads . S metimes there a paneled upright piece at the back o f the top . Only a moderate a n o as mou t of carving was empl yed, a rule .

After 1 820 the sidebo ard became plainer . It u o n sually had f ur legs, tur ed feet, turned pillars at th e and n front corners , deeper drawers, a si gle cup

’ o board below . A butler s desk occasionally t ok the

o f place the middle drawer .

o f and o Low chests drawers bureaus foll wed, in

of o . general , the Styles the Sideb ards They were,

th e o . for m st part, heavy and massive The earlier

o r a - o ones had reeded ac nthus carved c lumns , plain - or . veneered drawer fronts, and turned claw feet

was i . The carving rather coarse, but effect ve The

o plainer types f llowed, without carving, the Side Supports sometimes swelling out in ﬂ at-surfaced

n curves , and the upper drawers sometimes havi g a

o vertically curved fr nt .

- e o Writing desks , escritoires , and secr taries f llowed

o o r o a similar style devel pment . Secretaries, b ok

- m o n- case desks , became more com on , the br ke arch

n pediment, block front, and carved feet disappeari g and giving place to the horizontal cornice, turned

f an d . eet, sometimes swelling curves at the sides Though the most pleasing four-post bedsteads were o f the Hepplewhite and Sheraton types , there were [ 1 3 6 ]

HANDBOOK OF FURNITURE STYLES

- o - o - c head board and fo t board and br ad, ﬂat surfa ed w as u o n n . legs , and sually made o f mah ga y ve eer During this period there was one cabinet-maker wh o was tu rning ou t a superi o r quality o f furniture t i n n hat belongs in a class by itself, and that ma y ways equals the best wo rk of Hepplewhite and Sher

f o aton . Duncan Phyfe o New Y rk based his de

on an d signs the Adam Sheraton styles , later modiﬁed

n by the Empire inﬂue ce , but he worked out a style

s as o a to all hi own . He w a Sc tchman who c me m t A erica about 1 784 . He later star ed in business

1 . in New York, and was well established by 795 His work varied with the changing fashions and may be divided into three periods : From 1 795 to 1 8 1 8 - the Adam Sheraton inﬂuence was pronounced ; from 1 8 1 8 to 1 83 0 Ernpi re features are to be observed ;

’ from 1 83 0 to 1 847 Phyfe s work degenerated with the rest of American furn iture and he produced the - over deco rated mahogany and rosewood which he “ ” c called but her furniture .

’ Ph fe r y s earlier furniture was ﬁne in eve y way .

and re His mahogany chairs , sofas , tables showed

n m s an d . markable desig , work an hip , ﬁnish He had a splendid feeling for line and proportion ; he was a

of th e r master cu ve ; he showed rare taste , restraint,

k in c v n . and s ill ar i g He employed the lyre, the [ 1 38] AMERICAN STYLES

acanthus , various Adam and Sheraton forms , parallel

of o rows reeding, the concave leg, and ther details

o . no with a masterful t uch He used inlay, except

n of tastefully arranged pa els the same wood . In

’ Ph fe s as o o f short , y furniture is w rthy study as that

n n - of n n of the great Georgia cabi et makers E gla d .

1 8 0 n After 3 American furniture styles dege erated, and after 1 840 there was n o style worthy o f the - c n n o . name . Heavy ma hi e made thi gs f llowed There came the fashi on for rosewood and fo r black

n and o oo walnut, a Japa ese a Gothic craze , b th p rly

and o . carried out, the styles prom ted by Eastlake

’ Wi thin ou r time we have had the vogue of L Ar t

o o N z wea zz and Mission . At last we seem t have arrived happily at the point o f realizati on that nov el t not n and y does necessarily mea advance, we have

th e begun to hark back to the best elements of past, j ust as th e masters of th e Renaissance and the pro p onents of every classic revival have done . The twentieth century is witnessing a marked improve ment in popular taste and an encouraging awakening o f appreciation of the beautiful , which may, after

R . the war, result in something like a new enaissance

TH E E ND

[ 1 39 ] TABULATED DETAILS OF THE ENGLISH

LE ADING WOODS AND PERI OD CRAFTS ME N MATERI ALS

n i sh o hi c Chi eﬂ o ak wi h E gl G t y , t s o 1 1 00 to 1 509 ou t va r ni sh . Al elm eech and , b , e r ch es tnu t . Aft E ar e a dw d IV, d l

and cyp r e s s .

E ar Tu o r hn f a ua ar Chi cﬂ o ak . so ly d Jo o P d , y Al 1 to 1 8 te enr e ech e lm ch e s 509 55 chi ct H y b , , t I II n u t ch e r r a sh V , y, , wa nu c y e w l t . y

r e s s ear e tc. p , p ,

E li zabe th an S ame as the e ar ly T or 1 558 to 1 603 u d .

c r Ja o be an S ame as T udo . 1 603 to 1649

r omwe i an ame a s aco ean C ll S J b , 1 649 to 1 660 wi th walnu t a dde d .

Re stor ati on Walnu t foll owi ng 1 me ce ar 1 660 to 68 oak . o 9 S d , ee ch e on and b , b y,

tr o pi ca l woo d s . Cane w or k and h s r u p o l te y .

[ 149 ]

TABULATED DETAILS OF THE ENGLISH

RE IGNING LE ADING P ER10D SOVERE IGNS

An o - u ch Wi i am and ani e ar o Chi e ﬂ wa nu a gl D t ll D l M t, y l t l so - oak 1 68 to 1 7 14 ar , e si n e r . , ce ar ch es t 9 M y— d g d , 1 68 1 02 i r h r i s o h e r nut e ech ( 9 7 ) S C t p , b . Lac nn h u e r and A e Wr en a r c i te ct . q enee r . — , v 1 02 1 1 r i n i n i ons o f eech ( 7 7 4) G l g G bb , b ,

car e r . i r ch e v b , y w, ean Ti o n e ar box e on J j , p , , b y,

etc . i r on wor . ar e ear k C v d p , ime and l , pi ne. Ru sh s eats and up h ol s te ry .

E a r G eo r i an i i am Ch am a nu o owe ly g Si r W ll W l t , f ll d by 1 1 to 1 0 c mah n m e r s ar ch i e . o a . o e 7 4 75 b , t t g y S Thomas Ch i pp e n o ak and other

a e woo s . d l , d i -ma e r cab net k .

Geor ge Th o mas Chippen Ch i ppend ale ch i e f a e l mah o an als o d l . y g y ; - ca i ne ma e r . wa nu ma e ch e r b t k l t, pl , m ar chi m . . A a r eech . A a R J d , y , b d

tects and e s i ner s . mah o an sa i n d g g y , t o s i ah We wo o woo ai n e so J dg d , d , p t d ft

o e r . woo s i n a o f ex p tt d , l y eo r e e e wo He G g H ppl oti c od s . p whi e t , p lewhi te mah og i n -m ca e a er . an ch i eﬂ i n a b t k y y, l y Th omas h e r a on o f r osewoo and S t , d ca i n -ma er r e e o i cs . h e a on : b t k , x t S t si n r m h a g e . a og ny and s at i nwoo s ome r ose d , woo d ; pai nte d and gi lded b eech and bi r ch ; ﬁne i nlay an d nee r n ve i g.

[ 1 42 ] — PERIOD STYLES IN FURNITURE Conti nued

STRUCTURAL A ND D ECORATIVE DE TAILS SIGNI FICANT PI ECE S

h i nﬂ u a o me s i c c h a r ac e r . r e nch and u c r i e o f ch ai r s i nc u D t t F D t V ty , l d ' m n ar : o u i s d e i n r u n e nc e . i i a a d o W ll M y L XIV g dabo u t . H i gh ai s u r n e e s o e n wi h i n e r e c u o r ch e s o f r aw r t l , t d l g , ft t v t d p t d e s f ol

h e ll s ha e u n e r r aci n s u ar e c o r ni ce s . lowed b h i hb o . , p d d b g, q y g y Lo w u ee n nne : mor e c u r e s c a r i o e l e an d o s te a a nd car Q A v , b l g b y , d ta u ch o o c u r e ch ai r ac s ﬁddle -sh a e e s e s c r i to i r s i ni n D t f t , v d b k , p d bl , , d g - s a o u e ar ch e imen s o n ca i ne s e tc . a e s u r e au s c a i n pl t , d bl p d t b t , t bl , b , b ets,

Le s s ma r u e r . Le s s car i n s he car c oc cas e s mi r r r q t y v g ; ll , l k , o s .

tou ch e , etc .

a r e th T r ans iti on fr om Q u e e n Anne to Ch i pp end al e . L g ly e s ame as - i men u r n c r i le i h u een nn Br o e n a r ch e a o e w e . k p d t , , b l g t Q A - - i e r ce a . b all and cl aw f o ot . P d s pl t

r ﬁn i n wo r hi en Ne a r all mo e r n r m r ea a i e e ca e . C o s G t v ty , b t k pp ly d f “ h i a e : F r e nch o h i c and h i ne s e e ai s a r s , e s s a e s d l , G t , C d t l ; C d k , t bl , r i on- ac an d a e r - ac ch ai r s bo w to c a i n e s S i e oar s bb b k l dd b k ; p b t , d b d , and i e r ce s a ca r i o e a nd s u ar e e s r e s si n a e s ou r p d pl t ; b l q l g ; d g t bl , f os r ococo an d h i ne s e ca r i n . am : c as s i c e s e a s s o as C v g Ad l p t b d t d , f , e ai s s e n e r ne s s ﬁne r o or ti o ns u r n u r e au s s e cr e ar i e s d t l . l d , p p ; , b , t - c a r e w r e a h o a s u n u r s acan hu s fe s oo ca s e s . mi r r o r s v d t , v l b t , t , b k , c o oon . e ewh i e : c ass i c e ai s h u s i n c case s i ou i e ces t H ppl t l d t l ; k l k , b j p , - — l a sh i e sh a e h e ar sh a e and o a e tc . y ; ld p d , t p d , v l ch ai r b acks ; s qu ar e l e gs and s pa de fee t ; r r n h r a on : c a s s i d l d a pe d u . S e t l c eta s ; s tr aigh t li ne s ; d e li cate p r o por ti on s ; r ectangu l ar and r o u n ch ai r ac s a e r i n r oun r e e e d b k ; t p g, d , d d u r i a r h e s n ase r e c or nu co w ea e tc . l g , , v , ly , p , t ,

[ 1 43 ] TABULATED DETAILS OF THE FRENCH

RE IGNING LEADI NG WOODS A ND ERI OD P ME MER SOVERE IGNS CRAFTS N AT IALS

F hi c nc u i n h e s tnu o ak and r ench Go t I l d g C t , ,

1 1 00 to 1 500 Ch ar le s V o th e r woods . ( 1 364- 1 380)

cr a smen O ak walnu t ch es t Itali an ft , , , m b n da i nci nu t e tc . o e e incl u di g V . , S i n f ol ar o e i ni o n . u sh o s del S t , C ll , y C o w e u h ol and S e r ali o . l d by p

imon V ouet de s ter . S , y n r sig e .

e Br un Oak walnu ches Loui s Ch ar le s l , , t, t

n ut and e on . de si gner . , b y

tc . h ar e s Ber ai n so ch e r r , e , J . C l Al y - f m i e . n a o cabi ne t ake r . g ld d I l y An d r é Ch ar le s r osewoo d an d e x u e u e o i c wo o s . Bo Bo ll , t d ll - e r i n a and mar u e cabi net mak . l y q t r U h o s e r y . p l t y, r ch i e ﬂy t ape s t y .

[ 1 44]

TABULATED DETAILS OF THE FRENCH

RE IGNING PER IOD

Th e s ame as Lo u i s i h XIV, w t mah og an Ch i y adde d . ne se l acqu er fol lowe d by ver ni s r r m M a ti n. O o l u u n U ho s e r mo t s . p l t y o f s i e e and lk , v lv t , a e s r o m e t p t y . S

cane .

a nu Chi cﬂy oak , w l t , n and mah oga y. Oth er wood s gi ld

e d and ename le d . Ormolu and b r onze n Ta e s r mo u t s . p t y ane u ph o l s te r y. C ; i n a l y.

Na o leon I ah o an s o i and p M g y, l d 1 8 1 4 onsu , 1 799 ; ene e r e wi h met ( C l v d, t Em er or al m n so p , ou ts . Al ai n e r onz e p t d, b d , i e and e nam g ld d , el U hol ed wood s . p ste r o f r oca es y b d , s i s and e e s lk , v lv t

[ 1 46 ] — P ERIOD STYLES IN FURNITURE Conti nu ed

STRUCTURAL A ND D E CORATIVE DE TAILS

Lu r i r e omi na i n . S ame a s Lo u i s u ou s and o r na e . ococo x t R p d t g XIV, ai n i n s o f as or a r ca i an and ama o r wi h a r ea e r ar i e P t g p t l , A d , t y t g t v ty

u ec u r e e s wi h o u u n e r r aci n . o f s ma c a i ne s s bj t s . C v d l g t t d b g ll b t

n nc Ri o n an d ace e ff e c s o u oi r i ece s . U a a e ai s . b l e d d t l bb l t , b d p na u r a o e r s and h an i n as e s th e t l ﬂ w g g b k t , r o e n sh e th e wi s e acan h u s th e cu r e b k ll , t t d t , l d h i n cr en i e t e ow s o . d v , ﬂ g ll

i m er or ms mo r e r ace r e s r ai n d ai nti h ai r s a e s com S pl f ; g ; t t, C t bl , me n n r man ne s s and r e ne . E ce e wo mo e s ca i ne s fi t x ll t k d , b t h i . r i h i ne s nd m u s a a s i e c r e s . r eans so as c onso e s p St g t l pl v , f , l S r i h a e s u su a r ou n and fl u e c oc s mi r r or s s conce s . t g t l g , lly d t d ; l k , , r o un d o r r e ct angu l ar ch ai r back s ; fl ute d col i umu s . Clas si c r ev val ; r o coco d r o ppe d ; lau r e l and o ak e a r e e an me a i ons mu si ca l f, G k b d , d ll , l ’ i n s r u men s u i s u i er as e s and ar t t , C p d q v , b k t g an s o f fl o er s l d w .

m er i a or ma i r ai h n n r i I p l f l ty . St g t li e s a d p Cu r u le and gondole mar r m r cu e s . nth e i on ba wr e a h o ch ch ai r s r o un and y v A , y t , t , d e a e asce s be e i e r ca au r e r anch s u ar e a e s cons o e gl , f , , l b ty p , l l b , q t bl , l r ee r e and h one su c e wi n e ur e s a e s ca i ne s oo G k f t y kl , g d ﬁg , t bl , b t , b k ’ h e me e h e a s r o h i e s and wea ons i on s case s l ow- os bed l t d d , t p p , l , p t g e r N s hi o te n . e a s f t , l t , p x st d

[ 1 47 ] PARALLEL CHRONOLOGY OF THE FRENCH AND ENGLISH PERIODS

E NGLISH FRE N CH

-1 c 1 00— oth i c 1 1 00 509 . o thi , 1 1 500. G , — G E Tu r 1 0 1 Fr ench R n n - ar o , 5 9 558. e ai s sa ce 1 500 1 6 . ly d — , 43 E i a e h an 1 8 1 60 . l z b t , 55 3 — aco ean 1 60 1 6 . J b , 3 49 — - r omwe i an 1 6 1 660. Lou i s 1 6 1 1 . C ll , 49 XIV, 43 7 5 - R e s or a i o n 1 1 . t t , 660 689 n o - u ch 1 68 —1 1 A gl D t , 9 7 4. — - E ar eo r i an 1 1 1 0. L ou i s 1 1 1 . ly G g , 7 4 75 XV, 7 5 774 — i —1 G eor i an 1 0 1 800. Lo u s 1 . g , 75 XVI , 774 793 m r 1 —1 E i e 1 8 . p , 799 4

Fr ench i nfl uence on E ngli sh styl e s i s e s peci a lly to be note d as fo llows Lou i s XIV i nfl u ence on th e s ty le o f Wi lli am and M ary i n th e Anglo-D utch pe r i o d ; L oui s XV ( r ococo ) i nfl uence on th e styl es o f Chi ppendale i n th e eo r i an er i o Lou i s i n u ence o n th e s es o f e e whi e G g p d ; XVI fl tyl H ppl t ,

A am and h e r a on i n th e or i an e r i o . d , S t Ge g p d

[ 1 48]

BIBLIOG RAPHY

e r a e r A . The Lu r e o A Dy , W lt f th e n tiqu e .

e r a e r A . ar Amer i can Cr af s n Dy , W lt E ly t me .

er a er A . Crea or s o f ecor a i e Dy , W lt t D t v Styl es .

er ein ar o ona son and A o cc e The Eb l , H ld D ld , bb t M l u r .

r ac i ca ook of e r i o n i P t l B P d Fu r tu r e .

e r ei n ar o on a s on . I n e r i or s i re aces and Eb l , H ld D ld t , F pl ,

u r ni u r e o f the I a a F t t li n Ren ai ss ance .

enn r e er i ck an d . i e i e . F , F d , B Wyll . Old Engl sh Fu r ni tu r

o e wi n . Th e ook o f e cor ati e u r ni u e F l y , Ed B D v F t r .

G re or . . The u r n i u r e Co ec or g y , E W F t ll t .

a en A r th u r . Ch a s on l d u r ni r O u e . H yd , t F t

a en A r hu r . Ch a s on Co a e an d ar r H yd , t t tt g F mhou se Fu

ni tu r e .

Ja u emar t A e r . A i s or o f u rni u r cq , lb t H t y F t e .

Len on r an ci s . ecor a i on i n n an f r om 1 0 to yg , F D t E gl d 66

1 770.

Len on r anci s . u r ni u r e i n n an f rom 1 660 to yg , F F t E gl d 1 760.

Li tchﬁeld r e e r i c . I u s r a e i s or o f u r ni u r e . , F d k ll t t d H t y F t

Li tchﬁeld r e e ri c . How to Co ec Old u r n i u r e . , F d k ll t F t

o o i r ni u r e i n Amer i ca . Loc woo Lu e i n cen . C n a u k d , k V t l l F t

n A Co ec i on o f n i sh P u r ni L c oo Lu e Vi nce . o kw d , k t ll t E gl

n u i e t u r e o f th e S e v en t een th an d Eighteen th Ce t r s . New L o I r i n Whi tall . The Co oni a u r ni u r e of y n , v g l l F t

n E gl an d .

Mac u oid e r c . i s or o f n i sh u r ni u r e . Q , P y H t y E gl F t ld . E . an d . . roc . An In ro u c i on to O M all e t , W , H M B k t d t

s u r n i e Engli h F tu r . k oor e N . u son . Th e Old u r ni u r e oo . M , H d F t B

or se ran ces C ar . u r ni u r e o f th e O en ime . M , F l y F t ld T

N or hen ar . Co oni a omes an d h ei r u rni sh t d , M y H l l H T F

i ngs . BIBLIOG RAPHY

ar sons r ank A ah n e r i or ecor on P , F lv . I t D ati ; I ts P r i nci

pl es and Pr acti ce .

o en Joh n u n e r for . Anci en a n P ll , H g d t d Modern Fu rni tu re

o and Wo dwo r k .

Ro i e Vi r i n i a . i s ori c es i n u r n b , g H t Styl F i tu r e .

Ro i nson re e ri c . n i s h u rni u r b , F d k S E gl F t e .

o i nson Vi ncen J. Anci en r R b , t t Fu ni tu r e .

R oe r e . Old Oak u rn i u r e , F d F t .

Sa li o An ré . rench u r ni u r e g , d F F t .

hac e on Ro er and i z a e h . The u es of t e o S kl t , b t El b t Q t h C

l oni al .

mon Con e h n r h e i s anc . n i s u r i u e es i ns o t S , t E gl F t D g f

h een n Eig t th Ce tu r y .

i n e on s he r . u r ni u r e . S gl t , E t F t

i n e on s her . u ch an d emi sh u rni u r e . S gl t , E t D t Fl F t

i n e on s her . r en ch and n i sh u r ni u r e . S gl t , E t F E gl F t

Si n e on s h er . The u rni u r e of u r o r e fath e r s . gl t , E t F t O F

r an e homas A r h u r . n i sh u r ni u r e eco r a i on St g , T t E gl F t , D t ,

oo wor and A i e Ar s . W d k , ll d t

r an e homas Ar h u r . An i s or i ca G u i e to r ench St g , T t H t l d F

I n eri or s u r ni u r e eco r a i on etc . t , F t , D t ,

h o A o o o s e . r o Lu c . u rni shi n he me f G oo a T p , y bb t F g t H d T t

h e er . n . d n i sh u r ni u r e . W e l , G Owe Ol E gl F t

[ 1 5 1 ]

INDEX

hi nese 1 02 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 e ewhi e eor e 1 1 6 1 1 8 C , 57, , , , 3 H ppl t , G g , , i n a e Th omas 1 1 1 - 1 1 6 - 1 2 8 Ch pp e d l , , , i h o s 1 0 1 27 H g b y , 9

o er e an a i s e o e i n C lb t, J B pt t , 47 H lb , 3 7 o oni a 1 2 —1 26 C l l , 5 on so es 2 — C l , 3 3 , 5 n a and mar ue r 1 8 1 I l y q t y, 9, 3 5 ,

or r e i o 1 2 1 0 1 2 0 C gg , 3 3 6. 5 . 6 . 7 . 9 5. 0 . 1 9. Cr e s se nt h ar es - 6 , C l , 5 5 5 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 — 7, , 3 r omw e i an e r i o ar ri a C ll p d , 94 9 5 I nt , 1 9 u oar s a i an en ai ssance 1 1 c i s e . C pb d It l R , q o hi c 2 2 8 G t , 7 , E i a e h an l z b t , 43 aco e an er i o 8 et s e . J b p d, 9 q aco e an J b , 94 eff er son Th omas 1 0 J , , 3 ohn o f a u a J P d , 3 7 d a i nci eon ar o 1 1 V , L d , 3 , 3 e a o i a u ca 1 3 d ll R b , L , Lac u e r a nd a anni n 1 02 q j p g, 57 , d el ar o An r e a 1 3 , 3 1 S t , d , Le ru n h ar es 8 B , C l , 47 , 4 D es s 6 1 22 1 6 k , 3 , , 3 ou i s ar r e . L XIV, 4 5 g D e ai s of or n amen 1 8 2 2 8 t l t , , 7, , i ou s 6 cl r e . L XV, 4 , 54 g 2 6 3 2. 3 3 . 3 8. 4 1 . 4 . 43 . 4 . 47. ou i s XV I 6 6 ci r e . — L , 4 , 4 g 2 8 6 6 8 6 9. 1 . 5 5 3 . 5 7. 5 . 3 . . 7 ow o s 1 0 L b y , 9 2 8 1 1 02 1 0 ; 7 . . 90. 9 3 . 9 5 . . 4

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 8 1 2 1 1 22 05 , , 7 , , , Mr o a D ani e 8 1 1 00 1 0 1 1 1 8- 1 t, l , 4 , 5 , , 3 1 2 3 . 3 1 . 3 7. 3 3 9 Mi ssonni r u s r e e e u e e 6 8 d u ar r ou n ess , J t A l , 5 , 5 B y, C t , 54 i r ror s 2 D u r er rech M , 3 , 44 , Alb t, 3 5 ou n s me a 1 2 0 1 80 M t , t l, 5 , 5 , 7 , 7 , 8 1

E i a e h an e r i o 2 et r e . l z b t p d, 4 g

E m i r e 8 ci r e . p , 7 g O r namen a e ai s r e f D e ai s of t l d t l , t l E m i r e mer i c an 8 1 2 1 2 6 p , A , 7, 5 , , orn amen t 1 3 0 et se q .

“ a a i o n r ea 1 1 P ll d , A d , 3 , 4 on ai ne i er r e F t , P , 7 9 Pe r ci er h ar es , C l , 79 hi i of Or e ans P l p l , 54 - eor i a n e r i o 1 1 0 e t r e . h e D u ncan 1 2 1 8 1 G g p d , g P yf , , 5 , 3 3 9 hi e r i or en o 1 P i e tr a d ur a 1 G b t , L z , 4 , 9 - o hi c 2 6 ci r e . om a ou r a ame 6 G t , g P p d , M d , 4 , 54 5 5, G ou th i é r e i er r e 6 0 6 , P , 5 , 7 5 . 57 [ 1 54] INDEX

u een nne 1 00 1 0 et s e . T a e s Conti nu ed Q A , , 4 q bl ( )

Tu or 1 d , 4 , 43 enai ssance ou i s 1 —2 R L XIV, 5 5

a i an 1 1 et r e . ou i s 1 It l , g L XVI, 7 m — r ench 2 8 e t re . E i r e 8 8 F , g p , 3 4 ani sh —6 aco e an — Sp . 3 4. 3 5 3 J b , 9 3 94 er man es or a ion 6 G . 3 4. 3 5 R t t , 9 emi s h i i am a nd ar 1 02-1 0 Fl , 3 4, 3 5 W ll M y, 3 — e r o uc i ons et r e . ueen nne 1 06 1 0 R p d t , 3 g Q A , 7

es or a i on e r i o et r e . me r i can E m i r e 1 R t t p d , 9 5 g A p , 3 5

R i esener e an 6 0 Ta es r i es e tc. 20 1 , J , 5 , 7 , 79 p t , , , 3 , 3 . 43 , OCOCO 6 2— 6 —8 2 6 2 6 8 1 R . 3 3 . 4 . 5 5 3 . 5 . 57 . 4 7 4 . 5 . 5 5. . 3 . 6 8 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 T i i a n 1 , , , , 3 , 7 t , 3 n e n D a i 0 Tu or e ri o e r e o t . R tg , v d , 7 , 79 d p d , 3 7 g

an i o a h ae 1 e r ni s - ar i n 6— S z , R p l , 3 V M t , 5 57

e r a o 1 Vou e t i mon S ll , 3 , S , 3 3 h ea r er Thomas 1 1 8 1 2 1 —1 22 S , , , he r a on Th o as 1 1 6 1 22—1 2 a e au e an n oi ne 6 6 S t , m , , 4, W tt , J A t , 4 , 5 , 1 2 —1 2 6 2 7 9 — 57 . i e oar s 1 1 8 1 2 1 1 1 6 i i am and ar 1 00 et r e . S d b d , , , 3 5 3 W ll M y, g o as 1 2 oo s u se o f 1 1 8 2 2 S f . 3 3 . 74. 3 W d , , 7 , , 7 , 3 , 34, oo s 1 6 2 2 6 x 0 80 St l . 4 . 4 3 . 9 3 3 . 4 . 5 . . 7 . . 9 5 .

1 0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 6 9 9, 4, 5 , 9, , ,

Ta e s 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 1 8 bl , 3 , 7, 3 , 3 a i an e nai ss ance 2 1 —22 r e n Si r h r i s o he r 1 1 6 It l R , W , C t p ,

[ 1 55 ] RLY ME RI AN C MEN RAFT S

DYE By WA LTE R A . R

r f n Mr e i atten r o h I n E ar ly Amer i can C a tsme . Dye dev t s s ti on e c u si e to Amer i cana r ese nti n a wor k of r ea r e fe r x l v ly , p g dy ence for the co ector o f th e f r ni t r e s i e war e otter ewter ll u u , lv r , p y , p , c ock s as swar e and other h o seho oo s r o u ce and se l , gl u ld g d p d d u d ou r Ame r i can for e fathe r s wi th a un ant i n for ma i on for by , b d t

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