The Eight Virtues of Liangzhi: an Analysis of the Fundamental Characteristics of Wang Yangming’S Central Doctrine* ______

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The Eight Virtues of Liangzhi: An Analysis of the Fundamental Characteristics of Wang Yangming’s Central Doctrine* ______

DONG PING Zhejiang University, China ([email protected])

GEORGE L. ISRAEL Middle Georgia State University, USA ([email protected])

On the premise that the good knowing (liangzhi 良知) is the originary reality, this article provides a synopsis of Wang Yangming’s exposition of the fundamental essence of liangzhi. The self-existent resemblances of the originary reality are outlined and summarized as the eight virtues of liangzhi: voidness, intelligence, luminousness, awareness, constancy, happiness, true I, and purity. These eight virtues are, however, ultimately subsumed by the middle, which governs them in common. The middle is the original state and true form of the fundamental essence of liangzhi, which Wang Yangming describes as a transparent mirror and level balance.

Key words: Wang Yangming; Neo-Confucianism; liangzhi; Chinese philosophy; learning of the mind

1 Introduction

Wang Yangming (1472-1529) was a Chinese scholar-official and Confucian philosopher who lived during the middle of the Ming dynasty (1368-1644). He is widely recognized for his contribution to the development of Neo-Confucian philosophy in late imperial China, especially the school of the learning of mind (xinxue 心學). Although his principle teachings changed over the course of his life, it is generally accepted that in 1520, after he proposed his theory of zhi liangzhi 致良知 (realizing good knowing), it became his definitive and final doctrine, one that he routinely discussed in those many philosophical dialogues in which he was engaged to the end of his life.1 In prior publications, I encapsulated the meaning of the good knowing as a human being’s originary reality (benyuanxing shizai 本原性實在) and distinguished different dimensions of liangzhi—as the fundamental source of life, morality, reason, and emotion.2 For Wang Yangming, however, the purpose of the doctrine of liangzhi was similar to what the Lotus Sutra describes as “to dispel partial teachings and reveal the entire truth (kai quan xian shi 開權顯實)” and “to uncover the marks and manifest the origin (fa ji xian ben 發迹顯本).” Thus, all these distinctions are no more than convenient, expedient means for pointing to aspects

* This article was originally published in Chinese and has been translated, abridged, and annotated with endnotes by George L. Israel. See Dong Ping 董平, “Lun liangzhi ‘ba de’ 論良知‘八德,’” Shehui kexue jikan 2 (2019): 5-16. The translator would like to express his gratitude for the conscientious advice and support of the editors and reviewers at the Journal of World Philosophies. ______Journal of World Philosophies 5 (Winter 2020): 73–93 Copyright © 2020 Dong Ping and George L. Israel. e-ISSN: 2474-1795 • http://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp • doi: 10.2979/jourworlphil.5.2.06

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of liangzhi when it is in fact simply one source (yiyuan 一原), the fundamental essence of mind (xin zhi benti 心之本體).3 The fundamental essence’s own existence, and self-expression of the nature of its own existence (beingness—cunzaixing 存在性), cannot possibly be separated from a context of objective communicative relations, where actual life is manifested or realized. All morality, rationality, sentiment, and desire are the fundamental essence manifesting itself in just such an experiential context. Only as such can it then be stated regarding the integrity of the existence of life itself that “one thread runs through it all” (Analects 4/15). Although liangzhi is one source, it expresses itself in the many dimensions of experience, just as the multi-dimensional character of experiential existence is subsumed by the one source—the fundamental essence of liangzhi. For this reason, it is my conviction that liangzhi is a concept pertaining to theories of how one is to live one’s life. Thus, realizing good knowing is the effort necessary to actualize the ultimate source of life. Nevertheless, since liangzhi is a human being’s originary reality, the actually existing inherent resemblances (zishen xiangzhuang 自身相狀) or original state of this reality should be clearly identified. The purpose of this article is to provide a synopsis of Wang Yangming’s exposition of the fundamental essence of liangzhi by elucidating the primordial condition of the originary reality, or what might be referred to as its self-nature. To do so, its attributes are concisely summarized as the eight virtues of liangzhi.

2 Void, Intelligent, Luminous, Aware

As a human being’s originary reality, liangzhi is primordial, present from the beginning. Its beingness in no way depends upon any one experiential state that a person might have. Nevertheless, considered in terms of the original meaning of Wang Yangming’s doctrine that mind is principle (xin ji li 心即理), the reason why experiential acts “accord with principle (he li 合理)” is that experience is the vehicle through which this inceptive, primordial presence expresses itself. Consequently, as the originary reality, the fundamental essence of mind (or liangzhi) is also at the same time the root cause by reason of which experiential acts conform with principle. Wang Yangming spoke forcefully of the importance of establishing a commitment (li zhi 立志) as the foundation for entering the path to sagehood. The most critical dimension of establishing this commitment is the requirement that what is foundational to my own existence unites with heaven’s reason (tianli 天理), this a priori fact, thereby bringing about an introspective recognition of self-awareness, and thus the actualization of the founding of the self in a subjective sense. Only in this way can the entirety of the individual’s experiential acts become actions undertaken by a subject. Therefore, as a human being’s originary reality, the essence of mind (mind-in-itself, xinti 心體) is at the same time the true bearer of subjectivity. From this perspective, as the empirical activity of a subject, realizing good knowing actualizes the self-expression of subjectivity. Because subjectivity is identical to the true nature of existence, realizing good knowing is the method by which a person manifests the originary reality. Consequently, it is especially important to recognize the natural true state of liangzhi-in-itself, that is, the fundamental, self-existent resemblances of liangzhi. Otherwise, the experiential act of realizing good knowing may deteriorate into rashly abandoning oneself for whatever seems pleasing and agreeable, such that what ends up being extended or realized is simply selfish intentions. Clarifying liangzhi’s self-existent state is the foundational precondition for assuring that the actual practice of zhi liangzhi is able truly and effectively to unfold. Regarding the true state of liangzhi-in-itself, Wang Yangming states that, “The mind is the master of the body, and the mind’s voidness, intelligence, luminousness, and awareness is what is ______Journal of World Philosophies 5 (Winter 2020): 73–93 Copyright © 2020 Dong Ping and George L. Israel. e-ISSN: 2474-1795 • http://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp • doi: 10.2979/jourworlphil.5.2.06

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/75 referred to as liangzhi in its natural state” (Chan 1963: 104).4 Here, Wang Yangming indicates that the self-existent natural state of liangzhi (or the fundamental essence of mind) originally possesses these four orientations. Voidness implies that when elucidating the mind’s essence one cannot appeal to any kind of phenomena lying within the realm of experience. The mind’s essence is not an entity or substance (shiti 實體), but rather a void essence or constitutive void (xuti 虛體), absent content. Therefore, Wang Yangming emphatically states that “what I refer to as your mind is not that lump of blood and flesh” (Chan 1963: 80). “A lump of blood and flesh” signifies something substantial, but liangzhi is a constitutive void and not an entity. It does not contain something substantial or tangible. It is not something directly experienced through sensory perception as concrete, restricted, spatial, bounded, or limited. Phenomenological existents are concrete, located in a determinate structure of space and time, manifesting the properties of their existence as a process within the space-time continuum. Precisely for this reason, any phenomenally present (appearing) substantial existent is circumscribed and, as such, not all-encompassing. Thus, the space-time structure of its existence cannot simultaneously encompass the existence of other existing things. The constitutive void, however, is entirely different from this. On the one hand, because it is intrinsically contentless and not an entity, it does not manifest itself as any singular and concrete image or state. Consequently, no concrete phenomena can be designated as the essence of mind itself (xinti zishen 心體自身). On the other hand, all phenomena rely on it to be present, as there is nothing that it does not encompass. It is “that which is so great that it has no exterior,”5 the infinite. Regarding liangzhi’s voidness, Wang Yangming states:

When Daoists speak of voidness (xu 虚), how can the sage further add one iota of substance (shi 實) to that voidness? When Buddhists speak of nonbeing, how can the sage add one iota of being to that nonbeing? But when the Daoists speak of voidness, they are doing so from the perspective of their goal of extending life. When the Buddhists speak of nonbeing, they are doing so from the perspective of their goal of escaping from the sorrowful ocean of life and death. In both cases, intentions which do not belong to the true character of their [notions] of voidness and nonbeing have been added to the fundamental essence, and the fundamental essence is consequently obstructed. The sage simply returns to the natural qualities (bense 本色) of his liangzhi, without attaching any selfish intentions. The voidness of liangzhi is the Great Void of the cosmos [tian 天]. The nonbeing of liangzhi is the formlessness of the Great Void. Sun, moon, wind, and thunder; mountains, rivers, people, and things, all that has an appearance, image, form, or color, all function and operate within the formlessness of the Great Void, never becoming an obstacle to the cosmos. The sage merely follows the functioning of his liangzhi, and heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things are all within liangzhi’s functioning and operation (fayong liuxing 發用流行). How can there be one thing that transcends liangzhi and that is able to become an obstacle to it? (Chan 1963: 219-20)

This passage makes it clear that Wang Yangming does believe that the natural qualities of liangzhi are voidness and nonbeing. This is the natural, true state of the essence of mind itself. The sage cannot add the slightest bit of substance or being to voidness and nonbeing. Rather, he has only to return to liangzhi’s intrinsic natural qualities. It should also be noted that voidness and nonbeing by no means refer to nonexistence, but rather emphasize that liangzhi is real and yet boundless. Only because the fundamental essence of liangzhi is primordially void and nonbeing, its own existence is boundless and therefore capable of subsuming everything. This is analogous to stating that phenomena—“all that has an appearance, ______Journal of World Philosophies 5 (Winter 2020): 73–93 Copyright © 2020 Dong Ping and George L. Israel. e-ISSN: 2474-1795 • http://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp • doi: 10.2979/jourworlphil.5.2.06

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/76 image, form, or color”—“all function and operate within the formlessness of the Great Void,” never posing an obstacle to it. Stating that liangzhi-in-itself is a void essence emphasizes the formless, imageless, infinite nature of liangzhi as well as its unlimited capacity to subsume everything. Because heaven, earth, and the ten thousand things all lie within the functioning and operation of liangzhi, Wang Yangming states, “the human mind is high heaven and the deep seas, there is nothing that the fundamental essence of mind does not encompass” (Chan 1963: 199). In this sense, as the fundamental essence of mind, liangzhi’s own true state transcends the empirically phenomenal and lies above form. Liangzhi’s noumenal (or spiritual) intelligence (ling 靈) indicates that although the fundamental essence of liangzhi is essentially void, the reality of its existence cannot possibly be in doubt. As it is what ultimately really exists, so long as it is situated in an objective relational context with some other object, it is able to respond to stimulation with motion, illuminating or reflecting (zhao 照) the true status of the existence of the object present before it, causing its beingness to truly appear, thereby ontologically reducing (huanyuan 還原) the object’s existence to its original condition. Liangzhi is always able to respond to stimulation with motion, illuminating the immediate condition of anything. As the fundamental essence, this is the primordial power of liangzhi, and illumination is the primordial power’s inherent functioning. Furthermore, liangzhi’s instantaneous movement in response to stimulation, as described by Wang Yangming, is by no means a process, but rather a matter of “silence and stimulation numinously responding (ji gan shen ying 寂感神應),” absent a before, middle, or after. The appearance of liangzhi-in-itself and the reduction of an object to its beingness is instantaneous, happening there and then simultaneously. This is also the principal reason for calling it noumenally intelligent. Wang Yangming once stated that “a person’s fundamental essence is always silent and motionless and always penetrating when stimulated. The state prior to response is not earlier, and the state after response is not later” (Chan 1963: 254). “Silent and motionless”—the state prior to response—is the independently existing (zi zai 自在) state of the fundamental essence. “Penetrating when stimulated”—the state after response—is the fundamental essence in a state of manifestation. “Silent and motionless” guarantees that it “penetrates when stimulated,” while “the state prior to response” and the “state after response” are by no means distinguished based on temporal order. Because “silent and motionless” is the independently existing state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi, once its object-directed function of illumination is complete, it always necessarily withdraws to its own natural existence, maintaining the silence and motionlessness of its own essence (intrinsic constitution, ziti 自體). Consequently, speaking in terms of the fundamental essence, liangzhi is void, tranquil, and still, and thus beyond form. Yet, just as soon as the primordial power of illumination originating in liangzhi itself is set in the experiential context of an objective communicative relation, it moves in response to stimulus—“upon stimulation it penetrates”—ontologically reducing the object to its authentic, true form (benzhen shixiang 本真實相). Therefore, in terms of its operation, Wang Yangming describes liangzhi as substantive, in motion, and manifesting—that is, as what is within form. What is referred to as liangzhi’s intelligence is as such “intelligent, lucid, and unobscured (lingzhao bu mei 靈昭不昧).” Regarding liangzhi’s luminousness (ming 明), this virtue means that the fundamental essence of liangzhi is originally intrinsically illuminating, a radiance flashing its natural effulgence. Because it is naturally luminous, liangzhi has the capacity to reflect. Like a mirror, it only possesses the function of reflecting when the substance composing it is clear. For Wang Yangming, the originally, intrinsically luminous liangzhi is the nature bestowed by heaven (tian ming zhi xing 天命之性) as well as luminous virtue (ming de 明德). He states:

______Journal of World Philosophies 5 (Winter 2020): 73–93 Copyright © 2020 Dong Ping and George L. Israel. e-ISSN: 2474-1795 • http://scholarworks.iu.edu/iupjournals/index.php/jwp • doi: 10.2979/jourworlphil.5.2.06

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Luminous virtue is the nature decreed by heaven. It is intelligent, lucid and unobscured (lingzhao bu mei 靈昭不眛), and the ten thousand principles derive from it. In his relationship with his father, there is no one who does not understand that he should be filial. In his relationship with his elder brother, there is no one who does not understand that he should be respectful. There is no one who, when affected by any matter, lacks for natural clarity regarding it. This is the lucid intelligence present in people’s hearts. It is the same through all time, altogether unobscured, which is why it has been called the luminous virtue [. . .]. The nature bestowed by heaven is the unadulterated highest good. Its intelligence, lucidity and being unobscured is a manifestation of this highest good, the fundamental essence of luminous virtue, what is referred to as liangzhi.6

Because liangzhi is the intelligent, lucid, and unobscured nature decreed by heaven, it is “luminous virtue.” The reason why liangzhi is originally intrinsically illuminating is that luminous virtue is originally intrinsically illuminating. Because it is the same through all time and altogether unobscured, when realized in experience, at such time as it is situated in an objective relational context, for all that comes before it as an object, “there is no one who does not have this natural clarity with regard to it.” Liangzhi’s intrinsic clarity is precisely the reason why it has the capacity to clearly reflect or shine light upon the root cause of the ten thousand things. What is referred to as the principle within some affair or matter is nothing more than the natural clarity belonging to the matter itself being brought to light upon contemplation by the natural illumination of the intelligent, lucid, and unobscured liangzhi. Likewise, for the same reason, Wang Yangming firmly believes that the principles in some affair or matter are not found in them but rather in the original mind. Hence, he also trusted that “illuminating luminous virtue (ming ming de 明明德)” means having the natural clarity of one’s liangzhi genuinely illuminate the entire truth within experience. This is what it means to realize good knowing. Regarding liangzhi as awareness (jue 覺), Wang Yangming explains that the self- and other- awareness of the fundamental essence of liangzhi coexist at the same time. As the intrinsically illuminating fundamental essence, liangzhi always knows itself. With respect to its own true condition liangzhi maintains an awakened, lucid self-consciousness. Because it knows itself, when it manifests and operates it is always able to know the other, and all right and wrong, all good and evil, none of it deceive liangzhi in the slightest (Chan 1963: 193). Just like its intrinsic luminousness, liangzhi’s awareness is a primordial awareness (ben jue 本覺). Because it is primordially aware, it has the capacity for self-awareness, which is the inceptive, naturally present awareness. Because it is self-aware, it has the capacity for other-awareness, maintaining the “unceasingly wide awake (chang xing xing 常惺惺)” natural state of awakened awareness. A student once told Wang Yangming he believes that when a person is in a state of deep sleep, “even liangzhi does not know.” Wang replied by stating, “If it does not know then why is it that when called it responds?” (Chan 1963: 218-19). This quite vividly indicates that liangzhi’s presence in human beings is uninterrupted, without distinction between day and night— “over the course of day and night it knows” (Chan 1963: 218), “always aware, always illuminating (chang jue chang zhao 常覺常照)” (Chan 1963: 157), and unceasingly wide awake. So far, although liangzhi has been described differently as void, intelligent, luminous, and aware, it should be emphasized that these four virtues are originally one essence. They are dimensions of the self-existent condition of the fundamental essence of liangzhi. Nevertheless, if a further distinction were to be made, it can be said that void and intelligent primarily describe the self-existent essence of liangzhi, while luminous and aware describe the independent functioning of liangzhi. The first two principally portray the naturally existing resemblances while the second two principally describe its primordial power. Since void, intelligent, luminous, and aware are one essence, it can truly live up to

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/78 the Song Neo-Confucian philosopher Cheng Yi’s (1033-1107) notion that “substance and function are of one source (ti yong yi yuan 體用一源).” 7 Because it is one source and undivided and the actualization of the functioning of essence, there is no need to borrow from the causal impetus given by anything outside itself. As it is naturally self-sufficient when it comes to expressing the nature of its own existence, the fundamental essence is entirely adequate. The voidness of liangzhi-in-itself, of its own constitution or essence, guarantees its intelligence, whereby its function of illumination numinously responds when stimulated by contact. The luminosity of liangzhi-in-itself guarantees the constancy of its awareness. Precisely because liangzhi-in-itself is originally void, intelligent, luminous, and aware, as well as intelligent, lucid, and unobscured, it is capable of constant awareness and constant reflection, constant reflection and constant illumination, perpetually and without change.

3 Constant, Happy, I, and Pure

Although describing liangzhi as “void, intelligent, luminous, and aware” is inclusive of both its substance and function (ti yong 體用), this still does not fully capture the totality of the actual state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi and its realm as it ultimately is. In his writings and philosophical discussions, Wang Yangming discusses and explains in detail other independently existing resemblances, and in what follows, these additional attributes will be encapsulated as “constant, happy, true I, and pure (chang le wo jing 常樂我净).”

The Originary Reality is Immutable and Unchanging

Constant (chang 常) is a term that possesses temporal significance. For the most part, it signifies immutable and unchanging, the capacity of the existent to maintain the continuity and invariability of its own existence over the course of time. As a human being’s originary reality, liangzhi’s own existence is necessarily constant. Wang Yangming stresses this point, once stating:

As for liangzhi’s presence in the mind, it extends through all time and fills the entire cosmos— there is nowhere that is not the same. It is “the knowledge people possess without deliberation” and which “always operates with ease and thus knows where danger is.” It is “the ability people possess without having acquired it through learning” and which “always operates with simplicity and thus knows what obstructions are.” “It may precede heaven and heaven does not act upon it […] If even heaven does not oppose it, how much less will man and how much less will spiritual beings.” (Chan 1963: 156)

Here, “extends through all time” describes liangzhi in temporal terms while “fills the entire cosmos” describes it in spatial terms. “Nowhere that is not the same” indicates that no matter how much the structure of time and space might change, liangzhi maintains the identity of its own true state. This means that liangzhi’s existence is forever present over time and throughout space. While all phenomena undergo change within the space-time continuum, liangzhi always maintains the sameness of its existence. Furthermore, its sameness reaches to infinity. The infinite reach of its sameness is constancy, that is, it is perpetual and unceasing, which is why Wang Yangming states that “because of liangzhi’s presence in the mind, all the ages are like one day” (Wang 2012: vol. 1, 6/171). Precisely because the fundamental essence of liangzhi is the perpetual, unceasing, forever-present essence, it possesses the capacity for unceasing awareness and unceasing reflection. However, although it is unceasingly aware

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/79 and reflecting, Wang Yangming explains, it is “ceaseless in its wonderful functioning, yet the constant essence never changes” (Chan 1963: 137). Liangzhi’s independently existing constancy appears in the phenomenal world as omnipresence (bian 遍). Omnipresence is the infinite unfolding in space of liangzhi’s “filling the entire cosmos.” Liangzhi’s omnipresence is first and foremost reflected in its equal presence in all human beings, as what “all people share in common” (Chan 1963: 134). Wang Yangming states that “regarding the presence of liangzhi in the human heart, not only is it so for sages and worthies—it is just the same for the typical person” (Chan 1963: 146). He has also stated that “both sages and simple-minded men and women have the same good knowing and innate ability (liangzhi liangneng 良知良能), it is just that only the sage is able to realize his good knowing, whereas simple-minded men and women are unable to do the same. This is the difference between the sagely and simple-minded” (Chan 1963: 108). In other words, the fundamental essence of liangzhi is universally present in all human beings, without distinction between the sagely and simple-minded, and thus the nature of its existence is consistent throughout, on par from beginning to end. Furthermore, liangzhi’s existence is not only universal because of its ubiquitous presence in people but also because it is everywhere, in all places and all things. As such, it fills the entire cosmos. The Instructions for Practical Living states:

Zhu Bensi asked, “Because people possess the void and the numinous intelligence [ling 靈], they have the good knowing. Do categories of objects like plants and trees, tile and stone also have good knowing?” The Teacher said, “People’s good knowing is also the good knowing of plants and trees, tile and stone. If plants and trees, tile and stone were without people’s good knowing, they could not be plants and trees, tile and stone. Yet, how could this only be the case for plants and trees, tile and stone. If heaven and earth are without people’s good knowing, they cannot be heaven and earth. It is that heaven, earth, the myriad things and human beings are originally one body. The point at which this unity is manifested in its most refined and excellent form is that little bit of sublime illumination [ling ming 靈明] in the human mind. Wind, rain, dew, thunder, sun and moon, stars, animals and plants, mountains and rivers, earth and stones are essentially of one body with human beings. It is for this reason that such things as grains and animals can nourish man and that such things as medicine and minerals can heal diseases. Since they share the same qi, they penetrate one another.” (Chan 1963: 222)

The meaning of Wang Yangming’s discussion with Zhu Dezhi is both profound and clear. He is claiming that the good knowing is ubiquitously present in all places and things. People’s liangzhi is the reason why all things within the cosmos—wind, rain, dew, and thunder; sun, moon, and stars; animals and plants; mountains, rivers, earth, and stone—attain a universal reduction (huanyuan 還原) of their beingness. Thus, Wang Yangming states, “People’s good knowing is also the good knowing of plants and trees, tile and stone.” Liangzhi is the fundamental beginning point for actualizing the universal relationship obtaining between all things in the cosmos. The infinite universality of liangzhi’s existence—unbound by human selves and rather reaching ubiquitously into the entire universe—is precisely why this beginning point can serve as the foundation for establishing “the open-heartedness of the one body of heaven, earth, and all things” and for actualizing the construction of a meaningful world of boundless commonality. Because of the constancy and ubiquity of liangzhi’s presence, it necessarily follows that it is present in every moment. Such presence consequently touches upon the issue of the relation between motion and stillness (dong jing 動靜) and arising and perishing (qi mie 起滅), questions that are related to

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/80 a more fundamental question: Does the constancy and ubiquity of the existence of liangzhi-in-itself maintain its sameness amidst the boundless continuity of space and time? According to Wang Yangming’s exposition, the fundamental essence of liangzhi is simply a perpetually present, unchanging essence. It is unceasing, perfect sincerity, absent both motion and no motion, absent both stillness and no stillness, and absent both arising and non-arising. Without moving it moves in response to stimulation; without stillness it returns to the original void. Its function of illumination manifests yet without manifesting. Precisely for these reasons, liangzhi can be called a perpetually present, unchanging essence. In a conversation with his student Lu Cheng 陸澄, Wang Yangming elucidates in a focused manner the ideas he held in this regard. After telling Lu that “because you purposely strive for serenity and tranquility, you become less and less serene and tranquil,” Wang Yangming explains:

Now false mind is of course in motion but illuminating mind (zhao xin 照心) is not. Because it is perpetually illuminating it is perpetually in motion and still. This is why heaven and earth are constant and unceasing. Illuminating mind of course illuminates, but false mind also illuminates. “Heaven and earth are without any doubleness [absolutely sincere], and so they unceasingly birth.” If it momentarily stops then it has ceased. Such is not studying to attain uninterrupted, perfect sincerity. (Chan 1963: 132)

The illuminating mind is liangzhi. With its natural clarity (ben ming 本明), liangzhi shines light upon and subtly observes anything’s original condition, which is why it is called the illuminating mind. The false mind arises when mind is drawn out by object desire, and because this is not an intrinsic manifestation of the fundamental essence of liangzhi, it is referred to as false mind. Motion and stillness are absent from liangzhi, which, “because it is forever shining it is forever in motion and still.” Thus, motion and stillness have one source and the essence is perpetually reduced to oneness. As for “illuminating mind will of course shine, but the false mind will also shine,” since the false mind is not a manifestation of the fundamental essence of liangzhi as it naturally is, how can it also be illuminating? This is because what is referred to as true and false signifies distinctions pertaining to the state of mind’s appearance, whereas no such distinctions pertain to the fundamental essence. Thus, although there is true and false mind, the fundamental essence is always one. Illuminating mind is liangzhi’s pure inceptive operation. When present there is no false mind. Although false mind arises when drawn out by external objects, this is not liangzhi’s pure inceptive operation. Nevertheless, without mind-in-itself as it naturally is, there will be no basis or cause for false mind to arise. Stating that “the false mind also illuminates” underlines that the identity of false and true mind is like waves to water, that the source is one and nondual. Furthermore, because the original mind of liangzhi is originally the “void, intelligent, luminous, aware” essence, when false mind manifests, liangzhi shines light on and observes it all, leaving nothing outside its knowing. Thus, when false mind appears, illuminating mind is also present of itself, which is why Wang Yangming states that “false mind is also illuminating.” Normally, in everyday life, thoughts arise one after another in succession, ceaselessly. This endless succession of thought is “intention,” wherein truth and falsity are identical in the sense that water is to waves. Intentions contain both truth and falsity, but if false mind is recognized through introspection and self-reflection, then true mind arises forthwith. This explains the necessity of the practice of making intentions truthful (cheng yi 誠意). When true mind manifests, liangzhi is disclosed. Acting in accordance with liangzhi’s knowledge is to realize good knowing. It is only because truth and falsity are essentially identical, and because the essence is one and nondual, that falsity can become

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/81 truth, “transmuting steel into gold” (Chan 1963: 194). Wang Yangming’s statement that false mind also illuminates may seem perplexing, but the fact of the matter is that this brilliantly characterizes the true form of liangzhi’s existence. Thus, Liu Zongzhou later stated that “‘false mind also illuminates’— if he did not really believe in liangzhi, how could he say this?”8 Because “false mind also illuminates,” liangzhi’s existence is not divided relative to the presence or absence of something, for it is only a limpid, unceasing presence absent both motion and no motion, absent both stillness and no stillness. Regarding the question of liangzhi’s motion and tranquility as raised by Lu Cheng, Wang Yangming states:

Motion and stillness may refer to the mind’s engaging in something or having nothing going on, but the good knowing makes no distinction between doing something and doing nothing. Motion and stillness may refer to absolute silence and penetrating upon response to stimulation, but the good knowing makes no distinction between such states. Motion and stillness pertain to the moment when mind encounters objects, whereas in the fundamental essence of mind there is no distinction between motion and stillness. Principle is motionless. Motion is selfish desires. If principle is followed, even with countless changes in its dealing with things, mind remains unmoved. On the other hand, if it obeys selfish desires, then even if it is like dry wood and reduced to one single thought, it is not still. Is there any doubt that amidst motion there is stillness and amidst stillness motion? It is true that when there is some affair and a penetrating response to stimulation one can speak of stillness. Yet, the silence never increased. It is true that when there is nothing going on and silence that one can speak of stillness. Yet, that which responds penetratingly to stimulation has never decreased. In motion and yet without motion, still and yet without stillness, can there be any doubt? (Chan 1963: 136)

“In motion and yet motionless, still and yet without stillness,” “stillness amidst motion, and motion amidst stillness”—the independently existing state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi is indifferent to motion and stillness, which is why it cannot be described in these terms. Movement and stillness are both independently existing states of the fundamental essence. Motion is the fundamental essence manifesting itself, and stillness is the fundamental essence reverting to silence, and no matter whether manifesting or reverting, it is all the fundamental essence’s self-affirmation. Thus, liangzhi is always the limpid and crystal clear, self-existent, and constantly present essence. It is void, luminous, intelligent, and aware, always penetrating upon stimulation, always still and unmoved, neither increasing nor decreasing. The essence of liangzhi is always aware and forever reflecting, undivided by motion and stillness. Consequently, it is not divided by appearing or not appearing, by the absence of appearance or the absence of not appearing, or by not being present or being everywhere present. Wang Yangming states:

Liangzhi is the fundamental essence of mind. It is what I have just referred to as that which is forever illuminating. The fundamental essence of mind neither arises nor does it not arise. Even when false ideas appear, liangzhi is always present. It is just that people do not know how to maintain it so at times it is lost. Even when mind is utterly darkened and blocked, liangzhi always remains luminous. It is just that people do not know how to observe it so at times it remains concealed. Although it is perhaps at times lost, liangzhi’s essence is always present, so it is just a matter of maintaining it. Although it is perhaps at moments hidden, its essence always remains clear. It is merely a matter of observing it. If one says that there is a point from which liangzhi

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arises this implies that at times it is not present, but this is not what is referred to as the fundamental essence. (Chan 1963: 177)

In this passage, Wang Yangming clearly explains that liangzhi is the “forever reflecting,” the unceasingly present, neither arising nor not arising. The fundamental essence cannot be spoken of in terms of arising or not arising, because if something has arisen then it can perish. Thus, he states, “If one says that there is a point from which liangzhi arises this implies that at times it is not present, but this is not what is referred to as the fundamental essence.” Because the fundamental essence of liangzhi’s constant presence is nonlocalized, a presence without fixed position, present without presence, as there is nowhere that it is not present, change (bian 變) is maintained amidst it. In the history of China’s philosophical traditions, constancy (chang 常) and change are not opposing concepts because change is subsumed within constancy and constancy logically implies change. While constancy describes the sameness of liangzhi’s existence, “filling the entire cosmos” describes its omnipresence (bian 遍). As it is omnipresent it is ubiquitous in every location. Even as location changes, the beingness of the fundamental essence remains unchanged, forever maintaining the sameness of its own natural existence. Consequently, what is referred to as change in the fundamental essence of liangzhi pertains to the expressive realm of its beingness (cunzaixing de biaoda qingjing 存在性的表达情境), or what Wang Yangming refers to as “the moment of encounter (suo yu zhi shi 所遇之時).” Accompanying the horizon of arousal (or stimulus) and response, appearing with perfect timing, the fundamental essence manifests itself, instantly and perfectly. Thus, he states, “There is just one liangzhi. Wherever it appears and flows along it is instantly perfect, without having arrived or departed, with no need to depend on anything” (Chan 1963: 177). The moment of encounter is inexhaustible, and thus the occasion for arousal and response is unlimited, so liangzhi has no direction or location. Yet, although it has no direction or location, its essence is one and nondual, a limpid perpetual presence. From his statement, it also becomes clear that liangzhi is unchanging and without direction or location, inexhaustibly responsive to change, and yet a limpid essential (or constitutive) oneness. Thus, Wang Yangming states:

Liangzhi is change. ‘As the Way, it frequently moves, changing and moving without remaining in one place, flowing freely among the six places of the hexagram. It rises and falls without regularity, interchangeably strong and gentle, it cannot serve as an invariable standard, and it changes only to suit circumstances.’ How can one ascertain this knowing? When someone totally gets it, he is a sage. (Chan 1963: 260)

Since liangzhi is originally an empty essence, it quite naturally defies ascertaining, for if it is ascertained as an entity (shiti 實體) with a fixed position or constitution, then it has not fallen within one’s grasp. This section has discussed liangzhi’s virtue of constancy. Constancy means uninterrupted, and because it is uninterrupted it is one. The fundamental essence of liangzhi always maintains the sameness of its own existence, indifferent to motion and stillness, arising and perishing, remaining silent and fully responding to stimulation and change and changelessness. It is simply an essence placid and perpetually present, always silent and always luminous, always aware and always illuminating. It is intrinsically void and clear, intrinsically intelligent and aware, intrinsically silent, and intrinsically fully responsive to stimulation. It does not change itself within the space-time continuum, and yet realizes the identity of its self-existence within the endless continuity of space and time.

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The Fundamental Essence of Mind is Happiness

As explained above, liangzhi’s limpid, unceasing presence—forever silent and forever illuminating—is the natural, authentic state of its own essence or inherent constitution (ziti 自體). It is also the way in which the primordial power (benyuan nengli 本原能力) originating in liangzhi’s own essence manifests itself, independent of the influence of any exterior force. Therefore, in reality, if the appearance of liangzhi’s functioning is entirely identical to the inherent constitution of its original state, precisely in the sense meant by “substance and function are of one source,” mysteriously united and with no division, then the practicing subject will genuinely enjoy the unsurpassable happiness of the fundamental essence of liangzhi appearing as it really is. Wang Yangming states:

Happiness is the fundamental essence of mind. The mind of the humane person embraces heaven, earth, and all things as one body, delightfully, harmoniously, peacefully, and buoyantly, as it is originally without division. Your letter states that, “the living constitution of human beings is by its very nature peaceful and carefree, fundamentally always joyous, but when a foreign qi or the desire for something disturbs this peaceful and buoyant qi only then is it interrupted by unhappiness.” This is true. To practice [what one has learned] at regular intervals is to pursue restoring the fundamental essence of this mind. When “pleased” then the fundamental essence is gradually restored, and when “friends come from afar” then the fundamental essence’s delightfulness, harmoniousness, peacefulness, and buoyance fills everything unimpeded. The fundamental essence’s delightfulness, harmoniousness, peacefulness, and buoyance is originally like this and did not as a result increase. Even should no friends come and no one knows me, [these characteristics] also would not decrease. […]. Liangzhi is the fundamental essence of happiness. (Wang 2012: vol. 1, 5/165; cf. Ching 1973: 89-90)

Happiness is the fundamental essence of mind. Although it is not identical to the joys of the seven emotions [pleasure, anger, grief, fear, love, hate, and desire], this happiness is not outside those joys. Thus, although sages and worthies enjoy a different kind of true happiness, ordinary people also have it just the same. It is only that they are unaware that they have it. Instead, they bring upon themselves sorrow and hardship, and add to their confusion and abandon. Yet, even amidst this, this happiness is never absent. With only one enlightened thought, and turning within and being honest with oneself, the happiness will be right there. (Chan 1963: 147-8)

“Happiness is the fundamental essence of mind”—since ancient times, aside from Confucius and Mengzi, has any Confucian articulated this insight so clearly? Concerning the meaning of happiness, the first passage, where Wang Yangming replies to his disciple Huang Xingzeng 黃省曾 (1490-1540), points to what he has in mind. Confucius said, “Is it not a pleasure, having learned something, to try it out at due intervals? Is it not a joy to have friends come from afar?”9 In Wang Yangming’s opinion, pleasure (yue 說) and joy (le 樂) are both spoken of in terms of the fundamental essence. “Trying it out at due intervals” is the way to restore the fundamental essence of mind, and when the “the fundamental essence is gradually restored,” pleasure appears. When friends come the “fundamental essence is delightfulness, harmoniousness, peacefulness, and buoyant,” acquiring a happiness of its own. Thus, pleasure and joy are the fundamental essence truly manifesting, a kind of natural delight generated within, endogenously so to speak, and this is truly liangzhi’s self-affirmation of the authentic

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/84 expression of its own essence. Therefore, Wang Yangming states, “liangzhi is the fundamental essence of happiness.” The second passage provides an exposition of the relationship between the happiness of the fundamental essence of liangzhi and the joys of the seven feelings (or emotions). Although that happiness is “a true happiness all its own” and not a perception generated by “the joy of the seven emotions,” nevertheless, looked at in terms of its expression, this happiness is not separate from that joy. The seven emotions are pleasure, anger, grief, fear, love, hate, and desire. These are psychological states that arise when evoked by an object, in the experiential context of an objective communicative relationship. Thus, they are sometimes referred to as ganqing 感情 (feelings). The conditions necessary for generating emotion are the mutual arousal of the senses and objects, making them dependent upon the impetus given by a relational object under certain circumstances. Therefore, emotions are of extrinsic origin. On the other hand, the happiness of the fundamental essence of liangzhi does not depend upon the impetus given by an extrinsic object. Rather, it is a kind of self-affirmation produced when the true state of the fundamental essence itself is realized. This is a fundamentally intrinsic happiness. For this reason, what Wang Yangming refers to as the true happiness of the fundamental essence is essentially, under certain circumstances, the transformation into a psychological state of the fundamental essence realizing an authentic expression of its existence. However, another side to this is that although the reason why the true happiness of the fundamental essence and the happiness of the seven emotions count as happiness differs in terms of essential origin, neither happiness lies outside the joy of the seven emotions. Put differently, the true happiness of the fundamental essence still manifests itself through emotions, and these emotions are the actual carrier for the true happiness of the fundamental essence. Therefore, there is nothing outside of the seven emotions that can be identified as this true happiness. In addition, while in ordinary life people endure the sorrow and hardship, confusion and abandon of the seven emotions, the true happiness of the fundamental essence is always present. According to Wang Yangming’s understanding, as emotional phenomena, the seven emotions are both an expression of exogenous sense pleasures as well as a real manifestation of the true happiness of the fundamental essence. A fitting manifestation of the seven emotions is the true happiness of the fundamental essence. Fitting means that the actual expression of the seven emotions accords with the true state of the existence of the fundamental essence of liangzhi itself in that specific context. If one ought to be pleased, one is pleased, for this satisfaction conforms to the authentic condition of the fundamental essence itself. It is true happiness. When one ought to be angry one is angry, for the anger conforms to the actual condition of the fundamental essence itself, and thus it is true happiness. All seven emotions are like this. The Instructions for Practical Living states:

I said, “You said that ‘happiness is the fundamental essence of mind.’ When one encounters a major loss [i.e. a parent dies] and cries out in grief, is this happiness still present?” The Teacher said, “One must first cry hard and then there will be happiness. Without crying there will be no happiness. Although grieving, this mind’s peaceful place is happiness. The fundamental essence of mind has never moved. (Chan 1963: 230)

Encountering a major loss and crying out in anguish is, of course, the emotion of grief. If the expression of this emotion is in keeping with the natural condition of the fundamental essence as it is under those specific circumstance where loss is encountered, then the mind will be at peace, and this counts as true happiness. That is why Wang Yangming states, “One must first cry hard and then there

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/85 will be happiness. Without crying there will be no happiness.” As for the mind’s place of contentment, this is the requirement that the essence of mind must manifest itself in accordance with the manner of its own true, natural condition. Thus, when the seven emotions are in accord with this condition, the mind will be at peace; otherwise, it will be ill at ease. Thus, the mind’s place of contentment is the true happiness. Wang Yangming expresses similar ideas even more clearly in this passage:

Pleasure, anger, grief, fear, love, hate, and desire are the seven emotions. These seven are all present together in the human mind, but one must clearly recognize liangzhi. Take, for example, sunlight, which also cannot be pointed to in a particular direction or place. When light passes through a small crack, that is all the location of sunlight. Even if clouds and fog fill all space, colors and forms amidst the Great Void can still be distinguished, and so this is also a place where sunlight is not extinguished. One cannot on account of clouds being able to obscure the sun tell heaven not to produce clouds. When the seven emotions accord with their natural flow, they are all the functioning of liangzhi, and cannot be discriminated as good or evil. But there cannot be any attachment. When the seven emotions possess attachment, they can all be referred to as self-centered desire, and they will all obscure liangzhi. Nevertheless, just as soon as any attachment obtains, liangzhi will be intrinsically aware of it, and with awareness the concealment will be dispelled and the essential source restored. Should one be able to break through to an understanding of this, then his efforts will be simple, easy, and incisive. (Chan 1963: 229)

This passage clearly explains the relation between the seven emotions, desire, and liangzhi. The existence of the seven emotions is natural to the human mind and thus does not stand in opposition to the essence of mind. Furthermore, the value of the seven emotions is not necessarily weighed based on their link to desire or evil. Wang’s statement that “when the seven emotions accord with their natural flow, they are all the functioning of liangzhi, and cannot be discriminated as good or evil” is truly a brilliant and penetrating insight. The fact of the matter is that people’s given lives take place amidst different objective communicative contexts that are relational in nature. So long as people and objects exist in a relational context, activity stimulating the senses becomes unavoidable, and necessarily results in feeling or emotion. Wang Yangming states that “intention is generated by mind.” In general, the concept of intention subsumes emotion, and emotion is also intention, which is why, in Chinese, we have the term qingyi 情意 (affection). Therefore, it follows that within a given objective communicative context that is relational, the seven emotions are the necessary means by which the fundamental essence of mind expresses itself. Apart from emotions expressed in specific circumstances, liangzhi actually has no way to realize an authentic expression of itself. Therefore, the fundamental practice should not consist of ridding, removing, or diminishing emotions just because they are summarily regarded as desire. Rather, the goal is for emotions to be expressed in such a way that they fall into agreement with the essence of mind itself. Intentions in keeping with the natural, true state of the essence of mind can be regarded as sincere intentions (cheng yi 誠意), and emotions in agreement with liangzhi’s own condition are proper emotions (zheng qing 正情). As for the practice of being honest about one’s intentions, in terms of our tangible lives, rectifying emotions clearly must be included as an element of this because emotional expression should be brought into agreement with the naturally centered and correct (or right) essence of mind itself.

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All that is in harmony with naturally centered and proper emotions of the mind’s essence is the functioning of liangzhi. It is the mode by which liangzhi’s own essence manifests. Thus, as for its experiential value, it is the good. For this reason, Wang Yangming emphasizes that the seven emotions must not be bound by attachment, for if they are so bound they will be partial and the center will be lost. As explained in part four, the center (or middle essence) is the original state and true form of liangzhi. It is what has been imparted by heaven as our true nature. He also describes it as a transparent mirror and level balance.10 When the center is lost, emotions will fail to be proper, and therefore cannot possibly be a manifestation of fundamental essence’s natural centrality and rightness. As such, they are not indicative of the true functioning of liangzhi. Rather, they are desires which, viewed in light of their experiential value, have turned into something not good or even evil. Under the conditions of experiential life, the earnest effort to be honest about one’s intentions, and to realize (or extend) good knowing brings the seven emotions in line with their center and rightness as they arise. However, such is not only the case for emotions, for only when all the actions undertaken by an individual in actual life are befitting the natural, authentic state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi does the mind itself come to rest. Once at rest, happiness follows, spontaneously born, which is why Mengzi states, “There is no greater delight than to turn toward oneself and discover genuineness.”11 Wang Yangming elucidates the expression in real life of proper, centered, and right emotions true to the actual condition of the fundamental essence of liangzhi itself as the mode by which liangzhi discloses itself within the context of objective communicative relations. Thus, proper emotions are an expression of liangzhi’s self-disclosure. Because the centeredness and rightness of the seven emotions manifests its natural and true state, liangzhi has manifested its own expression. Now, aware of its calmness and suitability, liangzhi finds its happiness amidst self-affirmation, which is why Wang Yangming states that “happiness is the fundamental essence of mind.”

Liangzhi is True I (zhen wu 真吾)

In the history of Chinese philosophy, Mengzi was the first to introduce clearly the dualistic structure of mind and body. For him, the mind is not merely one organ among others but rather the faculty of thinking that governs human feeling and activity. 12 He described the principal and subordinate relationship between the “function of the mind (xin zhi guan 心之官)” and the “function of hearing and seeing (er mu zhi guan 耳目之官),” emphasizing that in order to realize a unity of mind and body, and to prevent a dualistic division between them, the latter must be placed under the governing guidance of the former. The Mengzi states:

Mengzi’s disciple Gongduzi asked, “We are the same in being humans. Yet some become great humans and some become petty humans. Why?” Mengzi replied, “Those who follow their greater part become great humans. Those who follow their lesser part become petty humans.” Gongduzi continued, “We are the same in being humans. Why is it that some follow their greater part and some follow their lesser part?” Mengzi replied, “It is not the function of the ears and eyes to reflect, and they are misled by things. Things interact with other things and simply lead them along. But the function of the mind is to reflect. If it reflects, then it will get it. That is what heaven has given to us. If one first takes one’s stand on what is greater, then what is lesser will not be able to snatch it away. This is how to become a great person.” (Mengzi 6A15.1-15.2; translation adapted from Van Norden 2008: 156)

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According to Mengzi, the “function of the mind” is the greater part, and the “functions of hearing and seeing” are the “lesser part.” This distinction between greater and lesser implies degree of importance, a weighing based on the differing functions of each. Mengzi states that the reason the “function of the mind” is the greater part lies in its capacity for reflection, while the reason the “function of hearing and seeing” is the “lesser part” lies in its inability to reflect. Here, the meaning of si 思 is commonly understood as “to ponder over (sikao 思考)” or “to think (siwei 思維),” but I do not believe these are the most accurate interpretations. In the pre-Qin literature, si usually means introspection (fansi 反思). In this excerpt, “the function of the mind is to reflect” indicates that the mind possesses the fundamental capacity to engage in reflection and, as such, that mind possesses the capacity to recognize the originary state of the existence of mind’s essence itself. Therefore, Mengzi states, “if it reflects, then it will get it.” “Get it” pertains to acquiring the natural state of the actual existence of the essence of mind. Because the function of the mind serves as the greater part through this capacity for reflection, it is the agent of actions undertaken by the mind and body. Whereas, because “the ears and eyes do not have reflection as their function” and thus do not have the capacity for self-reflection, making them but objects, they are the lesser part. “If one first takes one’s stand on what is greater, then what is lesser will not be able to snatch it away” emphasizes that the entirety of what the mind and body does must be undertaken under the guidance of the greater part, whose direction the lesser part must follow. This assures the unity and integrity of the ordering of the mind and body. In the context of Mengzi’s philosophical discourse, the “function of the mind” to which the greater part refers is essentially identical to the nature ordained by heaven (tianming zhi xing 天命之性) and the original mind (benxin 本心). These are authentic self (zhenshi ziwo 真實自我). Whereas, the “function of the ears and eyes” signified by the lesser part is the bodily self, and by no means the authentic self. Looked at in these terms, Mengzi was the first person to clearly distinguish and define the dual structure of the self. “Seek for the lost mind” means dispelling the splintering and alienation visited upon authentic self by what is not intrinsic to the self, thereby making the entirety of a person’s actions become the unfolding of authentic self. Wang Yangming likewise articulated an important distinction between the authentic or true self and the physical or bodily self. When he elucidates the meaning of liangzhi, he especially emphasizes the importance of its meaning as “true self (zhen ji 真己),” affirming that liangzhi is “your true self.” He states:

The fundamental essence of this mind is originally only heaven’s reason, originally nothing that is not ritual etiquette. This precisely is your true self. This true self is the master of the physical body. Without the true self there is no physical body. Truly, with it one is alive, without it one is dead. (Chan 1963: 80-1)

The original face is what our school of the gate to sagehood refers to as liangzhi. (Chan 1963: 142)

What I refer to as true I is what is spoken of as liangzhi. (Wang 2012: Vol. 1, 7/211)

Liangzhi is the “true self,” “true I,” and the “original face”—Wang Yangming states that “with it one is alive, without it one is dead.” It is the reality originary to the existence of life. Because the fundamental essence of mind is the true self, it does not alter itself within the space-time continuum, rather only purely maintaining the identity of its own existence. Thus, true self is the constant and

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unchanging one, the nondual, which cannot accept duplication (er zhong hua 二重化) or be subject to duplication. It cannot be divided on account of the activities of the lesser self in the relative world of experience. The existence of true self in the individual is only primordial, as the way of heaven within. Thus, true self possesses both individuality and commonality. The individuality of true self indicates that true self appears as the subjectivity of the individual. The commonality of true self indicates that because it simultaneously fills the entire cosmos, true self is in fact not limited in any way by the individual. As true self, liangzhi is constant and limitless universality acquiring individuality’s mode of existence. As actual and authentic individuality, liangzhi is within. As constant and limitless universality, it is transcendent. Thus, in terms of its significance as true self, liangzhi is interior to all individuals and at the same time transcends the intrinsic limitations of all individuals. It is the limitless, holistic source of the entire cosmos. In terms of experience, the lesser I always belongs to the space-time continuum and the experiential context of objective communicative relations. Therefore, this I always confronts the danger of dualistic fragmentation. In the dualistic experience of objective relationships, the entirety of the climbing and galloping, outward-directed activity of the senses forms a cloak concealing the true self, and therefore serves as an obstacle to self-realization. In this sense, the purpose of realizing good knowing is to remove the various coverings and to eliminate various obstacles, thereby causing the true self or true I of the individual’s original face to genuinely manifest its inherent, originally existing state within present circumstances. Realizing good knowing requires avoiding thoughts that arise from the physical self, instead manifesting true self from the fundamental essence, as well as having the entirety of the experiential activity of the senses arise from true self. This is self-realization, as well as the unification of mind and body.

Liangzhi is Originally Pure

Regarding the primordial state of the fundamental essence of true self and true I, although the nature of its existence is such that it manifests commonly and universally in all phenomena, nevertheless, the true character of its natural state does not change as a consequence of the universality of its manifestation. Furthermore, although its existence is everywhere pervasive it is never stained in any way by phenomena, rather always maintaining its intrinsic original purity. When Wang Yangming discusses liangzhi’s voidness, intelligence, luminousness, and awareness, he has already encompassed the purity of the fundamental essence of liangzhi in the description. The analogy of the substance of a mirror is certainly a simple and neat way to elucidate this fundamental purity. Wang Yangming states:

The essence of liangzhi is clear like a bright mirror, without the slightest obscuration. When something beautiful or ugly arrives, form appears true to the object, while the bright mirror always remains unstained. This is what is meant by the statement that the emotions of the sage emotionlessly accord with the ten thousand events. The Buddhist’s statement to the effect that one “should without abiding [attachment] allow mind to arise” is not incorrect. When the bright mirror receives objects, beautiful is beautiful and ugly is ugly. The instantaneous illumination where all is true is the place where mind arises. Beautiful is beautiful and ugly is ugly, passing by and leaving nothing behind—this is where the non-abiding lies. (Chan 1963: 148-49)

The clarity of the mirror’s constitution is an intrinsic clarity on account of which it has the capacity to reflect or illuminate things. Wang Yangming states that “the essence of liangzhi is clear like a bright

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/89 mirror.” As luminous virtue, which is its natural clarity, liangzhi enjoys the capacity for self- and other- awareness, always maintaining an awakened, natural, lucid awareness. “Without the slightest obscuration” implies purity. Because liangzhi is clear it is pure. In origin, clarity and purity are one. That the mirror’s constitution displays the “form true to the object” without leaving any stains behind indicates that the fundamental essence of liangzhi is pure and thus remains unstained. Precisely because the fundamental essence is pure, when amidst the relational communicative context comprising experience, it can instantly illuminate the entire truth, truly displaying an existing matter’s natural, authentic condition. Upon illumination, where “once it has passed over nothing is retained,” liangzhi returns to the natural purity intrinsic to its existence. To explain that liangzhi’s own essence is primordially pure, Wang Yangming cites a line from the Diamond Sutra, stating that one “should without attachment allow mind to arise (ying wu suo zhi er sheng qi xin 應無所住而生其心).”13 “The instantaneous illumination where all is true is the place where mind arises” and “passing by and leaving nothing behind—this is where the non-abiding lies” express some of the implications of this dimension of liangzhi. Mind arising is true self manifesting according to circumstances, simultaneously causing the existence of the conditionally present object to be shown. Passing by and leaving nothing behind is true self reverting to the constancy of its intrinsic purity, unstained by the conditional. By employing Buddhist terminology, Wang Yangming clearly elucidates the natural purity of the intrinsic state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi. As for the instant illumination where all is true as the place where mind arises, this is liangzhi actualizing its function of illumination with its primordial capacity, which is necessarily realized in the context of objective communicative relations pertaining to experience. No matter whether cognitive, ethical, aesthetic, religious, or otherwise, this context is within form. Thus, the context of experience is the necessary condition for the fundamental essence of liangzhi to actualize an opening and disclosure within the experiential realm. The non-abiding that lies in liangzhi’s passing by and leaving nothing behind is the fundamental essence of liangzhi reverting from its state of self-expression within form to the natural purity of its primordial self-existence. This independent state is beyond form and exists without causal conditions. However, it is precisely the absolute nature of the unconditionally present that guarantees the possibility of all that is conditionally present, and it is the non-abiding nature of what is beyond form that guarantees that what is within form is always abiding.

4 The Eight Virtues of Liangzhi Return to the Center

“Void, intelligent, luminous, aware; constant, happy, true I, pure”: this is how I summarize what Wang Yangming has to say about the true state of the fundamental essence of the good knowing. I identify them as the “eight virtues of liangzhi.” As the originary reality, liangzhi naturally possesses these. However, these so-called eight virtues are merely a convenient and expedient means for describing differing dimensions of its actually existing state, and do not fully unravel the entire truth regarding it. Thus, were such means to be set aside in order to reach directly to the root and source, to screen out and dispel the phenomenal and reduce to what is ultimately the case, then these eight virtues shall after all be understood as being just one virtue. As such can we then say, “(Ever) seek for this perfect excellence, (Ever) turn to this perfect excellence.”14 The perfect excellence sought and turned to by the eight virtues—this utmost one virtue—is “the center before they [pleasure and anger, sorrow and joy] arise.”15 The center before they arise and liangzhi are identical. Therefore, liangzhi is the central (or

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middle) essence (zhong ti 中體) governing the eight virtues. The middle is the primordial state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi’s true form as it ultimately is. Regarding liangzhi and the center, Wang Yangming states:

If a person does not understand that the fundamental essence of mind is originally absent anything, and rather always intentionally loves what is good and hates what is evil, that person will have added additional purpose. But this is not the expansive, great impartiality. The fundamental essence is only what the Classic of History refers to as “do not make a special effort to love or hate.” It is therefore said that if one is affected by vengeful anger or really liking something, then [one’s mind] will not be right. Rectifying the mind is merely a matter of making the effort to be sincere in one’s intentions, in the process personally witnessing the essence of one’s mind, all the while maintaining a transparent mirror and level balance. This is the center before they arise. (Chan 1963: 77)

Human nature is entirely good. Therefore, there is no knowledge that is not good. Liangzhi is the center prior to arising, the expansive, great impartiality. The silent and motionless fundamental essence is what all people commonly possess. (Chan 1963: 134)

“The center before they arise” is liangzhi. It is neither before nor after, neither internal nor external, but rather the indivisible one essence. (Chan 1963: 136)

The center is a concept that is foundational to China’s traditional culture. If the Way signifies the commonly shared living order of the entire cosmos, and therefore the ultimate reality on account of which the entire cosmos exists, then this ultimate reality’s independently existing state is the center. The center is the Way’s mode of self-existence. It is the most fundamental outcome accomplished by the Way when it intrinsically manifests its basic character. The essential connotation of the Way is correctness (or rightness). In Confucian thought, any concept pertaining to the center or deriving from it usually also contains the connotation of centrality and rightness (zhong zheng 中正). For example, the original meaning of zhong 忠 is centered mind (zhongxin 中心), which is one’s right mind (zhengxin 正心), or simply my mind’s center and rightness (ji xin zhi zhong zheng 己心之中正). Another example is zhong 衷 (innermost feelings), which really means “the inside of the middle” or “the middle within.” The “Announcement of Tang” in the Classic of Change states, “The great God has conferred (even) on the inferior people a moral sense.”16 A line in the Classic of Poetry states, “that the people hold on to the norms is because they love that beautiful virtue.”17 Conferred a moral sense (jiang zhong 降衷) and holding to or following a norm or standard (bing yi 秉彝) originally signifies something bestowed upon people by heaven. It is similar to what the Zuo Tradition refers to when it states that “humans are born of the spirit of central harmony between heaven and earth and this is what is called their charge,”18 as well as what the Doctrine of the Mean refers to by “that which is ordained by heaven is our nature.” In sum, heaven imparts the center to people, and the people receive it as their nature. Thus, the center is identical to human nature. Wang Yangming states that “liangzhi is the center before they arise.” Before they arise points to the fundamental essence in its original state, prior to its having appeared in the experiential context of objective communicative relations. Accordingly, the center before they arise is not relative, but rather the entirely self-existent. As the “center before they arise,” liangzhi’s originally existing state is “the middle essence” transcending all relative meaning. As the middle essence, the beingness of the fundamental essence of liangzhi has yet to disclose itself in the experiential realm. Yet unmanifest or

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/91 expressed, it remains absolute, as the originary reality beyond form. It is precisely in this sense of being the metaphysical, absolute, unmanifested center before they arise that the fundamental essence of liangzhi is without shape and form, “originally absent anything.” Thus, it cannot possibly be defined by language as having a certain form, or identified, and “an invariable standard cannot be derived from it.”19 Consequently, Wang Yangming describes it as a transparent mirror and level balance. Because it is transparent, the mirror has the capacity to reflect, such that beauty and ugliness fully appear. Because the balance is level it has the capacity to weigh, and thus lighter and heavier will surely be measured. The transparent mirror and level balance describe the expansive, great impartiality (kuoran da gong 廓然大公), as well as the great middle and perfect rightness (da zhong zhi zheng 大中至正). Wang Yangming’s interpretation of the intrinsic state of the fundamental essence of liangzhi as the transparent mirror and level balance’s “center before they arise” is a perfectly lucid way of explaining it. The natural reality of the fundamental essence itself transcends all relative states comprising experience. It is the absolute neutrality with regard to existence and the absolute impartiality with regard to value. It is the great middle and perfect rightness itself. Because the fundamental essence of liangzhi is the absolute middle essence, neither is it present nor is there anywhere that it is not present, and yet from ancient times through the present it has achieved an everlasting universality. It is without truth or falsity and yet knows them, successfully becoming the standard for judging all truth and falsity within the experiential realm. It is without good and evil and yet knows them, successfully serving as the starting point for measuring all relative value. This article has summarized the self-existent resemblances of liangzhi, the originary reality, as “void, intelligent, luminous, and aware; constant, happy, true I, and pure,” using these distinctions to explain it in a way that makes it understandable. However, ultimately, the goal is to move beyond methods that permit of only a partial understanding and rather to reveal the ultimate meaning. Speaking in terms of the ultimate truth, liangzhi is the center before they arise; therefore, it is the middle essence. Because the middle essence is “originally absent anything,” originally void and silent, and intrinsically luminous, it is the imageless, void, and luminous presence. Because it is void and luminous, it is spiritually lucid and unobscured, naturally in possession of a sublime awareness, and fully in possession of the primordial capacity to disclose its own essence, its inherent reality. Therefore, describing its presence, the fundamental essence is always aware and always illuminating, always illuminating and always silent, spanning all time, constant and unchanging, filling the entire cosmos and everywhere pervasive. It is only this middle essence that things have as their nature and people have as their virtue. This virtue is their “luminous virtue.” Luminous virtue is the nature people receive from heaven. It is the most fundamental reason why human beings are human beings, which is why it is said that “liangzhi is the spiritual root implanted by heaven” (Wang 2011: vol. 1, 3/89). As such, it is what all people originally possess as their “original face” or, in other words, their “true I” or “true self.” Only this true self is originally of the same nature as heaven and earth, without the slightest self-centered intentions, expansive and totally impartial, and sufficient to manifest its inherent primordial power within the realm of the experiential context of objective communicative relations. When the real state of its own essence is able truly to appear and actualize in self-affirmation, happiness spontaneously arises, in the sense meant by Wang Yangming when he states that happiness is the fundamental essence of mind. Although the fundamental essence discloses as it follows along with things, its true likeness remains unchanged, unaffected by the stains of any of the conditions of experience, always maintaining its intrinsically independent nature and identity, reverting to its naturally existing, formless void clarity, its foundation in the center, which is purity. For this reason, as the middle essence, liangzhi governs the eight virtues collectively, and speaking of the middle is also speaking of them—the eight virtues are subsumed by the middle, truly

Journal of World Philosophies Articles/92 a case of “(Ever) seek for this perfect excellence, (Ever) turn to this perfect excellence.” The middle is the true form of the fundamental essence of liangzhi as it is.

Dong Ping 董平 (PhD 2001, Fudan University) is a professor of philosophy at Zhejiang University (China). He has authored ten books, five edited volumes, and over seventy articles on Chinese philosophy.

George L. Israel (PhD 2008, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign) is a professor of history at Middle Georgia State University (USA).

1 For a general introduction to Neo-Confucianism and Wang Yangming, see Stephen C. Angle and Justin Tiwald, Neo-Confucianism: A Philosophical Introduction (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2017). Translations of zhi liangzhi include “extend [and realize] the knowledge of the good” (Ching), “extension of the innate knowledge of the good” (Chan), “reaching good knowing” (Angle and Tiwald), and “the extension of pure knowing” (Ivanhoe). I have chosen either to leave it untranslated or to translate it alternatively as “realizing good knowing” or “extending good knowing.” For Ching’s translations, see Julia Ching, To Acquire Wisdom: The Way of Wang Yang-ming (New York: Columbia University Press, 1976), 267; for Chan, see Wing-tsit Chan, Instructions for Practical Living and other Neo-Confucian Writings by Wang Yang- ming (New York: Columbia University Press, 1963); for Ivanhoe, see Philip Ivanhoe, Readings from the Lu-Wang School of Neo-Confucianism (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc., 2009). 2 Dong Ping 董平, “Yangming xinxue de dingxing ji liangzhi de gonggongxing yu wu shan wu we 陽明心學的定性及良知的公共性與無善無惡,” Zhexue yanjiu 2 (2018): 49-57. 3 Whereas xin 心 is translated fairly consistently as “mind,” “mind-and-heart,” or “heart-mind,” benti 本體 has been variously translated as “original substance” (Chan 1963), “ultimate reality” (Ching 1976), “inherent reality” (Angle and Tiwald 2017), “fundamental state/condition” (N. Serina Chan), and “noumenon or being-in-itself” (Clower). Likewise, ti 體 has been variously translated as “(self)- organizing whole” (Bartosch), “substance” (Chan 1963), “in-itself” (Ching 1976), and “inherent” (Angle and Tiwald 2017). For Clower, see Jason Clower, Late Works of Mou Zongsan: Selected Essays in Chinese Philosophy (Leiden: Brill, 2014), 53; for Chan, see N. Serina Chan, The Thought of Mou Zongsan (Leiden: Brill, 2011), 123; for Bartosch, see David Bartosch, “Explicit and Implicit Aspects of Confucian Education,” Asian Studies V (XXI), no. 2 (2017): 89. Thus, xin zhi benti 心之本體 and liangzhi benti 良知本體 could be translated with some variation of these terms. Here, unless otherwise indicated, I have chosen to use “fundamental essence of mind” and “fundamental essence of liangzhi.” Essence is not intended to evoke associations with ideas in the history of western philosophy, but rather the above translations, including inherent, constitutive, original, ultimate, and a whole. 4 Throughout this paper, I have relied on Chan’s translations, but also revised them. 5 Zhuangzi 莊子, “Za pian 雜篇,” “Tian xia 天下,” accessed May 1, 2020, https://ctext.org/zhuangzi/tian- xia/ens. 6 Wang Yangming 王陽明, Wang Yangming quanji [jianti ban] 王陽明全集【簡體版】, vol. 1 (Shanghai; Shanghai guji chubanshe, 2012), 7/211-212 7 For a discussion of substance and function, see Philip J. Ivanhoe, “Ti and yong,” in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, accessed May 4, 2020, https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/ti-and-yong/v- 1 8 Liu Zongzhou 劉宗周, “Yangming fuzi 陽明夫子,” in Liu zi yi shu 劉子遺書 (Qin ding Siku quanshu edition), juan 1.

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9 Analects 1:1. For translation, see D.C. Lau, Confucius: The Analects (London: Penguin Books, 1979), 59. 10 The middle or center (zhong 中) is also often translated as the mean or equilibrium. In the Doctrine of the Mean 中庸 and for Wang Yangming it indicates a state of equilibrium governing a person’s disposition before feelings have been aroused (Ching 1976: 266). 11 Mengzi 7A:4. For this translation see Bryan W. Van Norden, trans., Mengzi: With Selections from Traditional Commentaries (Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing, 2008), 172. 12 For further discussion of the meanings of mind in Chinese philosophy, see Zhang Dainian, Key Concepts in Chinese Philosophy (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2002), 391-409. 13 For another translation, see A.F. Price and Wong Mou-lam, trans., The Diamond Sutra and the Sutra of Hui-neng (Boston: Shambhala, 1990), 28. 14 Citing the Classic of History, “Great Plan”, trans. James Legge, Chinese Text Project, accessed January 9, 2020, https://ctext.org/shang-shu/great-plan/zh?en=on. 15 For this translation see Robert Eno, “The Great Learning and the Doctrine of the Mean: Translation, Commentary, and Notes,” 37, accessed January 9, 2020, https://scholarworks.iu.edu/ dspace/handle/2022/23424 16 Classic of Documents, “Announcement of Tang,” trans. James Legge, Chinese Text Project, accessed January 9, 2020, https://ctext.org/shang-shu/announcement-of-tang/zh?en=on 17 For this translation of the Classic of Poetry, “Zheng Min,” see Xiaolong Wu, Material Culture, Power, and Identity in Ancient China (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2017), 207. 18 For this translation see Zuo Tradition = Zuozhuan: Commentary on the “Spring and Autumn Annals,” trans. Stephan Durant, Wai-yee Li, and David Schaberg (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2016), 801. 19 For this translation, see Book of Changes, “Great Treatise II,” trans. James Legge, accessed May 4, 2020, https://ctext.org/book-of-changes/ens