DOCSLIB.ORG

The Allied Occupation of Japan 1945-1952 and Japanese Religions

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Allied Occupation of Japan 1945-1952 and Japanese Religions The Allied Occupation of Japan 1945-1952 and Japanese Religions By William P. Woodard. Leiden: E .J. Brilし 1972. xxy 282 pp” Appendices (pp. 283-375)， Sources (pp. 376—380)s Index (pp. 381—303). Much has been written on the ultranationalism from public life Allied Occupation of Japan and and institutions. As one of the even more on the impact this instruments in the implementa­ Occupation had on Japanese tion of this policy the Shinto society in general，and on the Directive is usually mentioned political and social structure of in passing to pave the way for the country in particular. In the more pressing' issue of the all these writings one is sure to revision of the constitution of find some reference made to the Japan. Often the impression is Occupation’s policy of removing given that the more important the causes of militarism and of the two documents is the re­ —— 309—— REVIEWS vised constitution, while in religions, faiths, sects， creed、 reality the constitution could or philosophies” (art. 2 a). not possibly have been formu­ Even if the legislative validity lated in the present terminology of the Shinto Directive did not (especially in the articles 20 and extend beyond the period of the 89) if the Shinto Directive had Allied Occupation, its impact not first stated the principle has been such that the principle underlying this terminology. of separation of religion and The Shinto Directive’s great state found its way into subse­ merit is the clear guidelines it quent Japanese legislation, nota­ gives for the separation of re­ bly in the Constitution of Japan ligion and state, not only in the of 1947 and the Religious Jurid­ particular case of the state’s ical Persons Law of 1951. involvement with Shinto but in From the above it should be a much larger sense when it clear that the bhmto Directive states that “The purpose of this was not just one of the many di­ directive is to separate religion rectives issued by the Occupation from the state, to prevent misuse in its effort to establish a new of religion for political ends, and Japan based on democratic prin­ to put all religions，faiths, and ciples. Neither is it just a creeds upon exactly the same document recording the Occupa­ legal basis, entitled to precisely tion^ interference in Japanese the same opportunities and pro­ religious affairs. Although its tection. It forbids affiliation first purpose was the solution of with the government, and the a pressing and immediate pro­ propagation and dissemination blem in the religious field，its of militaristic and ultra-nation­ impact was much more far- alistic ideology not only to Shin­ reaching in that it formulated a to but to followers of all fundamental principle for a dem­ — 310 —— REVIEWS ocratic society. to keep in close touch with all In recent years Contemporary that happened in the field of Religions in Japan has published religions in the immediate post­ a number of documents and war period. As the author was translations around the back­ not in a policy-making post he ground of and the motives for is able to describe and judge the making of the Shinto Direc­ events in a more detached way tive1. Also this reviewer has than if he had been an active made an effort to come to a participant in the events that deeper understanding of the took place. The account of the precise impact and consequences observations and the experiences of the directive2. So far，how­ alone of a person in this position ever, much was left up to would make worthwhile reading. speculation and inadequate re­ However，not satisfied with his construction of events as a result own firsthand observations and of the non-availability of docu­ experiences, Dr. Woodard has mentation on many important made every effort to support his matters. findings by locating the necessary All students of the history of source materials and by corrobo­ Japanese religions of the postwar rating evidence thus found by period are in debt to Dr. interviews and correspondence Woodard who in the book under with people who were directly review has made available a involved in the events. This wealth of information on our method, together with the subject not found elsewhere for author’s own critical and care­ easy access. As head of the ful wording of any statement he Religions Research Unit during makes, make the book an the occupation Dr. Woodard was authoritative source of infor­ in a position whicn afforded him mation of the first rank. — 311 — REVIEWS The strongest point of the policy in the field or religions, book is the use of many official the Civil Information and Edu­ U.S. documents which the author cation Section (CIE) under managed to unearth from the Brigadier General Kenneth R. World War II archives and to Dyke， its Religions Division have declassified for use in this headed by Dr. William Kenneth book. Ihis enabled the author Bunce， the Government Civil to judge critically any statements Affairs Teams whose task it was made in Japanese-language to survey the implementation of materials on the same subject. the Occupation policies, and the The book consists of twenty- Japanese government agencies eight chapters in eight parts. through which SCAP exercised Part one explains why the Allied its authority in matters concern­ Powers found themselves involved ing religion, namely the Shrine in Japanese religions; it clarifies Board of the Ministry of Home a number of terms used through­ Affairs and the Religious Affairs out the book, such as Shrine Section of the Ministry of Edu­ Shinto, State Shinto, Kokutai cation. Shinto，Sect Shinto, and introduces Part three takes up the discus­ the term Kokutai Cult as the sion of the two major policy author’s term for Japan’s emper­ documents of the Occupation in or-state-centered cult of ultra­ matters concerning religion. nationalism and militarism (p. These are the Civil Liberties 11); it further describes the re­ Directive of October 4， 1945 ligious policy of the Supreme which clearly stated the princi­ Commander of the Allied Powers ple of religious freedom, and the (SCAP). Shinto Directive of December 15， Part two discusses the organ­ 1945 which established the princi­ izations responsible for SCAP's ple of the separation of religion — 312 — REVIEWS and state and strengthened the tions Ordinance and “was the principle of religious freedom. result of the cooperative effort of The implementation in law of the Japanese Government, Japa­ the principles expressed in these nese religious leaders, and the two directives is the topic of [SCAP] Religions Division. Part four. The author first dis­ ...probably none of the major cusses the making of the new participants were entirely satis­ constitution which incorporated fied with the results. ...it was the principles of religious freedom the best that could be devised and of the separation of religion under the circumstances5 5 (p. and state, especially in the articles 97). 20 and 89. The second law is Part five treats of the numerous the Religious Corporations Ordi­ difficulties encountered in imple­ nance promulgated on December menting the principle of the 28,1945. This ordinance simpli­ separation of religion and state. fied the procedures for incorporat­ The three major issues were the ing religious groups，it removed place of religion in public edu­ the necessity of government re­ cation, the restoration to shrines cognition as a prerequisite to and temples of titles to their incorporation, and it deprived properties, and the enforced government administrative agen­ solicitation of funds for the cies of any control over the in­ shrines by neighborhood associ­ ternal organization and religious ations. activities of incorporated religious Part six deals with a number bodies (p. 91). The third law of items which were not directly discussed here is the Religious of a religious nature but were in Juridical Persons Law promul­ some way connected with re­ gated on April 3， 1951. It ligious matters. These items replaced the Religious Corpora­ were problematic not in the — 313 — REVIEWS first place because of any direct (p. 178). The author emphasizes connection with Shinto, but be­ the Religions Division’s official cause of their ultranationalistic attitude of respect for all reli­ and militaristic coloring. Spe­ gions and of the willingness to cifically they are the following help with advice and guidance issues: the national holidays at the request of the religious which in many cases had origi­ organizations. At the same nated in Shinto mythology and time, he points out, CIE assumed “were created to further ultra- a strict attitude of non-involve­ nationalistic tendencies of State ment in that it did not allow Shinto，5 (p. 143), the public itself to be identified with any commemoration of the war dead specific religion. In five chapters which “in the past had been (on Shinto，Buddhism, the New subverted by militarists and Sects, Christianity and the ultranationalists to provide re­ Christian Missionary Movement) ligious sanction for their program he goes into the details of the of national aggrandizement55 (p. relationship between the Occu­ 148), the veneration of the pation and the religions in Japan. Emperor, a problem connected In the eighth and final part with “the Emperor’s alleged the author gives us some insights more-than-human nature，， (p. into the roles played by 'a 164). In this part we find dis­ “prophet” of American demo­ cussions on the Yasukuni Shrine, cracy5 and ‘the “high priest，’ of the Imperial Rescript on Educa­ the Japanese nation5 (p. 240). tion, the Imperial portraits, etc. General Douglas MacArthur’s Part seven covers a topic very preference for Christianity and close to the author’s heart: the his derogatory statements on the Occupation’s concern “to develop indigenous religions often made a desire for freedom of religion55 him violate the official policy of ——o丄4 —— REVIEWS the Occupation, and caused the be found.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • In Silent Homage to Amaterasu: Kagura Secret Songs at Ise Jingū and the Imperial Palace Shrine
    In Silent Homage to Amaterasu: Kagura Secret Songs at Ise Jingū and the Imperial Palace Shrine in Modern and Pre-modern Japan Michiko Urita A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of Washington 2017 Reading Committee: Patricia Shehan Campbell, Chair Jeffrey M. Perl Christina Sunardi Paul S. Atkins Program Authorized to Offer Degree: Music ii ©Copyright 2017 Michiko Urita iii University of Washington Abstract In Silent Homage to Amaterasu: Kagura Secret Songs at Ise Jingū and the Imperial Palace Shrine in Modern and Pre-modern Japan Michiko Urita Chair of the Supervisory Committee: Professor Patricia Shehan Campbell Music This dissertation explores the essence and resilience of the most sacred and secret ritual music of the Japanese imperial court—kagura taikyoku and kagura hikyoku—by examining ways in which these two songs have survived since their formation in the twelfth century. Kagura taikyoku and kagura hikyoku together are the jewel of Shinto ceremonial vocal music of gagaku, the imperial court music and dances. Kagura secret songs are the emperor’s foremost prayer offering to the imperial ancestral deity, Amaterasu, and other Shinto deities for the well-being of the people and Japan. I aim to provide an understanding of reasons for the continued and uninterrupted performance of kagura secret songs, despite two major crises within Japan’s history. While foreign origin style of gagaku was interrupted during the Warring States period (1467-1615), the performance and transmission of kagura secret songs were protected and sustained. In the face of the second crisis during the Meiji period (1868-1912), which was marked by a threat of foreign invasion and the re-organization of governance, most secret repertoire of gagaku lost their secrecy or were threatened by changes to their traditional system of transmissions, but kagura secret songs survived and were sustained without losing their iv secrecy, sacredness, and silent performance.
    [Show full text]
  • Religion and the Secular State in Japan1
    KYOKO KIMPARA Religion and the Secular State in Japan1 I. SOCIAL CONTEXT The contemporary society of Japan appears to be comprised of both secular and religious influences. The reality is that the Japanese society reflects an ambivalent feeling towards religion shared by the majority of the Japanese people and is the key to understanding the social, political and legal context in the theme of “Religion and the Secular State.” In this setion of the report, both the current breakdown of religious affiliations in Japan and a brief historical explanation of the major religious traditions in Japan are given. According to the latest reliable statistics available concerning the religious affiliation of the Japanese, 51.2 percent are Shintoists (Shinto is traditional polytheistic religion of Japan), 43.3 percent are Buddhists, 1.0 percent are Christians, and 4.4 percent are other religions. The total number of Shintoists and Buddhists combined make up approximately two hundred million, which is almost twice as many as the total population of the country. How could that be explained? First, as the statistics are based on a questionnaire answered by religious communities, each community may have declared a number slightly more than actual membership. Another explanation could be the possibility that each community counted the number of people who had simply participated in some religious events of the community or worshipped in some way or other, even though there is no such clear-cut sign of one’s religious affiliation in Shinto and Buddhism as baptism is in Christianity. Many Japanese tend to participate in religious events of different religions, such as the New Year’s celebrations at Shinto shrines or Buddhist temples, Saint Valentine’s Day and Christmas Eve, romantic wedding ceremonies at Christian churches, and funeral ceremonies done in a Shintoist or Buddhist style.
    [Show full text]
  • The Enduring Ambiguities of Japan's Postwar Secularism
    THE ENDURING AMBIGUITIES OF JAPAN’S POSTWAR SECULARISM David Rangdrol Thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctorate in Philosophy degree in Political Science School of Political Studies Faculty of Social Sciences University of Ottawa © David Rangdrol, Ottawa, Canada, 2018 ABSTRACT Following decades of state control of religion, a secular constitution was introduced in Japan in 1947, presenting favourable prospects for safeguarding freedom of conscience and equality. However, the vague language used in Articles 20 and 89 of the constitution arguably complicated the task of creating a strong, liberal secular regime. This thesis, therefore, will describe how institutional flaws have compounded the secularism-related challenges linked to the revival of Shinto’s public role in the postwar era, as well as the controversies surrounding the creation of a powerful Buddhism-based political party, the Komeito. In this regard, the Japanese case provides an opportunity to reflect on similar issues elsewhere in the world. Indeed, attempts at fostering citizens’ civic cohesion are being challenged in nation-states worldwide; on one hand, by the absolutist goals of religio-political movements, and on the other, by state-led constructions of national and religious identities. The Japanese case can especially contribute to the debates concerning the introduction of secularism in non-Western societies – notably where the notions used to articulate secularism, such as the religion–state dichotomy, either are absent or lack deep cultural and historical roots. By focusing on the impact of key ambiguities found at the core of Japan’s secular rules, the thesis will argue that institutional design choices, rather than cultural barriers, are responsible for some of the most important challenges confronting secularism in Japan today.
    [Show full text]
  • Daijosai and the Separation of Religion and State
    Japanese Society and Culture Volume 2 Article 4 2-28-2020 Daijosai and the Separation of Religion and State Thomas Makoto Naruse Department of Law, Kokushikan University Follow this and additional works at: https://gensoken.toyo.ac.jp/japanese-society-and-culture Part of the Constitutional Law Commons, and the Japanese Studies Commons Recommended Citation Naruse, Thomas Makoto (2020) "Daijosai and the Separation of Religion and State," Japanese Society and Culture: Vol. 2 , Article 4. Available at: https://gensoken.toyo.ac.jp/japanese-society-and-culture/vol2/iss1/4 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Institute of Social Sciences. It has been accepted for inclusion in Japanese Society and Culture by an authorized editor of Institute of Social Sciences. Daijosai and the Separation of Religion and State 031 【Received 1 October 2019 / Revised 29 November 2019 / Accepted 6 December 2019】 Daijosai and the Separation of Religion and State Thomas Makoto Naruse ※ Abstract Daijosai, which is regarded as an indispensable ceremony for the accession of the throne, is a Shinto ceremony. Therefore, as Japanese Constitution defines separation of church and state, it is not held as a national ceremony (a state act) but held as a ceremony of the imperial house. On the other hand, since it is said to be an indispensable ceremony for the accession of the throne, government finds public significance, and the cost is covered by the national expenses. Criticisms that claim violation of separation of church and state arise, and many lawsuits were filed. This article reveals that behind the argument of Daijosai and separation of church and state, there are two contexts.
    [Show full text]
  • Public Intellectuals, Neonationalism, and the Politics of Yasukuni Shrine
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Nichibunken Open Access Mark R. MULLINS Public Intellectuals, Neonationalism, and the Politics of Yasukuni Shrine Mark R. MULLINS Introduction Yasukuni Shrine remains a controversial site in contemporary Japan. In spite of its name, “peaceful country,” it has been associated with war, militarism, and social conflict throughout much of its history. Established initially to memorialize those soldiers who gave their lives in the battles fought for the restoration of imperial rule, it became the site to enshrine all of those who perished in Japan’s wars of imperial expansion from the late nineteenth century until 1945. During this period, the shrine was under the administrative control of the Ministries of Army and Navy, and financially supported by the government. Shinto priests were employed to conduct the services, but it is worth noting that the chief priest was often a military man. Although the rituals conducted at the shrine followed Shinto protocol, the government regarded them as “non-religious” ceremonies that were necessary to provide official recognition for those who sacrificed their life for the nation and Emperor. The annual events held at the shrine were used to inspire and mobilize the Japanese for war, celebrate military victories, and memorialize the war dead. Following Japan’s surrender in August 1945, the Allied Occupation rapidly transformed the status of the shrine. In response to the Shinto Directive (15 December 1945) issued by the Supreme Commander of Allied Powers, all shrines were “disestablished” and separated from government support and control.
    [Show full text]
  • Emerging Japanese Nationalism and Its Correlations with the Collapse of Japan As a Family Nation 1
    EMERGING JAPANESE NATIONALISM AND ITS CORRELATIONS WITH THE COLLAPSE OF JAPAN AS A FAMILY NATION 1 ASPAC 2016 – Conference Paper ‘Emerging Japanese Nationalism and Its Correlations with the Collapse of Japan as a Family Nation’ Shingo Masunaga University of Turku Author Note Shingo Masunaga, Centre for East Asian Studies (CEAS), Department of Social Sciences, University of Turku. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to Shingo Masunaga, Department of Social Sciences, University of Turku, 3A Arwidssoninkatu 20500, Turku, Republic of Finland. Contact: [email protected] EMERGING JAPANESE NATIONALISM AND ITS CORRELATIONS WITH THE COLLAPSE OF JAPAN AS A FAMILY NATION 2 Abstract This article attempts to manifest future of Japanese nationalism through the traditional Shinto nationalism and the decades-long concept of ‘family nation’. The both are products of contemporary Shintoism hence mutually intertwined. In recent years, Japanese nationalists succeeded to integrate the family nation concept with their Shinto agenda. Through Professor Aiji Tanaka’s ‘Three Dimentional Coordinates Model (TDCM), it was found that the Shinto nationalists are less likely to repeat the historical mistakes of the pre-war State Shinto, however more prone to increase tensions, even wars, with neighbouring states than other ideologies. Literature Review Sato (2015) analysed the ‘national polity’ of Japan (Kokutai) based on the pre-war nationalist literature called the ‘True Meaning of National Polity’ (Kokutai no Hongi) written in 1939 by a group of Japanese scholars embraced by the Ministry of Education. He stressed the difference between the Western individualistic values ever since the enlightenment and traditional Japanese Shintoistic value. The former concept was named ‘Atom-like value’ (Atom-teki Sekaikan) by himself which means each individuals are isolated and freedom of the individuals must be prioritized.
    [Show full text]
  • Theocracy Vs Constitutionalism in Japan Constitutional Amendment and the Return of Pre-War Shinto Nationalism
    The RSIS Working Paper series presents papers in a preliminary form and serves to stimulate comment and discussion. The views expressed in this publication are entirely those of the author(s), and do not represent the official position of RSIS. This publication may be reproduced electronically or in print with prior written permission obtained from RSIS and due credit given to the author(s) and RSIS. Please email [email protected] for further editorial queries. NO. 310 THEOCRACY VS CONSTITUTIONALISM IN JAPAN CONSTITUTIONAL AMENDMENT AND THE RETURN OF PRE-WAR SHINTO NATIONALISM NAOKO KUMADA S. RAJARATNAM SCHOOL OF INTERNATIONAL STUDIES SINGAPORE 2 MAY 2018 About the S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies The S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies (RSIS) was officially inaugurated on 1 January 2007. Prior to this, it was known as the Institute of Defence and Strategic Studies (IDSS), which was established 10 years earlier, on 30 July 1996, by Dr Tony Tan Keng Yam, then Deputy Prime Minister and Minister for Defence. Dr Tony Tan later became the elected seventh President of the Republic of Singapore. Like its predecessor, RSIS was established as an autonomous entity within Nanyang Technological University (NTU). RSIS’ mission is to be a leading research and graduate teaching institution in strategic and international affairs in the Asia Pacific. To accomplish this mission, it will: Provide a rigorous professional graduate education with a strong practical emphasis Conduct policy-relevant research in defence, national security, international relations, strategic studies and diplomacy Foster a global network of like-minded professional schools Graduate Programmes RSIS offers a challenging graduate education in international affairs, taught by an international faculty of leading thinkers and practitioners.
    [Show full text]
  • “Religion and Law in Japan”
    “Religion and Law in Japan” A Brief Sketch of Japanese History, Tradition, and Cases Dedicated to Nineteenth Annual International Law and Religion Symposium at Brigham Young University October 2012 Tasuku Matsuo Attorney at law, Matsuo & Kosugi Preface I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my dearest friend, Mr Connan Grames of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints for his giving me this honorable opportunity. I truly appreciate the long-time friendship with Mr Grames, whom I have respected for his accomplishment as a lawyer and sociologist, and his dedication to his family as a father. Chapter 1 – Japanese Society and Its Traditional Faith – Animism Law and religion are an inalienable part of society. Religious values constitute central elements of societal values that form the rules, principles and institutions governing society. First of all, there is a long tradition of animism in Japan. In the Japanese worldviews, there is less distance between man and the divine. From prehistoric times, Japanese people worshiped nature as divine. They believed that natural features such as mountains, rivers, stones, and plants all had spirits and venerated those as Kami or gods, which most were seen as the sacred powers within nature. The people offered prayers to them and sought salvation from them. Typically, the core of Shintoism, an indigenous religion of Japan, is based on the worship of nature. Also, another special feature of Japanese religious culture rests on the polytheism in it. Contrary to the Western Judeo-Christian monotheistic tradition, so many different gods are enshrined in Japan, including human beings, animals, natural gods and even foreign gods, that there is a term "Yaorozu no kami", literally meaning 'eight million gods'.
    [Show full text]
  • Yasukuni Shrine: a Case for Understanding the Axiological
    YASUKUNI SHRINE: A CASE FOR UNDERSTANDING THE AXIOLOGICAL BASIS OF THE IDEOLOGICAL DISCOURSE IN SINO-JAPANESE RELATIONS by ROLAND OLIWIER LEWINSKI A THESIS Presented to the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Asian Studies and the Graduate School of the University of Oregon in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts June 2016 THESIS APPROVAL PAGE Student: Roland Oliwier Lewinski Title: Yasukuni Shrine: A Case for Understanding the Axiological Basis of the Ideological Discourse in Sino-Japanese Relations This thesis has been accepted and approved in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Master of Arts degree in the Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Asian Studies by: Tuong Vu Chairperson Jeffrey Hanes Member Roy Bing Chan Member and Scott L. Pratt Dean of the Graduate School Original approval signatures are on file with the University of Oregon Graduate School. Degree awarded June 2016 ii © 2016 Roland Oliwier Lewinski iii THESIS ABSTRACT Roland Oliwier Lewinski Master of Arts Interdisciplinary Studies Program: Asian Studies June 2016 Title: Yasukuni Shrine: A Case for Understanding the Axiological Basis of the Ideological Discourse in Sino-Japanese Relations This thesis concentrates on the partial reconstruction of the axiological basis at the core of the ideological – nationalistic disputes between China and Japan. The recent history of Sino-Japanese international relations is analyzed in order to show how nationalistic incentives became the rational political choice in the domestic policy of both countries. The research, concerned primarily with history, memory, and historical memory, is based on the argumentation used by the People’s Daily, an extension of the People’s Republic of China’s political line, in regard to Yasukuni shrine and Japanese Prime Minister Abe Shinzo’s visit to the shrine in 2013.
    [Show full text]
  • The Construction of Separation of Religion and State in Post-War Japan
    UCLA UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal Title Reexamining Separation: The Construction of Separation of Religion and State in Post-War Japan Permalink https://escholarship.org/uc/item/7zb9f29b Journal UCLA Pacific Basin Law Journal, 22(1) Author White, Brent T. Publication Date 2004 DOI 10.5070/P8221022170 Peer reviewed eScholarship.org Powered by the California Digital Library University of California REEXAMINING SEPARATION: THE CONSTRUCTION OF SEPARATION OF RELIGION AND STATE IN POST-WAR JAPAN Brent T. White ABSTRACT This article provides a comprehensive doctrinal analysis and critique of the Japanese Supreme Court's treatment of separa- tion of religion and the state in post-war Japan. After placing the development of the doctrine in its proper historical and political context, the article argues that the Court's construc- tion of the doctrine threatens to undermine religious liberty and equality in Japan. The article then considers the various socio-political forces underlying the Court's construction of the doctrine, including the role that the Court sees itself play- ing in the contest over separation of religion and state in Ja- pan. The article concludes by arguing that, through the lens of the Japanese experience, one can draw normative lessons about the dangers of religious identity exclusion and the inap- propriateness of relying upon one constitutional standard-be it the Japanese Court's purpose and effect test, the Lemon test, or the O'Connor endorsement test-in interpreting the constitutional principle of separation of religion and the state. TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ........................................ 30 PART I: HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ................ 33 PART II: THE POLITICIZATION OF SEPARATION OF RELIGION AND STATE IN JAPAN ........
    [Show full text]
  • Monotheism in Modern Shinto
    JISMOR 4 Monotheism in Modern Shinto Aasulv Lande Abstract The early Japanese Christian leader, Uchimura Kanzo, experienced Shinto a century ago as disturbingly polytheistic. There is no reason to doubt the sincerity of his experience and thought. But in my view, there already existed in his time a monotheist Shinto. It later changed character, but I argue that Shinto is still an inclusive, narrow monotheist religious cult. In modern Shinto, divine power includes some and suppresses other cosmic powers. An Emperor-centered monotheism with a universal scope emerged during early modernity. Shinto retained its inclusive monotheism after the Shinto Directive of 1945, but the privatization of emperor veneration has reduced Shinto to a norm for the Japanese people, even if a potential universality is still expressed. Postmodern Shinto dresses its universality in individual and varied coats, transcending the boundaries of Japanese nationality. New Shinto is in my view not polytheistic. However, its inclusive, monotheist universalism is transformed onto a purely spiritual and individualized level. Keywords: monotheism, Uchimura Kanzo, Japanese modernization, Shinto, Shinto- Christian encounter Monotheism was a great theme during the period of modernization in Japan. Within diff erent religious contexts it meant a renewal and establishment of basic principles for ethics and education. It infl uenced all religions: Shinto, Buddhism, Christianity. Religions had to develop their monotheist capacities; monotheism was intimately tied to the idea of modernization, which was based on the idea of one consistent scientifi c truth. Uchimura Kanzo’s Experience of Shinto Polytheism In the following, I quote from writings of the Christian modernizer, Uchimura Kanzo (1861-1930): 1 JISMOR 4 I believed, and that sincerely, that there dwelt in each of innumerable temples its god, jealous over its jurisdiction, ready with punishment to any transgressor that fell under his displeasure.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Chapter 5 Postmemorial Conservatism: Mobilizing Memories of the War Dead
    Chapter 5 Postmemorial Conservatism: mobilizing memories of the war dead Akiko Takenaka Department of History *This is the final chapter of my book manuscript entitled: Yasukuni: Memory, Practice, Politics that examines Yasukuni Shrine, a war memorial established in 1869 in which spirits of all military dead from Japan’s modern wars are commemorated. It is a contested site that has come to represent all unresolved war crimes that Japan has committed during the Asia-Pacific War (1931-1945). In my book, I examine five key periods from the shrine’s history to demonstrate the complexities in the roles Japanese people (both military and civilian) played in Japan’s modern wars. In particular, I argue against a clear distinction between the victim and perpetrator roles during wartime, and suggests a more nuanced approach in order to enable a better understanding of Japan’s contested past. Draft: please do not quote or circulate without permission, and please pardon the incomplete footnotes… 1 Chapter 5 Postmemorial Conservatism: mobilizing memories of the war dead It is a way of life that constitutes the core of the existence of Yasukuni. The numerous eirei, who, since the upheaval that marked the end of the Edo period, sacrificed their own lives in order to protect the independence and dignity of Japan. Why are the eirei noble? Why is it necessary for all Japanese who live today to understand and respond to the noble spirit of the eirei? From the opening of the film Mitama o tsugu mono. The film Mitama o tsugu mono (To carry on the spirit of the war dead, 2008), from which I introduce the epigraph above, is aired four times daily at the Yūshūkan Museum on Yasukuni Shrine grounds.
    [Show full text]