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Showcasing Shinto Showcasing Shinto -The Reinvention of Shinto as an Ecological Religion- Leif Petter Sandvik Master’s Degree Thesis in History of Religion (60sp) Department of Culture Studies and Oriental Languages The Faculty of Humanities Univerisity of Oslo Spring 2011 II ―Green Kamakura‖ –Drawing by a young member of `Tsuru no ko-kai' (see p. 69) III © Leif Petter Sandvik Spring 2011 Showcasing Shinto: The Reinvention of Shinto as an Ecological Religion Leif Petter Sandvik http://www.duo.uio.no/ Trykk: Reprosentralen, Universitetet i Oslo IV Abstract The emperor and the nation have been central to representations of Shinto since the Meiji period, but recently, there has been a widespread tendency among Japanese (and others) to equate Shinto with eco-friendliness. I have investigated the history of this idea in order to understand how this new representation of Shinto as an ecological religion came to be. This thesis is the first investigation of the history of this concept and aims at understanding how this new representation of Shinto as an ecological religion came to be. These modern ideas reverberate with an older discourse on nature in Japan. Prominent scholars and ideologues who have contributed to the idea that the Japanese religions are nature loving are for example: Watsuji Tetsuro, Okakura Tenshin and Masaharu Anesaki. Other scholars have questioned this view; among them are: Poul Pedersen, Arne Kalland and Julia Thomas. While their perspectives are different, these scholars all underline that there are ideological reasons behind the ecological claim. In my investigation of environmental activities within Shinto I travelled to Japan, conducted interviews, visited shrines and collected relevant material. My main argument is that this new representation relates to post-modern concerns and identity-seeking. The ideologues are constantly contrasting the problematic present with a better past. They argue that ancient practices of kami-worship attest to Shinto‘s benign relationship with nature. The new representation of Shinto as an ecological religion, I argue, also involves a fair amount of paradoxes and builds on a reversed-orientalism. I have applied critical analysis in my investigation and I will demonstrate that the new representation of Shinto as an ecological religion is a social and historical construct. V VI Acknowledgements Many people have helped me in the process of completing my Masters Degree thesis. First of all I would like to thank my supervisors Nora Stene Preston and Mark Teeuwen for the constructive criticism and the excellent advice that they have provided. Thank you for sharing your time, experience and knowledge with me. I would also like to thank my friends and fellow students at the University of Oslo. Special thanks go to Aina Hammer, Henriette Jevnesveen and Knut Aukland for the friendship and interesting conversations. I am in particular indebted to Knut for proofreading my thesis and the helpful remarks. And last but not least, I would like to thank my family and all the friends who have supported me. VII VIII Pictures 1. The Tsurugaoka Hachimangū 2. Shinto priest purifies a car 3. The Shimogamo shrine in Kyoto 4. Sacred space and a sacred tree surrounded by Tadasu no Mori ( a sacred forest) 5. A sacred river at the Kamigamo shrine 6. Sakaki: Evergreen branch used in rituals IX X 7. Chōzuya: ―Shinto water ablution‖ 8. Torii gate in front of the Meiji Jingū 9. Showcasing Shinto: foreign tourists 10. The Japanese imperial army depicted on participate in misogi: ―water ablution‖ a stone lantern outside the Yasukuni shrine 11. A sacred tree near the Shimogamo shrine 12. The Kamigamo shrine in Kyoto XI XII Historical Map of Shinto Early Religious Practice in Japan: -Kami-worship, shamanism and local religious practices centred around agriculture and harvest. Nara Period 710-794: Buddhist and Chinese influence. – The Imperial myths Kojiki and Nihongi are written. Heian Period 794-1185: The height of Chinese influence. The Fujiwara clan has the real power, serving as regents and intermarrying with the Emperor. -The Jingi System is established. Shirakawa Shinto. Kamakura Period (Kamakura Shogunate) 1185-1333: Imperial House lose power. -The concept of Shinto is established. Muromachi Period (Ashikaga Shogunate) 1333-1573: Sengoku Period 1467-1573: Warring states period. Eventually leads to unification of political power under the Tokugawa Shogunate. -Yoshida Kanetomo‘s unified One-and-Only Shinto: Yoshida Shinto. Edo Period (Togugawa Shogunate) 1603-1868: Peace and political stability. Seclusion from the rest of the world. -Shinto-Confucian syncreticism: Yoshikawa Shinto. -Kokugaku Theories: Motoori Norinaga and Hirata Atsutane. Meiji Period 1868-1912: The country is re-opened and imperial rule restored. (The Meiji Restoration) The period is represented by Western influence and threat, and the modernization of Japan. Russo-Japanese War 1904-05: Japan defeats Russia upon imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea. Japan emerges as a world power. -Emperor Meiji is restored to power and given divine status. -The Great Promulgation Campaign: Separation of Shinto and Buddhism (shinbutsu bunri). -Shinto is transformed into an independent religion. -Shinto is later stripped of its religious elements. Becomes a state ideology: -State Shinto. Taisho Period 1912-1926: Continued influence of Western culture. Showa Period 1926-1989: Japanese military aggression in Asia. The Second World War and subsequent Japanese defeat. - Jingiin is established and Shinto eventually becomes the state religion of Japan. This mark the end of religious freedom until the end of the war. -Shinto Directive and a new constitution: Religion and state are separated by the American led occupation forces after the war. -Jinja Honchō is established. Heisei Period 1989-Present -Yasukuni controversies -The new representation of Shinto as an ecological religion takes form. XIII XIV Contents Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... V Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................. VII Pictures ..................................................................................................................................... IX Historical Map of Shinto ....................................................................................................... XIII Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1 1.The History of Shinto .............................................................................................................. 7 1.1 Nara and Heian Period ..................................................................................................... 7 1.2 Kamakura and Muromachi Period ................................................................................... 9 1.3 Tokugawa Period ............................................................................................................ 11 1.4 Meiji Restoration ............................................................................................................ 13 1.5 Shinto and the New Concept of Religion in Japan ......................................................... 14 1.6 After the War: Shinto‘s Way Forward and Neo-Nationalism ........................................ 18 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 20 2. The Discourse on Nature ...................................................................................................... 23 2.1 The Kokugaku Tradition and the National Ideology of Nature ..................................... 23 2.2 Watsuji Tetsuro .............................................................................................................. 24 2.3 Okakura Tenshin and Anesaki Masaharu ....................................................................... 27 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 29 3. The Rediscovery of Shinto ................................................................................................... 31 3.1 The Discourse about Animism ....................................................................................... 31 3.2 Yasuda Yoshinori and the Revival of Japan‘s Animism ................................................ 32 3.3 Umehara Takeshi and Japan‘s Ancient Shinto Roots .................................................... 33 3.4 Shinto and Environmentalism ........................................................................................ 35 Summary .............................................................................................................................. 36 4. On the Methology of Fieldwork ........................................................................................... 39 4.1 The Qualitative Research Interview ............................................................................... 40 4.2 Internet Sources, Media and Text Analysis ................................................................... 42 5. Perspectives of Sonoda Minoru ............................................................................................ 45 5.1 The Concept of Fūdo .....................................................................................................
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