www.shahrsazionline.com TRANSPORT AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES Why do images of the Third World involve impassable roads, crowded railways, inefficient ports and congested cities—why are these associated with lack of development? These links are examined, first in theory and then in practice, for road, rail, air and water transport. Widely drawn examples illustrate good practice and bad and demonstrate there are no universal solutions to transport problems. The introductory chapter examines the contrast between mobile and immobile societies, the links between transport and spatial organisation, the ways in which transport may influence development processes and the theories advanced to explain the relationship between the two. In the following chapters attention is directed to the individual modes, the form of their organisation and the ways in which they are able to influence the broader issues of spatial organisation and development. The illustrative examples are selected to provide a balanced regional coverage. A concluding chapter identifies the main themes for the future in the evolving relationship between transport and development processes. A pervasive theme of the book is the provision of transport services and facilities which are appropriate to defined development aspirations and the importance of always planning with particular conditions, locations and populations in mind. The book, therefore, will be of relevance to academics of all disciplines concerned with development problems and will also provide a wider context for those involved with the planning and development of transport projects of all kinds. David Hilling, Member of the Chartered Institute of Transport, was formerly Lecturer in Geography at the University of Ghana and Senior Lecturer at Bedford College and Royal Holloway, University of London. TRANSPORT AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES David Hilling www.shahrsazionline.com London and New York First Published 1996 by Routledge 11 New Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. “To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledge’s collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.” Simultaneously published in the USA and Canada by Routledge 29 West 35th Street, New York, NY 10001 © 1996 David Hilling All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hilling, David. Transport and developing countries/David Hilling. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. ) and index. ISBN 0-415-13654-7 (Print Edition).—ISBN 0-415-13655-5 (pbk.) 1. Transportation—Developing countries. 2. Developing countries— Economic conditions. I. Title. HE 148.5.H55 1996 388.091724–dc20 95–47892 CIP ISBN 0-203-43693-8 Master e-book ISBN ISBN 0-203-74517-5 (Adobe eReader Format) For all those overseas students it has been my pleasure to teach and from whom I have learned far more than they can possibly have learnt from me. CONTENTS www.shahrsazionline.com List of figures vi List of plates viii List of tables ix Preface xi 1 TRANSPORT AND DEVELOPMENT 1 2 INLAND WATERWAYS TRANSPORT—THE ‘NATURAL’ 30 MODE 3 RAILWAYS—THE INITIATORS OF TAKE OFF? 61 4 AIR TRANSPORT—THE HIGH-COST SOLUTION? 94 5 ROAD TRANSPORT—THE UNIVERSAL MODE 131 6 TRANSPORT—MAKER AND BREAKER OF CITIES 165 7 SEAPORT ‘GATEWAYS’ AND PORT DEVELOPMENT 199 8 DEVELOPING THE MARITIME CAPABILITY 232 9 SOME THEMES FOR THE FUTURE 259 GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 269 Bibliography 271 Index 286 FIGURES www.shahrsazionline.com 1.1 Indices of transport 6 1.2 Ghanaian railway network—indices of connectivity 28 2.1 Navigation on the Mekong River 35 2.2 Draught probabilities on the Parana-Paraguay rivers 37 2.3 European push-tow configurations 46 2.4 Chinese river quay designs 52 2.5 Modal cost comparisons with distance 54 2.6 Fuel consumption and barge size 58 3.1 The LAMCO railway, Liberia 68 3.2 Standard rail-bed cross-section 71 3.3 Typical passing loop designs 78 3.4 Nouadhibou-Tazadit line train paths 80 3.5 Buchanan-Nimba line train paths 81 3.6 Rail traffic and unit costs 84 3.7 Rail traffic and maintenance costs 85 3.8 Selected rail networks 86 4.1 Regional growth in air transport 98 4.2 Predicted growth in air transport 98 4.3 Time and freight transport 118 4.4 The air transport system 121 4.5 Runway capacity guidelines 124 4.6 Airport design classification 126 4.7 Gabon—hub-and-spoke network 127 5.1 Simple route network—South East Ghana 133 5.2 Upgraded route network—South East Ghana 134 5.3 Road construction technology 136 5.4 Traffic density and road transport cost 139 5.5 Environment and rural roads 140 5.6 Changes in road use—Tanzania 154 5.7 The Amazon highways 156 6.1 Models of urban structure 169 6.2 Modal choice and trip rates by income groups 174 6.3 Development of urban transport systems 180 6.4 Spatial and temporal flexibility of transport options 184 6.5 Paratransit and conventional transport—operating contrasts 187 6.6 Transit option study 197 vii 7.1 Port operating systems 201 7.2 Models of port and transport development 203 7.3 Freetown—weather and cargo handling 213 7.4 Lagos—seasonality and delay 216 7.5 The port-berth system 220 7.6 Ship time in port 221 7.7 Port cost and increasing traffic 223 7.8 UNCTAD berth planning chart 225 7.9 A port planning model 226 7.10 Forms of port control 228 PLATES www.shahrsazionline.com 1.1 Variety of transport, Bangladesh 4 1.2 Chari river ferry, Chad 12 1.3 Rural bus, Jamaica 18 1.4 Cotton ginnery, Lalago, Tanzania 25 2.1 Niger river transport, Mali 33 2.2 Forms of river transport, Bangladesh 44 2.3 Push-tow barges on the Parana river, Paraguay 50 2.4 Volta Lake port, Yapei, Ghana 53 3.1 LAMCO railway, Liberia 68 3.2 Urban railway, Bombay 90 4.1 De-Havilland Beaver, Sierra Leone 102 4.2 Varied air services, Mauritania 107 4.3 Short take-off Islander aircraft, Papua New Guinea 110 4.4 Loading produce for air freighting, Zimbabwe 119 5.1 Bicycle transport, Mali 135 5.2 Road repairs by women, Bangladesh 148 5.3 Newly constructed main road, Nigeria 153 5.4 Intermediate Technology ox cart, Kenya 163 6.1 Human porter, Bangladesh 170 6.2 Urban transport, Bangkok 180 6.3 Decorated, motorised three-wheelers, Bangladesh 186 6.4 Calcutta traditional tram 192 7.1 Lighters at Malacca 206 7.2 Unloading bulk sugar, Alexandria 210 7.3 ‘Self sustaining’ container ship 218 7.4 Chinese port development 229 8.1 Motorised pinisi, Indonesia 236 8.2 Traditional sailing craft, Malacca 239 8.3 Small coasting vessel, Indonesia 246 9.1 Wheel-steered donkey cart, rural Jamaica 260 9.2 Forest exploitation road, Gabon 262 9.3 Improved traditional river craft, Peru 266 TABLES www.shahrsazionline.com 1.1 The global transport gap, 1990 2 1.2 Vehicle stock growth rates 2 1.3 Indices of mobility for selected countries 5 1.4 Transport and development 12 1.5 Agricultural development and transport demand 23 2.1 Navigation parameters for a single line of barges 37 2.2 The barge-carrier systems 45 2.3 Geographical conditions suitable for barge-carrier systems 48 2.4 Inland shipping cost break down by vessel size 55 2.5 Transport cost comparisons 56 3.1 Traffic loading and support system relations 67 3.2 Selected rail system features 72 3.3 Track geometry, train speed and output 75 3.4 Characteristics of alternative rail traction power 76 4.1 Selected aircraft characteristics 96 4.2 Air transport—rank order by country, 1992 97 4.3 Country rank by number of airports, 1989 100 4.4 Benefits of air transport 104 4.5 Selected airline employment, 1987 112 4.6 Airline operating costs 114 5.1 Recommended maximum gradient (%) by road type 142 5.2 Highway capacities 143 5.3 Road types and development impact 146 5.4 Sufficiency rating in road design 150 5.5 Initial impact of Brasilia-Belem highway 155 5.6 Thai Accelerated Rural Development roads 158 5.7 Growth of world vehicle fleet 160 5.8 Low-cost vehicle performance 162 6.1 Urbanisation and income, 1989 165 6.2 Development of ‘millionaire’ cities 166 6.3 Zones of urban traffic influence 171 6.4 Monthly income and modal use 174 6.5 Changing bus use in selected cities, 1976–83 176 6.6 Bus service provision, 1980s 176 6.7 Selected types of Intermediate Public Transport 178 6.8 Operational characteristics of conventional buses and minibuses 182 x 6.9 Rail-based transit systems 192 6.10 Transport systems and the environment 197 7.1 The characteristics of ‘Anyport’ 204 7.2 West African coastal types and port development 204 7.3 Cargo-handling technology 208 7.4 Analysis of ship working programme 222 7.5 Port development strategies 223 8.1 World fleet by type of economy 240 8.2 World fleet by principal flags 241 8.3 World fleet by ship type, 1991 242 8.4 Potential redistribution of liner vessels through 40–40–20 market 244 sharing 8.5 Development of Taiwanese Evergreen Line 250 8.6 Ships on order by building country, 1994 252 8.7 Vessels on order by country of owner, 1994 253 8.8 Port State Control ship detentions 257 9.1 Cost of transport provision—selected items, 1995 267 PREFACE www.shahrsazionline.com As originally conceived this book was to be similar in approach and effectively a ‘sister’ volume to my former colleague Alan B.