List of Figures viii List of Tables ...... viii Notes on the Translation x Abbreviations of Languages and Dialects xii Abbreviations Used in Glosses xii Foreword xiii Foreword to the 1995 Edition xiv I. THE PLACE OF PHONOLOGY IN LINGUISTICS 1 1. Basic Concepts 1 2. The Relationship between Phonology and Phonetics 13 3. The Functions of Speech Sounds and Their Features 18 4. Types of Phonological Units 28 II. METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING PHONEMES 40 1. Introductory Remarks 40 2. Paradigmatic Identification of Phonemes 43 a) Substitution and Commutation 43 b) Experimental Commutation 49 c) Distribution 53 d) Phonemes and Allophones 56 e) Concrete Examples 62 f) Summary Remarks 68 3. The Role of Phonemes and Their Variants 68 4. Syntagmatic Identification of Phonemes 77 a) General Remarks 77 b) Typological Preliminaries 78 c) Phonetic Preliminaries 80 d) Phonological Principles 84 e) Summary Remarks 101 III. PHONEME RELATIONS 103 1. General Remarks 103 2. Syntagmatic (Functional) Classification of Phonemes 109 a) Introductory Remarks 109

v Table of Contents

b) Basic Syntagmatic Classes of Phonemes: Vowels and Consonants 113 c) Isomorphism 116 d) Syntagmatic Classes of Consonants 117 e) Syllable Structure 130 f) Syllable Boundaries 132 g) Typological Remarks 141 h) Summary Remarks 147 3. Neutralization 148 a) Gaps in the System 148 b) Regular Constraints on Distribution 150 c) Interpretations 156 d) The Archiphoneme. Marked and Unmarked Members of an Opposition 158 e) Correlations and Correlative Series 164 f) Correlation Bundles 169 g) Neutralization and Phoneme Classes 173 h) Neutralization of Units of Content and Correlations 178 i) Summary Remarks 180 4. Paradigmatic Relations 182 a) General Remarks 182 b) Oppositions and Syntagmatic Classes 184 a) Paradigmatic Relations and Distinctive Features of Lithuanian Consonants 185 ß) Distinctive Features of Vowels in Standard Lithuanian 201 c) Other Criteria and Considerations in Establishing and Grouping Distinctive Features 215 d) Models and Types of Paradigmatic Relations 222 e) The Binary Distinctive Feature System and Principles of Dichotomous Phonology 230 a) Origin and Assumptions 230 ß) Some Remarks Concerning Research on the Acoustic Properties of Sounds 235 y) Binary Distinctive Features 240 ô) Three Examples and Some General Considerations 245 f) Distinctive Features and Semantic Componential Analysis 251 g) Summary Remarks 252 IV. SUPRASEGMENTAL UNITS 254 1. Introductory Remarks 254 2. Non-prosodic Suprasegmental Units 256 a) Types of Suprasegmental Units 256 b) Four Interpretations of Lithuanian Consonant Softness 257 c) Other Examples and Some Remarks on "Prosodie" Phonology 262

vi Table of Contents

3. Prosodic Units 265 a) Stress 265 a) Concept and Features 265 ß) Types and Functions of Stress 272 y) Secondary Stress 279 ô) Summary Remarks 286 b) Pitch Accent and Tone 287 a) The Concept of Pitch Accent and Tone. The Pitch Accent System of Lithuanian 287 ß) Functions and Paradigmatic Relations of Pitch Accents 298 y) Typological Remarks 302 8) Moras 309 4. Summary Remarks 312 APPENDICES 315 1. Random numbers 315 2. Values of the function ę = 2 arcsin p 319 3. Estimating the u-criterion for listening experiments 321 4. Phoneme frequencies for standard Lithuanian 323 5. Frequency of syllable type for standard Lithuanian 324 6. Frequency of prosodic syllable type for standard Lithuanian 324 ТЕОРЕТИЧЕСКИЕ ОСНОВЫ ЛИТОВСКОЙ ФОНОЛОГИИ. Резюме ...325 1. Введение 325 1.1. Исходные понятия 325 1.2. Соотношение фонетики и фонологии 326 1.3. Функции звуков и их признаков 326 1.4. Разновидности фонологических единиц 326 2. Определение фонем 327 2.1. Предварительные замечания 327 2.2. Парадигматическая идентификация фонем 327 2.3. Синтагматическая идентификация фонем 330 3. Отношения и различительные признаки фонем 332 3.1. Предварительные замечания 332 3.2. Синтагматическая классификация фонем 333 3.3. Нейтрализация 337 3.4. Парадигматические отношения фонем и их дифференциальные признаки 341 4. Суперсегментные (просодические) единицы 349 4.1. Предварительные замечания 349 4.2. Непросодические суперсегментные единицы 350 4.3. Просодические единицы (ударение и тонемы) 351 LITERATURE 356 INDEX 409

vii List of Figures

LIST OF FIGURES 1. Syllable structure (general view) 120 2. Syntagmatic classification of consonants 124 3. Classification of the T-subclass of consonants 126 4. Classification of the R-class of consonants 126 5. Diagram of syllable structure (version I) 130 6. Syllable structure (version II) 131 7. Diagram of sentence structure 131 8. Correlation of voicing and aspiration in Sanskrit 169 9. Tree diagram of labial plosives in Ancient Greek 170 10. Another model of the Ancient Greek triad 171 11. Correlation bundle for labial plosives 172 12. Diagram of relations among members of a correlation bundle 173 13. Tree diagram of North Žcmaitic Telšiai vowel classification 175 14. Classification of C-class consonants 177 15. Classification of consonants of the T-subclass ...... 188 16. Tree diagram of consonant classification 200 17. Tree diagram of the vowel phonemes of standard Lithuanian (version I)... 212 18. Tree diagram of the vowel phonemes of standard Lithuanian (version II).. 214 19. Tree diagram of Hawaiian consonant phonemes (model I) 219 20. Tree diagram of Hawaiian consonant phonemes (model II) 220 21. Tree diagram of Hawaiian consonant phonemes (model III) 221 22. Three-dimensional model of the vowel system of standard Lithuanian 229 23. Three-dimensional model of Sanskrit plosives 229 24. Spectral characteristics of North Žcmaitic vowels 238 25. Tree diagram of Turkish vowel phonemes 246 26. Prosodie structure of the German word Bahnhofsvorsteher 284 27. Prosodie syllabic types of standard Lithuanian 294 28. Syllable accents of long syllables (alternative version) 295

LIST OF TABLES

1. Distribution of the consonants [1], [n] and [ ] in Lithuanian ...... 57 2. Distribution of allophones of the phonemes /1/, /n/ in Lithuanian ...... 61 3. The phonemes /t/, /d/ and their most salient allophones in Lithuanian 62 4. The phonemes /k/, /t/ and their allophones in Lithuanian 63 5. The distribution of short vowels and their allophones in standard Lithuanian 65 6. The distribution of short vowels and their allophones in the South Aukštaitic dialect 66 7. Positions for the English consonants [h] and [ņ] 67 viii List of Tables

8. Distribution of the Lithuanian affricates [tš], [dž] and soft [t], [d] in non- borrowed words 88 9. Distribution of Portuguese nasalized vowels and [an]-type sequences 91 10. Distribution of Lithuanian mixed diphthongs and corresponding heterosyllabic sequences 92 11. Distribution of Lithuanian pure diphthongs and corresponding heterosyllabic sequences 93 12. Distribution of Lithuanian [į], [u] and [j], [v] 94 13. Distribution of S- and T-type consonants in standard Lithuanian 152 14. Distribution of hard and soft consonants in standard Lithuanian 153 15. Neutralization of T-class consonants in standard Lithuanian 159 16. Phoneme matrix for the consonants of standard Lithuanian 199 17. Distribution of the features of tenseness and quantity in standard Lithuanian 209 18. Matrix of vowel phonemes of standard Lithuanian (version I) 211 19. Matrix of vowel phonemes of standard Lithuanian (version II) 213 20. Matrix of Hawaiian consonant phonemes (model 1) 219 21. Matrix of Hawaiian consonant phonemes (model II) 219 22. Matrix of Hawaiian consonant phonemes (model III) 220 23. Vowel system of standard Lithuanian 223 24. Consonant system of Lithuanian 224 25. Values of Fl and F2 for standard Lithuanian and the North Žemaitic dialect 238 26. Acoustic distinctive features of standard Turkish vowel phonemes 245 27. Acoustic distinctive features of the vowels in standard Lithuanian 248 28. Acoustic distinctive features of consonants in standard Lithuanian 249 29. Example of semantic componential analysis 251 30. Interpretation of consonant softness in standard Lithuanian (version I).... 259 31. Interpretation of consonant softness in standard Lithuanian (version II)... 259 32. Interpretation of consonant softness in standard Lithuanian (version IV).. 261 33. Distribution of "strong" and "weak" vowels in standard Lithuanian 266 34. Prosodic types of Old Indic syllables 280 35. Distribution of vowels and coda sonorants in Lithuanian stressed syllables 290