The True Origins of Pizza: Irony, the Internet and East Asian Nationalisms ピッツァの真の起源−−イロニー、インターネット、東アジアの国家主義

Rumi Sakamoto, Stephen Epstein

The True Origins of Pizza: Irony, the second had slightly fewer views (356,000), but Internet and East Asiana strikingly different 1050 to 1,150 like to dislike ratio; while the third had 63,000 views, Nationalisms and an 800 to 200 like to dislike ratio: Stephen Epstein and Rumi Sakamoto Link 1 | Link 2 | Link 3 On September 30, 2011, an outfit named GumshoePictures uploaded on YouTube a video The First Buy One, Get One Free Garlic entitled “The True Origins of Pizza,” which, in Bread Promotion the format of a brief documentary (3:44), reminiscent of those seen on such stations as Presumably, readers of theAsia-Pacific the Discovery Channel, investigates anJournal who have viewed the clips and read apparent historical puzzle: a series of speakers, thus far will realize that what they have from academics to a blogger and awitnessed is a clever and unusual ad campaign representative of the “Korean Culinary Center,” for Korea’s Mr. Pizza chain in the form of a are interviewed and advance evidence that spoof, rather than a true assertion that pizza pizza originated in Korea and had been “stolen” had been pilfered from its rightful owners, the by Marco Polo, much as he had reputedly Korean people. Mr. Pizza, though perhaps little brought back noodles from China to Italy as known outside South Korea (henceforth Korea), spaghetti. Before we engage in an analysis of is in fact now the largest pizza chain in the this remarkable well-produced clip, let us first nation and is increasingly emphasizing encourage readers ofThe Asia-Pacific overseas markets (China and the United States, Journal who have yet to see this video to watch in particular). The chain started out in 1990 as it, unencumbered by any spoilers or the a franchise associate of the Japanese brand, authors’ own opinions. At this point, viewers Mr. Pizza, which was then seeking a partner in conveniently have a choice of watchingorder to expand its business into Korea. Japan’s mirrored versions: one in English, without the Mr. Pizza has since all but disappeared, and the distraction of text crossing the screen in front Korean branch acquired the trademark of Mr. of them; a version with Korean subtitles, Pizza.1 uploaded on October 4, also by GumshoePictures; and a version with Japanese This well-crafted piece of advertising deserves subtitles, uploaded on October 12 bycareful analysis, because the level of skill and “CoreanCulture.” We embed all of them below, irony that went into its making are noteworthy for reception of the clip has differed according among commercial ads anywhere, not least in to context, and readers may wish to examine Korea where it satirizes the potentially sacred the comments on each separately: as of cow of Korean nationalism and a local penchant October 28, the first had 451,000 views and a to assert that occasionally surprising products roughly 1,400 to 200 like to dislike ratio; the emanate in the first instance from Korea (e.g.

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Korea’s National Institute of BiologicalHeritage, unique to Gangneung; Chinese Resources’ claim that the most popular type of authorities had sought to have it co-registered fir used for Christmas trees in the West with duanwujie, the Dragon Boat Festival, originated in Korea).2 arguing that the Korean holiday, which is held While those who view the clip until its climactic on the same day and is named with the same revelation of a Buddha statue with a pizza box Chinese characters, derived from China. When on its head will not mistake how firmly tongue Korea prevailed in convincing UNESCO that has been planted in cheek for its creation, the the Gangneung Danoje Festival was uniquely video starts off in a significantly more deadpan Korean, the Chinese media grew more vocal in style and contains several small touches that accusations about Korean theft of Chinese can readily elude casual viewers or those culture, and recent years have seen unfamiliar with the larger context in which this increasingly outrageous claims about the video originates, and thus we begin with a Korean origins of Chinese figures such as detailed reading of the ad in its entirety. Confucius, Sun Yat-sen and Yao Ming, although it often remains unclear whether such claims It opens with a People’s Republic of China are advanced by Korean ultra-nationalists or academic speaking from an office at the Chinese “trolls” seeking to stir up trouble fictitious “National University of Kwang-yang,” online.4 a Chinese vase clearly visible on the table behind him. Although the English voiceover At this point the clip cuts to a shot of a Joseon- and the Korean subtitles do not capture era Korean genre painting, in which a group of literally his statement that “Marco Polo took people are gathered around a table eating a our fatherland’s noodles and turned them into large circular concoction, which, while likely to the West’s ‘spaghetti,’” (the latter word given be a traditional Korean form of savoury disdainful emphasis by the use of handpancake such asbindaeddeok, is treated as a quotation marks), they certainly do convey an pizza. The shot is accompanied by a title that air of authority and dismissiveness: “If they can reads “Disputed Origins” and the studied use of take the spaghetti from the greatestthe traditional Korean instrument, civilization, the Chinese people, they could the gayageum gently parodies Western easily have taken pizza from ‘those other documentaries’ evocation of an Oriental mood, people.’” The rather disparaging refusal to with the corresponding Orientalist promise of name the Koreans in contrast to the great insight into the mysteries of the East for its “central country” thus immediately places the audience. clip within the context of heated international disputes over history in East Asia, such as the As the video tells us, the documentary makers’ contentious debates between China and Korea story begins with a lone protester outside a over the legacy of Koguryo/Gaogouli, discussed Brooklyn pizzeria who is carrying a sign by Yonson Ahn and Robert Eng at theAsia- inscribed with a photo of a bearded man with a Pacific Journal.3 Quarrels about which nation large red x drawn across his face, below which had the right to claim the earlier kingdom as is written what turns out to be the Korean word part of its own history drove not only fierce 도둑 (doduk, “thief”). While the lone zealous scholarly debate but a significant deterioration protester is itself a familiar figure from Korean in relations between the two countries. popular nationalism, for those in the know there is more humor to be gleaned: 도둑bears, Likewise, the notion of cultural theft invokes at cursory glance, a more than superficial Korea’s registration of the Gangneung Danoje resemblance to the Korean word 독도 (dokdo), Festival as a UNESCO Intangible Cultural the Korean name for the Liancourt Rocks, a

2 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF pyramidal duo of islets surrounded by numerous outcroppings, contested with Japan, who have claimed the territory for themselves as Takeshima. As has also been widely discussed, the dispute over this small archipelago has inflamed much nationalist tension between Korea and Japan over the past decade.5

Moreover, the choice of Brooklyn as the site for the protest is hardly accidental, for it also alludes to ads that members of the Korean- American community have taken out in the New York Times6 proclaiming that “Dokdo Island is Korean territory,” and diaspora New York City dry cleaners who created plastic bags for clothing delivery inscribed with that very announcement, as also recorded by theNew York Times:7

Even viewers unfamiliar with Korea and its recent international disputes, however, might suspect at this point that they are witnessing a comically understated piece of wit, for the portrait of Marco Polo itself is not drawn precisely from any known depiction of the renowned explorer, but combines existing portrayals, it seems, with a send-up of the Zig As the video goes on to tell us, the picture leads Zag man, an image associated with a popular the documentary makers to “a website brand of cigarette rolling papers, used on espousing all sorts of theories and occasion for marijuana as well: accusations.” The attention to detail here and the knowledge of nationalist Internet memes at 0:38-0:41 borders on the astonishing. The blog’s user name, visible in the top left-hand corner is AngryKor33 (i.e. Angry Korean 33),

3 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF the 33 surely referencing the 33 nationalists passionate nationalism in hilariously who formed the core of the Marchexaggerated fashion: the February 12, 2008 1st movement of 1919 and signed a declaration entry, for example, reads “Dokdo is ours! of Korea’s independence during the Japanese Dokdo is ours! Dokdo is ours! Shouting these Occupation. The background to the blog entries words millions of times isn’t enough! Dokdo is is without doubt a shot from the 2002 World ours! Really, if our nation is weak, we’ll suffer Cup, with thousands of supporters of the all manner of harm. We must reclaim our Korean national team clad in garb showing cultural treasures! Realize that pizza is ours their support for the Red Devils at a stadium too! Oh, so much to do!” As the computer behind an unfurledtaegeukg i (the South screen scrolls down to the blog entry for Korean flag), similar to the image below: February 6, 2008, we see a picture of one of the famous turtle boats supposedly designed by The first blog entry, dated February 23, 2008, Yi Sun-shin, a revered icon for his role as savior contains a map that gained currency on the of the nation in warding off the Hideyoshi Internet in Korea with its dream of a “Corea” invasions of 1592. The entry reads: “What that vastly extends its boundaries, even turning would Admiral Yi Sun-shin think if he were Japan into its colony, and has its origins in the alive today? Please forgive your shameful rather loopy web personality John Titor, an descendents who have been unable to protect internet poster who claimed to be a time pizza!! L If Admiral Yi Sun-shin had lived in the traveler from 2036, and wrote of a radically Koryo Dynasty, he would have ridden his turtle 8 altered future geopolitical landscape. Although boat all the way to Italy, chased Marco Polo the full text of the entry is hard to make out on down, given him hell and brought pizza back!” the YouTube clip, one can see that our putative blogger writes approvingly of how coolThe filmmakers then tell us that they tracked (meotjida) such territorial boundaries would be, down the blog’s creator and main contributor and the video thus pokes fun at both the most to a suburb outside of Seoul and, in order to outrageous recidivist claims, and eventual illustrate the journey, the viewer encounters an aspirations, of Korean nationalism. The spelling animated sequence, typical of such Corea itself references the allegation that the documentaries, of a plane crossing the Pacific Japanese colonial powers changed theOcean to Korea past Japan and over the East orthography so that Korea would come after Sea, a map to which we shall return. We now 9 Japan in Western alphabetical order. meet “Han Sang-jun, a history major dropout and passionate conspiracy theorist” who is bursting with indignation: “I hate Marco Polo. He stole one of our national treasures.” His phrasing involves a humorous but hard to capture mix of a respectful and pejorative term which the voiceover translates as “I hate Marco Polo.” Although a reasonable rendering, his Korean statement “Ibuni doduk nom ijiyo” might more literally, if awkwardly, be translated as “this respected gentleman is a thief bastard.” (A careful listening to the Korean under the voiceover suggests that the blogger uses the words “indigenous food” The next entries, however, are easier to discern rather than “national treasure”). In his if one pauses the video. They satirizecluttered room, we catch glimpses of the

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Korean flag, a poster that proclaims (inChoi” of the “Korean Culinary Center” wears English) “Dokdo is Korean territory” with Yi eleganthanbok and uses a polite informal, more Sun-shin posed as in his statue on Seoul’s feminine style than the academic, as she tells central thoroughfare, several images of the us that throughout Asia various food products Italian explorer with an “x” marked through resemble pizza, but the closer one gets to Jinju, them, and, in a self-parodic piece of product the closer one approaches the “classic” pizza, placement, a stack of empty Mr. Pizza boxes depicted as what looks to be an American-style beside him. That Han himself is a history pepperoni pizza.12 In another example of dropout appears to be a sly reference to the attention to detail, the shots of the various economics student dropout whose surprisingly pizzas across Asia at 1:35 come with the small accurate predictions of such events as the notation “Courtesy of Hang Jung University Lehman Brothers collapse electrified the nation Press” in the bottom left corner, providing the for several months in 2008 and led him to be map with the false authority of a fictitious tagged with the nickname Minerva.10 press. Italy, the speaker asserts, “owes us an apology.” Her statement is put forth gently but resonates with Korean demands for apologies, especially from its erstwhile colonizer, Japan, for its actions during the Occupation.13 At this point, in true Discovery Channel fashion, our “mockumentary” cuts away to a supposed vice- president of the Italian Culture Centre who provides a counterpoint and laughs away the claims as no less absurd than if Korea were to arrogate for itself cappuccino or the Ferrari.

Next, in one of the clip’s most inspired strokes of marketing acumen, the voiceover asks “Then is there anyone still in the region making pizza the original way?” and introduces us to Woo- Hyun Jung, the “owner and CEO” of Mr. Pizza. Jung, indeed the genuine head of the corporation, has recently been designated one After the blogger comes a second dapper of the top businessmen in Korea for 2011,14 and academic, purported to be from the much more his refusal to take himself too seriously is not real Koryeo (Korea) University, who announces only amply demonstrated in what follows, but that “pizza is indeed ours” (pija dangyeoni uri on the Mr. Pizza website, where one of his titles geojyo). The evidence, he notes, has largely is given as CLO: Chief Love Officer.15 The been lost but “fortunately” new artifacts are camera first shows him standing with a warm continually being discovered, and we are then smile on his face, hand on chin. He then shown a shot of archaeological remainsbeckons his interviewers to a table, leaving amusingly reconstructed to resemble pizza- visible behind him a portrait of himself in related objects, such as the paddle forexactly the same pose—in sunglasses. Jung tells retrieving a pizza from an oven, set out as if in us that his father, grandfather and all of his a museum display.11 One should note how well ancestors made pizza and we see a succession each interviewed actor captures his or her of portraits of such ancestors posed in similar imagined counterpart, both in sartorial and fashion, hand on chin, and all, apparently, locutionary style: the next speaker “Young-Hwa photoshopping Jung’s features onto images that

5 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF draw on Korean portraiture styles in accurate first “buy one, get one free garlic bread reverse chronological order.16 promotion of the time.” We then return to the representative of the Korean Culinary Center who advances, seriously, as if documentation were unnecessary, another remarkable claim: “Actually, we also invented garlic bread.” The video ends in mock-dramatic fashion, as the documentary makers ponder whether pizza could really have originated in Korea, and an Jung cheerfully announces the pedigree of even more startling question: could it have pizza making in his family, all in a strongly, and come with free garlic bread? perhaps deliberately, marked Korean accent that causes pizza to be pronounced as “picha.” Anglophone and Korean Reactions He then reasserts his claim to making “original pizza” and denies ever having claimed to invent All well and good, and hopefully viewers of this pizza. But when asked if the two are not in fact creative piece of advertising will have had as one and the same, a wonderfully droll look of hearty a laugh over it as the co-authors. We consternation passes his face before heinvite those who enjoyed it to view additional perseveres: “we are original picha.” clips uploaded by GumshoeProductionshere , which add further humorous evidence for At this point the video, for those who just might pizza’s original Korean provenance from such possibly have been treating it seriously thus areas as linguistics. But what we had originally far, plays its trump card: unbridled Monty regarded as simply a piece of ephemera, well Pythonesque silliness. Realizing that theworth sharing with friends and fellow Asian “conclusive evidence” will not be forthcoming Studies afficionados, has turned out to be a from Jung, the filmmakers seek another avenue topic that merits the attention of readers as an for proof in Buddhism. One “Dr. Dong-Gil Park” important case study in understanding media of the “National Buddhism Association” leads flows, internet nationalism and the contested us to a piece of “undeniable evidence” from nature of reception in the Web 2.0 era. In what Gwanchok Temple in Buyeo, which has an follows we try to unravel the various strands in unusually sculpted statue of the Mireukthe complex circulation and reactions to this Buddha, National Treasure No. 218, from the video across the diverse fora in which it wound Goryeo dynasty, the period during which Marco up being discussed. We admit freely that, as 17 Polo would have been in Asia. Pointing to two per the notorious adage that began with Peter rectangular objects atop the Buddha’s head, he Steiner’s New Yorker cartoon, “on the Internet asks a rhetorical question: what could that first no one knows you are a dog,” and thus we are box possibly be? The Buddhism scholar asserts limited in how much we can ascertain about the in a deadpan voice that it could only be a pizza national and ethnic identity, even when self- box. To heighten the climactic effect and professed, of various commenters beyond what impart authenticity, cues existthe in linguistic usage (itself a measure background gayageum music from elsewhere in that can be faked and will become increasingly the video switches to the Korean flute,unreliable as tools such as Google Translate the taegeum, and music that evokes a vaguely improve). Buddhist atmosphere. The scholar then goes on to reveal his own theory: although for years With that caveat in mind, however, let us people have disputed the meaning of the consider the discourse that developed around second box, he believes that it represents the this video in various contexts. First of all, an

6 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF immediate question is who the commercial’s GumshoePictures Channel page on YouTube makers had in mind as primary targetinstead of merely leaving a short comment on audience. As a production in English, albeit the video itself. Most comments in English released almost simultaneously with Korean were positive, e.g. that of user “seconddeath” subtitles, it would appear that the intended who wrote, “I must say, this will go over a lot of audience for this production includes both new people’s heads, but wow it was brilliant, consumers in the US as Mr. Pizza expands its subversive, and utterly hilarious. Haven’t operations, and Korea’s more transnational and laughed this hard since Old Spice Guy cosmopolitan consumers, whether expat or commercials. Hats off to you!” This user was Korean citizens, most of whom, almost by joined by “youbustubus”: “Loved it. If created definition, would possess high-level English by Koreans then the most impressive example skills. GumshoePictures has remained silent of self-deprecating humor I’ve ever seen. The (presumably deliberately, in order to enhance indisputable claims for pizza’s Korean origins the effect of this piece as an underground, shed light on similar claims of Korean origins.” “cool” viral marketing campaign) about its Those who sought out GumshoeProductions identity amidst all the internet buzz, although seemed to have knowledge of the Korean clues may be unearthed within the video as to context and appreciated the way the ad refused the company behind it; if nothing else, it is to take itself seriously and further indicated clear that members of the production team that in sharing it with Koreans, reactions were spent time in the US and Korea making the positive. “Roughneckrhino,” for example, video.18 added: “I freaking love it! I’m a middle school teacher here in Korea and have shown it to Let us, then, consider the comments more or most of my classes and they love it too. Keep up less in the order of the clips' linguistic release. the great work. I hope to see more from you English-language comments on the ad were guys.” Of course, it is crucial to know precisely largely highly favorable, at least initially. how this teacher contextualized it for his Several Koreanists, self-identified Koreans, and students before screening the clip, for such foreign expats in Korea reacted to the ad with contextualization can make a crucial difference, delight, seeing it as representing a significant as adumbrated by a negative comment from moment in Korean popular culture both for the user “1tephania”: target and style of its wit, and taking Korea’s ability to poke fun at its nationalist foibles as a sign of a country increasingly confident of its “Dear Mr. Pizza, global stature.19 The YouTube page itself, in Your commercial is dumb. Humour keeping with the medium, which encourages is too subtle to be caught by most very brief replies, had several English response people, and when people do get it, which commended the makers of the video on it’s too weak to make them laugh. their cleverness. But before long several less Your marketing campaign also has flattering comments appeared, often from those the potential to unleash some who were apparently not native speakers of ferocious nationalist sentiments English, and who displayed concern at Korean that run high in East Asia and nationalism being made the butt of a joke and people originating from the region. the possibility for its humor to be So, in and all, a badly advised idea misunderstood. created by some dufus, who is most likely to be of an Asian A more detailed set of reactions came from extraction. those who took the trouble to go to the Sincerely,

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A potential customer” even if certain topics, such as nationalism have generally been off-limits. Similar, briefer discussions occurred on James Turnbull’s blog And while one might disagree vehemently with The Grand Narrative and Matt “1tephania” that the humor is overly subtle and VanVolkenburg’s Gusts of Popular Feeling. when caught too weak to evoke laughter (one witty riposte that was given several thumbs up Although comments in Korean on both the on the YouTube clip read: “Clever advert. Too English and Korean-subtitled versions of the bad it requires an IQ of over 20 to understand – clip on YouTube included those who fretted they’ll lose customers because of that.”), that foreigners might take the ad seriously “1tephania” was correct about its potential to (“What if an Italian sees this and thinks we’re unleash “ferocious nationalist sentiments,” as really trying to claim pizza as our own?”), the we shall see below. ad also garnered a significant number of positive responses in Korean. A frequently used In addition to comments left on the YouTube adjective from Korean-language commenters to site itself, the clip was discussed in over 100 describe the clip has posts at the Marmot’s Hole, the most widely been chamshinhada (original; innovative), and read English-language blog on Korea, but one many Korean users have added the local whose notorious comments section is often emoticon ㅋㅋㅋ, which indicates a chortling filled with vitriol, some of it racistlink ( ). reaction to the video. Certainly, though, those Commenters there were generally impressed who went to the GumshoeProductions page to with the ad but a debate developed, largely write in Korean did generally, though not carried forth between two transnationaluniformly, oppose the ad. They either Koreans (“Yuna” and “The Korean”, the latter expressed concern about the airing of dirty of whom operates his own well-known blog, Ask laundry, as it were, or were unwilling to accept a Korean), about satire in Korea, and whether self-satire as a proper mode of discourse in this the nation had the ability to mock itself situation. Below are translated samples: collectively or its satire could only be directed at the Other (including internal Others, such as “WLKrep”: I don’t know what you one’s political opponents). As “Nambangui were hoping to achieve with this horangi” (one of this piece’s co-authors) argued video, but thanks to you, the in the Marmot’s Hole comment section, Republic of Korea has acquired the following “Yuna,” for the first minute it is easy shameful image of a country that to be taken in by the ad’s matter-of-fact distorts history. seriousness and to relate it to zealous expressions of Korean nationalism. What is “1godqhrgkek”: Please don’t make unusual, though, in addition to the sending up ads with this sort of subject matter of usually taboo targets, is the mode of the again. Even if you were intending clip’s satire as, at least initially, it involves the to be original and to do it well, this use of very understated dry irony that relies on is an improper, unpleasant topic. the shared knowledge of being in on a joke, Please, it would have been better which is not a usual mode of comedy in not to attach an English Korea.20 On this latter point “The Korean” title….Wouldn’t it be okay just to agreed, but noted, fairly enough, that just change everything to Korean? because Monty Python-style humor is largely Koreans are not intrinsically alien to Korea, it hardly means that its people masochistic; they’ve been through are a humorless lot and incapable of self-satire a lot in relation to origin debates,

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and of course you can say you necessarily correctly at the time of its made the ad with fake, humorous publication) that the majority of Korean viewer content, but because it feels like reactions left on YouTube grimaced at the ad. the Koreans who appear here seem The comments left in response to the articles to have the same point of view as themselves in these venues, however, were Korea-haters, it’s really distasteful. certainly consistently negative. The opinion on Somehow it seems like an ad that theKookmin Ilbo that received the most Japanese Korea-haters will really “recommendations” was a typo-ridden, like. unpunctuated rant from “100Grape,” whose flavor we attempt to capture below in our own “boxstory”: 스팸으로 신고Earning rendering: money while sucking the marrow from the nation…You are a heartless human being. What does What's going on here isn't that vermin mean? An idiosyncrasy of people around the world are going YouTube is that few viewers watch to treat this is a joke because they a video to the end, and all the more don't think of pizza as Korean but so if the video clip is irritating. You that people around the world are are stupid, and greedy to boot. going to think Koreans are This isn’t bravery; it’s trash. You ridiculous your disgracing the lack understanding of originality nation especially since treating this and are like a fattened pig that ridiculous nonsense and can’t feel a prod even from a the Hwandan Gogi22 as a decent-sized jab. Original? Take a conspiracy theory on the same look at the comments attached to screen with Dokdo makes the video. Is this innovative? considering pizza Korean in the Humans who are filthy same category as considering vermin—they’re talking about you. Dokdo Korean really this is treason There are people with power and to the Korean race money, but no talent. You.

“kagoon0709”: This is totally The one attempt to inject an opposing voice original ha ha ha. And you people and argue for simply treating the ad as a comic who can’t take it as a joke, lighten piece (albeit dismissing its critics up. It’s really fun. And the video is as hanshimhada, or “pathetic”) by user “Jeong high quality as well. Hyo-rim” was met entirely with “dislikes.” The comment section in theKookmin Ilbo thus offers evidence of how discussion in a given venue Two larger Korean news outlets, the Kookmin can be both determined by its larger discursive Ilbo and the Chosun Ilbo, hardly known for culture and directed, if not outright hijacked, their progressive leanings (the Kookmin Ilbo is by the most strident voices. church-owned, while theChosun Ilbo is perhaps the most notoriously conservative of Japanese Reactions Korea’s major newspapers) covered the ad and monitored the response that it received.21 Both For the first few days of the video’s circulation articles essentially offered summaries of the on YouTube, comments remained essentially clip and pointed out its clearly comic intent, but confined to those with at least some command the Kookmin Ilbo piece asserted (not of English and Korean. Within a few days,

9 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF however, the video leaped into the Japanese more fidelity to the English,25 the above blogosphere. A Japanese-subtitled version discrepancies stand out. It is not impossible originally was uploaded onN ikoniko that the subtitler chose to remove the point douga (“Smiley Videos,” a Japanese equivalent that the blogger is a conspiracy theorist and to YouTube) on October 9 by “ponta,”23 and that his accusations are potentially misguided, then placed on YouTube on October 12, by instead representing him as an angry Korean, “CoreanCulture.” Meanwhile, overnight on disclosing “facts,” and thus contextualizing October 12, the Korean-subtitled version added such images as the Dokdo poster, the World 30,000 hits, but went from carrying a 6 to 1 like Cup trophy replica on the CEO’s desk, and the to dislike ratio to evening out at 400 apiece, usage of the term “East Sea” differently for presumably as a result of having been signalled Japanese viewers. on 2-channeru, Japan’s largest Internet forum and a hotbed of xenophobic nationalism and While impossible to determine the national or anti-Korean sentiment. In the additional traffic, ethnic identity of any given commenter, many readers of the Japanese-version chose to however, one may readily extract patterns register their displeasure.24 CoreanCulture’s among Japanese-language posts on sites where YouTube profile shows that the user self- this video was reproduced. As of October 28, identifies as a 28-year-old Japanese, who joined the Japanese subtitled-version itself on YouTube on October 12, suggesting that he or YouTube had 275 comments, the majority of she did so specifically to make the Japanese- which, unsurprisingly, are in Japanese. Here subtitled version available. The name, however, one encounters those who seem to read this presents a conundrum: was the poster a proud clip non-ironically, as yet another example of Korean(-Japanese?) who felt that by making it Korean cultural arrogance and insistence on available with Japanese subtitles on YouTube the Korean origin of non-Korean products, as its humorous intent would become clear for well as those who appear unsure whether to those whose English might not have been able find it funny or be offended. Still others to cope with the clip’s subtle humor, or a recognize elements of parody but are quick to nationalistic Japanese who chose the name seize upon what they see as anti-Japanese sarcastically? propaganda wrapped within a sugar-coated pill, especially in the video’s less conscious While the more positive like to dislike ratio on expressions of a Korean world view at points the Japanese-subtitled version leaves open the where a Korean would “naturally” expect a former possibility, it is important to note that particular representation, such as using an the translation of the scene with blogger Han English map that contained the name “East Sang-jun in particular does contain significant Sea” rather than the “Sea of Japan.”26 User differences from the English voiceover. Where SamuraiTogo went so far as to post his own clip the English states “the picture on his poster led which claims to uncover “The real Korean aim us to this website, a site espousing all sorts of of ‘The True Origins of Pizza’ commercial” theories and accusations,” the subtitled version (link): a subliminal campaign to woo the world reads “from this image, we arrived at this towards accepting improper nomenclature for anger-filled website.” Likewise, where the the body of water between the two countries, English speaks of a “passionate conspiracy by inserting the map at four separate points. theorist who is the main contributor and blogger,” the Japanese subtitles might more The placement of this video initially in Nikoniko accurately be rendered as “the blogger who douga may have also promoted a jingoistic disclosed the facts and posted on this issue.” viewing experience for its Japanese audience. Since the Japanese subtitles elsewhere display Like 2-channeru, the site is known for its

10 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF nationalist affinities, and the clip is juxtaposed comments were posted on 2-channeru’s “East with four “related videos,” all of them anti- Asia News” board, one of the major venues for Korean (i.e. “Koreans taking over the world”; online expressions of hostility toward Korea. “China’s rage over Korean cultural theft”; While its readership may include lurkers who “Korean kids’ comics on the comfort women”; do not necessarily agree with the consensus of and “seriously crazy Koreans”), which would discourse but refrain from confronting it, the predispose viewers to interpret the clip in general viewpoint has been that, though the ad similar fashion. Several elements in the video may have been an attempt at humor, the joke contribute to the potential for nationalistic had fallen flat because of the history of readings by Japanese viewers, for it evokes not disputes over cultural origins, with which2- a few negative local stereotypes of Koreans: a channeru users are well familiar. In other zealous blogger; a placard-holding protestor; words, the Japanese commentators read this dogmatic insistence on the Korean origin of clip within the “local” context of2- objects associated with foreign cultures. The channeru antagonism toward Korea and twist here, of course, is that the clip is a spoof begrudge the irony. Interestingly, while this made by the Korean pizza chain itself, and line of argument is reproduced in comments on humor arises in the recognition of caricature, the Japanese-subtitled YouTube clip, the hate- but Japanese viewers without knowledge of speech and more generalized racist critiques Korean would have no access to, say, the found on 2-channeru is tempered. Japanese- uproarious excesses of the blogger’s page, as language comments left on the Korean- discussed above. Nonetheless, several of those subtitled YouTube clip, on the other hand, have writing in Japanese made comments to the been much more racist, xenophobic and effect that “I didn’t think Koreans could make contemptuous in tone (at times even cruder fun of themselves.” Whether such self-parody than those found on 2-channeru itself), perhaps was seen as funny, however, depended on an representing those whose virulently anti- individual’s positionality: in addition to those Korean sentiments embolden them to venture who saw an attempt at dishing out subliminal into “enemy” or global territory. propaganda, some Japanese viewers read the clip, counter-intuitively and/or ingeniously, as a Indeed, one surmises that many YouTube subversive attempt to make other Korean- commenters arrived directly from 2-channeru, origin stories into a “joke” and thereby alleviate for they displayed familiarity with its discursive the accusation of dogmatic nationalism on the practices, sharing similar terminology, part of Korea. Some, therefore, in reading expressions and general language features. hostility in the advertisement, responded with These include the use of mock Korean such as hostility in turn. the verbal ending “-nida,” the term “uri-ginal,” (from the Korean word uri or we, often used in Such antagonistic comments are consistent the Korean expression uri nara to refer to “our with those found on2-channeru , where country,” i.e. Korea) and the 2-channeru slang participants regularly dispute theories on the coinages “warota” (the local equivalent of LOL) purported Korean provenance of Japanese or “neta” (topics that are planted by trolls). cultural icons such as kendo, sushi and cherry On 2-channeru one can find suggestions made blossoms. Such critique of “Korean origins” is a to spread the link in order to show either well-established sub-genre within Japan’s “Korean cultural theft” or “a pathetic Korean Internet anti-Korean discourse, and the video attempt at self-parody,” and some users rapidly attracted the attention of Japanese reported linking the YouTube video on overseas nationalists. On the day the YouTube video with websites such as the English-language 4chan, Japanese subtitles appeared, over 4,000an online community modeled after2-channeru,

11 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF and an Italian site discussing the Soccer World NOT make fun of our Picha!”27 For this reason Cup. (i.e. they “know” it’s a joke despite choosing not to “get” it), the repeated reminder that “it’s Of course, some Japanese commenters were just a joke” has not slowed the barrage of impressed by the sophisticated self-parody. But nationalistic abuse. more saw the self-deprecation as bordering on “masochistic” on the part of its Korean makers Clearly, however, as noted above, many (and “unfunny” as a result). In either case, one international commenters on YouTube have no should note that many who post “nationalistic” awareness of the Japanese (or Korean) readings comments on YouTube and2-channeru in and react with delight at the evident self- Japanese recognize the video’s farcical intent. parody. For such users, what then becomes However, knowledge that the clip is a well- offensive is not Korea’s “nationalistic” made commercial by a Korean pizza chain reference to Dokdo or the East Sea, but branching out into the United States does not ostensibly racist and humorless Japanese stop them from reading it as problematic. reactions, which are in turn met with irritation Rather the video’s self-parody becomes an and hostility. Moreover, many ripostes in this opportunity for well-rehearsed anti-Korean forum are likely to originate in Korea or other messages and feelings, and not a few posts countries in Asia with a nationalist axe to grind fixated on the CEO’s pronunciation of “pizza” against Japan, as tipped off by slightly non- according to Korean phonology, which lacks a native usages in such remarks as: “Japanese /z/, as “picha.” The accent, quite probably part Nationalists gone mad here. Seriously, they of the comedy, is taken by Japanesehave to realize more stupid comments will commenters as a sign of Korean inability to make them look bunch of idiots lol lol speak English properly, bestowing another (“The45p”), or even “FUCK YOURSELF opportunity to mock Korean parochialism and shameless japanese” (“db015077”).28 The lack of self-awareness. So wrapped up are some international nature of the video, with its basic commenters in the idea of Korean cultural theft Anglophone presentation, shifts the ground of that they even suggest, likely ignorant of nationalistic competition to a global forum in Korean music, that the video’s soundtrack has which multiple voices compete for a hearing. been played on thekoto andshakuhachi in Xenophobic comment metamorphoses into order to subliminally seduce its audience into discussion of whether one is sophisticated thinking that these Japanese instruments as enough to “get” the joke; such debate has been well originated in Korea. most evident on the English and Korean- subtitled versions on YouTube, where one Overall, one finds much cynicism in the encounters numerous comments such as that of postings on 2-channeru, where taking things user “dogboybloo”: seriously is a major faux pas; the task for commenters becomes how to respond in the website’s lingua franca of irony, yet still Japanese people are incapable of challenge Korea and Koreans. In some cases comprehending sarcasm in a the use of “humor” arises from mock claims to complex advertising way, too be Korean, and this typical 2-channeru mode is sophisticated for their simple also found on YouTube, where user “Mol9999” minds. As I am reading these inane wrote, for example, “Stop criticizing our Picha! comments, it’s pretty safe to say Here we are not talking about Pizza, but Picha! there are a lot of idiots in this You have never savored our original Picha world...totally inept in an made from dogs meat and shit and kimchi, DO personality and lacking any sort of

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substance or depth either. It’s that expression of East Asian nationalistic debates or they are some 20 year old over product originsin extremis. unemployed failure that is compensating that to write hate In the continuing anonymity of against korea on youtube Lol. GumshoePictures and absence of commentary from the commercial’s creators, it is impossible to determine whether they anticipated the As the days have gone by, the tone ofstrong reactions that the commercial might discussion has deteriorated, expletives have spawn among either Korean or Japanese increased, and an increasingly high proportion viewers with nationalist sensibilities. The of comments have been removed or flagged. video’s creators may well have assumed their The YouTube “comment” section has turned irony was so obvious in having the literally into an unedifying battleground for competing “crowning” piece of evidence be pizza and nationalisms, with less and less discussion of garlic bread takeaway boxes on top of the head the video itself and more about who is to be of a statue of a Mireuk Buddha that they would considered racist. not offend sensibilities in East Asia, any more than they expected to offend Italians, all the Decoding Ironic Humor in the Global more so in allowing the purported VP of the Context Italian Cultural Centre to dismiss the Korean Irony can be a risky strategy in the absence of claim out of hand. But, irony as a mode of obvious cues to tip it off, as anyone who has humor also depends on shared knowledge and ever had an intended attempt at humor in e- viewpoints between the producer of a text and mail misconstrued knows well. This factor lies his or her audience. Where that mutual in part behind the striking differences in the understanding is absent, the possibility for like/dislike ratios of mirrored versions of the misinterpretation increases significantly. While same video. Moreover, when in-group discourse some Westerners dismissed the notion that such as that of 2-channeru leaves its immediate other East Asians might read this video context, we encounter strong reaction against negatively because of its (seemingly) obvious it by those who don’t share the sameself-deprecating humor, other Korean sensibilities. Even the same internet site can, commentators, as we have seen, took Mr. Pizza as a result of contingent circumstance and to task for the possibility that they might circulation, develop different “cultures of enflame tensions, and some Japanese commenting” on different mirrored webpages. commentators indeed assumed an underlying We have made clear our own subject position in propagandistic motive in the continuing regard to this Mr. Pizza ad as New Zealand- Japanese-Korean online competition for soft based scholars who work on questions of East power. In other words, positionality supplies Asian nationalisms and national identity in the many viewers with both too much and too little Web 2.0 era: we find it a stroke of genius. Many information to enjoy the clip as simply light- academic friends with whom we have shared it hearted lampoon. have agreed. Yet, we also recognize that our position is merely one possible reaction and And to be sure, as we demonstrated above, a can hardly be taken as authoritative. YouTube substantial portion of the burlesque is only commenters are regularly asking each other “Is accessible to those who can read Korean and this a joke?” or “Should one find this funny?” have familiarity with the context of nationalist Indeed, part of the humor is that for several debates over historical and territorial issues in seconds, we too, on a first viewing, were Northeast Asia. The humor is in fact at such a uncertain whether we were seeing anlevel of subtlety that some of the cleverest

13 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF jokes will be recognized only by those who are lingering and malignant racism in Japan. We willing to pause and savor the care that has are also well aware that in writing this article been put into skewering conspiracy theorists we may not only be further promoting the Mr. such as Han Sang-jun at 0:38-0:41. The Pizza brand but implicating ourselves within a complexity of the text is further demonstrated larger debate over reception. Publishing in a by the variety of responses it has evoked in the well-known and readily accessible venue such international context. How, indeed, do viewers as the Asia-Pacific Journal confers a possible air read Han Sang-jun? Japanese viewers of anti- of authority upon our interpretation among Korean orientation notice a decidedly unfunny some communities, while opening the door for character who confirms their worst prejudices new combative dialogue with others. One of the about rabid Korean nationalism. For others, co-authors has already been subjected to abuse this “borderline joke” lies somewhere between on a widely read English-language blog that the overly sophisticated and the callous, takes a nationalistically pro-Japanese (or leaning towards insensitivity. Koreanperhaps better put, unapologetically anti- nationalists, however, have just as readily Korean) viewpoint, as a result of an article she interpreted the ad as slighting Korea’spublished here about the notoriousKen- 29 territorial claim to Dokdo, by bringing it down Kanryu (the “Hate Korea Wave”) manga. The to the same level as the mock claims of pizza’s case suggests not only the extent to which true origin. Western viewers for whom pizza is researchers in the Web 2.0 era, particularly a quintessentially Italian product might simply those writing for an online journal, become part enjoy the absurdity of the video, but those who of the international circulation of discourse but view it within the subculture of East Asian also the extent to which assumptions about online nationalist debates may have differing identity and background continue to inform responses. Indeed, even the co-authors, one a reactions about expressed viewpoints: Koreanist and the other a Japanese Studies specialist, discovered only late in working …people say and write stupid together on this article that they had reacted to things about other people and one sequence in very different ways: the cultures all the time, owing to their demand for an apology struck the Koreanist co- limited perceptions, language author as humorous but not sharply pointed , abilities, and contact with the whereas the Japanologist saw a serious Korean natives. Sakamoto Rumi on the female in traditional dress and immediately other hand should know better. linked the scene, within a Japanese framework, 30 Shame on you. to demands for apologies over the comfort women issue, which supplies the scene with such a potentially edgy subtext as to raise If nothing else, the rapidity of contemporary questions of crassness. media flows is allowing surprising global conversations to take place with often Meanwhile, little doubt exists that bringing Mr. unexpected results. Pizza to the attention of all through the magic of global dissemination of a viral clip on Finally, in the interest of full disclosure, the YouTube has brought its brand to the attention other co-author wishes to point out that Mr. of a wider international public, diminishing Pizza is indeed the favorite restaurant of his Korean national stature in the minds of some, five-year-old daughter in the neighborhood they while enhancing it in the minds of others. Some inhabit when living in Korea. Nevertheless, he who view the YouTube clips and then read the is in no way affiliated with Mr. Pizza and is not comments may come away with concerns over (yet) receiving any free garlic bread promotions

14 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF from them. Indeed he finds their tomato sauce ‘The Korean Wave'’’ Comic Books: A sign of far too sweet. But his respect for theirNew Nationalism in Japan? corporate brand has increased.

Recommended citation: Stephen Epstein and Stephen Epstein is Associate Professor and the Rumi Sakamoto, 'The True Origins of Pizza: Director of the Asian Studies Programme at the Irony, the Internet and East Asian Victoria University of Wellington in New Nationalisms,' The Asia-Pacific Journal Vol 9, Zealand. He has published widely onIssue 44 No 5, October 31, 2011. contemporary Korean society and literature and has translated numerous works of Korean and Indonesian fiction. Recent publications include "The Axis of Vaudeville: Images of Notes North Korea in South Korean Popular Culture" (The Asia-Pacific Journal, link) and Complicated 1See here and here for more on the company. Currents: Media Flows, Soft Power and East Asia (co-edited with Daniel Black and Alison Tokita Monash University Publications). His 2 See this link. The original title of this article most recent novel translations areThe Long was in fact, ‘Christmas Tree Originated From Road by Kim In-suk (MerwinAsia, 2010) and Korea.” Telegram by Putu Wijaya (Lontar Foundation, 2011). He is currently working on a book 3 tentatively titled Korea and its Neighbors: See here and here). See also this link. Popular Media and National Identity in the 21st

Century. 4 For a sample of an online piece on the putative Korean origins of Sun Yat-sen, see this Rumi Sakamoto is Senior Lecturer in the link. Matthias Schwartz offers an excellent School of Asian Studies, the University of portrait of trolling culture in “The Trolls Among Auckland, New Zealand, and a Japan Focus Us,” from the New York Times Magazine, associate. She is the coeditor with Matthew August 3, 2008, availablehere. Allen of Popular Culture, Globalization and Japan. 5 For more on the dispute, see e.g. here, here,

and here, as well as Sean Fern (2005), “Tokdo or Takeshima? The International Law of See the following recentAsia-Pacific Territorial Acquisition in the Japan-Korea Journal articles on related themes: Island Dispute,” Stanford Journal of East Asian Rumi Sakamoto, ‘Koreans, Go Home!’ Internet Affairs, Vol. 5, No. 1: 78-89; Kantoro Serita Nationalism in Contemporary Japan as a (2007), “The Takeshima Dispute: A Radical Digitally Mediated Subculture Proposal,” Japan Echo, Vol. 34, No. 1: 32-46; Hong Nack Kim (2009) “The US and the Rumi Sakamoto, “Will you go to war? Or will Territorial Dispute on Dokdo/Takeshima you stop being Japanese?” Nationalism and between Japan and Korea, History in Kobayashi Yoshinori’sSensoron 1945-1954,”International Journal of Korean Studies, Vol. 8, No. 2: 92-127; and Stephen Rumi Sakamoto and Matthew Allen, "Hating Epstein (2010), “Distant Land, Neighbouring

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Land: Japan in Contemporary South Korean “Korean” Origins: A Critical Review of Discourse” in Complicated Currents: Media Archaeology, Historiography, and Racial Myth Flows, Soft Power and East Asia, ed. by Daniel in Korean State Formation Theories. Black, Stephen Epstein and Alison Tokita, Cambridge, Mass., and London: Harvard East Melbourne: Monash University ePress, pp. Asian Monographs, 2000. 1.1-1.15. For the official Japanese position, see Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan, ‘Outline of 12 Takeshima issue’ (link), while the Korean The appearance of a spokeswoman from the government’s official position may be found on “Korean Culinary Center” calls to mind the the Korea Culture and Informationincreasing attention to the role of food in Service website. expressions of soft power in East Asia. See James Farrer, (2010). “Eating the West and Beating the Rest: Culinary Occidentalism and 6 ‘Do You Know?’ 9 July 2008 New York Times. Urban Soft Power in Asia’s Global Food Cities” in Globalization, Food and Social Identities in

7 the Asia Pacific Region, ed. James Farrer. See this link. Tokyo: Sophia University Institute of Comparative Culture, available from . 8 For more on this quirky figure, see this link. 13 Cf. Alexis Dudden, (2008).Troubled 9 See, e.g., Barbara Demick, “Breaking the Apologies among Japan, Korea and the United Occupation Spell: Some Koreans See Putdown States. New York: Colombia University Press. in Letter Change in Name,” Los Angeles Times,

September 18, 2003. 14 Link.

10 Park Dae-sung, or Minerva, was held in 15 Link. detention for three month for spreading false rumors by the nervous Lee Myung Bak government in a notorious case of internet 16 We thank Frank Hoffmann for the image and censorship until he was finally acquitted. For references to some of the other pieces of more, see Eric Fish, “Is Internet Censorship artwork that seem to be drawn upon Compatible with Democracy? Legalhumorously here link( ) and elsewhere in Restrictions of Online Speech in Souththe video. Korea,” Asia Pacific Journal on Human Rights and the Law, Volume 10, Number 2, 2009, pp. 43-96(54) and Mattathias Schwartz, “The 17 Link. Troubles of Korea’s Influential Economic Pundit,” October 19, 2009,link . 18 As user Hamel, in a fine bit of internet sleuthing, pointed out on The Marmot’s Hole 11 Matt VanVolkenburg of the Gusts of Popular thread, when the screen of the blog is shown on Feeling blog draws an astute connection here the video, the URL bar is shown with the with the way Korean archaeologists have address http://www.addictmediafilms.com. occasionally put “square pegs into round holes” Although the website does not currently exist, in order to reconstruct nationalist pasts (link), and according to Hamel’s Whois Lookup search as detailed in Hyung Il Pai’sConstructing has never been registered, he did discover a

16 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF company named Addict Media Films whose on- China comes not from John Titor’s imagined line resume lists one of its producers and future, but a bound volume of four historical assistant directors. The firm has an impressive records, almost universally viewed as spurious, list whose clients include Samsung, Hyundai the Hwandan Gogi, that spoke of Korea’s Card, McDonalds, Daum TV, and SK Telecom. extension in ancient times into the Chinese The firm’s headquarters is located in Seoul, and heartland. the producer and assistant director’s name clearly suggests Korean origins or descent, 23 albeit with degrees in film and television Nikoniko douga, while similar to YouTube, production from California. It remains unclear has a unique function allowing viewers to post whether they initially pitched the idea to Mr. comments at relevant points of the video clip. The site thus acts at least as much as social Pizza or vice-versa, but there is little question network as a video-sharing site. that the producers of the ad are both tremendously knowledgeable about the context and think outside of the box of blind24 For 2-channeru’s anti-Korean discourse, see nationalism. Rumi Sakamoto and Matt Allen, “Hating ‘The Korean Wave’ Comic Books: A Sign of New

19 Nationalism in Japan?” (link); Rumi Sakamoto, We acknowledge here our gratitude to “‘Koreans, Go Home!’ Internet Nationalism in Andray Abrahamian, who first drew our Contemporary Japan as a Digitally Mediated attention to the clip. It is worth remarking that Subculture” (link). one co-author perhaps played a minor role as a vector in the (admittedly inevitable) viral transmission by sending it on to contacts in the 25 One could quibble over additional minor Korean blogosphere who posted it on their points, such as rendering “the closer you get” blogs, at which point hit counts for the video as “the more one looks,” but these issues arise began to rise rapidly. in virtually every translation.

20 Chae Man-shik’s Jisuk (“My Idiot Uncle”), for 26 International naming of this body of water example, engages in a similar form ofhas been a contentious issue between the two understated irony, but the object of his satire is countries; the Korean government insists on Koreans who slavishly followed Japanese “East Sea,” while the Japanese government customs during the colonial period. More maintains that the English name “Sea of Japan” recently, some of the best local ironists (e.g., is correct. See here and here for each early Bong Joon-ho films like “Memories of respective state’s official position. Murder” and “Barking Dogs Don’t Bite”) use this mode in a dark way, where the humor 27 comes from the blackness of the comedy, This particular posting is in English, but the rather than the subtle nod and a wink that the ironical-racist stance expressed exemplifies a Mr. Pizza ad relies on for much of its length. typical 2-channeru subject position.

28 21 Links 1 and 2. The above is in no way meant to suggest that the site commentary is homogeneous. One finds, for example, comments defending 22 The user appears to have assumed that the Japanese written in a mixture of English and map depicting Korea as having extended into Korean, criticizing ‘stupid Asians’ for not

17 9 | 44 | 5 APJ | JF getting the joke, or blaming “white men” for popularized online hate-Korea discourse, “stealing everything.” devotes an entire episode to “Korean theft of Japanese culture,” ranging from martial arts to contemporary popular culture. 29 Kenkankryū (“Hating the Korea Wave”), a best-selling anti-Koreanmanga that 30 Link.