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ti -x;-,- - -- ~~~~~October21, 1997 Table of Contents
SUMMARY
1. INTRODUCTIONAND BACKGROUND
1.1 Purpose 8 1.2Natural ResourceManagement Project - A Concept 8 1.3 Ghana'sForestry Sector 8 1.3.1Forest Resources 8 1.3.2Timber Management 10 1.3.3Forest ManagementSystem 11 1.3.4Forest Industry 12 1.3.5 Biodiversity 14 1.3.6 Non-TimberForest Products (NTFPs) 15
1.4 Ghana's WildlifeSector 15 1.5Related Donor Activities 16 1.5.1 Forest ResourceManagement Project (FRMP) 16 1.5.2 EnvironmentalResource Management Project (GERMP) 17 1.5.3 Coastal WetlandsManagement Project (CWMP) 17
2. POLICY, LEGAL and ADMINISTRATIVEFRAMEWORK
2.1 Forest and WildlifePolicy 17 2.2 ForestryDeparunent Master Plan (1996-2020) 18 2.3 LoggingManual for Forest Managementin Ghana 19 2.4 BiodiversityProtection 20 2.5 EnvironmentalProtection 20 2.6 Other RelevantPolicies and Legislation 21 2.7 InternationalPolicies 21 2.8 AdministrativeFramework 23 2.8.1 General 23 2.8.2 Ministryof Lands and Forestry 23 2.8.3 ForestryDepartment 23 2.8.4 Departmentof Wildlife 24 2.8.5 Forestry Commission 24 2.8.6 Ghana NationalBiodiversity Strategy and Action Plan 24
.I 3. PROJECT DESCRIPTION
3.1Project Objectives 2 3.2 Rationale 25 3.3 Project Components 5 3.3.1 High Forest Management " 3.3.2 SavannaResource Management 26 3.3.3 WildlifeResource Management 27 3.3.4 EnvironmentalManagement Coordination 28
3.4 Project Support Activities 28 3.4.1 Policy,Planning and InstitutionalReforms 28 3.4.2 CapacityDevelopment 28 3.4.3 ResourceInformation Systems 29 3.4.4 MonitoringLand Use Changes 29
3.5 Project Financing 29 3.6 ImplementationArrangements 29 3.7 Project Sustainability 30 3.8 Lessons Learnedfrom Past Operations 30 3.9 Special-ProgramAnalysis 30
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 General 31 4.2 BaselineData 31 4.2.1 Socio-econonic Data 31 4.2.2 BiophysicalData 32
4.3 StakeholderParticipation 32 4.4 Scoping and Bounding 33 4.5 Criteriafor Impact Assessment 34 4.5.1 Severity 34 4.5.2 Extent 34 4.5.3 Duration 35 4.5.4 Frequencyof Occurrence 35 4.5.5 Probabilityof Occurrence 35 4.5.6 Possibilityof Reversibilty 35
4.6 Scoring Systemfor Significanceof Impact 36 4.7 PositiveImpacts 36 4.8 EIA Team 37
ii 5. DESCRIPTION of the ENVIRONMENT
5.1 Locationand Topography 37 5.2 PhysicalEnvironment 38 5.2.1 Climate 38 5.2.2 Physiography 39 5.2.3 Geologyand Soils 39 5.2.4 WaterResources 40
5.3 BiologicalEnvironment 40 5.3.1 MajorEcozones 40 5.3.2 Biodiversity- SpeciesComposition and Distribution 41 5.3.3 ThreatenedWildlife Species 42 5.3.4 Important/ThreatenedWildlife Habitats 44
5.4 Socio-economicEnvironment 45 5.4.1 The GhanaEconomy 45 5.4.2 Population 45 5.4.3 Administration 46 5.4.4 EconomicActivity, Income and Poverty 46 5.4.5 Culture 47 5.4.6 SocialStructure and Institutions 49 5.4.7 Livelihood 49 5.4.8 Health and Education 49 5.5.9 Services 50 5.5.10 Rights to Resources 50 5.5.1 1 Relationshipwith Natural ResourceBase 51 5.5.12 People's Viewsand Valuesof the Forest 52 5.5.13 GenderConcems 53 5.5.14 Issues 54
6. ENVERONMENTALASSESSMENT
6.1 ImportantEnvironmental Components 55 6.2 Benefitsand Impacts 55 6.2.1 General 55 6.2.2 Summaryof Benefits and Impacts 57
6.3 Impact Analysis 58 6.3.1 General 58 6.3.2 Descriptionof Impactsand Benefits 58
iii 6 4 CumulativeEffects 76 6.5 ResidualImpacts 78 6.6 EnvironmemalEnhancement 80
7. ANALYSISof PROJECT ALTERNATIVES
7.1 Concept Analvsis 81 7.2 Alternative#1: No Project 81 7.3 Alternative#2: Continuationof Current FRM 81 7.4 Alternative#3: HistoricalForestry Project 82 7.5 Alternative#4: Current Concept Without ComprehensiveSavanna ManagementComponent 82 7.6 Althernative#5: Current Concept 82 7.7 Summaryand Conclusions 83
8. ENVERONMENTALMANAGEMENT PLAN
8.1 Purpose and Intent 83 8.2 Description 83 8.3 MitigativeMeasures 84 8.3.1 Impacton Air Quality 84 8.3.2 Impact on Hydrology 85 8.3.3 Impact on Water Quality 86 8.3.4 Impact on Soils 87 8.3.5 Impact on Flora 88 8.3.6 Impact on Fauna; Rare and EndangeredSpecies and Habitats 89 8.3.7 Impact on Biodiversity 90 8.3.8 Impact on TraditionalRights 90 8.3.9 Impact on Jobs and Poverty 91 8.3.10 Impact on Non-TimberForest Products 92 8.3.11 Impact on Aesthetics 93 8.3.12 Impact on Migration 94 8.3.13 Impact on Fuelwood 95 8.3.14 Impact on Land Use 96 8.3.15 Impact on Gender Issues 96
8.4 IndicativeMitigative Costs and Scheduling 99 8.5 Training 99 8.6 Monitoringand Reporting 100
9. REFERENCES
iv APPENDICES
Appendix1: Description of Ghana's Major VegetationTypes Appendix2: Scoringof Criteriafor IndividualIECs
List of Tables
Table 1.1: Area of Forest Reservesby ManagementCategory Table 1.2: RecentTrends in TimberHarvesting Levels Table 1.3: TimberIndustry
Table 4.2: Criteria,Ratings and Signficanceof Impacts
Table 5.1: Climatesof the TropicalZone Representedin Ghana Table 5.2: FormationGroups of Ghana,Their Sizes,Rainfall and Percentagein Ghana Table 5.3 TimberOperation Units
Table 6.1: IECs Table 6.2: Summaryof Project Impactson EECs Table 6.3: Summaryof CumulativeImpacts by Levels of Sighnificance Table 6.4: OverallRatings for IECs Table 5.5: CumulativeEffects Table 6.6: Residual Impacts
List of Figures
Figure 2. 1: Organogram:Structre of Ghana's Forest Administration Figure 5.1: EcologicalZones of Ghana Figure 5.2: Forest Reserves and Forest Zones
v Acronyms
FD ForestryDepartment WD Departmentof Wildlife MoAF Ministy of Agricultureand Food GoG Governmentof Ghana NTFPs Non-TimberForest Products PA Protected Area FRMP Forest ResourceManagement Project GERMP Ghana EnvironmentalManagement Project FC Foresuy Commission LEAPs Local EnvironmentalAction Plans GEF GlobalEnvironment Fund PPC Project CoordinatingCommittee MI-F Mnistry of Lands and Forestry ITCZ inter-TropicalConvergence Zone GDP Gross DomesticProduct EIA EnvironmentalImpact Assessment IECs ImportantEnvironmental Components NRMP Natural Resource ManagementProject TUC TimberUtilisation Contact
VI SUMMARY
. Statement of Purpose The purpose of this environmentalimpact assessment(ELA) is to identify'the potential impactsthat the Natural ResourceManagement Project (NRMP) may have on aspects of the biophysicaland socio-economicenvironment. The documentdescribes environmental benefitsthat will occur as a result of the project and the likelymitigative measures that will be requiredto avoid and/orminimize the negativeimpacts. An outlineof an environmental managementplan is also included.
. Natural ResourceManagement Project
The project's primaryobjective is to establishthe institutionaland operationalframework, within the public and private sectors, for sustainable, participatory management of Ghana's soil, water, wildlife and forest resources; conservation of biodiversity; and, rehabilitationof degraded areas. It will assist communitiesto take lead responsibilityin managementactivities and strive to ensure that land and forest resources are sustainedat their optimum level of production and that opportunities for income generation are widened,particularly for the growing numbersof disadvantagedrural poor who's actions constitutea potentiallyserious factor in the degradationof these resources.
The project will be comprised of four components: high forest management(including programs for collaborative forestry management, biodiversity and plantation establishment), savanna resources ranagement, wildlife resource management, and, environmentalmanagement coordination. Project support activities will include policy, planningand institutionalreforms, capacity development,resource infornmtionsystems, and the monitoringof land use changes.
Rationale
Ghana'sforest resourcesare dwindlingrapidly as a resultof annualharvesting levels that far exceedthe country's allowablecut. As a result, certain timber species are scarce, flora and fauna populations are being threatened as habitat is reduced, and in general, the country's biodiversityis being reduced. If the current trend continues,the country could lose most of its high forest resources over the next 25 years.
Communitiesthat traditionallyrely on forest products, particulrly the non-timberforest products(NTFPs), are findingaccess to these productsincreasingly more difficult.Since these products play such an important role in ruralpeople's everydaylives and the local economy,rural commumiiesare feelingthe impactsof resourcedemal in manyways, not the leastof whichis a steadydecline in overallwell-being.
The project will address both of these major issues with a focus on sustainableforest managementand an involvementof localcommunities in the planningand implementation
1 process.In fact, local comnmunitieswill become more directlyinvolved in the custodialship of forest resources.
. Institutional and Legal Framework
. Forest and WildlifePolicy
The policythat will providethe basis of the project is the Forest and WildlifePolicy (1994) which has the followingobjectives:
. Manage and enhance the permanent estate of forest and wildlife resources for the preservation of soil and water resources, conservation of biological diversity and the environment,and for sustainableproduction of domesticand commercialproduce;
. Promote the developmentof viable and efficientforest-based industries, particularly in secondaryand tertiary processing;
PPromote public awareness and involvement of rural people in forestry and wildlife conservation in order to maintain life-sustaining systems, preserve scenic areas and enhancethe potential of recreation,tourismn and income-generatingopportunities;
. Develop effective capability at national, regional and distnct levels for sustainable managementof forest and wildliferesources.
Strategies relating to each of the policy objectives are outlined in the policy document. These strategies are to be further expanded within the corporate statements and operational plans of respective insitutions, and have been incorporated in the Forestry DevelopmentMaster Plan (1996-2020).
. Forestry Devdopment Master Plan (1996-2020)
A forestry managementplan has been prepared to guide the implementationof the Forest and WildlifePolicy and its successfil implementationis intended to maximizethe rate of social and economic developmentof the country and secure optimumwelfare and adequate meansof livelihoodfor all Ghanaians.
The objectivesof the Plan are scheduled into three time hoizons. Phase I (1996-2000) will consolidate forest management systems to ensure that timber can be certified as "sourced from sustainablemanaged forests" by the year 2000, and ensure implementation of a Protected Areas Plan; developmentand launchingof flexible schemes for investments in commercialforest planons, tree farmingand propagation of nontimber products and wildlife;creation of an enabling climate for rationalization of the timber industry and consolidation of fiscal measures for efficient uilization and increased value-added processing. In Phase II (2001-2010) it is envisaged that maintenance of sustainable forest and protectedareas managementsystems will continuewith maitenance of commercial
2 forest-basedproduction systems and developmentof product harvesting, handling and marketingfacilities, as well as promotionof total value-addedprocessing and competitive marketing.Phase m (2011-2020)would includethe continuedmaintenance of sustainable forest and wildlife management systems, commercialproduction systems, improved productharvesting and marketing,and competitivevalue-added processing industries.
. Methods for EIA
. participation
A team of nine members, representingdifferent disciplines(environmental assessment, forestry, ecology,management, sociology, economics, and forest industry)was assembled for preparingthe EIA. Limitedfield visitswere conducted,particularly to the reserves and communitiessurrounding the reserves, and to a cross section of the forest wood processing industry. The main purpose of these visits was for the team members to familiarizethemselves with the project concept and to discuss with project stakeholders, perceptionsof impactsand issuesas these relate to the project.The generalpublic, NGOs, communities,and other govenumentagencies were all invited,through press notices, to a generalworkshop on the ELAof the project.
data
Apart from informationgained from the field surveys, secondary data was used for the analysis.
. assessment
The basis of the assessment has been the identificationof 27 important environmental components (IECs). These are those segments of the envirownentthat are likely to be affected in one way or another by aspects of the project and which are deemed worthy of attention. For each potential impact, six criteria (severity, extent, duration, probability, frequency and reversibility) were considered. Each of these criteria were assigned numericalratings for levels of intensity. Totals for each imnpactsituation were added to determinethe scale of significancefor each impact.
. The Environment
. biophysical environment
Tropicalhigh forests occur in the south-westernthird of the country and form part of the Guinea-Congoleanphytogeographical region. The high forest covers 8.2 million ha and contains over 70% of the country's biodiversity.Two evergreen types (wet and moist) occur in the extreme south-west comnerof Ghana and receive the highest annual rainfallof 1,500-2,100mm.This is a floristicrich zone and supportsmany species which are absent or rare elsewhere. The compleit of the high forest provides a variety of habitats, and
3 flora and fauna species. Excludingthe mosses, Ghana has over 3,600 plant species and 2,214 of these are high forest species. The country is also home to 225 mammal species. 721 bird species, and 250 species of fish. There is a large number of threatened and endangered species, including several primates, most of which rely on the habitats providedby the high forest.
socioeconomic environment
Ghana has a population estimated at 12.5 million in 1994 and this is estimated to reach 20.0 millionby the turn of the century. Farmingand other agricutural activities supported the main populationin the rural areas and in 1984 approximately61.1% of the population was engaged in these activities. Employment in the timber industry is estimated at 130,000. In addition to the forest base providingjobs, both directly and indirectly, the forest provides a large number of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that supplement rural fanily incomes. These products are essential for the day to day lives of rural communities.In southern Ghana forests contribute to all aspects of rural life, providing food, fodder, fueL medicines,building materials, materials for various household items, as well as many more intangiblebenefits such as cultural symbols,rural artifacts and locales.
Impacts
In balance, the NRM is enviromnentallybenign. It is a project that will lead towards sustainableforest managementand the involvementof people in the managementof forest areas in order that they can share equitablyin the forest resource. The project will lead to effectivesustainable management of the resources of the savannah.
Of the 27 IECs identified and examined, the project would have both impacts on, and benefits for, 17 of them. The project would provide only benefits for the remaining 10 EECs.Impacts by level are snumarized in Table 1. This table also summarizesthe residual impacts by level of significance.Table 2 indicates by level of significancethe number of cumulativeimpacts that would be expected.
Table1: Summary of PnijectImpacts on IECs(by klve of gificance)
LOW 4 9 2 MEDUM 8 2 5 HIGH 3 1 3 VERYHIGH 2 0 0 Total 17 12 10
4 Table 2: Summary of Cumulative impacts by Levelsof Significance
0~~~
LOW 9 MEDIUM I HIGH 2 VERY HIGH 0 not applicable 5 Total 17
Prior to mitigation,taking both impacts and benefits into account, Table 7.6 provides a summaryof overallsignificant ratings for IECs
Table 3: Overall Ratings for IECs (Impacts l-l vs Benefits l+l) (excluding IECs with only benefits)
LOW 3 3 MEDIVM 5 0 HIGH 5 1 VERYHIGH 0 0 Total 17
As indicated above, the NRM is highly environmentallysupportive and many of the impacts on various IECs will be mitigatedthrough various programs and components of the project. Of the 17 EECsthat will be negativelyaffected by the project, impacts on 7 of them will be mitigatedthrough planned project activities with an additional three being mitigatedthrough a combinationof plannedproject activities with additional non-project actions. Impacts on four EECswill be mitigatedthrough the application of 'best practice guidelines', and the remaining three impacts will be mnitigatedthrough new additional activities.
The most serious potential impacts that will, or could be, caused by the project are those rated very high and highLThese are briefly described below. As indicted in Table 1, above, only one of these would result in a high residualimpact.
s . 'eryHigh impacts
Rare and endangered species and their habitats
Forest harvestingpractices, if not carniedout judiciously and without consideration to other forest values, can be very destructivetowards plant and wildlife species and habitat. Without the knowledgeof biological resources in any particular area to undergo harvesting, timber extraction could be devastating to rare and endangeredspecies that may inhabitthese areas. A loss of these species would be a very high impact. This potential impact will be avoided through project activities. Surveys will be conducted to determine floral and faunal content of reserve and non-reserveareas and where important species and habitats are located, these will be protected from logging activities.These steps will be conducted through the biodiversityprotection programof the project. There will be no residualimpact.
. Jobs and poverty
Reducing timber harvesting to allowable cut levels will reduce harvesting jobs. This will reduce will output, and thus mill and other related forest industry jobs will be reduced. For these workers, their dependents, and others in supporting roles, poverty would be a real possibility.Loss of jobs and poverty creation is a very high impact of the project. However, by taking these reduction steps now, it means that the jobs that will be retained in a much reduced forest industry will be sustainable. Through training, better resource management through the collaborative forestry program and the savannah resource managementprogram, and with additionaljobs created in the wood processing sector as a result of more efficientwood recovery, most of the effects of the lost jobs will be reduced, if not totally eliminated.Better resource managementin the high forest and the savannah will contribute to poverty reduction. The residualimpact will be highLThis residual impact of losing some jobs has to be considered in view of a 'do nothing' alternativewhich would lead eventuallyto a complete loss of the forest industry as forests would be eliminatedover the next 25 years.
High Impacts
. fauna and biodiversity
There are three potentiaByhigh impacts and these relate to fauna (two impacts related to harvestng and plantation development) and biodiveity. As with the rare and endangered species and habitats described above, these are impacts that could possibly occur as a result of harvesting operations (and plantation development).For the same reasons,these potentialimpacts would be avoided almost entirely through the location identificationof important species and habitats and forest managementplans that ensure the protectionof these values. Since
6 harvestingand plantationestablishment will affect some animal populations and habitats,the residualimpact will be moderate.
Benefits
The project will provide a large number of environmentalbenefits. For each of the 7 IECs the project will produce a benefit, albeit many would be relativelyinsigriificant As indicatedin Table 1, ten of the [ECs yield only environmentalbenefits, and no negative impacts.What is most importantis the net overalleffect of the project on the environment. There are only four negativenet effects against 13 positiveeffects. This does not include the ten IECs for which there is only a positivebenefit. This is conclusiveevidence that the project, assuming fill and effective implementation,will be overall environmentally beneficial.
. Project Altermatives
There are no real project altemativesother than the alternative of 'do nothing'. The report provides several alternativepaths that a project concept developmentcould have followedbut it is clear that the concept of NRMP as it currentlystands would be the most environmentallysupporive. If other alternative paths had been followed, the negative impacts would have been greater in number and significance,and the overall net effect would not have been as favorable.
. Environmental Management
An environmentalmanagement plan has been prepared. It outlinesthe mitigativeactions that will be required for each impact. It also indicatesthe inputs required, the outputs and results expected, the responsibilitiesfor enswringimplementaion, and, in very broad tenns, the cost and schedulingrequired. Indicative costs for implementg mitigative measurestotal US $ 955,000.
7 1. INTRODUCTIONand BACKGROUND
1.1 Purpose
The purpose of this environmentalimpact assessment (EIA) is to identify the potential impactsthat the Natural Resource ManagementProject (NRMP) could have on aspects of the biophysicaland socio-economicenvironment. The document describes environmental benefitsthat will occur as a result of the project and the likelynutigative measuresthat will be requiredto avoid and/or minimizethe negativeimpacts. An outline of an environmental managementplan is also included.
1.2 Natural Resource Management Project - A Concept
Althoughreferred to as the NRM, at the time of preparing the EIA the project is oni ;n the conceptual stage and a full project design has yet to be prepared. Consequently. EIA is carried out on the basis of the project concept document which lacks final prc. detail. The assumptionmade whilst the EIA was conducted was that forest management, which is the nucleus of the Project, will be implementedalong the lines descibed in the forestry developmentmanagement plan, 1996-2020. As well, it was assumed that the principlesand guidelinesthat have been developed by the Forestry Department (FD) for collaborativeforest managementwill be a focus of the Project.
The EIA will provide a number of environmentalgiidelines relevant to forest management and these should be considered as the FD proceeds from the project concept stage to detailedproject design.
It is noted that the project concept is based on the need for Ghana to institute an effective sustainableresource management and developmentprogrm Accordingly,the objectives and strategiesof the concept are environmentallysound in principleand yield a number of benefitsthat willoffset the few negativeimpacts likelyto occur.
1.3 Ghana's Forestry Sector
1.3.1 Forest Resources
At the turn of the centurythe forest zone of Ghanacovered about 34% of the total land area. However,by 1987over 75% of the landarea originallycovered by forestshad been cleared.This correspondsto a deforestationrate of 0.84% (684km2) per ann although the deforestationrate appearsto havebeen decreasing in recentyears. The total volumccf timber extracted between 1986-92was 7.8 millionm 3 or 7.5% of the standingv' ne.
Ghana has established266 forest reserves, 204 of which occupy 1.6 million ha ie high forest zone and 62 which occupy 0.6 million ha in the savanna zone. Forest res. .s were origially created for purposes of ecological stability, watershed protecuon and
8 windbreaks,while at the same time contributingto socio-economicwelfare through a continualflow of products and services.
Production reserves constitute almost 45% of the total forest estate, with the rest designatedfor protection, conservationand research. Reserved forest areas have been demarcatedand managed as permanentforest estates for the preservationof vital soil and water resources, conservation of biological diversity and the environment, and sustainabilityproduction of domestic and commercial produce. The forest reserves providethe sourcefrom which the bulk of the nation's timber is produced.
Based on the 1986-87 forest inventory, 32% of the total forest reserve area is in a degradedstate requiringrehabilitation.
In the off-reserveareas forested land has been widely exploitedand deforested, resulting in a residualforest cover of only approximately400,00ha of forest cover. The off-reserve areas have highpotential for private forestry and farmingactivities and are destinedto be appropriated for agriculture. These areas consist of intact forests, bush fallows and agncultural areas. The intact forests are located mainly in the Western Region of the country and have substantialforest canopy cover with forest compositionsimilar to the reserved areas. The bush fallows are secondarygrowth from abandonedfarms with high potential, assumingadequate management,for maturing into high forest. The agricultural lands are characterizedby a relativelyhigh densityof trees on farms. The off-reserveareas containabout 268 millionm 3 of standingtimber of which about 101 millionm 3 is reported to be containedin trees exceedingthe minimumfelling size.
Farmerson whose land much of the off-reservetimber is located have no right to fell or sell timber trees. Farmers do not benefit from timber exploitationon their farms, and compensationfor damage caused by fellingand haulingis inadequate.Farmers whose land is under concessionoften destroy all timber trees when clearing new ground in order to avoid the risk of damage to the farm by the concessionaire.As long as timber on the farm has no value to the farmer there will be no replenishmentof indigenous timber trees outside the reserves. The principleof enhancingor modifyingforest managementsystems to ensure that they address local needs and engender local cooperation is enshrinedin the new Forest and WildlifePolicy as describedin Section2.
The annual sustainable yields from the timber production area of forest reserves is currently estimatedat close to 0.5 millionm 3 and includes64 economic timber species. A recentlycompleted inventory confirms that a harvest of 0.5 millionm 3 can be sustainedfor 99 years from off-reserveareas, providedproper use is made of all timber species(Scarlet, Red and Pink Stars). This harvest, together with the increasingyield from plantationsas they mature, will provide an estimatedannual sustainablelevel of 1.0 millionmn 3. Assuming that this level of harvest can be maintained during the next twenty years and that encroachmentand fire damage can be minimIzed,the conditionof the forest estate should steadily improve. At the same time, savanna woodland management, afforestation and
9 aroforestry initiativesshould result in an expansion of forested areas and general tree cover.
It is necessarythat proper controls are maintainedto forestall fuirher encroachment by farners, poachersand illegalchainsaw operators. Wildfires,over-exploitation of preferred speciesand resurgenceof speculativefelling must also be controlled. The annual allowable cut willhave to be strictlyenforced by an effectiveforest service while increasedstumpage fees are applied to encourage greater efficiency of utilization and better retums to the forest owners.
Table 1.1 indicatesthe area of forest reserve by managementcategory.
Table 1.1:Areas of Forest Reservesby ManagementCategory in the High Forest Zone
Tunberproduction area 762,400 47.0 Permanentprotection area 352,500 21.0 Convalescencearea 122,000 7.5 Conversionarea 127,200 8.0 Not inventoned 270,000 16.5 Total Reserve Area 1.634.100 100.0
1.3.2Timber Management
The averageannual rate of deforestationin Ghanasince the tum of the centuryhas been estimted at about 75,OOOhaApproXimateY one third of Ghana's forest area of 8.3 millionha has been removedbetween 1955 and 1972 as a result of excessiveharvesting. Salvagelogging practices of the early 1970sallowed unlimited feUing of the largest or over-maturetrees on a 15 year fellingcycle. As well, the high grading of high value speciesbefore the log exportban that was introducedin 1979contributed significantly to forest degradationand depletion.Since this time, due to the increasedacfivity of a larger numberof desirablespecies, recent loggingactivities have been more intensifiedin the semi-deciduouszone than in the evergreen forest. However, illegal harvestinghas increasedand someof the drierzones are currentlyin criticalcondition.
In the past the forestrysector lacked an updatedand clearlydefined forest policythat set out goals,objectives and strategiesfor the developmentof the count ry's forest resources and the fiuture direction for the iber industry. In the absence of an effecve administrationthere was widespreadtrade indiscipline,failure to pay royaltiesand other statutory fees, speculativefelling; illegal trading in Property Marks and unauthorized sublettingof concessionsto illicittimber operators. Outdated legal sanctionsand very low finestructures offered no deterrenceto offenders.The situationwas furtheraggravated by
1o a lack of local communityinvolvement in forest resource protection and an absence of comprehensiveand coordinatedmedium to long term planning.
In addition, loggers and chainsaw operators could operate illegallywith impunity as a result of the lack of cooperationfrom the law enforcementagencies and the judiciary. As well, the logging and sawmillingsubsectors have been dominated by illiterate and ill- informedoperators, a misinformedprint media, lack of unity within private sector trade associationsand a problemof financialintermediation.
While efforts were being made to strengthenregulatory agencies,both forest and wildlife resourceswere subjectedto a dramaticrise in the rates of exploitation,mainly by logging and sawmillinginterests, as well as by illegalchainsaw operators and hunters. A significant increasein the rate of timber harvestingbegan to occur in 1992 in the off-reserveareas, an activity that was encouraged as a result of the increasedvigilance on reserves and the emergence of Far East log export markets. In order to contain these threats to the sustainabilityof the nation's resources, a series of ad hoc control measures were introduced and have succeeded,to a degree, in stabilizingthe sector. These measures have included:regulations to control illegalchainsaw operators; temporary suspensionof log exports; and, a timber auction to clear the stockpiled logs. Subsequently,other initiatives have been taken, including a mobile forest protection action group, the temporarysuspension of log exports, and,the fellingcontrols for off-reserveharvesting.
The recent Forest and Wildlife Policy, approved in November 1994, provides the foundationupon whichto build an effectivesustainable resource managementprogram for the country.
1.3.3Forest ManagementSystem
Earlymanagement was basedon the principleof sustainedyield management using low intensityselection harvesting and natural regeneration. However, management was carried out in the absenceof proper forest inventories.The ModifiedSelection System was applied during the period 1956-1970.In 1970 the Girth Limit System (GLS) was introduced.Since 1989 when reliableinventory data was made availablethe forty year felling cycle was adopted. Today the reserve forests are grouped into 52 Forest ManagementUnits (FMUs). Each FMU has a managementor working plan covering a period of 20 years and whichis based on the designationof each reserveinto zones accordingto managementobjectives. Objectives could include timber production, watershedmanagement, and commercialproduction of NTFPs.Agreements with forest resourceusers are enteredinto andthese include Timber Utilization Contracts (TUCs) and SocialResponsibility Agreements (SRAs).
Threemajor forest management systems have been employed,including the Uniform,the Selectionand the EmichimentSystems. For vaTiousreasons the Unfformand Emiclunent Systemshave been all but abandonedand Reservemanagement is presentlycarried out underthe Selectionsystem.
11 In the off-reserveareas the local communitiesheld allodial title over forested areas for purposes of local revenuegeneration. Since Independencein 1957, however,the state has attained control over the timber resource in the off-reserve areas even thouah land title was retained by the stools. in recent years, as a result of sustainable managementbeing practiced in the reserves, exploitationhas been high in the off-reserveareas as operators and wood processors stnve to maintain their output volumes. Table 1.2 indicates the timber harvestingtrend in recent years. A significantincrease in production in the early 1990swas due to an increase in log export to Southeast Asia which in turn brought about a temporarysuspension of log exportsin 1995.
Table 1.2: Recent Trends in Timber Harvesting Levels ('000m3)
Y.ar fPR~serve Tot-- Ia~aern 1980-84* 377 179 516 1985-89* 588 343 931 1990 1056 234 1290 1991 996 233 1229 1992 587 731 1318 1993 266 1416 1682 1994 506 1295 1800 1995 167 1027 1194
* annualaverage over 5 years
1.3.4 Forest Industry'
Officiallyrecorded levels of harvest have risen from under 1.0 million m3 per year in the late 1980sto 1.8 millione 3 in 1994. The acual level of cut is higher due to illegal logging. The sustainablelevel of amnualharvest is probablyabout 1.0 millionm 3 per year, of which 0.3 million e 3 would come for the most valuable and heavily exploited species on reserves. Domestic demand may be in the order of 0.7 million n3 per year suggestingthat it would be possible to continue to export around 0.4 million m3 per year of roundwood equivalent without importng or exceeding the sustainedablecut; this compares with export of around 1.5 millione 3 of roundwood equivalentin 1994.
The wood processing industry contributes about 6% of GDP and earned DM 354 million for exports in 1994. In addition, the economy benefits from other forest products, includingfuelwood, charcoal and non-timber forest products. This may raise the GDP contribution to perhaps 8%. It is also possible to take a broader view of the overall contribution of the sector to the economy, taking account of non-market benefits and other outputs which are not recorded in official statistics.The forest timber industry employssome 130,000people.
'Foresly Conissimi 1995.
12 There is evidence of a rapidly growing over-capacity in the industry, with potential sawmillingcapacity of perhaps2 millionm' per year. This over capacityis associatedwith a profitableindustry based on access to a cheap resource and high export demand. As a result of these cheap resources,there is no incentivefor improvingupon the existinglow recovery rates. The wood processing industry recognizes that there is likely to be a problemwith resourceavailability in the future. Althougha few companieshave helped to developthe resourcethrough the establishmentof plantations,the generalview is that this is a responsibilityof Government.Some companiesare successfullyfinding markets for finishedproducts manufactured from lesser known species.
The impact of continuingexploitation at the 1993194levels would include comnmercial extinctionof the 38 maintimber speciesby 2015, together with the associatedloss of jobs, economic activity and export earniings. About six of the species would become commerciallyextinct over the next five years. At some time between 2005 and .2015 Ghana would becomea net importerof wood in order to meet domesticdemand.
Initiativesaimed at improvingmarketing of value-addedproducts, for training and for research into utilzation of lesser used species should continue. The current range of industrialinvestment incentives available to the wood processingindusty should be better targeted and, in particular,these initiativesshould not be availablefor investmentin new sawmillingprimary breakdown equipment.
The timber industry is comprised of three categories of operation including primary (logging), secondary (sawmilling/plymilling/veneering)and tertiary (furniture,mouldings, flooring, etc.). The industry is dominated by private ownership and is comprisedof a numberof establishmentsas indicatedin Table 1.3.
Sawmillingdominates the secondary industry and almost all of the sawmillproduction from the larger and mediumsize millsis exported. Sawuilling capacityis about 2.7 million m3per annum. This capacity far exceeds the total annual allowablecut of I milion m. Most millslack sufficientresaw capacityto achievea higher recoveryrate than the current 38%.
Over the past few years there has been an increasingdemand for kiln dried.lumber and kiln drying facilitieshave been increasingin numberto take advantage of this value added step.
In the fiveyear period between 1991and 1995exports of kiln dried lumber have increased almost five fold. The total inaed capacity of the 16 veneer and plywood plants is I million m . An explanation for the low capacity ufilizationis the fact that the annual allowablecut is also equalto this figure.
13 Table 1.3: Timber Industry
A.-Are Adii-.-Y .f - Rv tB __ j __ =3 -Estab:lishmenty Logging 250 Sawmilling 130 Plymling 9 Veneermilling 15 Chipboardmilling I Preservationtreatment I Furnituremanufacture (large and medium) 40 Fumituremanufacture (small) _ 45,000
The tertiarysector is comprisedof 40 large and mediumscale furiture companiesand 45,000registered small scale carpenters.The sector relies heavilyon illegalchain saw operatorsfor its raw materialsupply since material from the sawmillsis almostexclusively exported. Undercurrent management plans for the reservesand the proposedmanagement of off- reserveareas, the timberindustry faces a grimfuture. Harvested volumes, and thus, wood supplyto the secondaryindustry, will be reducedsignificantly. The industry,in general, continuesto experiencebelow capacity utiliion and in manycases some plantswill no doubt be forced to closed.For others, improvedrecovery rates will be necessaryif they are to remainsolvent.
1.3.5 Biodiversity
Habitatloss and degradation,the majorcauses of biodiversityloss, have been rapid and dramaticin Ghana.Within the last 100 years 80% of the high forest has been cleared mainlyfor conversionto agnculturalcrops. Heavy losses have also occurred through logging,bush fires and mining.Clearances, with irreversibleloss of biodiversity,have bee most severe in the high and savannaforest types. To a lesser extent, wetland and mangroveforests have been similarlyaffected. The geneticvanation of terrestrialfauna and flora continueto be threatened.In the past the gatheringof minor forest products suchas wildplants and animalsfrom the forest was insignificantsince it was only carried out on a non-commercialbasis. However, in recent years the pracuce has become signficantlycommerciazed with an increaseddemand for non-timberforest products (NTFPs) as the country's population ises. Ghana now experiences levels of resource utilizationfar exceedingthe productivecapacities of the exploitedspecies to be sustained.
1.3.6 Non-TimberForest Products(NTFPs)
Althoughthe FD put back into place the fundamentalelements of sustainableforest managementtrough centralizedplanning, yield regulation and protected areas, it recognizedthat some forest values had been neglected. Notably these included the
14 provisionof non-timberforest products (NTFPs), spiritualand culturalvalues, and broad environmentalservices. Whilst the original reservation policies embodied elements of participatorv forestry, notably the encouragement of local by-laws for reserve management,over time forest managementplanning and harvestinghave been regulated through a svstemof expensiveshort term permits which has not encouraged stewardship amongstthe NTFP gatherers. Revenue earned from permits is not re-investedin NTFP management.
"For those who comeface toface, without relief, with the harrowingexperiences of ill health, hunger and otherforms of deprivation, the reality is the enormous contnbutionNTFPs, in all their variedforms, make to all aspects of their lives (Falconer,1993)2
NTFPs are important among the rural poor, particularly as economic buffers. They provide opportunitiesfor earningcash, for payingmedical expenses, school fees, or to buy food during the 'hungry season'. It is estimatedthat about 75% of the populationregularly consumeswild animals,fish, insects, caterpillars,termites and snails. About 80%o of the rural populationdepends on wild resourcesfor their basic protein requirements.
1.4 Ghana's Wildlife Sector
Ghana displaysa rich faunal communityof mammalsand bird species. lt has the richest and most diversebutterfly populationsin the region. However, inspiteof this richness, the attitude of most Ghanaians towards wildlife is utilitarian. It is widely recognizedas an importantcomponent of the diet and cash incomeof nrral populations.
The first game reserveswere legallyconstituted in 1909, with the promulgationof the first wildlifelaws going back to 1901. From this time up to independencein 1957,the Forestry Department and other departments were given the responsibilityof administeringthe Game Preservation Ordinance. Clearly wildlife prior to independencewas of secondary concernto the colonialgovernment, as exemplifiedwith the creation of the GameControl Unit in 1953 that was given the responsibilityof eliminatinggame and the removal of riverine habitat for purposes of tsetse control. Soon after independence Ghana's first Game Department was established.3 Most of the existing wildlifereserves were largely designated during the 1970s and since that time only two additional areas have been gazetted.
Ghana's wildlife protected area system comprises six National Parks, six Resource Reserves, one Strict Nature Reserve and three Wildlife Sanctuaries. The total area for legallygazetted protected areas is 12,685 km2 which represents about 5.32% of Ghana's land area. With the current establishmentof five coastal wetland protected areas, along
2Dcpa=ment of Foestry. 1995. 3GWDIIUCN.1994.
15 with the Kvabobo Range National Park, the total protected area system will cover over 13,385 kmn.
Until as recently as 1994, there was very little difference in wildlife manazement objectives. With the latest Policy Statement (1994) from the WD a standard system of zoninghas been prepared as well as definitionsand managementobjectives.
Wildlife resources of Ghana are not currently a focus of regional tourism. With the exception of three areas (Mole, Shai Hills, and Kakum) the protected areas receive few visitors. Mole NP, which has accommodationfacilities, receives 3,000-5,000 visitors annuallyand KakumNP receivesup to 750 visitorsa week.4
1.5 Related Donor Activities
1.5.1 Forest Resource Management Project (FRMP)
This project becameeffective in November 1989 and is due to be completedin June 1997. A number of key reforms have been implementedin the areas of logging concessions, forest revenue, policy and administration.Specifically, the FRMP has (i) strengthened management capacity within the ULF, leading to improvements in forest sector monitoring and regulation; (ii) improved timber royalty collection and disbursementto local traditionalauthorities (Stools); (iii) improvedcapacity of the WildfireDepartnent for protected area (PA) management and facilitated development of ten PA management plans; (iv) achieved limited progress in on-fann tree planting through reorienting the Agroforestry Units towards supportng community nurseries and implementing a promisingpilot for locally-basedsavanna woodland mement in the Upper East Region through the Rural Forestry Division;and, (v) strengthened research and training capacity through support to the Forestry Research Insttute of Ghana and the Institute of RenewableNatural Resources.
1.5.2Environmental Resource Management Project (GERMP)
The GERMP became effectivein March 1993 and will close December 1997. The project explicitly recognizes the intersectoral nature of environmental management and has provided support for institutionalstrengthening of the Environmenal Protection Agency (EPA) in its central role as a coordinatingand regulatory body to stimulate reforms within the sectoral ministries and agencies to improve environmental monitoring and management. A coherent body of regulatory guidelines, standards and monitoring protocolshave been adopted for implementationby the sectoralagencies. The principal lesson from the project has been the value of investing in strengthening capacity of sectoralagencies for elementsof sectoral activity.
'GWD/IUCN.1994.
16 1.5.3 CoastalWetlands Management Project (CWMP)
The CNWMPis financedby the GEF as an integral componentof the ERMP, within the same time frame as the CAWP. It has addressedthe issue of maintaining-the ecological integrityof coastal wetland ecosystemsunder a multiple use managementregime. The project has been carried out with significantinput from local stakeholders in both the planningand implementationphases.
2. POLICY,LEGAL and ADMINISTRATIVEFRAMEWORK
2.1 Forest and WildlifePolicy
TTheneedfor specificgovernment guidacme and control offorestry activities in Ghana has becomenecessary due to changesthat have occurredin the nature of Ghana 'sforests since the adoption of the 1948 Forest Policy. This need also underpins our sensitivintto the serious reduction in the forest land area and the increasing local and international outcry over environmentalissues relating to the forest Besides, forestry plays a major role in the growth and development of the Ghanaian economy and the maintenance of environmentalquality. With increasingdemandfor forest landfor agriculturalpurposes due to population pressure, advances in science and technology, growing ecological importance of the forest in terms of genetic biodiversity apndwildlife, izstitutiontal changes, and the increasingneedfor popular participation in resource management,the under)vingjustification for the earlier policy (1948forest policy) no longer appeared applicable. There is the needfor a newforest policy thatprovides a new set ofprinciples for sustainable forest management and establishes key priorities for its future development.
(Forewordto Forest and WildlifePolicy, 1994, by Dr. KwabenaAdjei Ministerof Lands and Forestry)
The importanceof sustainableforest managementis recognizedin the Forest and Wildlife Policy of 1994. The Forest and WildlifePolicy of Ghana aims at conservationand sustainabledevelopment of the nation's forest and wildliferesources for maintenanceof environmentalquality and perpetualflow of optimm benefitsto all segmentsof society. The guidingprinciples of the policy statementare based on nationalconviction and internationalguidelines and conventions.
The objectivesof the policyare to:
Manageand enhancethe permanen estate of forest and wildliferesources for the preservationof soil and water resources,conservation of biologicaldiversity and the environment,and for sustainableproduction of domesticand commercialproduce;
- 17 Promote the developmentof Viableand efficient forest-based industries, particularly in secondaryand tertiary processing;
Promote public awareness and involvement of rural people in forestm and wildlife conservation in order to maintain life-sustaining systems, preserve scenic areas and enhancethe potentialof recreation,tourism and income-generatingopporrunities,
. Develop effective capability at nationaL,regional and district levels for sustainable managementof forest and wildliferesources.
Strategies relating to each of the policy objectives are outlined in the policy document. These strategies are to be further expanded within the corporate statements and operational plans of respective institutions, and have been incorporated in the Forestry DevelopmentMaster Plan (1996-2020).
Forestrypolicy instrumentationthat should be put into practice5 include:
!higherspecies-differentiated forest fees lIog export leviesphased in as bans phased out . implementationof competitiveconcession allocation with social criteria . realisticsanctions and effectiveenforcement by foresters and the judicial system cconsideration of market-basedinstruments, such as forest certification,as complements to regulatoryand fiscal approaches . farner rights to fees for timber trees on farm land . compensationto farmers for farm damage from logging, enforced on a districtbasis . adaptive local projects involving co-managementof forests at village and concession level as learningvehicles for improvingpolicies
2.2 Forestry DevelopmentMaster Plan (1996-2020)
The masterplan has beenprepared to guidethe implementationof the Forest and Wldlife Policyand its successfulimplementation is intendedto maximizethe rate of social and economicdevelopment of the countryand secureoptimum welfare and adequatemeans of livelihoodfor all Ghanaians.
The Plan recogmizesthat success in managementand sustainabledevelopment of renewable resources is dependent on effective institutionsas well as an enabling environmentin which all players can operate optimally.It recognizes the dynamic interactionof socio-economicactivities and envionmentaleffects, within and impinging on the sector. It outlines a series of scenarioswhich would ultimatelyarrive at the projectedaim of the Forest and WildlifePolicy and proposes a scheduleof programs, project profilesand activitiesby whichscenarios can be reaized. The goal of the Plan is
5Forsey Dpa=nt. 1996.
18 identicalto the aims of the Policy,and the objectivesof the Plan are the same as those of the Policy
The objectivesof the Plan are scheduledinto three time horizons. Phase I (1996-2000) will consolidateforest managementsystems to ensure that timber can be certified as "sourced from sustainablemanaged forests" by the year 2000, and ensure implementation of a ProtectedAreas Plan; developmentand launchingof flexibleschemes for investments in commercialforest plantations,tree fanmingand propagationof non-timberproducts and wildlife;creation of an enabling climate for rationalizationof the timber industry and consolidation of fiscal measures for effcient utilization and increased value-added processing.In Phase II (2001-2010)it is envisagedthat maintenanceof sustainableforest and protected areas managementsystems will continue with maintenanceof commercial forest-basedproduction systems and developmentof product harvesting, handling and marketingfacilities, as well as promotionof total value-addedprocessing and competitive marketing.Phase m (2011-2020)would includethe continuedmaintenance of sustainable forest and wildlife management systems, commercial production systems, improved product harvestingand marketing,and competitivevalue-added processing industries.
2.3 Logging Manual for Forest Management in Ghana
The loggingmanual sets out a number of environmentalyrelated requirementsfor timber operators. These includerequirements for road location,road standards,construction and maintenance.As wel, requirementsfor log dumps, skidding,felling, the size of logging machineryand guidelinesfor fire protection are given.
The requirementsprovided in the Logging Manual are in accordancewith the provisions of the:
. Forest ProtectionDecree 1974,NRCD 243 . Forest Protection(Amendment) Law 1986,PNDCL 142 . Trees and TimberDecree 1974,NRCD 273 . Control of Bush Fires Law 1990,PNDCL 229
The Chief Conservator of Forests or his representative shall be responsible for the monitoringand enforcementof the conditionscontained within the manual.
2.4 Biodiversity Protection
There is no comprehensivelegislation in Ghana relating to the protection of biodiversity, however, there are several pieces of sector based legislation.These include the Wildlife AnimalPreservation Act, 1961 (Act 43); the WildlifeConservation Regulation, 1971 (LI 685) which issues permits and certificates for endangered species, and the Forest Ordinance(CAP 157).
19 The Ghana National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, a commitment to Ghana's signatory status of the Convention on Biodiversity,is proposed to determine the future directionof biodiversitymanagement in Ghana. The plan is currently being prepared and wiU focus on improving the scientific knowledge base through inventories, and documentationof biodiversityin Ghana,and the identificationof potentialthreats and how these can be controlled. The plan also intends to enhance sustainable utilization of biologicalresources.
Relevantto the biodiversitystrategy and action plan is the forest protection strategy. A comprehensivesurvey of forest plant diversity survey undertaken in 1992 resulted in the developmentof a framework strategy for protecting the forests' genetic diversity. This strategyprioritizes a range of protective uses for forest reserves to support environmental stability,plant genetic conservationand for rehabilitationof degraded reserves. lIn these areas loggingis not allowedbut NTFP extractionis permitted in some categories.
Fine grain measures ensure that specific forest species are given differential protection based on a relative conservationpriority system. Each forest species has a 'star rating' based on its national and international distribution with subsidiary considerationof its ecology and taxonomy. The ratings of black, gold, blue, red, and green denote 'biodiversitymerit'. The highest priority species for protection in Ghana is, or are, very rare both nationally and internationally.These are given ultimate protection within the forest managementsystem.
2.5 Environmental Protection'
The Environmental Protection Agency Act, 1994 (Act 490) transformed the EnvironmentalProtection Council(EPC) into an Agencyhaving, inter alia, regulatory and enforcement roles. The EPC had been established by the Environmental Protection Decree, 1974 (NRCD 239) and was subsequently amended by the EPC (Amendment) Decree, 1976 (SMCD 58).
The EnvironmentalProtection Agency (EPA) was formallyestablished in December 1994 and given the responsibilityof regulatingthe environmentand ensuring the implementation of Government policies on the environment.Under the EPA Act (1994), the EPA will, amongst other duties: "ensure compliance with any laid down environmental impact assessment procedures in the planning and execution of developmentprojects, including compliancein respect of existng projects".
The Environmental Assessment and Audit Department of the EPA has the overall administrativeoversight of the Agency's mandate to ensure compliance with established EIA proceduresin the planningand execution of developmentprojects in Ghana
'Gova==t of GhMnm1996.
20 2.6 Other Relevant Policiesand Legislation
. National Agricultural Policy
The National Agricultural Policy aims at ensuring food security, and will influence biodiversity.
. National Land Policy
The National Land Policy aims at protecting the variety of habitat types. The policy categoricallystates that "all lands declaredas forest reserves, strict gamereserves, national parks, wildlife and similar land categories...... are fully protected for ecosystem maintenanceand biodiversityconservation.
. Long TermDevelopment Plan (Vision 2020)
Ghana's Long Term DevelopmentPlan (Vision2020) is conunittedto the conservationof biologicaldiversity and to ensuringthat its componentsare utilizedin a sustainablemanner for the continuedprogress and socio-economicdevelopment of its people.
2.7 International Policies
Ghana has endorsed certaininternational principles including those of the TropicalTimber Organization,the Rio Declaration,the AfricanConvention on WildlifeConservation, the Conventionon IntemationalTrade in EndangeredSpecies, and others.
A non-legallybinding statement of Forest Principleswas negotiatedat the Rio Conference in 1992. The statement recognizedthe need to conserve,manage and sustainablydevelop all types of forests as well as recognizingthe sovereignrights of nations to utilize their forests. Agenda 21 containedprograms for the protection and sustainablemanagement of forests. The InternationalTropical Timbr Organizationhas developed guidelineson the sustainablemanagement of forests, with the aim that by the year 2000 timber exports from membercountries will originatefrom sustainablymanaged forests.
Sustainablemanagement of forests will continue to have high profile as an issue on the internationalagenda. However, it is unclearhow far the environmentalarguments could be used to persuade the World Trade Organization(the successorbody to GATT) to accept the pragmaticneed for such measures.
Ghana is signatory to a number of internationalconventions related to the environment and aspects of these conventions will affect how forests will be managed in the future. These conventionsare brieflydescribed below.
21 . Biodiversity
Ghana is a signatoryto the Conventionon Biodiversitywhich came into force in 1993. As a signatorY,Ghana agrees that biotic wealth is the basis of life and livelihood and that greater efforts are required to protect, understandand wisely use the earth's biodiversity Under the terms of the Convention.each country is responsiblefor developinga strategy for the conservation of its natural biological diversity. A central prescription for the implementationof the Conventionis the strengtheningof protected areas which calls upon nations to "identifynational and internationalpriorities for strengtheningprotected areas and enhancingtheir role in biodiversityconservation".
. Desertification
Ghana is signatory to the Convention on Desertification. A National Corrmittee on Desertificationhas been constituted and a National Action Plan (NAP) on Desertification has been prepared. The purpose of the NAP is to transform the provisions of the conventionon desertificationinto concrete actions and measuresto combat desertification and mitigatethe effects of drought.
. Wetlands
The RAMSAR Convention is intended to identify and protect wetlands of international importance,particularly those that are required habitat for migratingbird species. Ghana is a signatoryto the Conventionand its commitmentis reflected in the current establishment of five coastal wetland protected areas.
, Montreal Protocol (Ozone Layer Depletion)8
In July 1989 Ghana ratifiedthe Montreal Protocol and ratified its London Amendmentsin July 1992. Ghana has established an Ozone Office to oversee the implementation of various projects to phase out ozone depletionsubstances from Ghana by 2010.
2.8 Administrative Framework'
2.8.1 General
The proposed project will be comprisedof a number of components. The managementand administrationof the project will be canied out under the auspices of a number of different agencies withinthe Ministzyof Lands and Forestry. The relevant agencies are described in the followingsections.
'GWD/IUCN.1994. ' Govnmnt of Ghana1996. 9Jecty and CompanyLd. 1997.
22 2.8.2 Ministryof Lands and Forestry
Institutionalsupport for the forestry sector is providedthrough the Ministryof Lands and Forestry (MLF). The MLF is responsiblefor policy formulationand implementationof naturalresource conservation and managementprograms.
The MLF is responsibleto the Cabinet and Parliament.It includestwo line departments: Forestry Department(FD) and the Departmentof Wildlife(WD). These departmentsare the 'managers' of the country'sforest and wildliferesources, respectively. In addition,the ministry includes two quasi-governmentinstitutions: the Timber Export Development Board (TEDB) and the Forest Products Inspection Bureau (FPIB). An organogram displayingforest administrationin the countryis provided at Figure 2.1.
2.8.3 Forestry Department
The FD is responsiblefor the developmentof an integratedforest managementsystem for the permanentforest estate and collaborativeapproaches to managementof off-reserves, as well as the latter's regulation in matters of exploitation.The FD has carried out its responsibilitiesthrough an organizationalfiamework employingvarious instruments of conservation, management and working plans, allocation of timber rights, inventory planning and a series of regulations to ensure moral responsibilityregarding forest conservationand protection.
The FD has four Deputy Chief Conservators of Forest which direct programs for forest resource development,rural forestry, and taining. It also has an extensiveregional and districtnetwork.
Currentlyproposals are being consideredfor the conversionof the Forestry Deparnmentto a Forest Service with a semi-autonomousstaus, permittinga mandate to determine its own sources and levels of revenues, management options and a new direction of accountability.
2.8.4 Departmentof Wildlife
The Department of Wldlife (WD) is responsiblefor the conservation of the country's wildliferesources. It is mandated to establish,protect and managewildlife sanctuaries and game protection reserves as well as carry out sinilar responsibilitiesfor wildlifeoutside the conservationareas. The WD is under the direction of a ChiefWdidlife Officer who has the equivalent status of the Chief Conservator of Forests. The Department has 29 professionalofficers.
2.8.5 ForestryCommission
Forest administrationis governed by a complex set of laws. Developmentsin the national economy over the past 40 years have seen an expansion in the scope of laws, extending
23 bevond the provisions under the Forest Ordinance of 1927 for a forest policy implementingarm of government to the establishment of laws mandating specialist agenciesto oversee forest utilization. The 1979 and 1982 Constitutions have developed and sustained a concept of establishingComrnmissions to regulate utilization of Ghana's natural resources,bringing into being a Forestry Commission(FC).
The main role of the FC is to provide advice on policy and related implementationissues. It manages the peripheral linkages of relevance to MLF's policy objectives. The FC is responsiblefor the regulation and managementof the utilization of forest and wildlife resources of the country. The FC is also responsible for monitoring and coordinating policyimplementation relevant to forest and wildliferesource managementand utilization. The FC is currentlyactive in the area of policy analysis.
The FC is comprised of heads of forestry policy implementation agencies and representatives of stakeholder group interests including the private sector. The FC Secretariatconsists of two divisionswith professionalstaff.
2.8.6 Ghana National BiodiversityStrategy ind Action Plan
The strategyand action plan is proposed to determine the future direction of biodiversity management in Ghana. Under World Bank sponsorship the document is still in its preparatory phase. Its main strategies and action plans include improving the scientific knowledge base through inventories and documentation of biodiversity in Ghana and identiISringany potentialthreats and how to counter/controlthem. It also plans to enhance sustainableutilization of biologicalresources includinguse of biotechnology.
In forest reserves and GWD protected reas, communitiesat the present time are not involvedin direct biodiversitymanagement. However, a collaborativeprogram is currently being developed by the FD to involve local communities, particulariy those living near forest reserves, in the planing and managementof forests.
3. PROJECTDESCRIPTION'°
3.1 Project Objectives
The project's primaryobjective is to establish the institonal and operational framework, within the public and private sectors, for suainable, participatory management of Ghana's soil, water, wildlife and forest resources; conservation of biodiversity; and, rehabilitationof degraded areas. It will assist communitiesto take lead responsibilityin managementactivities and strive to enure that land and forest resources are sustained at their optimum level of production. It will provide opporauities for income generation
"'WorldBak. 1997.
24 expansionsparticularly for the growing numbers of disadvantaged rural poor who's actionsconstitute a potentiallysenious factor in the degradationof these resources.
3.2 Rationale
The expected programsfor managingthe land, water, vegetationand animal resources. including rehabilitation of degraded areas, would place priority on private sector responsibility, particularlythe rural communitiestaking ownership of the operations, includingpoverty alleviatingactivities. While some communitiesare alreadyaware of the decliningproductivity of the land, the shrinkingnatural resource base, and the increasing poverty among substantial numbers of the growing population, the magnitude and seriousnessof these problems is not generally appreciated. There is also inadequate general recognitionthat simple practical measures to halt or reverse degradationtrends and restore at least in part, the natural balance on the land, are available and could be implementedlocally with modestinputs. These programswould be formulatedon a broad basis within the framework of sound land use planning, and in accordance with the capabilityof the land. The project would assist communities,acting through local trade groups and producer associations,families, schools, individualsand other stakeholder entities, to restore degradedareas, and manage the resourcesfor efficientand sustainable production.This would build on experiencegained during the last decadewith community approachesto improvinglocal enviromnentaland livingconditions.
3.3 Project Components
In support of these objectivesthe project will adopt a broad sectorallending approachand will have the followingcomponents:
3.3.1 High Forest Management
This component will support the inplementation of policy and institutional reforms designed to streamline public forest sector agencies and strengthen their technical capacity.Institutional restructuring will emphasizethe role of public agencies in providing technicalassistance in the developmentof collaborativeforest managementplans with the private sector, in monitoringand surveitlanceof managementplan implementation,and in extensionof good forest managementpractices into non-reserveareas.
The core objective of this component will be to facilitate the transition from central govemnment management to community-based collaborative management of the approximately200 national forest reserves within the high forest zone. This will involve, inter atia, restructuring of the Forestry Department into a smaller more autonomous forestry service with the possible incorporationof more independentforest operation/log movement,coupled with concessionaireperformance bonding, and a new royalty structure to properlyreflect the real value of the timber resource and to protect scarce species. To this end, the project will finance training, technical assistance and operational costs associatedwith the institutionalreform programL
25 It wil also support the collaborativeforest managementinitiative through assistance with participatoryplanning and institutionaldevelopment, preparation and implementationof forest reserve and forestry district level management plans, promotion of low impact logging methods and direct involvement of local communities in forest reserve management. It will finance training and technical assistance for implementation of participatory planning and co}laborative management of forest reserves, operational support for implementingmanagement plans, and technical support for monitoring and surveillanceof forest managementinitiatives.
Financed by the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), the project will identify and documentpriority areas of global importancefor biodiversityconservation to be excluded from future logging, develop communitybased managementplans for protection of these areas, finance alternative livelihood schemes for affected communities,and provide for ongoing monitonng and evaluation of biological and social indicators of program performance.
The project will promote the development of privately owned plantations to supply an increasingproportion of wood to the processingindustry when, as planned, harvestingof natural forest declines. Plantation developmentwould take place on private lands off- reserve, and on degraded reserve lands. The project would establish a privatelymanaged Plantation Development Fund/Company to be managed within an appropriate administrativeframework; facilitate reserve land allocation to approved investors and private plantationmanagement companies; establish a seed bank and support development of a privately operated, decentralized, seed distribution system; and support plantation related research, extensionand stakeholdertraining.
3.3.2 Savanna ResourceManagement
This component will concentrate on four main groups of activities in the Upper East, Upper West and Northem Regions.
Woodland reserve management proposals involving participation of communitieswould be developed on a pilot basis and tested for effectiveness and sustainability.The new approach would broaden the current restrictive encroachmentprotection objective to give the communities a key role in on-reserve management including shared operational responsibilityand a stake in revenuesderived from improved forest and woodland product harvestingand marketing.
Participatoryprograms would be formulatedto rehabilitatenon-reserve areas degraded by poor land use practices; and to sustainablymanage all the savanna zone natural resources, enabling more efficient productive use of these resources and improved marketing. The programs would be based on integrated land use plans startng on mini-watershedsfrom headwater areas building on the expenences of the land and water management component of GERMP. They will take into account not only the physical resources, but also the market situation,the culture, needs and capabilitiesof the communitieswhich rely
26 on the land resources for their livelihood. Involvement of district environmental managementcommnittees in developmentof local land managementplans would ensure compatibilitywith Local EnvironmentalAction Plans(LEAPs).
Support would be provided for capacity building within participatingconmnunities, the statutory Development Planning Sub-Committee and Environmental Management Committeesof the District Assemblies,and also NGOs concemed with the programs. Trainingwould focus on front line staff and private service providers such as NGOs, conducted through local institutionsand training agencies equipped with the necessary facilities and skills for integrated managementof land, water and vegetation cover for sustainableeconomic activities. A savanna implementationcoordinating unit would be establishedto take the lead role in the planningand implementationof the programs.
This componentwould contributeto developmentof a National Action Program against Desertificationas provided for in the InternationalDesertification Convention to which GoG is a signatory. This program would be planned in cooperation with the national EPA and relevantarrangements would be madefor implementation.
3.3.3 Wildlife Resource Management
The wildlife management component will support institutional strengthening through restructuringand realignmentof the Departmentof Wildlifeto enhancethe economic and social sustainability of wildlife management programs. It will also foster close collaboration between the WD and rural communities, the private sector, non- governmentalorganizations and other partners in managementof protected areas, and wildlifein general. The component would support implementationof managementplans and infrastructureimprovements for selected protected areas, technical assistance and operationalsupport for establishmentof communitymanaged reserves. It will also finance both infiastructureimprovements and operational support to upgrade and modemizethe managementof the zoological gardens in Accra and Kumasi. There will be a general initiativeto improve environmentaleducation and outreach efforts by the Department to be undertakenin partnershipwith nationalNGOs.
The projectwould also seek to promote increasedprivate sector/commurnityinvolvement in wildlife related economic activities such as eco-tourism and game ranching; and inprove understanding and support for wildlife conservation and management through public education.
3.3.4 Environmental Management Coordination
The NRMP will provide resources to assist capacity building of the Environmental Protection Agencyat national and regionallevels and provide operationalsupport to assist with the implementationof the new 5-year strategic plan for environmentalmanagement coordination,including human resource development.It will also develop sector specific guidelinesin support of the activities of the NRMP. The project would also support the
27 EPA program to provide training and technical support to district assemblv level .environmental management commiittees in the preparation of local environmental action plans and to bolster their capacity for local-level land use planning.
Support will be given to further develop the Environmental Information System established under the ongoing Environmental Resource Management Project. and to encourage its wider use as a planning tool in Ghana. Support will be provided to address land administrationissues influencingsustainable use of natural resources.
3.4 Project Support Activities
3.4.1 Policy, Planning and Institutional Reforms
The project would assist the goverment in designing and implementingfirther sectoral policy and institutionalreforms for enhancingrevenue capture and improvingsustainability of the forest industry.This would be accomplishedthrough streamlinin the mandates and expendituresof forest sector agencies and strengtheningtheir implementationcapacity. Various agencieswithin the forestry sector are expected to devolve a considerableshare or their responsibilitiesto the private sector. The project would assist private sector producer associations, NGOs and community-based organizations to extend their participationin the commercialforestry sector. It will complementODA financedtechnical support for the restrucnring of the Forestry Department into a more efficient service- providingagency.
3.4.2 Capacity Development
In view of the importanceof participatoryapproaches for the identification,planning and implementationof the programs, priority would be given to strengthening or developing the capacitiesof interested communitiesto phy a leading role in landand natural resource management.Such capacitybuilding would take advantage of exising capabilitiesand the potential of local institutionssuch as training and research institutes and NGOs, as well as individuals,with the requisite skills for undertakingthe specific activities. Support would also be provided to strengthening the capacity of relevant NGOs in the rural areas to complement regional and district extension services and subject matter specialists, in trainingthe communities.
3.4.3 ResourceInformation Systems
The presentremote sensing equipmentat the PlanningBranch of the MLF at Kiumasi would be upgradedinto a Forestry/Wildlife/Biodiversitysectoral resource information node. This would be operatedunder the NRNP and supportedby the Remote Sensing Appicaions Uit (RSAU)at the Universityof Ghana in LegonLA regional sub-node wouldbe developedat Tamale,with the appropriatecapacity to facilitatethe planningand monitoringactivities of the savanmacomponent.
28 3.4.4Monitoring Land Use Changes
The countrywide land use/land cover information generated by the RSAU, based on satellite images dating back to 1990/91, will be updated. Support will be given for the purchase of satellite data from 1999/2000 images in compatible format in order to generate new data on land use and land cover changes during the current decade. Informationon changes in land cover and utilizationduring the 1990s, when combined with other socio-econbmicinformation, would providea powerfultool to studyand assess the impact of recent policies and developmentactivities on natural resources and the environment.
3.5 Project Financing
Total project costs are tentativelyestimated at US$ 52 millionover five years, of which IDA wouldfinance about $18 million, and otherbilateral and multilateral cofinanciers who have already expressed interest would finance an equivalent amount. A proposal is currently under considerationby the GEF to finance approximatelyUS$ 9 million in incrementalcosts for biodiversityconservation within the highforest zone. The remaining $7 million would come from the GoG, the District Assemblies and participating communities.
3.6 ImplementationArrangements
The Ministryof Lands and Forestrywill be the lead implementingagency operating through its Project CoordinatingCommittee chaired by the TechnicalDirector. The Ministryof Food and Agriculture(MOFA) and the EnvironmentalProtecdon Agency (EPA)would also be involvedin implementationof aspectsof the project.The different componentswould be managedby specificdecenralizd managementunits within the collaboratingagencies. The detailsof operatingprocedures for these units are currently under discussion.The implementationframework would be in line with the policiesof GoG to decentralizethe public service,and to give the District Assembliesoperational responsibilitiesfor developmentand provision of serviceswithin their districts.
3.7 Project Sustainability An importantprovision for long term sustainabilityof the NRM is Government's commitmentto policyand institutional reforms which places a greaterresponsibility on the private stakeholders,improvements in staff quality and performancein key support agencies,and appropriatefunding, particularly at the regionaland district levels. The participatoryapproach, which will give majormanagement roles and bring greaterdirect benefitsto the respectivecommunities and other pnvate sector or stakeholders,will providethe essentialelement of ownrhip to ensureenduring maintenance. Wlthin the high forest estate,Government's commitment to stabilizingsustainable harvest potential, increasingthe share of benefitsrealized by the communitiesand improvingboth the knowledgebase and managementcapacity for effective stewardshipof the natural
29 resources,will ultimately be a major factor in sustainingthese resourcesand their value for the welfareof the rural population.
3.8 Lessons Learned from Past Operations
Experience from previous Bank lending operations in the forestry sector indicates the importanceof addressingkey policyand institutionalreforms in parallel with strengthening technical management capacity including more direct. involvement of landholding communitiesand other stakeholders. This project will support the implementationof policy and legislative reforms concerning irnproved forest royalty collection, more equitable and transparent distribution of revenues to stakeholders, introduction of improved sectoral guidelines for environmental protection and enhanced fiscal and technical monitoringand surveillance. The project will underwrite implementationof a major policy shifttowards collaborativemanagement of forest and other natural resources. Rural communitiesand other stakeholders will have much more direct participation in resource managementdecision making and greater realization of economnicreturns from the resource.
3.9 SpecialProgram Emphasis
The proposed program will give specal emphasis to sustainable management of the natural resources and the environment,and poverty reduction through: (i) policy reforms that will improve the logging, milling, and marketing of forest products and provide a greater share of the benefits to rural landholdingcommunities; (ii) targeted interventions to improve the management of land and water resources as a means of increasing agriculturalproductivity for farmers, to reduce poverty particularly among women in the disadvantagedrural areas and improve food security and employment opportunities; (iii) special emphasis on communityparticipation in the selection, planning, implementation and ownershipof programs.
4. METHODOLOGY
4.1 General
The NRMP is currently only at the conceptual stage and detailed project design has not yet beenprepared. Accordingly, the EIA is basedon the projectconcept. The concepthas been agreed upon by the Ministry of Lands and Forestry and accepted as the basis for detailedproject design.
Since the project is country wide, the assessment could not be canried.out at each individualsite where an aspect of the project may have an effect of one type or another on a componentof the environment.
30 Only samplereserves and non-reserveareas have been selected as well as a samplingof communitiesadjacent to these area and of industries,for purposes of collectingpnrmary data. This data has been collectedand analyzedby the EIA team primarilYto verifyissues and potentialimpacts that have been describedin variousdocuments.
The EIA has been carried out by an interdisciplinaryteam consistingof nine membersas indicatedin Section4.7.
4.2 Baseline Data
4.2.1 Socio-economicData
Existing data on socio-economnicconditions of the country's rural population,one of the major stakeholdersof the project, has been used to provide this group's profile. To supplementthis secondarydata, 25 communities(Table 4.1) representingthe two major forest regions (highforest and savanna)and the far north (Guinea savanna)were selected in which to conduct an informalquestionnaire focusing on general communityconditions and perceived issues and problems as these relate to existing forest resources, forest products,and their views towards collaborativeforestry. The questiomnairewas directed to communityleaders in those communitieswhere they were available.Other membersof the communuitieswere interviewedwhen leaders were not available.
The communitiesvisited represent communitiesadjacent to the followingforest reserves: Keni-Keni Forest Reserve and Mole Game Reserve (North); Bobri and Domi Forest Reserves in Ashanti: Atewa Forest Reserve East); Assin Atandanso Game Reserve, KakumNature Reserve,Nkukuasa Forest Reserve (Central);Nueng North Forest Reserve and Nueng South Forest Reserve (West); and Shai Hills Resource Reserve in the Greater Accra area. Two off-reserveareas to the northeast of Bawku were also included in the survey. Six of the 25 communitiesare not situatednear reserves but play an importantrole in eitherthe productionof fuelwoodor use of fuelwoodfor food processing.
Table 4.1: Communities Interviewed
Northern Region Kabampe Larabanga Kanato Wayamba Ashanti Atiemo Juabengma Krobo _____* Kkwanta Upper East Region Bansi .___ SBawku
31 Kaade Nasia Atoba entlRegion AssinWorakese Antwik-waa Tumfokro KobenaanoKrom Mensahkro Eastern Region Ekrumso-Begoro ! Agyeikrom WesternRegion ShamaJunction Abopuniso Bonsa Mepeasem Sekondi Greater Accra Mauvi Village Doryumu
4.2.2 Biophysical Data
All biophysical data is secondary and has been sourced from a variety of existing documentsas referencedin Section 9.
4.3 StakeholderParticipation The stakeholdersof the projectare manyand varied,including the Governmentof Ghana, the Ministry of Lands and Forestry (includingthe Forestry Department and the Departmentof Wildlife),the forest industry,and the people of Ghana. Of particular importance,and the group that couldbe affectedmost directly,are the local communities in the vicinityof the forest reservesand wildlifeareas, and the communitiesthat rely on the forest productsindustry, particularly timber harvestingand sawmilling,as a basis of theireconomy.
In view of the direct effect that the project will have on communitiesin the vicinityof forest reservesand wildlifeareas, a samplingof these communitieswas visitedto gain a senseof their concernstowards forest management and other aspectsof the project.
Similarly,a samplingof the forestindustry was selectedin an attempt,through an informal questionnaire,to deternine conces and impactsthat the projectis likelyto have on the industry.
The Ministryof Lands and Forestry,the Forestry Departmentand the Departmentof WildlifepartHipated actively in the preparationof the EIA Five staff membersof these agenciesw assignedto the EIA team. In addition,a memberof the EPA participatedin the three da sessionfor determiningimpacts and mitigativeactions.
32 A presentationof the initial draft of the ELAwas made on September 30, 1997 The presentationwas made to invitedgovemrnent departments, the forest industry,the general pubhc,and NGOs.Representatives of the communitiesadjacent to a selectionof Reserves were invited and were provided with transportation to attend the presentation. The presentationallowed for input to be made and based on the feedback from the input, the finalEIA documentwas prepared. A iist of organizationsinvited and in attendanceat the presentationis providedin Appendix1.
In addition,notices was placed in the Daily Graphic (a facsimileof which is providedon the back cover of this report) and GhanaianTimes newspapersto offerthe opportunityfor anyone interestedin reviewingthe draft document prior to the presentations,to do so at the Ministryof Lands and Forestry.
The World Bank was also given the opportunityto reviewthe initial draft documentand provide comments which were used in the preparation of the draft final and final documents.
4.4 Scoping and Bounding
The basis of scoping has been the identification of the Important Environmental Components(1ECs). These are the features of an area for which an EIA is being carried out that are deemed importantenough to ensure that they are not lost or damaged. They are features that stakeholders agree are worthy of protection and agree to devote resources to this end. The IECs provide a focus for the ElI. The EICs were initially identifiedby the participantsof the EIA workshop held in June. As the assessmentwas carriedout this initiallist was modifiedand a final list of IECs was agreed upon. The EECs are listed in Section 7.
The bounds of the EIA have been set arbitrarily.Boundaries for activitieswithin reserves and in off-reserveareas, and the communitiesadjacent to the reserves,have been set to the extent of the reserves and the contiguousforested area of the off-reservearea, and the immediatearea occupied by the relevant communities.Impacts of timber harvestingon groundwater and surface water systemswere consideredfor the portions of the systems within the forested areas and for a length of surface water systemnot exceedingone km beyond the forested area under consideration.In some instances, such as the downsizing of the timber industry, the boundariesfor impactsextended regionally. Impacts occuringin the savanmahregion have been treated in a sinilar fashion.
4.5 Criteria for Impact Assessment
Several criteria were considered for determiningthe significanceof an impact. Criteria selected were sevety, extent, duration, frequency, possibility of occurrence, and possibilityof reversibility.These are brieflydescribed.
33 4.5.1 Seventy
. Very High biophysical impacts: major losses or systemdisruption, systemunable to function without mitigationor major compensation. socio-economic impacts: major socio-economic losses/disruption. communities/individualsunable to function traditionally without mitization or majorcompensation.
. High biological impacts: substantial losses or system disruption; system would probablystill fimction,albeit at a lower level and mitigationwould be required for restoration. socio-economicimpacts: substantialloss to existing conditions;communities and individualswould probably still function, albeit at a lower socio-economicorder; communitiesfindividualswould require mitigation/compensationto maintainlevel.
. Moderate biological impacts: measurablelosses, or system disruption;system able to continue without mitigationbut at a slightlylower level. socio-economic impacts: measurable socio-economiclosses; communities/ individualswould be ableto fumctionquite wellwithout mitigation but at a slightly lowerlevel.
.Low biologicalimpacts: smallchanges, possibly measurable socio-economicimpacts: smallchanges, possibly measurable
4.5.2 Extent
. Site (local): withinclose range of a specifiedcomponent or activity,extent of rangeis dependenton the nature of the impact.Where many sites are involved(e.g. loggingat site in manyreserves in any one year, scale would be increasedfrom site to generalarea [see below]).
. General Area: withinthe generalarea; could refer to extent as great as the watershed; coveringan areabeyond the boundariesof site but not to the extentof the region.
. Regional:within a specifiedarea of Ghana;could be an ecologicalregion (e.g. the high forest region,the coastalregion, the savama)
. National:country wide
. International: where an impact would be of concem to other countries(e.g. trans- boundaryimpact, loss of a species,severe impact on people)
34 4.5.3 Duration
. Temporary: occurrencefor a periodof up to 5 years
. Medium term: 6 - 20 years duration
. Permanent: effects of impactwill be felt forever
4.5.4 Frequency of Occurrence
. Once
. Several times
. Many times
4.5.5 Probability of Occurrence
. Definite: no doubt that the impactwill occur
. Probable: probabilityof impactoccurrence judged to be greater than 50%/c
• Possible: probabilityof impactoccurrence judged to be less than 50%/c
4.5.6 Possibility of Reversibility
• Probable: probabilityof impactbeing reversedis greater than 50%/.
. Possible: probabilityof impactbeing reversedis less than 50%/.
. Not likely: highlyunlikely that reversibilitywill occur The significanceof an impact is determinedby the total score of the various criteria for- each impact. The significanceratings are indicativeonly, allowingthe considerationof any one impact relative to the others. The values assigned to each level of each criteria are subjective.The numerical ranges for detemining the different levels of significanceare arbitrary.
. Very High (total score of 24-26)
. High (total score of 19-23)
. Moderate (total score of 13-18)
. Low (total score of 9-12)
35 4.6 Scoring System for Significance of Impact
This scoring system (Table 4.2) has not been prepared on the basis of other scoring systems.It is a simplesystem using few criteria, but essential criteria that will result in an appropriateranking system of the various impacts. A complex system has been avoided, simply because the increasing use of numbers (or scores) tends to cloud the analysis. particularlyin the absence of real quantifiabledata. In the end, a more complex system using weightings,multiple impact analysis, etc. would in all likelihood not modify the impact significanceratings significantly.A review of the final impact significanceratings appears to bear this out.
Table 4.2: Criteria, Ratings and Significance of Impacts
CRIThRTA.. '_W MEDIUM H.GH VFkY HIGH Extent site generalarea regional national or (1) (2) (3) international (4) Duration temporary mediumterm prolonged permanent (1) (3-7 years) period (8-20 (4) (2) yrs) (3) Severity small changes measurable substantial major losses (3) losses losses (6)
Frequency once several times many times
Reversibility probably possibly not likely (1) ~~~(2) (3) SOON 1 Likelihood of possible probable dfnt Occurrence i p b (3) l Significance |-11 12-16 17-20 121-23 of Impact
4.7 Positive Impacts
Positive impactshave been described as benefits. These are presented with the impacts for each IEC. Where there are benefits, only, for a particular EEC, these are discussed separatelyin Section 6.4.4.
36 4.8 ELATeam
John Ambrose EIA Co-ordinator Dr. SesiAkoena Local TeamLeader/Environmental Economist Dr. AndrewBoateng Dua Forest Ecologist OpheliaAyeh Rural Sociologist Paul Tweneboah Forest IndustrialSpecialist Dr. Victor Agyeman Forest ManagementSpecialist Oppon Sasu CollaborativeForestry Specialist Abu Juam BiodiversitySpecialist Moses Sam WildlifeManagement Specialist AgyarkoTabi EnvironmentalSpecialist
In additionto the core team, others participatedin the impactsidentification workshop held July 21-23.
5. DESCRIPTIONOF THE ENVIRONMENT
5.1 Location and Topography"l
Ghana has an area of 238,500km2 and it is situated along the Gulf of Guinea, extending from 4045N at Cape Three Points to 1101iN at the northem boundary with Burkina Faso. To the east (1014E) it is bordered by Togo and it stretches to 3007W at the boundarywith Cote d'Ivoire. It is roughly rectangularin shape with an average width of 350km,an inlandextension of 675kmand a coast line of 5671kn.The GreenwichMeridian runs through eastern Ghana about 241anto the east of Accra, the capital.
The topographyof Ghana is undulatingwith prominentscarps seldom exceeding600m in height, occ-ring at Akwapim,Kwahu, Mampong, Ejura and Gambaga.The highest hills run in a northeast direction between Volta Lake and the Togo border. This lake was created in 1964 through the dammingof the Volta River. It is the largest artificiallake in Africaand covers an area of 8,500ktn2 when at its normaloperating level.
5.2 Physical Environment
5.2.1 ClimateU
The tropical climate of Ghana is governed by the Inter-Tropical ConvergenceZone or Inter-TropicalFront (ITCZ). The ITCZ is a surface discontinuityseparating northeasterly dry continental air masses from southeasterly wnnds(moist air flow from the Gulf of Guinea).It moves in relation to the sun's movement and is associated with rainfall.Five GWDI1UCN.11 1994. ' GWD/IUCN.2 1994.
37 'climates' from the climate classificationof Troll and Paffen (1964) are found within the TropicalZone and three of these are representedin Ghana as indicatedin Table 5.1.
Table 5.1: Climatesof the TropicalZone Representedin Ghana
Cl}aima::_:R.. ' -x,. .. 2 . i._.<'Period t(=I8tIL) VI Tropicalrainy climates 0 - 2.5 V2 Tropicalhumid-summer climates 2.5 - 5 V3 Wet anddry tropicalclimates 5 - 7.5
The zonewith Tropicalrainy climates (VI) more or less correspondswith the high forest zone. The rest of Ghana,with the exceptionof the southeasterncorner, falls withinthe Tropicalhumid-sumrner climates (V2). The eastem coastal plains have a wet and dry tropicalclimate (V3). The area in proximityto Accrawith rainfallbelow 760mmcan be classifiedas transitionalbetween V3 and V4 climates,with V4 beingTropical dry climate with7.5 to 10and months.
Harmattanwinds from the Saharablow between December and March, lowering humidity and temperaturesand bringingfine dust particularlyto the northern parts, though its effectsare felt as far southas the coast.
The averagerainfall decreases with increasingdistance from the coast from more than 2000 mm/yrto about 1000mm/yr in northernGhana. The rainfallin the easterncoastal area doesnot followthis generalpattern and is as low as 714 mm/yr.Rainfall is ermaticand intensitiesup to 200 mm/yrlead to high runoff and soil erosionLHigh temperaturesand wind causehigh rates of evapotanson. The northernthird of the countryhas a net precipitationof less than300 mmlyrwhile the southernsector has over 500 mm/yr.
Ghanacan be dividedinto two c)imatictypes accordingto temporalrainfall patterns. The northernpart (roughlynorth of 8o- S9)has a climateof the Sudantype with a rainyseason extendingfrom Aprilto October/November.The climatein the southernpart is of the Guineatype with two rainyseasons (March to July and Octoberto November)separated by and periods.The easterncoastal area formsthe westernend of the Ghanadry belt (the So-calledDahomey gap). This belt comprisesthe littoral of eastern Ghana, Togo and Beninand is borderedby tropicalhumid areas to the east and west. This low rainfallis causedby windsparalle to the shore causingfrictional divergence, and by a cool pool or currentof waterin the region.
In addition,the southeastcoastal plainsare in the rain shadow of the AkwapimTogo Rangesand the few inselbergsm the generallyflat plainsare not high enoughto doirb the maritimeair masses,causing them to rise, cooland rain.
The averageannual temperature range in the coastal area is 5°- 6C and 7° - 90C in the interior.The mean diumal range also shows a marked increasewith increasingdistance fromthe coast. It is 70 - go C at the coast and up to 110- 14°C in northernGhana. The
38 mean monthlytemperature is alwaysabove 250C in the whole of Ghana. March and April are generallythe hottest months while August to December are the coolest months. Humidity is generally high during the rainy season and during the night and eariy momings.The overall humiditydeclines with increasingdistance from the coast. Relative humiditybetween 95 and I O10/ois commonalong the coast during the night and early morningsand drops to 65-75% in the afternoons.During the period when northernGhana is influencedby maritimeair massesthe relativehunmidity can reach 80% and drops as low as 20-30%under the influenceof dry continentalair.
5.2.2 Physiography13
The country contains seven distinct regions ranging from the coast through to fold mountainsthat form the easter boundaryof the VoltaianBasin. The VotaianBasin is the largest of the seven physiographicregions, comprisingabout 41% of the total area of the country.
5.2.3 Geologyand Soils14
Most of Ghana lies within the PrecambrianGuinean Shieldof West Africa. Precambrian rocks are widespread in Ghana and are overlain by the sandstones, shales, mudstones, conglomerates,limestones and tiUitesof the Voltaian Systern.Younger rocks are found at several locations along the coast. Different masses of granitoids are intruded into the Birmianrocks (Precambrian).
The country has three soil groups and these correspond to a large degree with the distributionof the vegetationtypes. The soils of the forest zone range from Forest Oxysols in the wettest parts to Forest Ochrosolsin the areas with semi-deciduousforest. The soils of the savanna zone are mainly SavannaOcbrosols and GroundwaterLaterites. Soils of the coastal savanna are comprisedof a complex mosaic of different soil types, reflecting the complex geological structures of the 'Dahomeyan System' which occupies the southeastemcorner of Ghana.
5.2.4 Water Resources'5
The Black and White Volta Rivers form the dominant river system drainingthe northemn and eastem parts of the country. the Volta River basin covers 70% of the country and drains the entire interior savanna region. The wetter west area is drained by the Pra, Ankobra and Tano rivers. Volta Lake covers about 4% of the area of the country and retains about 25% of the combinedflow of the basin's rivers.
13 GWDiiUCN 1994 ''GWD/IUCN. 1994. lGWDIIUCN.1994.
39 Many of Ghana's water courses are seasonal and less than 1% of Ghana is underlain by exploitableaquifers. Groundwater is generallyof high quality.
5.3 BiologicalEnvironment
5.3.1 Major Ecozones
High Forest Tropicalhigh forests occur in the southwestemthird of the country and form part of the Guinea-Congoleanphytogeographical region. Both flora and fauna compositionis closely linked to those of Cote D'Ivoire, Liberia and Sierra Leone but to a lesser extent, Nigeria, as a result of the separationby the and "Dahomeygap".- High forest covers 8.2 millionha and containsover 700/0of Ghana's total flora diversity. Seven vegetative types within the closed forest are recognizedin Ghana, each with a distinctassociation of plant species and correspondingrainfall and soil conditions.Two evergreen types (wet and moist) occur in the extreme southwestem corner of Ghana and receive the highest annual rainfall(1,500- 2,100 mm/annum).This is a floristicallyrich zone and supports many species which are absent or rare elsewhere. Table 5.1 provides a summary of the vegetation fornation groups in Ghana'6, includingthe seven types withi the closed forest and the savanna vegetation.
Figure 5.1 indicates the country's major ecological zones and Figure 5.2 indicates the location of the country's forest reserves and the forest zones within which they are located.
The vegetationformations indicated in Table 5.1 are described in detail in Appendix1.
Savanna Woodland
Savannacovers 66% of the total land area and is representedin the north, eastern and coastalregions. There are two types- coastaland interior savanna woodlands. The coastal savannais part of the Guinea-Congolean/Sudanregional transition and only occupiesa narrow wedge-shapedarea flankingthe south of the high forest and extend north eastwardsto a drier type of savannawhich is not truly transitional.Coastal savanna includesmixed subdivisions broadly grouped as the strandand mangrove,and the grass andcoastal thicket communities.
"GWD/IUCN.1994.
40 en X I
* P._
W~~~~~~~~~~~~~ .J. .lg. .> .k- ...... ::. .i.
X~~~~~~~~~~~ . . . . . {.,1^._ . . . . o.
-I0imaP,...,,.i,'.,'..,.',...4 IeW I 0 ? S *. } 0 0 24:::.i . Figure 5.2: Forest Reserves and Vegetation Zones
. [ ~P P E R v L T A p5.
~~~~v,F< U. *
._.'~~~~~~~~~Sa ...... ?pp
> 14_._ .4..°0'"wS _tX-
x t ~~~~~~~~~~~A--. ^,.,rt;,!_-<*_ t_ _
, e,*~~~~~ - wO ~~ _ 00._.. _ ty.
- o' q ~~-., -b = . _ p 'L. i 1_o-._1_'__,_r'- ' ' _ O,^onto- - tof.#_^ t_ __r_~~Am" u_^ r
-5a¢,,1 ' ~~| '~~~~~_T'
rJ ¢ .r . _ i rJ.~_ r-GHA A -- I I,, ru__ ~~~~~ s ~CI ~ ,, . e , S~~~~- r,
, i l L_ * r_e , '- I r~ ~ O' .t- ; w17 Table 5.1: Formation Groups of Ghana, Their Sizes, Rainfall and Percentage Cover of Ghana (Modifiedafter GWDIIUCN.1994)
Wet evergreenforest WE 6.570 2.75 1500-2100 Moistevergreen forest ME 17.770 7.45 1250-1750 Uplandevergreen forest UE 292 0.12 1250-1700 Moist semi-deciduousforest MS 32.890 13.79 1250-1600 Dry semi-deciduousforest DS 21.440 8.99 1250-1500 Southernmarinal forest SM 2.260 0.99 1150-1400 South east outlier forest SO 20 0.0083 100-1300
Total Forest 81.342 34.1 Tall grass sawanna TGS 144.948 60.77 900-1200 Short grass savanna SGS 10,540 4.42 300-850
Total savanna 155.488 65.19 700-1400 Mangrove forest MA 1.670 0.7 Total for Ghana 238,500 99.99
The Sudan types are dominant in Ghana and two distinct zones are recognized; the narrow discontinuous derived savanna zone lying adjacent to the forest region, and the entire breadth of the Guinea savanna zone to the north.
The Guinea savanna zone supports a typical fire controlled tree savanna community of deciduous trees, densely distributed in a continuous ground cover of perennial bunch grasses and associated forbs.
5.3.2 Biodiversity - Species Composition and Distribution
Flora
Excluding mosses and other lower plants a total of 3,600 plant species have been recorded in Ghana. From a recent botanical inventory" 7 2,214 are high forest species with 680 being trees greater than 5cm dbh. The remainder are savanna zone species. However, an imbalance exists in the knowledge of the composition of plant species.
Most of Ghana's forest plant species are also fairly widespread in Afica. 85% of ruderal (weed) species typical of farms or paths have a wide tropical distribution, even extending outside of Africa, whereas 3% of primary forest species occur outside of Africa. About half of the non-ruderal forest species are at least Guinea-Congolean species, with a range usually from western Ghana to the Congo basin or beyond. A firther 20% of forest species are widespread in West Africa, occurring to the east and west of Ghana.
"Haw'hn D. and hi Abu-Ju- 1995.
41 Speciesof the savanna are part of the Sudanianregional center of endemism.The Guinea- Congolian/Sudanianregion has less than 2,000 plant species, most of which are Guinea- Congolianor Sudanianwides, or link species with an even wider distribution.
Fauna
The wildlifeof Ghana can be dividedinto the two broad ecologicalzones: savannaand the closed forest. Vertebrate species include 221 amphibians and reptiles, 721 birds, 225 mammals, and 250 species of freshwater fish. The herpetofauna includes 70 species. Avifauna comprises 402 non-passerinesand 319 passernes of which 587 are African species. Migratory species comprise mainlypalearctic and Afrotropical migrants with a few vagrantsfrom the Holarctic,Nearctic and Antarctic regions. Keystone speciessuch as hombills,parrots and other birds of prey are well represented in the country. However, of the 721 bird species listed in Ghana, one, the white breasted Guinea fowl Agelastes meleadrides, is endemicto the Upper Guinea forests. There are about 1,200 species of butterfliesand 12,000 species of moths in Ghana, and a conservativeestimate is that there are more than 100,000species of invertebrates.
Savannafauna is comprisedof no fewer than 93 mammalspecies, about half of which can be consideredto be large. This group also includesseveral species of carnivore including lion, spotted hyenaand hunting dog. Over 350 bird species have been recorded from the savannaas well as nine amphibiansand 33 reptile species.
The fauna of the closed forest is more diverse. There are 200 of the 250 species of forest mammalsrecorded from Ghana. These species include 60% of the primates recorded from the country and at least 74 species of bat. Infonnation on the distributionof forest birds is incomplete,but at least 240 are found associated with the forest, and 12 with marine habitats. The wet evergreen and the moist evergreen forests of Ghana are the most important repository of butterfly diversity in West Africa, and by implication, of the diversity of other insects. Of the 860 recorded butterfly species in Ghana, 83% are associated with the forest while 13% are associated with the savanna species. Twenty- three of these speciesare endemic.
5.3.3 Threatened Wildlife
A number of wildfirespecies are under threat in Ghana. Table 5.2 provides a list of these species and a brief summaryof the current status of each species. Some of these species are globallyendangered.
42 Table 5.2: Threatened WildlifeSpecies of Ghana
elephant Ghana's elephant populauon is generalv classified as Vulnerable, though elephants within the forest zone are classified as Endangered. An estimate for both species toeether. has raneed benveen 1.500 and 3.500 leopard The leopard is widehl distributed in Ghana .occurning in all vegetation zones and has been recorded in 12 of the 15 GWD protected areas. _anatee The West African Manatee is considered to be Vulnerable. The species is threatened by hunting and incidental capture in fishing nets. Ogilby s duiker The species is lied as Vulnetrableand has a restricted recorded distribution in Ghana. red-fronted gazelle The species is Vulnerable and has been recorded in northern Ghana which is the southern limit of the species' range. bongo The species is globally endangered. The Nini- Suhien National Park and Ankasa Resource Reserve support strng populaions. M_ M Diana monkey This species is listed as Vulnerable but is considered to be one of the most threatened in .______Africa. red colobus The species is listed as Vulnerable and threatened by habitat loss. logging and intensive hunting. olive colobus The species is listed as Rare thrughout its entire range, though it is less easy to hunt than other colobus due to its cryptic behaviour. The species is imernationaLly Vulnerable, with one or two relict populations found in SW Gb=na where thy are protected in Bia and Ankasa conservation areas. Sightings are ran. Populations are very low with possibly fewer than 400 with less than 90 breeding females. It mangabey ______is vulnerable to habitat disturbance and discase. mnangabey The collared mangebey is listed as Vulnerable. It is primarily resident in high canopy primary forest but can also be found in gallety and inland swamp forest. There may be only a few troops survmng due to the past logging of the closed forest. white-breasted Guineafowl The white-breasted guineafowl is endaeic to the Upper Guinea forest block and Is list as Endangered. It is considered to be one of the most threatened birds in continental Africa and until recently it was thought to be extinct in Ghana. The species seems to be confined to
43 pnmany fores and often disappears after loging.The species is hunted for food. vellow-footedhoneyguide Although the stams of this bird is uncenain t1 appears to occurat verv low densities. olive greenbul The vello -beardedolive greenbul is listed as Vulnerableand is endemic to the Upper Gunmnearainforest. Logging is a senous thlrai to this specieswhich has a very specialised feeding niche. white-neckedpicatbartes The species is listed as Vulnerable. Little is know of its distribution. fishing owl The rufous fishing owl is consideredRare uith only 4 recordsfrom Ghana. It likelyoccurs along the larger rivers in the Western remon. marine turtles Fivc speciesof marine nurtlesare known from Ghana's coastal waters. These include; loggerheadturtle. green turtle. Atlantic ridlev. hawksbillturtle and leatherbackturtle. There is very little reliable infonnation on the status of
______these species.
5.3.4 Important/Threatened Wildlife Habitats
. The Closed Forest
A distinct guild of forest species occurs throughout the Upper Guinean region, with a discontinuity in the fauna between the Sessendra and Bandama rivers in south_eastern Cote dlvoire. The forest fauna in southwest Ghana and southeast Cote dlvoire is distinct from the other Upper Guinean forests.
The Wet evergreen forest, which is restricted to the highest rainall zone of southwest Ghana contains the highest concentration of rare and endemic species in Ghana. It is the least disturbed forest type in Ghana with 700/%of the forest still relatively inact and it is the ecosystem in which the greatest diversity of animal and plant life exists.
All other tpes of forest are equally important for the survval of forest funal species but these habitats are under confinual threat from barvesfing operations, poaching and encroaching agricultural activities.
. The Savanna Woodland
The short grass savanna (sometimes referred to as Coastal savanna or grassland), a unique formation group with very limited distribution in Afica, is a highly sigificant habitat. East of the Volta River it is well represented within the Kalakpa Game Reserve. The ACcra Plains, however, which exhibits an ample variety of sites at the dnest extreme of the 'Dahomey Gap' is represented only by the Shai Hills RR (50km 2). The vegetation along the
44 Abunrscarp is aimost completelydeforested and extremely degraded, showing signs of severeerosion.
Tall-grass Savanna
The tall grass savannazone is adequatelyrepresented in the Protected Areas svstem. Of the sevenprotected areas withinthe tall grass savannazone, the Mole NationalPark is the largest and most important. The largest populationsof roan, hartebeest, oribi, waterbuck, warthog, Buffoon's patas monkeys and savanna elephants are found in Mole National Park, a protected area sufficientlylarge enoughto support these populations. Mole National Park also supports the last remaining populations of lion, hyena and possibly,side-striped jackal.
. Wetlands
There are six Ramsarsites in Ghana. Five are along the coast and compriseof either open or closed brackishlagoons, estuaries, river deltas and adjacent seashores.The five coastal Ramsar sites provide habitat for internationallysignificant populations of 11 species of migratoryshorebirds as weUlas nestingsites for three endangeredspecies of marineturtles.
. Environmental Contributions
The forests and savanna grasslands of Ghana fulfill important environmentalfunctions including soil conservation, hydrological stabilization, amelioration of the agricultural microclimate, and the protection of biodiversity and endemic species. Catchment protection is an important considerationin Ghana. Lake Volta provides jobs for 30,000 fisherfolk and is the basis for 912 mW of hydroelectricgenerating capacity, irrigation water, and provides an important navigationroute. Without the maintenanceof savanna woodlandsin the catchmentannual soil losses could increasefrom less than one ton/ha to in excess of 100tons/ha.
Maintenanceof tree cover in the savannawoodland prevents the leachingof valuablesoil nutrients and transfers deep lying leached nutrients into the trees and eventuallyback to the surface soil in the form of litter and roots.
5.4 Socio-economicEnvironment
5.4.1 The Ghana Economyl"
Agricultureaccounts for almost 50%/.of the GDP and industy accounts for a further 15%. Services generate the remaining 35%. Within the industry sector, forestry contributed $153 million in 1993. However, this would diminish over time as a result of non-
ISGWD/IUCN. 1994.
45 sustainableforestry practicesand a suspensionof round log exports. The forest industry is -describedin Section 1.3.4. Gold is the largest single source of export earnings at $468 millionin 1993.Bauxite, diamondsand sea salt are significantexport minerals.The single most important agriculturalcrop is cocoa which suppliesabout one third of the country's export earnings. Tourism is reported to be the third largest foreign exchange earner in Ghana after gold and cocoa and it is expected to displace cocoa in export eaniungsover the next few years.
5.4.2 Population19
The 1984 census indicatesthat Ghana's population was 12.3 millionin that year. At an annual growth rate of 3.4% from 1980 to 1990, and with an estimated reduction to 3.0%/o from 1990 to 2000, the population is expected to reach 20 million by the turn of the century and 34 million by the first quarter of the next century. The population is very young with about 47% of the populationbelow the age of 15.
Two thirds of the country's populationis located in rural areas and is highlydependent on natural resources for survival. However, according to census figures over the past 35 years, the rural population of the counry is decreasing. Over 50%0 of the population is concentratedin the Ashanti,Eastern, Greater Accra and Central regions which constitute less than a quarter of the country's.land area. Whilst the Greater Accra area has a populationdensity of up to 441/mi2, the NorthemRegion has a densityas low as 17/mi2. Urbanizationfor the 1990sis estimatedto include 34% of the populationand is expected to reach39.2% by 2000.
The rural population,which is the focusof the nanuralresource project and whichwill be the prnmarydirect benefactor of the project,for the mostpart livesbelow the povertyline, is uneducatedor only semi-literate,and has limitedaccess to social amenitiessuch as healthand education facilities.
5.4.3 Administration
Ghana has a democratic system of government with the seat of this centralized govemmentsituated in Accra.Although decentralizaon policies have beenin place since 1990,to a large extentthe governmentstill operatesunder the centralizedsystem. The countryis comprisedof ten administrativeregions and frther dividedinto 110 districts. The regionalhead is the Regional inister who has a Deputy. Distncts are headed by DistrictChief Executives.
The traditionalsystem of the chieftaincyin the rwualareas paranllelsthe administrative systemand this is describedin Section5.4.6.
'9 GWD/IUCN.1994.
46 5.4.4 EconomicActivity, Income and Poverty
Farming and other agriculturalactivities are the main occupation in the rural areas of Ghana, although other occupations such as trading and various service activities are important.ln 1984 about 61.1% of the employedpopulation was enraged in agricultural activities.Fallow rotation is widelypracticed and this has placedintense pressure on forest resources.
The GhanaLiving Standards Survey (1988-92), indicates that about 31% of the Ghanaian populationis poor or very poor. Rural areas which contain about 66% of the country's population account for almost 75% of the country's total poverty. However, regional variations are found and the rural savanna, although containing only 23% of the total population of the country, accounted for 28% of the total poverty and 31% of the very poor.
Poverty is greatest amongstfarmers and the least amongst those employedin the formal sector, either in goverment or the privatesector.
Employmentin the timber industryis conservativelyestimated at 130,000.This number is based on the numberof operationsin each of the timber industryactivities as indicatedin Table 5.3.
Table 5.3: Timber Operation Units
logging 250 sawmilling 130 plymijling 9 veneermilling 15 chipboard milling I preservationtreatment plant I funiuturemanufacturng (large and small) 40 smallscale furnituremanufacturing 45,000
5.4.5 Culture
. Ethnicity and Religion
Ghanais comprisedof a varietyof ethnicgroups and there are believedto be 185 different tribesalthough there are onlyabout 30 majorgroups. The majorgroups are distinguished primarily by language and to a lesser degree by their political, social and cultural organization.The largest and most predominantis the Akan ethnic group which is found in five of Ghana's 10 regions. The;group is identifiedby a common language which is differentiatedamongst the sub-groups by dialects. These sub-groups include the Ashanti, Fante, Kwabu, Akwapin and Assin. The Akan has a common system of inheritancewhich
47 is matrilinealand is differentiatedfrom other groups through a unique set of cultural charactensticsand insititutions. The other major groups of southern Ghana includethe Ga - Adangbe, the Ewe, and the Guan. There are, as well, a numberof other smallerethnic groups in the south.
In northernGhana the people are grouped by three language types includingthe Gur. Kwa and Mende language groups. The two well known Gur speaking groups include the Dagombaand Mamprusi.The Kwa group consists of the Gonja and Nchuburung,and the Mende consistsof the Busansiand Ligbi speakinggroups.
Religion of the country is dominatedby Christianityand Islam with the latter prevalent in the northemnregions. In the northern regions, the earth priest (Tindaana)holds a religious position although not as authoritativeas in the past prior to the introduction of Islam and Christianity.
Africantraditional religion which is very much a part of the daily lives of many Ghanaians. It is based on the beliefthat the linksamongst the unbom, the livingand the dead provide an unbrokenchain. Whatever is carried out by the livingcan bring upon them favour or disfavourwith the dead. . Taboos, Beliefs and Mores
A system of taboos, beliefs and mores are used to establish and maintain socially acceptable behavior in communities. However, the introduction of fomWaleducation, organized religion, as well as two-directional migration have eroded these traditional controls. Today, many of the taboos related to farming, entry into sacred groves and other traditionalvalues, are flauntedwith impunity.Chiefs, elders and other persons of authorit do not have the legal instrumentationwith which to enforce compliance with traditional beliefs.
Common beliefs include the sacredness of land, and the belief that the living are only custodians for the land on behalf of the dead. There is a belief of the commonality of traditionalinstitutions and laws on resource use. Sacred groves, for example,are conmnon to all tribes in the country.
Whilethe familyhead is usually the link between a family and its ancestors, and the chief is the link between tribal ancestors and the people, the fetish priests are seen as links between their differentgods and the community.
The primary duty of the earth priest is to ensure the prosperity of the communitythrough capturing the goodwill of the earth. He is required to pierce the soil when a new grave is dug and he must turn the first sod when a farm or house is to be established on virgin ground.He allots land previouslyunclaimed for faniing and building.All lost property that the communitychief is not entitledto goes to the earth priest.
48 . Sacred Groves
There are a variety of sacred plants and animalswhich may be associatedwith particular spirits in sacred groves and rivers, with fetish priests, or with clans of people. Several forest plants are believedto be sacred throughout the entire region: the forest emertem, odii, the 'odum' tree and the liana, 'ahomakyem' were found to be sacred in all of the communitiesstudied in southernGhana. Some sacredplant speciesmay be used to protect an entire community.Even some animals have sacred or fetish value and are used in spiritual healingand for protection. The presence of sacred groves throughout southern Ghana indicatesthe highvalue placedon forest vegetationand its spiritualassociations.
. Inheritance
Two systemsof inheritanceare practiced in Ghana. In the matri£inealsystem which is practicedby the Akans,the lineagecan trace descent from a commonfemale ancestor. A child is consideredto belong to it's mother's lineage and is expectedto accrue all rights, benefitsand responsibilitiesthrough that lineage. Properly of a women will be passed on to her sisters and her daughters while a man's property will be passed on to his sister's sons who are deemed as belongingto the same lineagerather than his own childrenwho belongto their mother's lineage. The patrilineal system which is practiced by the other tribes. Under this system of inheritance an individual belongs to the same lineage as his/her father. A lineage is comprisedof a group of persons that can trace descent through a commonmale ancestor. The heirsto a man's propertyare commonlyhis brothers and his sons. To ensure that those who do not inherit directly from a person are not neglected and left destitute, custom demands that the heir to a deceased's property takes care of the remainingdependents. Education, urbanisation,migration and the introductionof 'wills' has affectedthese traditionalsystems and has left a g in many places between heirs and dependentsof deceased persons. Government has attempted to correct this through the Intestate SuccessionLaw.
Cultural Erosion
Urbanizationhas broken down famnlyand kinshipties which in the past compelledpeople to conform to socially accePted behavior of communitiesto which they belonged. No longer does a person's day to day existence,well being and protection depend on family and kinship.
5.4.6 Social Structure and Institutions
Traditionalauthority is usuallyvested in chiefs, both divisionaland paramount, and in the elders. Their basic function under this system is to perform executive, legislative and judicial functions. However, in recent times with modern western style government
49 systems.much of the authority of the chiefs has been eroded. The lowest in the hierarchv of authorityin an Ak-ansociety is the Abusua Panyinr,or familyhead.
Today the chief s main role in the communityis ritual. All communityland is vested in the chief on behalf of his people. The chief directly administers stool land and the elders directly administerfamily land which are lands that each family began working when the tribe or sub-tribefirst settled.He is expected to administerjustice, see to the well being of his people spirituallyand physically.In order to ensure the well being of his people, his duty is to maintainclose communicationswith ancestors to ensure that he does not incur their wrath upon his people. He is also to invoke their blessings and protection upon his people.
In the Akan communitycontrol is maintainedthrough tribal taboos and laws which usually have spiritualsanctions attached. Penalties for offenses, dependingupon their seriousness, could be the slaughterof a sheep or the provisionof alcoholfor pacificationrites.
5.4.7Livelihood
The pnmary source of incomefor rural communitiesis agriculture.Agriculture based incomecomprises 71.7%/ of the rural incomein the savamnnregion and 58.6% of the incomein the high forest region.Non-farm self employmentis a significantsource of incomeand in the rural communitiesof the coastalregion it comprises46% of the total ruralincome, leading agriculture related income in this region.All ruralcommunities have economiesconnected to forest and wildliferesources. The relianceon these resourcesis describedin Section5.4.1 1.
5.4.8 Healthand Education
Averagelife expectancy is 54 yearsfor womenand 50 for men.Average nutrition levels as measuredby per capita calorieintake have fallen from 1,950 in the 1960sto 1,759 in 1988.In a 1988/89survey, 34.0%/ of rual childrenhave been foundto be malnourished. The nationalfigure for the same periodwas 11.8%.Infant mortality is around90/ and is 14.5%for those underfive years of age. Of the country's251 hospitalsonly 57 are found in rural areas2oand only 3% of rural householdslive in communitieswith access to a doctor.
The countryhas a literacyrate of approximately54% and primaryschool enrollment is approximately50.6%. Of those abovethe age of 15, 32% are able to read, 30%/0able to write, and 41% able to carry out calculations.Eighty-seven per cent of all rural communitieshave primry schoolsand 64% have schoolsoffering junior secondaryand technicallevels. The majorityof schoolsin the rural areasare public.
cIovametG of GMana1995.
50 In a surveyfor 1988/89,only 57.2% of those 15 years and older in the coastal area had ever attendedschool. For the rural forest area and the rural savanna area the rates for the sameage group (15 years and older)were 63.6% and 29.7% respectively2 '
5.4.9 Services
Treated water or water from boreholes is availableto only 23% of householdsin rural areas. The remainingcommunities depend on wells without pumps and natural sources includingsprings, rivers, lakes and rainwater. 82% of all rural communitiesare without electricity.Although 82% of all rural communitiesare accessibleby road, only 54% have access to publictransport. Thus, access to medical centers, markets and other services normallyavailable in urban centers is impaired.Access to publictransport is a 1-20 mile walk for 18% of all rural people2.
5.4.10 Rightsto Resources
Land usually belongs to a division of paramountcy within an ethnic group. It is either dividedinto stool landsand familylands, or clan lands dependingon the social structure of the people. Rights are normallyfor land use and not for the sale of land. Securityof tenure of land-is based on the continualworling of the land in addition to the rendering of all necessarycustomary services to the stool or familythat ownsthe land.
All lands in Forest Reserves are vested in the President in trust for the stools. The President has the right -to execute any deed or do any act as trustee". However, any revenue derived from land and these vested rights must be placed into a Stool Land account "for the benefitof people in the areas in which particularlands are situated" (Act 123 17,20).Thus the beneficiaryrights remainwith the traditionalowners. 23
Outside reserves the rights to timber and trees are also vested in the Government,in trust for the owners. In 1994 the Forestry Department was given responsibity for the control of off-reserve felling of trees. Timber concessionsare used to grant timber harvesting rights both on and off reserves. Currentlythere is a total of 810 concessionsof which 282 are on-reserve24.
21
2 Govenimentof Ghmaa1993. 2 Rosentha1S. 1997. 24ForestrYCom=ission (imdnted)
51 5.4.11 Relationship with Natural Resource Base25
NTFPs
In addition to the estimnated130,000 jobs that the forest provides through timber extraction and associated activities and the secondary and tertiary industries, the forest base provides a number of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that supplement rural family incomes. These are essential for the day to day lives of communities. Forests co,.Lributeto all aspects of rural life in southem Ghana. They provide food (includingfish fronmforest rivers), fodder, fuel, medicines, building materials, materials for various household items, as well as a number of intangible benefits including cultural symbols, -iral artifacts, and locales.In addition to the gathering of NTFPs for personal use, many ouseholdsgather, trade and process forest products to supplementtheir income. In some cases these activitiesform the main source of livelihood.In the Kumasi market alone, 700 people are involvedin the forest product trade on a full time basis. The NTFPs trade is widespread and very robust, includingan export trade where cola nut is the main and significantincome earner. Locally, in the Kumasi market in a three month period (April, May, June) a total of 15,604 animals were available for trade with the most common species being grasscutter, duiker and warthog. This volume represents only a small fraction of the total amount of bushmeat captured and sold in the Kunasi area and the indicationfrom hunters is that there is as much bushmeat caught outside of the forest as there is within the forest. However, there is the general opinion from elders and hunters that hunting success is diminishingas a result of increased land clearances, increased huntingpressure and umprovedhunting equipmentas well as an increasein bush fires.
. Fuelwoodand Charcoal
Of the 26.5 million m 3 of roundwood productionin Ghana in 1995, only about 1.2 million m3 was timber denved from the high forest; 20.7 million n3 was fuelwood, of which 4.5 million ln3 was converted to charcoal. This latter figure represents a yield of about 430,000 tons of charcoal. Other figures indicate considerablyhigher annual charcoal productionand consumption.Most of the charcoalis made from savannawood, the preferred raw material for charcoal. Rural households use fuelwood that is collected as their main source of cooking fuel. The urban consumptionof charcoalcan be viewed as an opportunitysince it providesrevenues for those of the savanna.As well, if the savanna woodlandsare sustainablymanaged, the burningof wood fuels would be carbon-neutral, emissionbeing balanced by sequestratior Villagesin the savannazone which have access to natural woodlandscan increase cash earnings, not only by selling fuelwood and charcoal,but also by makdngand sellingfuel-demanding products such as pottery and beer,activities that can be carriedout duringthe agriculturaloff-season.
Fmwrey D qrnnL(=mdated)
52 Other Minor Forest Products26
MXinor'forest products includeother uses of wildlife,medicinal plants, edible plants. dyes. canes,leaves for wrappingfood, resins and gums, chewsticks,honey, thatching for roofs. etc. The followinginformation provides an indicationof the value of these products:
.In 1985, close to 21,000 wild animnalswere exported alive, worth US$344,032 The most importanttrade animalwas the gray parrot, 9,500 of which were sold in 1985.The secondmost importantgroup were monkeysused for medicalresearch. .AlmnostI 00°/o of the rural populationand about 60% of the urban population use traditionalmedicines, many of which are forest-derived.Some forest plants are exported. .At least 300 forest trees in Ghana produce edible fruit. The forest also produces considerablequantities of mushrooms,honey and palm wine. It is assumed that these additionsto the diet are more importantfor the lower-incomegroups.
5.4.12 People'sViews and Values of the Forest2'
In the past the forest was highlyvalued as a source of food reserves during times of food security, war and other emergency.In recent times people rely on the marketplacefor foodstuffswhen there is a scarcity,but some people have indicatedthat this is so due to the scarcity of food stuffs in the forest. Only a few people have recognized the most importantvalue of the forest as a source for timber. Forests are most highly valued for NTFPs for subsistencetrade, for the protection of the local environment, and in a few villages as sacred sites. The most highly prized products are bushmeat and pestles followed by canes and building materials. With regard to the local environment, rural people value the forest as a windbreak,and in maintainingwater resources, encouraging rain,maintaining soil fertility, for reguatingtenperture and for helping to maintain a stable climate. Forests are also valued as land banks known to protect, improve and restore soil fertility.In Ashantivillages many people associate forestcover with perennial stream flow and they attibute dry season low water supply with forest clearings.Forests outside of reserves are generally considered as farm land for future generations. Some people feel that degraded farm land should be reserved for forest establishment in exchangefor land currentlyunder reserve.
In communitiesmost dependent upon forest reserves, people's fear and contempt for current forest managementis high.
26 Wrld Ban 1997. 2 Falco=er,J. (undad)
53 5.4.13 Gender Concerns28
Rural womenare responsiblefor producing 70%^/of the national crop output. Thev play a leadingrole in post-harvest activities includingstorage, processing and marketing of all grains and starchy foods. And yet, in the rural areas, they are rewarded ittle for their efforts and significantcontributions to the householdand nationalwelfare.
Women's value in society has been strongly based on their reproductive functions, and their abilityto produce goods and services.
In rural areas the traditionalpower structure is still dominated by men and there are still situations where major community decisions and life occasions are only taken by a committee of men. Development committees in the villages that initiate, plan and implementdevelopment projects such as the provision of school buildings, clinics, and market places are dominatedby men, primarilybecause the women are too busy carryng out household duties. As elsewhere in the country, women hold few positions of power and authority. Cultural and institutional factors restrict women's access to productive resources including land, credit, training facilities, technological inputs and extension services.
In both matilineai and patriLinealsocieties, traditional legal systems, religion and perception of femaleroles ensure that the allocationof resources favor male authonty and interests. Some negative traditional practices includingfemale circumcision,superstition, taboos and restrictions on pregnant and lactating mothers, worsen the terrible and vulnerablesituation of the majorityof women.
Many women are given the most onerous, time consnuming,labor intensive and poorly rewarded chores, both inside and outside of the home. Frequent child-birth and the carrying out of domestic chores come at the expense of other productive roles and participationin the wage economy for income generation. Hence, women rely exclusively on spousal support. Those without such support fice worsening poverty-stricken positions. Hard work affects their health and health problems are compounded by a generally poor diet. They are found to be more undemourishedthan men :36% of women in the lean season are underweight comparedto 23% for men; 190/%during the rest of the year for women and 3% for men. Women are on the receiving end of family violence and there is a higherpercentage of iliterate women than men.
During visits by the EIA team to the field to collect basic social infonnation, the major concems identified by women who were interviewed in a selection of villages included their status, inheritanceissues, the fact that they had to work very long hours and that the work load was very heavy, and there was very little capital input to help ease their burden.
t1 NauionaiCouncil an Womenin Developmnt 1994.
54 5.4.14 Issues
Field work conducted by the ELA team in a number of communities revealed a number of issues, or perceivedissues, identifiedby the residents of these commnunities.As people were asked to discuss their major concerns with the field team, not all issues are directly related to the forest base.
need for non-timber forest products
Most rural economiesare at the subsistencelevel and rely on non-timberforest products to supplementtheir income and to provide a variety of goods to meet their day to day needs.However, communities are deniedaccess to forest reservesfor collectionpurposes. As the non-reserveareas becomeincreasingly depleted communities see the lack of access to reserve areas as a seriousproblem.
. pressure for farmland
More than 50r/. of the communitiesvisited and are adjacentto forest reserves would like to have land from the reserves for fanning purposes. The originalsettler communitiesare now too large to be sustainedon the basis of the originalland areas allotted. The need for additional land is further emphasized by the fact that the current share cropping arrangementdoes not provide the cropper with sufficientcrop return to support his family.
unemployment
Seventy-twoper cent of the communitiesvisited indicated that the unemploymentof youth was of major concern. Commurities adjacent to forest reserves would like to see timber contractorshire local youth for their harvestingoperations.
. public transport
Twenty-fourper cent of communitiesvisited have to walk approximately2km or less to accesspublic transport. The absenceof regular transport in most rural communitiesmakes it difficultfor people to transport produce to market and generallyto conduct any sort of businessin an efficientmanner.
poverty and food security
The rural communitiesof the northern part of the country are characterized largely by subsistenceeconomies based on agriculture.Food resources are scarce and many families depletetheir food stores well before the next harvest is available.Lack of food and general malnutritionresults in disease and general poor health. Communitieswould like to see activities introduced that would provide themnwith a means for generating income that could be used to supplementtheir food supplies and as well to improve their standard of lving.
SS5: . depleted soils
Fortv per cent of the communitiesvisited indicated that their soils were depleted and that their soils would no longer provide reasonable crop yields. This is a reason why the communitiesin the reserve areas wished to see the Taungya systemreinstated.
. benefits from reserves
Sixty-twoper cent of communitiesvisited indicatedthat they receive no benefits from the reserves. Althoughcommunities have benefitedfrom water supply, education and hospital access projects, they felt that they were deserving of direct benefits as a result of their proximty to the reserves. They wanted to have their youth employed by timber contractorsand somebenefit from the royaltiespaid on timber extracted.
. tree planting Althoughcommunities generally supported the idea of afforestationand reforestation, their enthusiasmis hamperedby the lack of seedlings,and in the northern areas, the lack of support for protecting recent plantingsfrom livestock.As well, the lack of sufficientwater for communitynurseries is a deterrentto tree establishment. The main issues brought forth during the public presentation in Kumasi centred around loss of jobs in the industry and solutions to these losses includingtraining and financial support for various activitiesincluding wildlife rearing and forest nurseries. 6. ENVIRONMENTALIMPACTS
6.1 Importat EnvironmentalComponents
ImportantEnvironmental Components (IECs) are those componentsof the environment that havebeen consideredworthy of attentionand protection.They have been identified (Table 6.1) and providethe basis for the identificationand analysisof impacts.In the analysisof impactsto follow,some EECshave been combinedand some have been left out, the latteras a resultof analysisindicating no relevantbenefit or impact
6.2 Benefitsand Impacts
6.2.1 General
The overallpurpose of the projectis to alleviatepoverty. This willoccur relativelyearly in the projectin the savanmaarea wherea comprehensiveresource management component will be implemented.However, a programof sustainableresource management in the high forest area will contributeonly in the long term, with initial forest industryjob losses occurringas a resultof reducingharvests to the levelof the allowablecut. A majorbenefit
56 to be realized by the project will be the retention of a stable, permanent and slowly expanding workforce in the forest industry under a sustainable forest management program. 'ithout this sustainableapproach all jobs in the industry would ultimatelybe lost.
Sustainableresource managementprovides many long lasting benefits to both rural communitiesand the countryas a whole. A resourcethat is managedon a sustainablebasis will contribute to a stable national economy and this in turn will provide social and politicalstability. These advantagesare felt even more at the communitylevel, particularly where the rural populationhas an economicstake in the managementof the resourcebase.
Benefits, or positiveimpacts of the project, and the negativeimpacts are discussedin the followingsection under each of the EECs.A subjectivesignificance rating of each benefit is provided (very high, high, moderate,low, or none) as well as a rating for each impact based on the variouscriteria as previouslydescribed in Section3.
An overallimpact rating for each EECis given. This is derived through considerationof both the negative impact and the benefits. In some cases the negative impact (before rnitigation)will outweigh the benefitsto be gained. A MODERATEnegative impact could be lowered to an overallnegative impact of LOW as a result of a benefitto be gained.In
Table 6.1: IECs
M. -ml~I.~
...... ~ ~ . ..'-.
. te. y....'.,. ...
.....~~~~...... mnegatetheneativ mat l vrl i empcraingsuuarebeasetuo bfr itgto'
...... -. ... .
Also, a positive overal impact does not remove the negative impact and, it would stiD require rmitigativeaction.
57 6.2.2 Summary of Benefits and Impacts
Of the 27 IECs identified and examined,the project would have both impacts on, and benefitsfor, 17 of them. The project would provide benefits only for the remaining 10 IECs. Impacts by level are summarized in Table 6.2. This table also summarizes the residual impacts by level of significance.Table 6.3 indicates by level of significancethe numberof cumulativeimpacts that would be expected.
Table 6.2: Summary of Project Impacts on IECs (by level of significance)
LOW 4 9 2 MEDIUM 8 2 5 HIGH 3 1 3 VERY IGH 2 0 0 Total 17 12 10
Table 6.3: Summary of Cumulative Impacts by Levels of Significance
VERY IGH | 0 not applicable I Total 17 J
Table 6.4 provides a summaryof overall significantratin for IECs, prior to mitipaion.
As indicatedabove, the NRMP is highlyenvironmentally supportive and many of the impacts on various IECs will be mitigatedthrough vaTiousprograms and components of the project. Of the 17 EECsthat will be negativelyaffected by the project, impacts on 7 of them will be mitigatedthrough planned project activities,an additional three will be mitigatedthrough a combinationof planned project actvities with additional non-project
58 actions.Impacts on four EECswill be mitigatedthrough the applicationof 'best practice guidelines',and the remainingthree impactswill be mitigatedthrough new additional activities.
Table 6.4: Overall Ratings for IECs (Impacts l-l vs Benefits l+1) (excluding IECs with only benefits)
LOW 3 3 MEDIUM 5 0 HIGH 5 1 VERYHIGH 0 0 Total _17
6.3 Impact Analysis
6.3.1 General
Many of the impacts described below are currently occurring under present forest harvestingpractices.
A numberof impacts occur in one location within a reserve in any one year - but over the years, the reserve will receive a number of these impacts - and country-wide many reserveswill receivethese same impacts.This is cumulativebut for purposes of identifyng the impact, all reserves are dealt with as one, and the cumulativeaspect, in this case, is ignored.
6.3.2 Description of Impacts and Benefits
. Physical Environment
CLIMA TE
Impacts:
During the harvestingof individualtrees, or groups of trees, canopy openings will occur. Cover removal will bring about temprature increases and possible wind speed increases within the forest. These changes could affect the establishment,growth and survival of some speces. Forest floor exposure to sunlight could cause the introduction of unwanted pioneer species and competition with desirable species. Increased temperatures could affect wildlifehatitat. However, with harvesting activitYreduced to meet allowablecut requirements,microclimatic modifications will be fewer than that which presentlyoccur.
59 Impact would occur in a general area (multiple sites), would be of moderate duration, would probablyoccur but only once during each cutting cycle, of low severity,and would be reversiblewith time. Rating: LOW.
Mitigation:none
Benefits:
Forest cover regulates local climate, determinesthe microclimatewithin which various lesser flora and the fauna communitiesof the forest exist. Regional climate, to some extent, is also detemiined by forest cover, particularly where large forest tracts exist. Precipitation, humidity and temperatures are all affected by the existence of large contiguoustracts of forest cover. A sustainableforest managementprogram will promote the protection of large tracts of forest cover through a system of selective logging within allowable cut limitations. A savanna managementprogram will provide forest cover on appropriate sites that will promote improved local climatic conditions including temperature,wind and humidity.
At the local leveL small savanna plantations (e.g. windbreaks) and small farm plantings provide shelter (for both people and crops) from wind (particularlyimportant during the harmattan)and hightemperatures.
Globally, the maintenance of existing forest cover will allow Ghana to continue to contnibuteto the combat against the greenhouse effect by maintainingthe tree cover that removes CO2 from the atmosphere. Expansion of total forest cover will increase the country's contributionto the prevention of globalwarming.
The benefit to micro- and local climates, and the contnbution to offsetting of global warmingoutweigh the low inpact on microclimateand, thus, the overall effect would be positive.
Sustainableforest managementwill not include clear cutting of large areas of forest nor will the program include the establishmentof huge (thousands of hectares) contiguous blocks of plantation. By pursuing a course of sustainable forest management, existng macroclimaticconditions would not be effected.
Overall effect: (+) LOW
AIR QUALITY
Impacts:
Throughimproved udlization, a broader range of tree specieswould be harvestedand processed.The use of additionalspecies could result in new processeswhich could include the use of a varietyof chemicalsthat couldcontribute to air pollution.
60 The impact would cover a general area, be permanent,would be of low severity, could possiblyoccur many times,and would possiblybe reversible.Rating: MODERATE
Mitigationwould includethe carefulplanning and developmentof wood processes that do not include toxic chemicals, or their by-products, that could be released to the atmosphere.If such toxic chemicalsare used in wood processing, air pollution control mechanismswould be required.
Benefits:
With mill downsizingas a result of reduced raw material supply, and through improved efficiencyof the wood processingindustry, fewer mill and processingplant residues will be bumed, thus reducing the impact on air quality. Extension activities to control the burning of crop residues will improve air quality during the seasons when burning normallyoccurs.
Overall effect: (-) LOW
HYDROLOGY
Impacts:
Road developmentand skiddingtrails promote rapid runoff of rainfallwhich preventsfull rechargeof groundwaterresources and causes reductionof surfacewater flows.
The impactwould cover a general area, would be temporasy,of moderate severity,would probably occur frequently in any one reserve, but would be reversible. Rating: MODERATE.
Mitigation:Best practiceguidelines (logging manual) to be followed.
The establishmentof a plantation in the savanna could contribute to the drawdown of the water table which could result in hardship for local farmers. This could lead to reduced crop productionand lost incomes.It could also affect villageweU water supplies.
The impact would cover a general area, would be pernanent, of low severity, would possiblyoccur, only once, and would not be reversible.Rating: MODERATE
Mitigationwould includeholistic resource management to ensure that plantationsthat may have an effect on the water table are not established m areas where the water table is criticalfor other uses (current or future) such as agriculture (irrigation)and for domestic and municipalrequirements. Mitigation would also includethe use of species that do not have high water requirements. These mitigation measures will be part of the project design.
61 Benefits:
Forest managementpractices that reduce harvests to the level of the allowable cut and plantationsestablished on degraded sites will provide good land cover which in turn will reduce runoff and improvegroundwater recharge. Surface waters will be better regulated, particularlywhere reforestation is carried out in heavily degraded areas. Comprehensive resource management in the savanna areas, including range management and the establishment of plantations, will promote reduced runoff, recharged groundwater resourcesand improvedregulated surface water flow.
Overall effect: (+) MODERATE
WATER QUALITY
Impacts:
During the buildingof access roads, bare soils, are vulnerableto erosion and runoff into waterways,affecting water quality.Soils on skiddingtracks become bare and vulnerableto erosion during rainy periods, particularlywhere tracks are located in steep terrain. Water qualityof forest streams and rivers could be affected.
Harvestingoperations include the use of slddding vehicles, bulldozers for road- ding, and chainsaws. This equipment requires dieseL gasoline and lubricant oils. ImAproper storage and handlingof these materials, and the handlingand disposal of waste products (e.g. used oils) can lead to groundwaterand surface water contamination.
The impact would cover a general area, would be for a medium term, of moderate severity,probably occur many times, and is possiblyreversible. Rating: MODERATE
-- Mtigation would include following best practice guidelines (logging manual), including construction guidelines to minimize soil erosion during road construction. Guidelines would also include stipulationthat forest access roads would only be constructed during the dry seasons. Where practical, road embankmentswould be vegetated. Skidding trails would not be located on steep terrain. Regulationsfbr the proper storage and handlingof petro-chenJicalswould be provided.Waste oils would be stored and removed from the site to proper permanentstorage/recycling facilities.
Through improved utilization, a broader range of tree species would be harvested and processed. Additional and new processes could include the use of a variety of chemicals that could contribute to groundwater and surface water cotamination.
The impact would be local permanent, of moderate severity, could possibly occur and frequently,and would possiblybe reversible.Rating: MODERATE
62 Mitigationwould includethe carefulplanning and developmentof wood processesthat do not includetoxic chemicalsthat could be releasedinto soiLgroundwater and surface water svstems. If such toxic chemicals are used in additional wood processing, control mechanismsand proper disposalof waste products would be used.
Benefits:
Plantation establishmnentand comprehensivesavanna land management,including range management,will lead to improvedsurface water quality.
Overall effect: (-): LOW
SOLES
Impacts:
Removalof the forest canopydunng harvestingwould allow direct impact of rain on the forest floor which in turn could cause soil erosion. Skidding of logs increases soil compactionwhich in tum decreasesthe abilityof vegetationto recover and increasesthe periodof time that soils are exposed.
Impactwould cover a generalarea, be of moderate duration, of moderate severity,would be continuous, would probably be reversible and would probably occur. Rating: MODERATE
Mitigation would include following best practice guidelines with the careful siting of harvesting operations to avoid steep slopes and places where runoff could present a serious problem. Best practice guidelineswould also include restrictions on the size of harvestingmachines in order to reduce the degree of soil disturbance.
Benefits
Soil fertility will be improved with the use of leguminous species in plantations, particularlywhere small plantations may be established in savanna and transition zone areas. Effective forest management in off-reserve areas and comprehensive land managementin the savanna areas will reduce soil erosion. Site specificmanagement in the reserves willreduce soil erosion.
Oveall impact: (-): LOW
63 . BiologicalEnvironment
FLORA
Impacts: Industryimprovements and diversificationwill result in a demandfor additionalspecies. Speciesthat havebeen traditionally ignored would now be harvested.Although this would reducethe pressurefrom speciesthat are currentlyin high demand,harvesting pressure would nowbe placedon these additionalspecies. Additional species of the overallfloral compositionof the forest would be removedand other lesser floral species(trees and otherwise)associated with these newharvestable species could be affected. The impactwould be regional,of moderateduration, of moderateseverity, occur many times,and would possibly be reversible.Rating: MODERATE
Mitigationwould involvesound sustainable forest management(a project objective).For example,an adequatenumber of seed trees requiredfor natural regenerationwould be maintained,and other conditons required for regeneration would be provided. Biodiversityprotection (a project objective)would address the impact to includethe exclusionof any scarlet stars from the list of new speciesto be harvested.Plantations underthe regenerationcomponent would include these additionalspecies to be harvested.
Plantationestablishment in the transitionzone and as part of the savannamanagement program,could eliminate grassland and otherspecies from the area beingplanted.
The impactwould be over a generalarea, permat, of moderateseverity, would likely occuronce, andwould probably not be reversible.Rating: MODERATE
Mitigationwould includesurveys to determne best non-conflictingsites for plantation establishment.This wouldbe part of the overansavanna management program.
Benefits:
The biodiversitycomponent of the forest managementand savannamanagement programs will ensurethat importantplant species,once surveyedand located,are providedwith the necessaryprotection.
Overallimpact: (+) HIGH
FAUNA
Plantationsare relativelysimple ecosystems that willnot providethe plant speciesmix and other conditionsrequired for the provisionof suitablehabitat for a wide varietyof wildlife species.Species could disappearfrom the sites where plantationsare establishedand total speciespopulations in the area would be reduced.
This impactwould be regionalin extent, permanent,highly severe, would probablyoccur severaltimes, and would not likelybe reversible.Rating: HIGH
Mitigation would include the minimal use of the plantation method of regenerating commercialspecies within forest reserves and the assurance that plantationsare small in size in reserveswhere importantfaunal populations are large and complex.This mitigation is in conflictwith mitigationfor the loss of biodiversitywhere it is important to retain as much natural forest cover as is possible and rely more heavily on plantation wood for industrialpurposes.
Harvestingof individualtrees and groups of trees reduces wildlife habitat and in some cases can eliminatecorridors (e.g. primates using arboreal habitats).Reduction of habitat could result in a reductionof populationand speciesfrom a particularreserve.
This impact would be regionaLof a moderate term, of high severity,would occur many timesuithin any one reserve, is reversiblewith time and would definitelyoccur. Rating: HIGH
Mitigationwould includeforest harvestingto be carried out onlyin those areas where it is known that wildlife populations will not be unduly disturbed and where recovery of populationnumbers and compositionwill not be difficult.The biodiversitycomponent of the forest managementprogram will ensure that important areas (e.g. important primate specieshabitat) are excludedfrom harvestng..
Benefits:
A well implementedwildlife managemnentprogram will ensure that wildlife population numbers and composition are maintained and increased where the carrying capacity aDows.
The collaborative forestry and savanna management programs will include the management of wild}ife resources for the benefit of the communities. Commercial extraction and poaching will be more effectivelycontrolled as a result of the community benefiting from resources and revenues. Wdldliferesources will be managed on a sustainablebasis.
Through the provisionof taining, vehiclesand equipment,policy related to the protection of endangeredfauna speciesand habitatswill be imlemented.
The biodiversityand insitutional support components of the project will enmurethat the biodiversityaction plan is implemented,thus providing support to the protection of the country's biodiversity.
65 Overalleffect: (+) HIGH
RARE AND ENDANGERED SPECIES AND HABITA TS
Impacts:
Communityfiuelwood plantations and pasture land developmentunder the savanna managementprogram. could occur in areas of natural grassland containingrare and endangeredspecies and habitats that would be eliminated. These species would be replacedwith an exotic(to the area) monoculture.Reforestation in reservesand in off- reserveareas could eliminate endangered species habitats through habitat modification.
Harvestingof individualtrees andgroups of trees reduceswildlife habitat, some of which may be rare and endangered.In some cases harvestingcan eliminatecorridors (e.g. primatesusing arborealhabitats). Reduction of habitatleads to reductionof population and reductionof species,possibly those that are rare and endangered,from a particular reserve.
The impactcould be internationaLpermanent, very severe, could possiblyoccur many times,and would not likelybe reversible.Rating: VERY HIGH
Mitigationwould include the assurancethat any plantationsestablished in the savannaare not sited in areas containingendangered species and endangeredhabitats. The savanna managementprogram is holisticin nature and would take these concems into account when designatingvarious areas for program activities.Surveys conducted under the biodiversitycomponent of the forest maaement program,and implementationof the biodiverst action plan through the project, will ensure that important habitats and populationsof rare and endangeredspecies are protectedfrom timber harvestingand reserve(and off-reserve)reforestation acfivities. In both the reserveand off-reserveareas, mitigationwould includethe identificationof critical areas of reserves and off-reserve areas whererare and endangeredspecies/or habitats occur. Each reserveand off-reserve areawould be assessedfor these speciesand habitatsprior to the finalizationof harvesting plans.Where such featuresexist, these areas would be excludedfrom harvesting.These steps will also be includedin the biodiversitycomponent of the forest management program.
Benefits: Reductionof harvestingin order to achieveannual allowable cut volumeswill reducethe total reserveand off-reserveareas that will be disturbed.Both the wildlifemanagement componentand the biodiversitycomponent of the forest managementprogram will provide surveys and programmingacivities that will identify and protect rare and endangeredspecies and habitats.
Oveall effect: (+) VERY HIGH
66 BiODIERSITY
Impacts:
Plantationswill be establishedeither within high forest areas (reserves and off-reserve areas) or, in small blocks as fuelwoodplantations in the savanna.Within the hieh forest areas plantationswould occupy areas that formerlywould have displayedcomplex forest communities.In the savanna areas plantationswould occupy grasslands which, in their natural state, would display biodiversityunique to the savanna. Plantations can never provide the biodiversitythat the natural high forest and savanna sites would originally displaysince plantationforestry usually focuses on only a few species and speciesthat are often exotic.Plantation establishment promotes the reductionof biodiversity.
The impactwould be countrywide, permanent,very highlysevere, would definitelyoccur once, and would not likelybe reversible.Rating: HIGH
Mitigation would include a greater reliance on convalescence(natural regeneration), enrichment, and where plantation establishmentis necessary, local species should be considered.The biodiversitycomponent of the forest managernentprogram would ensure that important areas of biodiversitywould not be lost to plantation establishmentin the savanna.
Harvesting of specific high value species only (without species utilization expansion) reduces speciesmix and modifieshabitats. Biodiversity of speciesand habitats is reduced.
Increasing the number of species to be used by the industry could reduce species biodiversityand habitat biodiversity.
Fire protection can have a positive or negative effect on biodiversity protection. Fire protection for high forest-reserves will contribute towards biodiversityprotection but in circumstancescould prevent natural successionfrom occurring,thus limitingbiodiversity. Fire used as a managementtool could prevent systems (e.g. in the savanna woodland) from developingfurther stages of successionand thus prevent biodiversitydevelopment.
Mitigation, provided through the project forest managementprogram, particularlythe biodiversitycomponent, would include silviculturalprescriptions that would ensure the protection of a minimalnumber of individualtrees of each species. This in turn would ensure naturalregeneration of the species.
Benefits:
The project contains a biodiversity protection component which will contribute to the imnplementationof the biodiversitystrategies and action plan. Implementationof this plan will ensure that the biodiversityof the country's forest and savanna regions is protected. As well, the comprehensive savanna management program will ensure that areas of
67 important biodiversityare protected. It is likelythat the program would only select the most highlydegraded sites for fuelwoodplantation establishment.
Overalleffect: (+) HIGH
. Socio-economicEnvironment
TRADITIONAL RIGHTS
Impacts:
The establishmentof plantationsin the savanna could lead to the loss of conummongrazing areas from local communitiesas well as areas that are used for a variety of other traditionaluses.
Impact would be regional, over a prolonged period, highly severe, would probably occur severaltimes, and would be reversible.Rating: MODERATE
Mitigationcould include careful planning and implementationof a comprehensive pastoral-silviculturalsystem. This mitigative action will be part of the savanna managementprogram.
Benefits:
Over the years local communitieshave lost their traditionalrights to non-timberforest products as reserves have been closed to their access. The collaborativeforestry componentwould compensate for the loss of this traditionalresource access. In addition, the savannamanagement program will provide, in selectedlocations, small plantations that willbe accessibleto localcommunities for fuedwood,building and othermaterials.
Overalleffect: (+) HIGH
JOBS and POVERTY
Impacts:
An overallgoal of forest managementon a susmainablebasis will result in a significant reductionin annualharvested timber. This in turn will reduce the workforcesignificantly on harvestingoperations as well as in the wood processingsector. However,in the long tern, a reduced number of jobs will be preserved. If the goal of sustainableforest managementis not pursued,the outcomewould be the loss of mostforest industryjobs by the year 2020. This would result in a general increase in poverty since this prinary industrysupports a numberof secondaTyand tertary activitiesand a large number of serviceactivities and jobs. Currentdyit is estimatedthat there are 130,000direct jobs in the
68 industry and these are supplementedwith a large number in the tertiary industry and supportingsectors.
Improved wood utilizationthrough the use of offcuts and other waste material in the manufacturingprocess, would denythe use of these materialsby other groups (e.g. coastal peoplewho use wastes in the food processingindustry). The loss of a supply of low cost (or free) materialscould result in increasedpoverty,
The impactof downsizingthe industryon jobs and povertywould be national,permanent, very highly severe, would occur continuouslyover time, would not be reversibleand would definitelyoccur. Rating: VERY HIGH
The ratingof VERY HIGH is misleadingsince the impact is necessaryto ensure that total job loss and the poverty associatedwith suchjob loss in the forest industry are avoided.A significantnumber of jobs will be lost in order to preserve the majorityof the jobs in the industry.
Mitigation for the jobs that will be lost and for the poverty that the resulting unemploymentwill cause will includethe creation of new jobs in the wood processing industry as a result of improvedwood utilization,improvement of rural socio-economic conditionsthrough the collaborativeforestry, reforestation and savanna land management programs.
Benefits:
Implementationof a sustainableforest managementprogram will ensure that those jobs remainingfollowing the downsizing of the industry, will be secured to perpetuity. The savanna managementprogram will provide the basis for some poverty alleviation,and the collaborativeforestry program will provide oppormnitiesfor non-timberforest products collectionand sale that will further contribute to the alleviationof poverty. The wildlife managementprogram will include support of communityconservation groups. A major task of these groups will be to identifyresource related incomegenerating activitiesthat can be initiated by various donor groups. As well, the conservationgroups will provide guidance and advice to Turalcommunities for the establishmentand rearing of captive wildlifespecies for food and revenue.
The establishmentof plantations (reforestation component) in the savanna and in off- reserveareas, and individualtrees on farmswill provide increasedavailability of goods and income for rural familiesand communities.Plantation establishmentwill create a number of jobs, initially in the establishmentand tending stages of plantation developmentand later, in the harvesting and processing stages. Jobs in the local wood market will be created as communitiesbecome involved in the collaborativeforestry program.
Improved wood utilizationwill bring about new processes and less waste. Additionaljobs will be created and the total number of jobs per unit of raw material volume should
69 increase. Through effectiveresource managementof national parks and wildlifereserves, includingthe development and maintenance of infrastructure, tourism potential will be developedand jobs for rural people will be created.
Income generation schemes could be developed as an inducement to enter into the collaborativeforestry program.
Overall effect, in the sbort term: (-) HIGH Overall effect, in the long term: (+) HIGH
NON TIMBERFOREST PRODUCTS
Impacts:
Implementationof the biodiversitymanagement plan will result in the removal of reserve and off-reserve areas from harvesting. Food stuffs, fuielwood, building materials and medicinal plants would no longer be collected from areas brought under biodiversity management.
The impact would be regional,permanent, highly severe, would definitelyoccur once, and would not be reversible.Rating: HIGHI
Other project components including reforestation, collaborative foresty, and savanna managementwould mitigate the losses incurred as a result of biodiversitymanagement and the removalof certain areas from non-timberproduct harvesting.Areas to be placed under protection would be assessed for their contribution to improving local (for personal use) socio-economicconditions. Compensationfor community losses could also include the provision of community infrastructure. Provision of community infiastructure will be provided as part of an inducement for communities to participate in the collaborative forestry programn
The savanna managementprogram will include the protection of areas important for the production of NTFPs, including grasses for crafts and household items, as well as additional areas to be establishedand managed for NTFP production. Fuelwood plantations in the savanna would be established in areas not curently required for other importantcommunity uses, and where possible,they would be establishedon degraded sites.
Benefits:
As indicatedfor mitigationabove, the sava management,collaborative forestry and reforestationprograms will provide opportueis for developinga number of NTFPs outsideof the reserveareas.
Overall effect: (+) MODERATE
70 AESTHETICS
Impacts:
Timber harvestingresults in open canopies, slash piles, high and unsightlytree stumps. damaged standing trees and damaged lesser vegetation. During harvesting, operation machinery, mud, and noise all contribute to a loss of aesthetics relative to those experiencedin an undisturbedarea. However, it is not likely that this loss of aesthetics affects a large populationand the effectwould be temporaryuntil the forest recovers.
The impact would be at site, for a mediumterm, of low severity, would possiblyoccur, many times,and would be reversible.Rating: LOW
The aesthetics of degraded sites will be improved through the project's plantation program. Aesthetics of harvesting sites will be improved with the practice of good standards.
Mitigationcould also includethe non-harvestingof areas that are important or potentially importantto tourists and for localrecreation and environmentaleducation.
Benefits:
The level of harvesting will be reduced as a result of implementingthe principle of sustainedyield managementand thus reducingthe amount of logging damage.The project will also provide funding for the implementationof national park and wildlife reserve managIementplans. These will be developed in an aestheticallypositive way in termnsof buildingand other structure location and layout, design,building materials used (e.g. local materials),and color schemes.
Overall effect: (+) LOW
MIGRATION
Loss of forest related jobs in both harvestingand the processing industry will encourage out-migrationto areas where jobs exist or where it is perceivedthat jobs exist. This could put pressure on the services of such major urban centers as Accra, Kumasi and Takoradi. Urban social problemswith additionalunemployed families would increase.
The impact would be regional, medium term, of low severity, possibly occur, once, and would probablybe reversible.Rating: LOW
Alternativejob opportunitiesin the communityareas that will be most affected by forest industry downsizing could be developed. Training programs could be introduced that would provide forest and mill workers with skills that would allow them to obtain senii- skilledor skdlledjobs in their communitiesor elsewherein the general area.
71 Benefits:
The collaborativeforestrv and plantation programs will provide income opportunities and contribute to the alleviation of poverty. Improved socio-economic conditions will encouragerural people to remainin communities,thus minirizing the degree of migration to the urban centers.
Overall effect: (-) LOW
LAND USE
Land use in the savanna and off-reserve areas will change as a result of the savanna managementand plantation establishmentprograms, respectively.Depending on how land resourcesin these areas are currently being used, the changes could be negativein terms of affectingpeople's livelihoodsand the socio-economicconditions of people and their conmnunities.
The impact on land use could be moderate in area, prolonged, of low severity, possibly occur, once, and would probablyby reversible.Rating: LOW.
Mitigationis built into the project through careful planning, preceded by relevant surveys. This would be particularly true in the savanna where a comprehensive savanna managementprogram will be implemented.Sites that play an important role both socially and economicallyin communityaffairs would not be modified.Land use changes would be for purposes of improvingdegraded sites and improvingsocio-economic conditions of the commities in the area.
Benefits:
The savanna managementprogram will promote good land use which will likely include some land use changes to better serve the socio-economicneeds of the communitiesand to improvesite conditionand productivity.Improved extension activities as these relate to collaborative forestry practices and on-farm tree establishment,will promote good land use practices. The savanna managementprogram will include soil and water conservation activities.Reforestation in both on- and off-reserveareas willremove areas from naturalforest conditionsand thus, reduce biodiversity,but in doing so, it will remove long term harvestingpressure fromexsting natura forest areas.
Overall effect: (I) MODERATE
72 GEN'DERISSUES
The biodiversitycomponent will exclude access to certain areas. This could require that womenfrom communitiesadjacent to these areas travel fiirtherafield to collect firewood and other forest materialsessential for their subsistence.
The collaborative forestry component and the savanna plantation program of the reforestationcomponent may result in additionaltasks for rural women to perform, thus increasingtheir work burden.
The impacts on women could be widespread, permanent, moderately severe, possibly occur, many times,and would probablybe reversible.Rating: MODERATE
Mitigation could include, based on an assessment of women's roles through a public consultative process, identificationof activities that would ensure that the burden for women, as a result of the project, is not increased. Enhancement could include the lessening of women's burden, the provision of economic opportunities for women, an increasedrole of women in decisionmaking in terms of species to establish, areas to be reforested,etc. and the provisionof trainingfor women.
Benefits:
The collaborativeforestry program will provide, as an inducementfor communitiesto participate,community infrastructure facilities that will benefit women (e.g. villagewater supply, health center). The savama managementprogram and the reforestationprogram will include the establishmentof small comUmuity fuelwood plantations dose to the communitiesthat will use them. These facilitiesand serviceswill reduce the distancesthat women willbe requiredto travel for fuelwood,water and health services.
Overall effect: (+) MODERATE
FUELWOOD
Impacts:
A reduction in harvesfing levels, improved wood utiization and biodiversityprotection within reserves and off-reserveswill reduce the amount of fuelwood available to local communities.Traditionally local communitieshave collected waste wood following a harvestingoperation. The current level of the use of waste wood is not known and it is possible that waste wood available following reductions in harvesting intensity and improved ufilizationmay still meet local demand. However, if local requirementsare not met, the effect of reduced fuelwood availabilitywould include increased cost to local families for the purchase of fuielwoodand an additional burden on women to search further afieldto meet their fuel needs.
73 If reduced fuelwood supplies present a hardship to local communities,the impact will be regionaLprolonged, moderately severe, definitely occur once, and would probabil be reversible.Rating. MODERATE
Mitigationwould include implementationof the collaborativeforestry program, fuelwood plantations establishmentin the savanna (savanna management program), on-farm tree establishment,and a program of introducingand making availableto rural people efficient wood burningstoves.
Benefits:
The collaborative forestry program, the reforestation program and the savanna management program will all contribute to an increased supply of readily available fuelwood.
Overall effect:(+) MODERATE 6.3.2Other Benefits
FORESTPROTECTION
Improvementsin fire detection, preventionand suppressionwill reduce the loss of valuable timber and imnature stands as well as valuableecosystems, providing a host of non-timber forest products. Biodiversitywill be protected. Institutional support to the ministry will allow more effectivepolicing of regulationsincluding illegal operators in both the forestry and miningsectors. Policingof operationalregulations within forest reserveswill also contributeto effectiveresource conservation, particularly where mining activities occur.
Benefit:HIGH
TREE TEN-URE Treeson farms,unless planted by the farmeror tenant, are ownedby the governmentor the communities.Previously, to removethe tree a ^utsideronly required penrission from the gover-nment.The policy towards tree tent will be implementedthrough the institutionalsupport componentof the project.It - includethe requirementof the land ownerto providepermission for the removalof th, by anotherparty. The project, through publiceducation, extension and the coll& i ve program,will ensure that the landowner is awareof the policy.
Benefit: MODERATE
74 FOREST PRODUCTIONand a SUSTAJVABLE ECONOMY
Through all components of the project, forest productionsboth timber and non-timber, will increase in the long term and productionwill be sustainable.Eventually, production willbe increasedas plantationsmature. Sustainableproduction will ensure permanentjobs and incomesfor those in the industry, as well as steady foreign earningsfrom exports. With the increasingpopularity of importingcountries insistingon imports being certified as 'sustainableforest origin', Ghana will be in a position to establishfavorable long term timberexport relations.
Benefit: HIGH
ASSETS
Communityassets will increase through the savanna management program and the collaborative forestry program. Individual assets will increase through on-farm tree establishment.Such assets will contributeto conmunity stabilityand individualhousehold stability as they provide a variety of products (food, fuelwood, building materials, medicinesand fodder)a steadysource of income,and in the case of the savannaplantation program,jobs.
Effectivemanagement of wildliferesources withinreserves and nationalparks will ensure that populations are maintained at carrying capacity levels. Under such management wildlifewill be less of a threat to communitiesand farn lands adjacentto the reserves and parks. Assets such as trees, kraals, dams and stored crops will be better protected from wildlifedamage.
Skills leaning through the project's various programs (e.g. savanna plantation establishment,soil and water conservation) is an asset that will allow rural people to generateincome.
Benefit: MODERATE
INFR4STRUC71TRE
The TimberRights Bill will be implementedthrough the project. The bill includesa soial responsibilitycontract betweenthe communitiesand timber contractorsto provide infrastructureto communities.As well, communitieswill be provided with infiastructure to encouragecommunities to participatein the collaborativeprogam.
Benefit: MODERATE
75 EDLUCATION AND TRIA7NG
Through the institutionalstrengthening component, forestrv and wildlife staff members will receive training that will allow them to effectivelycarry out the project's sustainable managementobjectives.
Participantsin the collaborativeforestry scheme will be given training and will be made environmentallyaware to better appreciatethe need for sustainableresource management. In some instances, those who have been given training to maintainnurseries will possess skills that can be used elsewhere. Plantation establishmentin the savanna and on farms, and communityplantation establishment,will be combined with an effective extension program that will train the farmer, and the community,in the establishmentand tending of the plantationsand the harvestingand marketing of products from the plantation.
With a reductionin wood supply, the industry will be requirecd to become more efficient in processingthe supply with which it is provided. Training opportunitieswill be extended to the industryto ensure that a high level of wood utilization efficiencyis achieved.
Benefit: MODERATE
RELIGIOUS, CULTURA1Land ARCHAEOLOGICALFEA4TURES
Where archaeological features are found in parks and game reserves these will be protected and their interpretation and display will be enhanced to contribute to tourism developmentand the protection of local culture. Anv such features within forest reserves and off-reserveareas will be recognizca and pvit'a: i from harvesting damage. Physical and biologicalfeatures (e.g. sacred groves,!i-.- tE zignized andprotected.
Benefit: LOW
PUBLICHEALTH
With the provision of rural jobs and an income, rural poverty in the long term will be alleviated. As familiesmove out of poverty they are able to direct more of their income to adequate amounts of nutntious foods (preventative medicine) and to medicines (curative medicine),thus improvingfamily health.
The collaborative forestry, plantation and savanna managementprograms will contribute to the establishment, maintenance and harvesting of medicinal plants on a sustainable basis.
One of the responsibilitiesof the TUC is to provide public health faciities. These will be provided as an inducement to communities to enter into the collaborative forestry program.
76 Benefit:MODERATE
OCCUPATIONALHEAL TH AND SAFETY
The problemof health and safetyin the work place, particularlyon harvestingoperations and in mill and other processingoperations, prevails. Although the project will contribute to the occurrenceof fewer accidentsand health problemsthrough the downsizingof the industry,the conditionsleading to health and safetyproblems will remain.Workers in the forest on harvestingsites as well as mill workers, often work in unsafe conditions and without the benefit of safety equipment.Workers in the industry do not use hard hats, safety footwear, ear protection, or other specialized safety clothing or equipment. Environmental enhancement could include incentives and enforcement of relevant regulationsto reducehealth and safetyrisks.
Sawdustrecovery for productionof sawdust briquetteswill reduce the amount of sawdust in the air, thus reducingthe risk of respiratoryproblems amongst mill employees.
Benefit:HIGH
RECREATION
Management plan implementationof wildlife reserves and national parks within close Proximityof urban areas will provide recreationalopportunities, particularly to a growing middleclass that is becomingincreasingly aware of its environment.
Benefit: LOW
6.4 CumulativeEffects
Of the 17 EECsupon which the project could have an impact, the project will have a cumulativeeffect on 12 of them. Table 6.5 provides an analysisof the cumulativeeffects of the project. The ratings on effects are given for each EEC for 'before mitigation' conditions.
Table 6.5: CumulativeEffects
Climate n/a_ Airquality nia__ a_ Hydrology Low Groundwaterrecharge and river flow regulation significantlyaffected by agricutural practices and ______~ urbanization. Contribution by project is small.
77 Water quality Low | Water qualityis affected bv agriculturalpractices industrialprocesses, urbanization, waste managementand hydro-electricschemes. Project contributesinsienificantly to overallwater quality degradation. Soils Low Soil compactionand erosion is mainlycaused by large scale farmingand inappropriatefarming techniques.Erosion is also caused by inappropriate construction(e.g. roads, buildings)techniques. Contributionby the project is small. Flora Low Flora is lost primarilythrough agricultural expansion,mining and urbanization.The project will contribute to these losses in a minorway. Fauna Low Loss of habitat through agriculturalexpansion and urbanizationas well as illegalfelling in off-reserve areas, as well as illegalhunting, are the primary causes of loss of wildliferesources. Sustainable forest managementwill contribute only slightlyto this overall loss. Rare and endangered High As above, the contributionto the overallloss of rare speciesand habitats and endangeredspecies is low, comparedto losses as a result of illegalcapture, and loss of habitat. However, any loss, even through the project, is viewed as a significantcontnbution to the overall loss. Biodiversity Moderate Off-reserveremoval of forest vegetation for mining, agriculturalexpansion, urbanization are the major contributorsto biodiversityloss. However, harvestingactivities do make a moderate contribution. Traditionalrights NIA Jobs and poverty High It is assumed that as the country's economy expands,job opportunitiesincrease. It is unlikely that there are other sectors contributingto overall job loss in the short term equivalentto those that wiUlbe lost as a resuk ofthe downsizingofthe forest industy NTFP n/a _ Aesthetics Low Contributionto poor aesthetics is insignificant relative to the contributionthrough ill planned development, particularly in urban areas. Migration Moderate In general, rural people migrate to urban areas for jobs. The downsizingof the forest industry should
:______contnbute significantly to this migration.
78 Land use Low Land use changesas a result of the projectwill be insignificant,relative to changestaking place constantlythroughout the countrvas a result of urbanizationand agriculture. Genderissues Low The role of womenin societyis constantlyin change - some of it favorableand some not so. It is expectedthat the contributionto any negativeeffect will be low. Fuelwood n/a
6.5 Residual Impacts
Residualimpacts are those impacts that can be expectedto persist once all mitigationhas been carried out. With the assumptionthat alDmitigation, as indicated in the impact statements, and as detailed in the managementplan, will be implemented,Table 6.6 describesthe residualimpacts to be expected and these are the impacts that have to be taken into considerationwhen determiningif the project should proceed in its present form, if it shouldbe modified,or if it should proceed at all. An examinationof the residual impacts-clearly portrays a project that is enviromnentallybenign, and in fact, will contribute significantlyto the country's overall environmentalhealth. A total of eight LOW residualimpacts and one each in the moderate and high categories will result from the project. However, these residuals have to be considered in context to the many benefits,as indicatedin Section 6.2.2. With perhaps the exceptionof the one high residual impact (loss of jobs - but only in the short to medium term) the benefitsprovided by the Project far outweighthe residualimpacts. In fact, a case could be made that the project benefitsoutweigh the impactsbefore mitigationoccurs!
Table 6.6: Residual Impacts
.climate ;none Low: smallopenings will occur, temporarilybut continuously,throughout the reserves .air quality .industrialprocesses and None emission controls .hydrology .best practice guidelinesand Low: some runoff from proper siting of plantations skidding tracks and forest ______access_ ___ roads is inevitable .water quality .best practice guidelines Low: some stream during harvesting,carefil sedimentationwill occur as planning,and proper a result of minimal erosion; handling,storage and None: from wood disposal of toxic materials processing industry
79 .soiis .best practice guidelines Low: small amount of soil erosion and minimal compaction on harvesung
.______site .flora .sustainableforest Low: as long as there is managementand harvestingthere will always
_biodiversity protection be an impact on species .fauna .sustainableforest Moderate: plantationswill managementand limiting be establishedin order to plantation size protect remainingnatural forest - fauna habitat willbe reduced, as will certain faunal populations -rare and endangered .sustainableforest None species managementand biodiversityprotection .biodiversity .sustainableforest Low: with forestry managementand operationsthere will always biodiversityprotection be some impact on
.______,biodiversity -traditionalrights .savannamanagement and None collaborativeforestry programs - jobs and poverty .sustainableforest High: in the short to management;creation of mediumterm the job loss new jobs in wood will be significantbut in the processing;collaborative long term, under sustainable forestry and savanna forest management,a managementprograms smalle number of jobs will ______be secured .NTFPs .reforestation,biodiversity None and collaborativeforestry programs .aesthetics best practice guidelines Low: Harvestingoperation areas wil alwaysbe of low aesthetic value .migration .collaborativeforestry and Low: With the number of savanna management jobs to be lost through programs as well as training downsizing,there is bound in the wood processing to remain some migrationto industry for new processes the urban areas
so .landuse savannamanagement None programand careful planningre: landuse and user needs .genderissues .carefulplanning of the None projectwith women's needs taken into account .fuelwood .savannamanagement and None reforestation programs
6.6 Environmental Enhancement
Often projectswith residualimpacts will includeenvironmental enhancement measures as a way of compensatingfor permanentlylost environmentalvalues. However, the NRM can be consideredto be primarilyan enviromnentallysupportive project and many of its actionsare enhancing.A range of activitiesincluding the continuationof sustainableforest managementin reserves and the intent of the same for the off-reserve areas, to the collaborativeforestry and savannamanagement programs, and the biodiversityand wildlife managementcomponents of the forest management component, all contribute to the enhancementof the environment. 7. ANALYSISOF PROJECTALTERNATIVES
7.1 Concept Analysis
The NRMP has evolvedover a period of severalmonths through discussionsbetween the World Bank and the Ministryof Lands and Forestry. The project is not one that has been selected from a number of alternativeprojects. However, dunng the developmentof the project concept any one of the followingfive direcfionscould have been taken.
. no project . a continuationof the current FRMP project . a World Bank type forest management project of the distant past which focused on timber and not people . a projectthat did not includea comprehensivesavanna component . the current project concept
Each altemative concept is briefly discussed in terms of the IECs that would be most affected.
7.2 Alternative 1: No Project
Without the institutionalstrengthening that the project will provide, it is questionablethat all of the regulations relevant to sustainable forest management would be addressed. If sustainableforest managementis not fbllowed,a host of biophysicalimpacts would occur
81 includingthe loss of species,habitats, and, consequently,biodiversity. Although industr jobs wouldbe maintained,in the longterm they would all be lost as the industryeventuallv exhauststhe merchantibletimber supply. Local communitieswould receiveno long term benefitsthat sustainableforest managementwould have to offer. Povertywould not be alleviatedbut insteadwould be aggravated. 7.3 Alternative2: Continuationof Current FRMP
Althoughthis project has been reasonablysuccessful in achievingits objectives,it has focused mainly on institutionalissues. Extension of this project would provide the additionalinstitutional strengthening that the MLF requiresin order to ensuresustainable forest management,and thus, the benefitsthat NRMP will providein this regard would alsobe achievedby an FRMPextension. There was no specificbiodiversity component in FRMP.As well,it did not addresswood processing issues, particularly underutilization of raw materials.Apart from the supportfor communitynurseries and the establishmentof a pilot for locallybased savannawoodland management, it did not containa substantial conmunityforestry component. To continuethe existingFRMP rather than adoptingthe currentconcept, would not lead to any specificinputs towards biodiversity protection, or protectionof forestresources through a collaborativeapproach. Local communitieswould not be ableto take advantageof socio-econoniicimprovement that a collaborativeforestry componentwould provide.Without a comprehensivesavanna management component, communitiesin the savanmawould not be able to improvetheir overall socio-economic situation.
7.4 Alternative3: HistoricalForestry Project
If a forest managementproject of the type that had been designedand implemented20 yearsago with WB supportwas considered,the impactswould have been significant.The projectprobably would have been based on the conceptof sustainableforest management, and would haveincluded many of the elementsof the currentlyconceptualized project in terms of istitutional support and development,and support to the private wood processingsector. However,it probablywould have also supportedthe replacementof indigenousforests with fast growingplantations, would not have includeda community developmentcomponent, and in fact, probablywould have ignored local community issues andneeds as these relateto the forest resource.Biodiversity would have beensignificantly reduced.
7.5 Alternative 4: Current Concept but Without Comprehensive Savanna ManagementComponent
This conceptwould experiencemost of the benefitsand impactsthat the currentconcept will havewith the exceptionof those associatedwith the savannamanagement component. Therewould be no additionalimpacts, but withoutthe componentthe net benefitthat the comprehensivesavanna management component would have would be lost. The most
82 importantbenefit to be lost would be the opportunityto have a significantpositive effect on povertyalleviation of the people of the savanna.
7.6 Alternative 5: Current Concept
The current concept provides an overall environmentalbenefit to Ghana and particularly to the rural communities.However, this benefit will only be achieved through a tremendouseffort made by Governmentin the implementationof the project. The project will be complex, and institutionallychaUllenging to implement with a high degree of efficiencyand success.The public liaisonmechanism to be designedand put into practice in order to succeed with the savanna management component and the collaborative forestry componentwill be extremelychallenging and risky, particularlyin a climate of suspicionthat local communitieshave for the FD. The capacity of the FD and other relevant agencies is questionablein terms of being able to successfullyimplement the project as presentlyenvisaged.
7.7 Summary and Conclusions
To do nothing (alternative 1) would be folly and irresponsible.Resources would continue to dwindle, industry jobs would eventually all be lost, poverty would worsen, and biodiversitywould be diminished.
To extend the current FRMP (alternative 2) would be to provide 'more of the same' and although implementationwould be relatively easy since 'more of the same' would probably be implementedat a more efficientlevel. However, the real problems of rural communitiesrelative to the natural resource base would not be addressed and poverty would not be significantly,if to any degree at aLl,reduced.
To follow the path of historicalforestry projects (alternative 3) would be a regression. Althoughsustainable forest managementwould be practiced, other forest values would be ignored and local communitieswhich depend on forest resources would receive no benefitsfrom the project. Biodiversity,in all likelihood,would suffer appreciably.
Alternative 4 (the current concept without the savanna managementcomponent) would be neglectinga very importantsector of the country's natural resource base. Although all of the impactsand most of the benefitsassociated with the current concept (alternative5) would be realized,the overallbenefit would be less. The project would be relativelyeasy to implementunder alternative4, and therefore would have a greater chancefor success.
Alternative 5, the current concept, is the most comprehensiveof all of the alternative concepts but it is also the most complex and will be the most difficult to implement successfibly.The concept focuses on a number and variety of serious issues includingrual poverty, resource degradation, biodiversityprotection, and non-sustainableforestry. The insiutional challengesto address these problemseffectively will be substantial.
83 8. ENVIRONMENTALMANAGEMENT PLAN
8.1 Purpose and Intent
The environmentalmanagement plan is based on the results of the EIA. The purpose of the plan is to provide the blueprnt for clear and timely actions that will be required to mitigateand compensatefor the impactsthat have been identifiedthrough the ElA. Costs indicated here are only indicativeas to what will be required to implementthe necessary actions that have to be taken. The environmentalmanagement plan has to be further developed and the Govemment of Ghana will have to indicate its committment to the expendituresnecessary to ensure that mitigationis completed.
8.2 Description
Since the project will have few negative impacts and the project is itself generally environmentallysupportive, few actions in addition to the implementationof the project will be required. This managementplan addresses the activities of the project that are mitigative towards the impacts described, best practice guidelines for mitigation, and additional actions that should be considered in order to ensure that all inpacts are addressed. In the followingsections the various activities,in addition to project activities, required for mitigationare described.For each activity a description is provided for the acivity, inputs required and outputs expected, responsibility, costs and scheduling. Descriptionsare provided for the impacts to be expectedon 17 IECs.
8.3 Mitigative Measures
8.3.1 Impact on Air Quality
. Description
Since a broader range of tree species will be used in the wood processing industry, additional wood processes may be employed. These processes could include chemicals potentiallytoxic either in their current form or in their altered form. Air quality could be compromised.
. Actions to be Taken
Industries contemplatingnew processes will be required to submit development plans to the MLF for comment and approval. These plans will include the chemicals to be used in the new processes and how they will be handled,used and disposed of Processes that may lead to air pollution will require emissioncontrol. Industries will be required to install the appropnate technologyto ensure that emissionsmeet with country air quality standards.
84 . Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
Through the project, industrieswill be assisted in the identificationof additionalspecies and processesthat can be used. Industrieswill be required to advisethe MLF of any new processes to be adopted, includingchemicals to be used and details of the processes. Industrieswill be requiredto install appropriatetechnology to control emissionsthat may exceed air qualitystandards. MLF should assign a staff memberto the responsibilityof approving industry applicationsand for ensuring that monitoring (through the EPA) is carriedout and acted upon. New processes adaptedby industrywill not produce emissions that exceedthe country's air qualitystandards.
. Expected Results
Air qualitywill meet nationalstandards.
. Schedulingand Costs
At this stage it is not knownwhich additionalchemicals, if any, will be used in new wood processing activities. Studies will have to be conducted to determine appropriate processingtechnologies to be considered for the industry. Such studies will take into accountair qualityrequiremnents.
Without knowledge of processes and chemicals to be used, at this stage, costs of mitigationcan not be determined.
8.3.2 Impact on Hydrology
Description
Harvestingactivities lead to soil compactionand rainfallrunoff. As a result, groundwater recharge is reduced and flows of streams and rivers are increased. Without proper selectionof species and sites, plantations can cause groundwater drawdown that could affect adjacentland uses such as irrigatedagriculture and the water supplyfor villages.
. Actions to be Taken
Best practiceguidelines during harvestingoperations will be followed. These will include the use of relativelylight machineryfor harvesting,avoidance of locating skiddingtrails on steep slopes, and appropriate road building methods, particularly in the area of streamn crossings.
During detailed planning for plantation establishment, consideration will be given to groundwater needs of adjacentland uses and built up areas. Water requirementsand the effect on groundwater levels will be consideredwhen species for reforestation are being selected.
8S . Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
Forest harvest planningwill be carried out between the contractor and the FD, and the FD will monitor harvesting operations to ensure that best practice guidelines are applied. Silvicultureplanning to determinesite and species selectionwill be carriedout by the FD.
Outputs will include minimal runoff from skidding trails and logging roads. As well, plantationestablishment will not lower groundwaterlevels significantly.
. Expected Results
Groundwaterrecharge in forest areas will not be appreciablyaffected and stream sedimem loads and flow rates in forest streams and rivers will be mininal. Stable habitats for aquatic flora and fauna willbe protected.
. Scheduling and Costs
Planning and the monitoring of the application of best practice guidelines will occur immediatelyat project inception.No additionalcosts for mitigationwill be required.
8.3.3 Impact on Water Quality
DDescription
Water quality can be affected by the project from two sources. During harvesting operations, runoff can add sediment loads to the surface water systen and can cary spilled fuels and waste lubricantsinto the surface and groundwater systems. Through the use of a broader range of species, the wood processing industry could introduce new processes which could include the use of different chemicals that, if not comntned and disposedof properly, could contaminateboth groundwater and surface water systems.
. Actions to be Taken
Best practice guidelines will be applied during harvesing operations. Skidding will take place and roads wil be maintainedand built in such ways as to enure msinimaldamage to trail and road surfaces, and to mnimize runoff and erosion. Fuei, and lubricants will be handled in a safe manner and will be stored properly. Waste lubricantswill be stored and carried out of the area to be deposited (recycledwhere possible) in a safe site and manner. Operators could be required to use vegetable-basedchainsaw lubricatmgoils, if these are available.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
The FD will ensure that best practice guidelines are applied on all harvesting operations, includingroad location, construction and maintenance. Concessionaires will ensure that
86 these guidelinesare followed. The FD will develop a set of guidelines for the safe handling,storage and disposal of fuels and lubricants at the harvesting sites and it will ensurethat these guidelineswill be followed.The FD shouldinvestizate the possibilityand feasibility of importing and using vegetable based chainsaw lubricants. The wood processingindustry will submitplans for new processes that utilize chemicals.Such plans willindicate how these chemicalswill be utilized,stored and handled,and how wastes will be disposal.The FD willmonitor the use and handlingof chemicalsfor new processes.
. ExpectedResults
Groundwaterand surfacewater qualitywill not be appreciablyaffected in harvestingareas or at wood processingsites.
. Scheduling and Costs
The FD shouldprovide sufficient funds to develop,at project inception,a set of guidelines for the handlingand storage of fuels, lubricantsand other chemicalsused on harvesting operations.These guidelineswill be appended to the existingLogging Manual. The FD will provide an enviroDmentalmonitoring team (see descriptionin Section 8.5) that will ensure that guidelinesare followed.Monitoring could be carriedout on a spot check basis anywhere in the country. The monitoring team would be responsiblefor all aspects of environmentalmonitoring for forestry and the forest industry.
The wood processing industry would be required to finance the planning for new processes that would require the use of chemicals.Such plans would describe in detail how chemicalswould be used, handledand disposed. Monitoringwould be caried out by the FD.
8.3.4 Impact on Soils
. Description
Soil erosion and compaction which will lead to a loss of productivity base, stream sedimentationand runoff will result from poorly planned and implementedharvesting plans.
. Actions to be Taken
Best practice guidelinesas described in the Logging Manual will be foliowed in order to minimizethese impacts.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
The concessionairewill be responsiblefor ensuringthat roads are located, constructed and maintainedas per guidelines.He will also ensure that only equipment of the correct type
57 and size is engaged in the harvestingoperation, and that skidding trails are not located on steep slopes or in areas vulnerable to erosion. The FD) will be responsible for the environmentalmonitoring of harvestingoperations.
Outputs will includethe proper constructionof roads and siting of sk-iddingtrails, and the use of appropriateskidd ng equipment.The FD will provide periodic monitoring reports that will receive follow up action where required.
. Expected Results
Soil erosion and soil compactionon harvestingsites will be kept to a minimum.
. Scheduling and Costs
Mitigativemeasures, including environmental monitoring, will begin at project inception. The FD will support an environmentalmonitoring unit and should provide sufficient fiundingfor the preparation of an environmentalmonitoring guidebook. Concessionaires wi1 be responsiblefor the cost of appropriatemachinery to be employedon the harvesting operations.
8.3.5Impact on Flora
* Description
Industry diversificationwill require new tree species. Additional species from the overall floral compositionof the forest will be removed and associated lesser forest species may be affected.Plantation establishmentin the transition zone and small fuelwood plantations establishedin the savanna could eliminategrassland and transitionalzone plant species.
. Actions to be Taken
The project will promote sustainable forest managementpractices including silvicultural techniques to ensure that new species removed from the forest would be regenerated. Through sound forest managementand biodiversityprotection, the project will protect the important star species. Plantations to be established on degraded sites under the project would includethe new marketablespecies, thus eventualyremoving pressure from the desiredspecies in theirnatural habitat.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
No inputs additionalto those required for implementingthe project will be required. Sustainableforest management,including reforestation, will be the responsibilityof the FD.
Outputs will include plantation developmentof the most commerciallyfavorable species. . Expected Results
Harvestingof additional species will be conducted in accordance to sustainableforest managementprinciples. Silviculturaltechniques employed in forest manazement will ensure that new speciesharvested will be able to regeneratenaturally, and that associated specieswill not be negativelyaffected.
. Scheduling and Costs
As per the project schedulingand budget.
8.3.6 Impact on Fauna; and Rare and Endangered Species and Habitats
. Description
The establishmentof plantations provides relatively simple ecosystems that will not support the variety of species and population densitiesof wildlifethat the natural forest would support. Wildlifespecies now present on degraded sites could disappear with a conversionto plantations.Haesting of individualtrees and groups of trees in the natural high forest will reduce wildlife habitat. Of particular concern wil be the possible eliminationof corridors such as the forest canopy corridorused by some primates. Reducedhabitat leads to reducedpopulations and species mix. . Actionsto be Taken
The project will ensure that plantation establishmentwill not occur in areas that are importantwildlife habitat. Each potential site for plantationestablishment will be carefully surveyedto determineexisting wildlife habitat and populationvalues. Where natural forest areas are to be harvested,each area willbe examinedfor wildlifehabitat and population speciesvalues. Forest managementplans will be prepared,taking the protection of importantwildlife habitats into consideraion.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities As part of the project,important areas of biodiversitywill be surveyedand demarcatedas such.These areas wil be removedfrom fiuture harvesting. The FD willbe responsiblefor carrying out the biodiversitysurvey and for ensurng that forest managementplans will excludeimportant wildlife habitats from harvesting.The ED will also be responsiblefor determiningareas for reforestation.
No additionalcosts or staffingalready indicated in projectinputs will be required.Outputs wullinclude the exclusionof importantwildlife habitats from harvesting and from areasto be reforested.
89 . Expected Results
Importantwildlife habitats and populationswill be protected.
. Scheduling and Costs
As per project schedulingand budget.
8.3.7 Impact on Biodiversity
. Description
The high forest and savanna regions contain their own unique mix of fauna and flora and together they contributeto a complexand uniquenational biodiversity.Conversion of high forest areas to plantations and management of the savanna resources which may alter natural grasslands,will reduce biodiversity.Forest plantationscan never provide the same biodiversityfound under natural high forest conditions. Savanna grasslands converted to fuielwoodplantations or to new grasses and crops for increasedagricultural and livestock production,likewise will lead to a reductionin biodiversity.
Actions to be Taken
The project, through its sustainableforest managementapproach and programs of savanna managementand biodiversityprotection, will ensure that areas of important biodiversity values are not violated. Surveyswill be conductedto identifythese important areas.
Ilnputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
Projectinputs will include biodiversity surveys and biodiversityprotection to be conducted and implementedby the ElDand the WD.
Outputs wil include the exclusionof important biodiversityareas from harvesting, plantationdevelopment and agriculturalrelated development.
. ExpectedResults
Biodiversityin the high forestand savanmaregions of Ghanawill be protected.
. Scheduling and Costs
As per projectscheduling and budget..-
:0 8.3.8 Impacts on Traditional Rights
. Description
The establishmentof fuelwood plantations in the savanna could lead to the loss of common grazing areas to local communities.Areas removed from access through the biodiversityprotection program could affecttraditional rights.
. Actions to be Taken
Actionsto be taken are withinthe scope of the project and includecareful planning for the location of plantationsand the design and location of pastoral-silviculturalsystems.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
No additionalinputs to those alreadydescribed in the project will be required. The FD and MoAF will take on the responsibilitiesof ensuring the protection of areas that include opportunitiesfor local communitiesto practicetraditional rights.
Outputswill includethe protection of traditionalrights.
Expected Results
Communitieswill be satisfied with the DF and MoAF actions in the protection, and possiblythe enhancement,of their traditionalrights activities.
SScheduling and Costs
As per project schedulingand budget.
8.3.9 Impacts on Jobs and Poverty
. Description
The forest industry will be required to downsize as a result of achieving the goal of sustainableforest managementand reducingthe annual harvest to within the limits of the sustainableallowable cut. Manyjobs will be lost in the short and mediumterm. However, by meeting the goal of sustainableforest management,the jobs that are retained will be availableto perpetuity, not withstandingfurther downsizingthrough mechanizationand other actions to improve efficiencyand productivityinput/output ratios.
. Action to be Taken
The collaborative forestry program and the savanna management program will provide opportunities for improving rural socio-econoric conditions and thus will contribute
91 substantiallyto the alleviation of poverty in these areas with opportunities for resource product harvestingand improved productivityof farm and grazing lands. As well, project support to the industry will identify downstreamwood processing technologies that will provide additionaljobs, possiblyto some who will be released from the existing mills as mill productivityis reduced.
In addition to project programs, additional training of those to be downsized should be provided in order that these 'new jobless' will develop skills that can be used elsewhere. Inputs will require formal and 'on the job' training in areas where there is demand for semi-skilledand skilled individuals.Inputs in the forn of grants to individualsto attend formal training sessions already available to the general public, or to place these individualsin apprenticeshipprograms, will be provided. Income generating opportunities (e.g. domessticatingwildlife for sale, utilization of forest wastess, bee keeping) will be researched.
A comprehensivetraining and work placementplan willbe developed.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
MLF should provide adequate fimding for the preparation of a human resource developmentplan that willinclude a surveyof peoplewho will lose theirjobs as a resultof meetingallowable cut volumes.It shouldalso providefimding towards implementation of the plan. Fundscould be soughtfrom the donor community.MLF could also providea staff memberto overseethe developmentof the trainingplan and the monitoringof its implementation.Outputs will include a human resources developmentplan (training) directedtowards those who will be downsizedfrom the forest industry.Output will also includetraining courses and apprenticeshipsbeing provided to a minimumof 25% of all of those whowill lose their jobs as a resultof industrydownsizing. Trainingwill likely occur in existingtraining ceners and in programs alreadybeing provided.Implementation of the trainingplan would be monitoredby an outsideagency.
Fundsfor researchingalternative income generating activities should be provided.
Expected Results
At least 25% of all of those who lose their jobs as a result of the project should be providedwith sutable traing to allowthem to gai employmentin other areas. At least 75% of those who receive training should be gainfmllyemployed within a year of successfullycompleting their training program.
. Schedulingand Costs
The training plan would be developed within the first year of the project and implementationof the planwould be carriedout duringthe life of the project.
92 8.3.10Impacts on Non Timber Forest Products
. Description
Implementationof the biodiversitymanagement plan will result in the removal of reserve and off-reserve areas from harvesting. Foodstuffs, fuelwood, building materials and medicinalplants would no longer be collected from areas designated for biodiversity management.
. Actions to be Taken
Project componentsincluding fuelwood plantation establishmentin the savannaareas and other savannamanagement activities, and the collaborativeforestry program will provide NTFPs for local use, to compensate for losses as a result of biodiversity losses. Compensationfor communitylosses, and as an incentivefor communitiesto participatein the collaborativeforestry programn, will includethe provisionof communityinfrastructure. The savannamanagement program will includethe protection and developmentof areas to produce NTFPs.
Inputs,Outputs and Responsibilities
No additionalinputs to those alreadybeing provided by the project will be required. The FD and the MoAF will be responsiblefor managng the appropriatesections of the project.
Outputs will include the developmentof NTFPs for rural communityuse to compensate for those NTFPs that will no longer be available as a result of various management activities.
. Expected Results
Local communities and families wil not be deprived of traditional NTFPs that are importantto their local economies.
. Schedulingand Costs
As per project scheduiingand budget.
8.3.11 Impacts on Aesthetics
. Description
Timberharvesting results in open canopies,slash piles, high and unsightlytree stumps, and damaged trees and lesser vegetation. During harvesting operation, machinery,mud and noise all contributeto a reductionof aestheticvalues.
93 . Actions to be Taken
Degraded sites, following logging, will be replanted, as part of the project. Through the practice of good standards, aesthetic values of harvesting sites will be retained to the extent possible.Trees willbe felled with stumps close to the ground and in such a way as to not cause damage to other standingtrees. Skidding trails will be located in a manner that will minimizedamage to vegetation, particularly standing trees. Slash piles will be broken down.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
The FD will be responsiblefor monitoringto ensure that good practices are applied. The FD will also ensure that plantationsare establishedon degraded sites. The concessionaire will be responsiblefor practicinggood standards.
Outputs will includethe retention of aestheticvalues to the extent possible at a harvesting site, and reforested degraded sites.
. Expected Results
Aestheticvalues willbe retained as much as possible on harvestingsites and degraded sites willbe improvedwith plantation establishment.
. Scheduling and Costs
As per projectscheduling and budget.
83.12 Impacts on Migration
. Description
Downsizingof the forest industrywill lead to a certaindegree of migrationas peopledrift to the cities and other urban areas in search of work. The MLF will provide sufficient fundingto thoseGovernment agencies that implementincome generating progmms. Funds will also be providedto encourageindustries to locate in the rural areas in order to providejobs for localpeople.
. Actionsto be Taken
A number of project programs and components(savanma management, colaborative forestrycomponent) will assist n minimizingmigration. Additional activities should be carred out to further encourage people from migrating to the rural areas. These could includethe developmentof income generatingactivities, particularly the support and expansionof cottage industriesbased on the forest resource. Trainingcould also be
94 providedso that those who do mizrate will have marketable skills. lncentives for small industriesto locate in rural areas shouldalso be provided.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
Inputs required should include a cash contribution from MLF to cottage industry and other income generatingprograms to assist downsized forest industry workers to gain meaningfullocal employment. An outside agencywill monitorprogress.
Outputs will include downsized forest industry workers retrained and employed in alternativejobs in the local area. Migration from the rural areas as a result of forest industrydownsizing should be reducedby 40%.
. Expected Results
Migration to urban areas will not be great, resulting in fewer than expected new unemployedpeople in the major cities. A stablesocial and politicalurban environmentwill be maintained.
. Scheduling and Costs
An adequate contribution will be made to the appropriate government agencies. The programmingwill begin as soon as the forest industrybegins to downsize.
8.3.13 Impacts on Fuelwood
. Description
A reduction in harvesting levels, improved wood utilization and biodiversityprotection withinreserves and off-reserveareas will reduce the amount of fielwood availableto local communities. Traditionally local communities have collected waste wood following harvestingoperations.
. Actions to be Taken
The collaborativeforestry component will providethe opportunityfor local communities to share the NTFP resource of the reserve and off-reserve areas. Plantations in the transition zone and fuelwood plantings as part of the savanna land managementprogram will also provide fuelwoodsupplies to local communitiesin proximityto these plantations.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
The FD has overall responsibilityfor the project. It will establish plataions, and in conjunction with MoAF and local communities, will manage savanna resources, for
g5 amongst other products, the production of fuelwood. No additional inputs apart from those identifiedin the project concept will be required.
Outputs wil includethe provisionof adequate fuelwood supphes for local communities.
EExpected Results
Economic conditions of local communitieswill be improved as they are provided with a source of fuelwoodand a number of jobs associatedwith the establishmentand tending of plantations, and the harvesting and marketing of fuelwood. Women's burdens will be reduced with the availabilityof fuelwoodin close proximityto their communities.
. Schedulingand Costs
As per projectscheduling and budget.
8.3.14 Impact on Land Use
. Description Land use in the savannaand off-reserveareas will change as a result of the savanna managementprogram and the reforestationprogram, respectively.
. Actionsto be Taken
Comprehensiveresource planning will be part of detailedproject design to ensure that appropriateland use changesare madeand that such changeswill not disadvantagelocal communitiesor importantecological systems.
. Inputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
The FD will be responsible,in conjunctionwith localcommunities, for determiningland use changesto be made. Input involvescomprehensive resource planningin a team environmentwith other relevantministries and departments(e.g. MoAF, WD). Outputs willinclude prudent land use.
. ExpectedResults
Land use changeswill resultin more effectiveutilization of the landbase on a sustainable basis.Where applicable, the landuse willserve local communities more effectively.
Schedulingand Costs
As per projectschedule and budget.
96 8.3.15 Impact on Gender Issues
Description
The biodiversitycomponent will excludeaccess to certain areas This could require that women from communitiesadjacent to these areas travel further afield to collect firewood and other forest materials essential for their rural subsistencelivelihood. The savanna managementprogram will includea number of resource managementactivities that could affect women in terms of additionaltasks that they may be required to carry out. The collaborativeforestry componentand the reforestationprograms may also affect the daily lives and schedulesof women.
Actions to be Taken
Through the collaborative forestry component, the savanna management and the reforestationprograms, potentially there will be a number of opportunitiesthat will assist in easingthe lives and daily schedulesof women. In the detailed designingof each of the project programsand components,the effects on women will be considered.The project shouldensure that jobs provided through the project are equallydistributed between men and women, where womendesire suchjobs. As well, any trainingactivities that the project providesmust be availableto women and men equally.
Income generating activitiesthrough the collaborativeforestry program and the savanna managementprogram should be made availableto both men and womenequally. Decision malang regarding reforestation,savanna managementand collaborativeforestry activities will involve local participationand this participationwill include, and indeed, seek out, women.
IInputs, Outputs and Responsibilities
The FD will be responsiblefor implemeningthe project componentsand will ensure that women will have the opportunityto provide input and take advantage of project benefits on an e:jual basis with men. In doing so, the FD should ensure that a gender issues. spec.iist is included as part of the detailed planning of the project. The environmental monitor uf the FD willmonitor the impact that the project wifl have on women and other, generallyconsidered, disadvantaged groups. No additional costs will be requiredto ensure that women are providedwith a share of the project benefits.
Outputs will include implemented project programs and components that have taken women's concernsinto consideration.
. Expected Results
Women will share equally in communityrelated project decision making and in project benefits.They will not be dadvantaged in any way by project activitiesand results.
97 . Schedulingand Costs
Women's concerns will be incorporated at the beginning of the detailed project desin stage. Additionalcosts should include $10,000to includea gender issues specialistdunrng detaileddesign stage.
8.4 IndicativeMitigative Costs and Scheduling
..... ---.-- Itm BU t Scbednlit Air quality equipment n/a (private cost) Industrv pnor to development Hvdrologv n/a n/a (part of pojec) industuvand FD conunuous Soils - emionmental S 60.000 FD project incepuon monitoring bandbook preparationand monitoring training . Flora nma n/a (partof project) FD continuous Fauna n/a /a (part of project) FD continuous Biodiversity n/a n/a (part of project) FD continuous Jobs and HRDplan S 100,000 MLF project inception poverty HRDplan S 600,000 implementation alternative income generating research S 25.000 NTFPs n/a n/a (part of proiect) FD continuous Traditional n/a n/a (part of project) FD continuous rights . . Aestheiics n/a n/a (part Ofprje) FD continuous jMigration development of income S 150,000 MLF project inception generating activities contnrbton to appropriatc agenaes Fuelwood n/a n/a (part of project) FD continuous Gender issues analysis of women's S 20,000 - LF project inception issues
c osts ______
*Monitoring andthe handbook are required for all miitigationactivities and is only includedhere in 'soils'for convenience.
8.5 Training ..~ ~~~~' The ForestryDepartmnent will be responsiblefor implementingthe environmental managmentplanand for ensuringthat othermeasures through project implementation requiredfor mitigationare carred out andthat they achieve their objectve in thisregard. In orderto do so the ELJFwill designatean individual to be responsi-blefor monitoringthe progressof the plan and the project as it relates to addressingthe impacts. Currentlv the MLF does not have an individual trained in either environmental assessment or monitoring. An individual in the Ministry should be designated the position of environmentalofficer and be given the opportunity for short course training, possibly abroad, in environmental management and environmental effects monitoring. The environmentalmonitor will also oversee monitoringof harvestingsites through district forestry field staff. Individualsin the field who will have responsibilityfor monitoring harvesting sites will receive in-house and on the job training from the environmental monitorand possiblyfrom an externalsource.
8.6 Monitoring and Reporting
Environmentaleffects monitoring is necessary to ensure that predicted impacts are addressedeffectively and efficientlythrough the mitigativemeasures indicated. Three main objectivesof monitoringare: i) to ensure that any additional impacts not identifiedin the EIA documentare addressedappropriately; ii) to ensure that the mitigativeactions are appropriatefor addressingthe impacts;and, iii) to feed infonnation back to management in order that appropriatemodifications can be made to either the operationalactivities or to the enviromTentalmanagement plan in terms of mitigativemeasures to be applied.
To ensure that environmentaleffects are mitigatedeffectively a monitoringsection should be establishedin the MLF. This section would consist of the monitoringofficer described in Section 8.4. The individualwould be assisted on a part time basis by district field officerswho will have receivedbasic monitoringtraining.
The monitor will carry out monitoring duties in accordance to a manualfor monitoring that would be prepared by MLF. The manualshould be specificto the project and should clearlyexplain the proceduresfor effectivefield monitoring.Such a manualwould contain sections on baselinedata requirementsand how these should be identified,collected and used, identification of key indicators, monitoring schedule, measurement techniques, interpretationof results and presentation of findings, and the application of findings to managementdecision making.
Monitoringshould be carried out on an on-going basis and on harvestingsites it should be done regulary through random sampling.Monthly monitonng reports would be provided to the managementteam for information,discussion and action.
An environmentalmanagement plan will only be effectiveif effective monitoringis carriedout and if the managementteam is preparedto act upon monitoringresults and recommendations.A series of penaltiesand enforcementmechanisms must be put in place and must be enacted upon whenthe managementplan is contravened.For exaunple,if a concessionaireis skiddinglogs on steep slopes contray to the harvestingplan and this is reported through regular monitoring,management must penalizethe concessionaire accordingly.
99 9. REFERENCES
9.1 Documents Prepared by EIA Team Members
Abu-Juam,Musah. 1997.Biodiversitv of Ghana: Descri2tionand Draft ImRacts.
Akoena, Sesi. 1997.Environmental Impact Assessmentof the Natural Resources ManagementProiect. An EconomicsProfile.
Agyeman,Victor K. 1997.Environmental ImRact of the ProRosedNatural Resources ManagementProject on Forest ManagementAreas
Ayeh,Ophelia. 1997. SocialImpact Assessmentof the Natural Resource Management Project.
Dua, AndrewBoateng. 1997.Environmental ImRact Assessment. Forest Ecologv Assessment.
Sam, Moses K. ' 997 WildlifeManagement and the Proposed Natural Resource ManagementProject.
Sasu. ppo-.. 1997. CommunitRForestry and CollaborativeForest Management:The Case of Ghana.
Tweneboah,Paul. 1997.Environmental Impact Assessment.Ghana Timber Industry.
9.2 Other References
Arnanor,Kojo. 1995. Mana2ina Trees in the Farininz System: The Perspectivesof Farmers
EIU. 1994. Ghana - Country Profile. Economic IntelligenceUnit.
EnvironmentalProtection Agency. 1996. EnvironmentalProtection Agencv (At a Glance). Compiledby Dr. Peter C. Acquah.
Falconer, J. (no date). Non-TimberForest Products in Southem Ghana. Preparedjointly by ODA and the Forestry Department, Govermnmentof Ghana.
Forestry Commission.1995. PolicyRecommendations for SustainableManagement of the Forest Resource in Ghana. Ovsea Consultancy Service.
Forestry Department. 1996.Incentives for SustainableForest Management: A Stuy in Ghana. Based on a joint study by lEDDand the Forestry Department, Government of Ghana.
100 ForestryDepartment. (undated). Non-timber Forest Products in SouthernGhana. Preparedfor OverseasDevelopment Administration by Natural ResourcesInstitute
ForestryDepartment. 1995. A Frameworkfor CollaborationOutside Reserves. Paper No. 2. A paper presented at the Potentialfor Collaborationin High Forest Management Symposium,November, 1995.
ForestryDepartment. 1995. Made in Ghana: CollaborativeForest Management.Planning Branch.Prepared for XVII Sessionof the ITTC and XVI Sessionof the Permanent Committeeof the ITTO, Accra,Ghana, 10-18May 1995.
ForestryDepartment. 1992. Logging Manual for Forest Managementin Ghana.
Govermmentof Ghana. 1996.Environmental Protection Agencv (At a Glance).Compiled by Peter Acquah.
Governmentof Ghana. 1995.Analysis of Demo=raphicData. Volumes I and 2.
Governmentof Ghana. 1993.Rural Communitiesin Ghana.Report of a NationalRural CommunihtSurvey. Ghana StatisticalServices.
GWD/rJCN. 1994. A Protection Area SystemPlan to ConserveBiodiverit in Ghana. Project 9786. Compiledby John Grainger.
Hawthorne,W.D. and Abu-Juam,Ni 1995. Forest Protectionin Ghana:Wlth particular referenceto vegetationand Rlantspecies. IUCN ConservationProgram.
ISSER. 1993. The State of the GhanaianEconomy in 1992. Institute of Statistical,Social and EconomicResearch, University of Ghana,Legon.
Jecfy and CompanyLtd. 1997.Forest AdministrationStudy Report. Volume 1. Forest ResourceManagement Project.
Ministryof Lands and Forestry. 1995.Forestry DevelopmentMaster Plan: 1996-2020. PolicyPlanning Monitoring and EvaluationDivision.
Ministryof Lands and Forestry. 1994. Forest and WildlifePolicy. 241 November,1994.
National Councilon Women and Development.1994. The Status of Womenin Ghana (1985-1994) National Report for the Fourth World Conferenceon Women.
101 Rosenthal,S. 1997. Toward ImprovedForest Resource Manatement in Ghana Considerationfor the Forestry DeRartmentfsEvolving Role. (workingpaper as part of World Bank-May 1997 investigationmission to Ghana)
SavannaWoodland Management Working Group. 1997. SavannaWoodland Management Programme.
WildlifeDepartment. 1997.Protected Areas Managementand WildlifeConservation Project. Draf*Inception Report.
World Bank. 1997.Project InformationDocument.
World Bank. 1997. GhanaNatural ResourceManagement Project. Preparation Mission May 4-30. 1997.Aide Mernoire.
WorldBank. 1997. Project Concept Document.Ghana Natural Resource Management Proiect. June 2, 1997.
WorldBank. 1988. Staff AppraisalReRort. Ghana Forest Resource ManauementProiect.
102 Appendix 1: Description of Ghana's Major Vegetation Types
1. Wet Evergreen Forest (WE)
The Wet evergreenecotype can have over 200 species in 25rn sq. plots (Hawthorneand Juam Musah, 1993) and is the least disturbedforest type with endemicspecies. They are both closed ana are rich in commercialtimber and lesser-knowneconomic tree species (LKS). Species diversityinclude the endemic Cola umbratilis and Monocyclanthussps. The Neung Forest Reserves. Some membersof the plant associationsoften referredto as Tropilochiton - Celtis - Tarrietia and Piptadeniastrum - Lophira Associationsare:
Triplochitonscieroxylon (Wawa,Obeche) Pericopsiselata (Kokrodua,Afrormossia) Celtis mildbraedi (Esa) Guibourtiaehie (Anokye-hyedua) Piptadeniasvumaficanum (Dahoma) Lophira alata (Ekki, Kaku) Khaya anthothecalK ivorensis (Mahogany) Nesogordoniapapaverifera (Denta) Pycnanthusangolensis (Otie) Milicia excelaformerh Chlorophoraercelsa (Odum) Canariumschweifurthii (Camnanumn,Bediwonua) Daniella ogea (Shedua) Entandrophragmautile (Utile, Sipo) Entandrophragmaangolense (Edinm) Turracanthusafncamns (Avodire) Mansoniaaltissima (Oprono,Mansonia) Nauclea d&derichii (Kusia) Heretierautilis formerly Tczietia utilis (Nyankom) Lovoa trichilioides (AfiicanWalnut) Terminaliasuperba (Ofram) Sterculia rhinopetala (Wawabima) Terminaliaivorensis (Emire)
This closedcanopy forest covers only 65701kn sq. or 2.75%of the forestland.
2. Moist Evergreen Forest ((ME)
This ecotypehas slightlyless diverseassociation members than the wet evergreenforest. ME is heavilylogged and has often open canopies. Biodiversityshows numerous plant species and genetic richness. Plant species include Dialium aubreville, Strombosia glaucescens,Lophira alata, and Cola laterata. Due to richness the 17,770hn sq. area (7.45%/*)is fast being decimated.
103 3. Uplandevergreen forest (UE)
This forest ecotypeis uniquein its compositionof pioneer and secondaryspecies. It coversonly 292 km sq. or 0.12%of the forest estate,the greaterpar of whichis foundin the Atewarange. Manyrare plantsand animalspecies are foundhere. Theyinclude some of the floristicspecies of 'WEand MIEas well as the rare and endangeredHvmenocoleus mulainervis and Cyanthea manniana, a palm sized tree term and Trilepisium madagascanense.
Othertree speciessuch as Cedrelaodorata and Ficus macrosperma Pienanthus angolensis (Otie, Carboard)Nesogordonia Papavenfera (Danta, Kotibe) Chlorophoraregia (Odurr; AfricanOak). makethe smaDare covereda treasuredecotype. Hall and Swaine(981) found the envirownentof the Uplandevergreen forest, the habitatfor severalsunumits, swampsand thickets need a special'protection strategy'.
4. Moist - Semi-deciduousForest (MS)
Speciesdiversity is MS is relaivelylower than in WE. The height of matureeconomic species average60m. Becauseof the wide amplitudeof its area coveragetwo sub- ecotypes, the North-Westand South -East vegetationformations have been identified.The Southeastecotype representing 40%r/ of MS forestarea of 32,8901aksq. harbourselephant populationsand has about 100 commercialtimber species under exploitation.For example,Truplocuiton scelroxyon (Wawa) is endangeredfrom over exploitation. The sameapplies to Celtis Mildbraedii(Esa).
5. Dry Semi-deciduousForest (DS)
This ecotypeis prone to fire but occupies21,440km sq. (8.99%)of the forest estate, the second largestgroup. Converinga trasition zone betweenthe north and east of MS, speciesdiversity is relatvelylow with 40-100species in 25mmx 25mmsample plot. Two types correspondingtwo rainf peaks 1250mmand 1500mmcharacterise fire tender plant speciesand drierfire zone. The NsemreForest Reserve with typicalcomposition of Elaies Guineensis, Lannea Nigritana, Afzelia qfricana, Aubrevillea Playca form forest- islandswith intruding savanna represented by sometall -grasses.
6. Southem MarginadForest (SM)
A wedge shapedarea from Takoradito Akuse is classifiedas Coastal thicket grassland (Taylor, 1952). This forest ecotype is really species poor due to low and emrtic precipitationon shallowsoils. The area of 2,60km2(0.99%) extendedas a narrow belt fromCape Coast to Akosombo.
There is heavyanthropological activity on the mostlysmall ftgments of forest on rocky hills. Tree speciesare caa isticaUlyshort-statned and includethe endemicspecies (e.g. SapawsuF.R.)
104 Dalbergwasetnfera Turraeaghanensis Talbotiellagentii Afzelia africana Antaris toxicaria Hymenostegiaafteii Hildegardiabargeri and Dialium guineense, -whichform monospecificstands.
7. Southeast Outlier Forest (SO)
This forest ecotypeis characterisedby several understoreys(strata) of plant associations. Occupyingjust 201ansq. (0.0083%),the ecotypeis speciesrich. Millettia thmmingli(occupies the upper strata) Diospyrosabyssinica Drypetesparvifolia Grewia egalocarpa Cammiphoradaizielil
Eugenia coronate and the dominantassociation Vefiveriafulhibarbis,Fimbristilis.ovata, and Andropogon canaliculams, occupy other positions in a highly structured species profile. Schmitt and Adu-Nsiah(1993) conducted a survey and evaluted the biological diversitywhich is reproducedelsewhere in this report.
Essentiallythe short-grass savanna Vetivena fulvibarbis and Brachiariafalcifera form a plant communityon the Vertisolsof the Plains around the ShaiHills. Althoughfloristically very uniform,the South-east outlier forest has other plant species for its rich fauna. The include the trees Azadirachta (Neem) which is exotic, i Adansoniadgitata (Baobab) * Combretumfiragras * Lonchocapus serwceus and the herbs * Eriosema molle * Cassia mimosoides * Indigofera subulata * Polygala guinneensisand Parenaria, and Striga linearifolia.
Due to poor draingage of the Vertisols, water-logging alternate with seasonal drought. The short grass vegetation wnth shrubs/evergreen trees is an assemblage of high conservationvalue (Hall and Swaine, 1981).
8. Tall-grass Savanna (TDS)
Often referredto as Interior or Guinea savanna,is the largest vegetation singlevegetation ecotype in the countly. It covers 144,948km 2 and that is 60.77% of the forest estate.
105 The vegetationmade up of tal grassesinterspersed with fire-tolerant trees suchas: Butyrospermum paradoxum Adansoniadigiuata (Baobab) Acacia sps (for fuel wood) Parkia biglobosa (dawa dawa) X tellariaparadoxa (Sheabutter) Tectonagrandis (exotic Teak) Leucaenaleucocephala (fodder) Magnifera indica (Orchard mango)
This is a transitionalzone of tall-short Sudan-grass(Schmitt and Adu-Nsiah,1993), dominatedby Isoberliniadoka and Burkea fricana
Throughoutthe densepopulated area between Navrongo and Gambaga,huge areas of the northernsavanna have been convertedto 'Parldand' and Game/Naturereserves due to humanactivities e.g. hunting,fuelwood and biodiversity(shea nuts, baobab,dawa dawa and medicinalplants) collection. Rose Innes (1977) described huge areas of the ecosystemas farmedparkiand. After many decades of cultivation,protected trees emerge as donaint featuresin the park-likelandscape. The vegetationstmcture then culminates in a ground-layerdominated by low annualgrasses with shrubsof high biodiversityvalue (herbs)and an upper storeyof the afore-mentionedtrees.
9. Short-grassSavanna (SGS)
Thisborder ecotypeis sometimesreferred to as coastalsavanna or gssland. its limited distributionover an areaof 10,540kmsq. (4.42%)and uniqueformations make it ripe for current biodiversityprotectve strategies. Again,Jenik and Hall(1976),and Schmittand Adu-Nsiah(1993) report that the short- grass savannais mainlydetermined by eisting soil types and rainl distnbution. The entire south-east of the southern marginal and dry semi-deciduousforest zone is characterisedby low eratic rainfal and soilsdifferent from those of the forestsand guinea savanna (See section on Soils and Geology backed by Maps/Figurein Appendices Section).
The gassland barboursfloristically and physiog-nomically,a vegetation formaton apply describedas Sudan-grasssavanna. Characteristic grasses are: V-ertiveriafudvibarbis, Brachiarie falcifer. Sedgesalso form a major plant association with Fimbnstyla ovata and Fimbristyla pilosa dominant. A recent field study by Dua (1997)found Isoberlinia doka, Daniella olivieri, andDetarium microcarpum, reportedas trees of the Guinea- savannaeither completely absent Rare communities of the speciesare foundin northernHo - Keta Plains,and also in the KalakpaGame Production Reserve.
106 10. Mangrove Forest (MA)
Mangroveforests which once covered much of Ghana's coastlinetodav represents only about 1.670kmsq. (0.7%) of known and surveyedwetlands. They are found himitedto a narrow strip from Cote d'Ivoire to Cape Three Points in Ghana.
The present day declining mangrove ecosystem in Ghana (IUCN, 1992) have been described in Biodiversity Review. The ecosystem is dominated by Laguncularia racemosaand Rhyzophoraracemosa Avicemamitida occurs on the landwardedges. The remainder and unaccounted for mangroves can be found dotted within estuarine and riverrne ecologcalniches (Dua, 1997) Withinthe wet and moist evergreenforests there appear in plant communitiesof bamboo and Raphia palms. Mangroves are extensively used as fuelwood,building materials, and for charcoalproduction local entrepreneursand farmers were found in some southern ecologies constructingand harvesting Crabs and Prawns from pens in mangrove Swamps (Dua, 1997).
107 Appendic2: Scoing of Crittria for Indlidual IECs
:Imate 2 2 3 -I I, . -LOU' Airquaitv 2 4 3 1 3 2 !5-MODERATE Hvdrolor 2 1 4 2 3 1 13-MODERATE %wer 2 2 4 2 3 1 14- MODERATE qualF ._ soils 2 2 4 3 1 2 14 -MIODERATE Flora 1 2 2 4 3 2 3 16 -MODERATE Flon2 3 4 4 1 1 2 15- MODERATE FamIal' 3 5 _ . 4 X 2 3 2 19-HIGH Fam 2' 3 2 6 3 2 3 19- HIGH Ram nd 4 4 6 3 3 1 eniapred 21- XERYHIGH
BbdWverstt 3 4 6 2 1 3 19- HIGH Tradiona 3 3 S 2 1 2 16 -MODERATE
Jobsend 4 4 6 3 3 3 23 -VERYKIGII
poyerh ______NTFP 2 4 _ 3 3 1S - HIGH Aestbeftis 1 2 3 3 1 1 11 -LOW Mirrat 3 2 3 1 1 11- LOW L1d me 2 3 3 1 1 1 11 -LOW Gender 3 4 4 3 1 I 16 -MODERATE
Fueiwood 3 3 4 3 1 I5-MODERATE3
Flora J: flo affdE4 bvyharsting opun_ios
Flora 2: floa affeced by planhm cablishamn Fauna 1: faa afeted by havesjg opuatim
Fauna2: fama afefaud by platimx _Ahxnm1
108 MINISTRYOF LANDSAND FORESTRY ...... ,.. xs.. A. ~~~~~~~~~...... _......
The Ministryof Landsand Forestrywishes to informthe generalpublic, particularlythe timberindustry, District Assemblies, communities living aroundforest reservesand areas of reservegranted under timber harvestingleases that it intendscarrying out a projectto be knownas the NaturalResources Management Project. The primaryobjective of this projectis to establishthe institutionaland operationalframework to manageforest and wildlife resourceseffectively so as to maintaina sustainableflow of economicand ecologicalbenefits with increased privatesector and local community involvement. In pursuancefo this objective,a publicconsultation on the Environmental ImpactAssessment (EIA) of the projectwill be held at 8.30 a.m. on Tuesday,September 30, 1997,at the CityHotel, Kumasi. All interestedMinistries, Departments/Agencies, Donor Agencies, NGOs, ,interest groupsand otherstakeholders are invitedto participatein the publicconsultation so as to air their complaintslobjections(if any) and addressissues of concemto them. Meanwhile,the EIAdocument is availableat Room24 of the Ministryof Landsand Forestry (PPMED Office Extension), Ministries, Accra, and interestedpersons may, prior to September30, callbetween the hous of 9.00am. and4.00 p.m. on anyworking day to obtaincopies for studyand comments.All other enquiriesmay be directedto the Office of the TechnicalDirector, Telephone 665421 Ext 2031242during the same timefor anyattention required. Membersfrom the private industry,District Assemblies/forestfringe communities,intemational donors, and environmentalNGO's are particularlyencouraged to attend.
facsimileof announcementin DailyGraphic, Tuesday, Sept 18, 1997.