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Schooling Experiences of Central California Indian People Across Generations

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Schooling Experiences of Central California Indian People Across Generations SCHOOLING EXPERIENCES OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA INDIAN PEOPLE ACROSS GENERATIONS by Tara Williams B.A. (Fresno Pacific University) 2004 M.A. (Fresno Pacific University) 2009 A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate in Education Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership at Fresno State Kremen School of Education and Human Development California State University, Fresno 2012 ii Tara Williams May 2012 Educational Leadership SCHOOLING EXPERIENCES OF CENTRAL CALIFORNIA INDIAN PEOPLE ACROSS GENERATIONS Abstract This exploratory study took a post-colonialist lens to record, examine, and document schooling experiences of California Indian people across several generations representing three Central Valley tribes: the Mono, the Tachi Yokuts of Santa Rosa Rancheria, and the Tule River Tribe. Past and present perceptions of Indian schooling were elicited through personal interviews and framed by archival data from educators and students through multiple generations. Mission school, boarding school, and public school experiences were documented and compared. Interviewees agreed on the importance of education for tribal youth as a collaborative effort between tribes and public schools. Boarding school experiences were reported as having been positive or negative depending on historical and socio-political context. Interviewees indicated a strong interest in including traditional culture and language as part of the schooling experience for California Indian youth. Gaming as a source of revenue was perceived by interviewees as having both positive and negative ramifications for the education of tribal youth. ii iii Copyright by Tara Williams 2012 iii iv California State University, Fresno Kremen School of Education and Human Development Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership This dissertation was presented by Tara Williams It was defended on May 7, 2012 and approved by: Susan Tracz, Chair Educational Research and Administration Elaine Garan Literacy and Early Education Sharon Brown Welty Doctoral Program in Educational Leadership iv v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Many people were exceedingly generous with their time and their assistance, and it would not have been possible to complete this dissertation without their support. Frankie Williams, my husband, assisted in too many ways to name, facilitating contact with family and friends who became interviewees, contributing time and knowledge of his traditions and culture, not to mention inexhaustible patience and goodwill. I would also like to express my profound appreciation to my ever-supportive dissertation chair, Dr. Susan Tracz, for her listening ear and valuable advice, and more thanks to my dedicated committee members Dr. Sharon Brown-Welty and Dr. Elaine Garan for their patience, rapid reading, and forward-looking, sensitive feedback and advice. Dr. Gelya Frank was exceptionally gracious and generous in sharing her previous research. This study would not have been possible without the foundation provided by her previous scholarly work. Dr. Jared Dahl Aldern contributed time, advice, and several key background texts. Thanks also to Dr. Laura Alamillo and my DPELFS cohort-mates Alicia Lozano and Lorena Maldonado for encouraging me to pursue a deeply meaningful study. Special thanks are also due to the Tule River Tribal Council, the Tule River Elders Council, John Focke and the Towanits Indian Education Center for their support, as well as Kaya and Jeannette Atwell, Ron Alec, Suzanne Moineau, the Hon. Ron Goode, Barbara Ezell and the Sierra Mono Museum, and each and every one of those who consented to be interviewed. Thank you for adding your voices to the conversation, and I hope we will all have the opportunity to talk again soon. v vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................... x LIST OF FIGURES ................................................................................................. xi CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1 Post-Colonialism and the Effects of Colonization .............................................. 2 American Indians Today ..................................................................................... 3 Historical Background: California Tribes ........................................................... 4 Indian Education ................................................................................................. 8 Mission Schools ............................................................................................ 9 Residential and Boarding Schools ................................................................. 9 Educational Reform ..................................................................................... 13 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 16 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 17 Definition of Terms........................................................................................... 17 CHAPTER 2: REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ................................................ 19 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 19 History of American Indian Education ............................................................. 19 Indigenous and Colonial Periods: 1492-1776 ............................................. 20 Christianization ........................................................................................... 23 Treaty Period: 1776-1871 ........................................................................... 26 Indian Removal: 1824-1850 ........................................................................ 30 Extermination: 1850-1890 ........................................................................... 33 Assimilation: 1870-1920s ........................................................................... 35 vi vii Self-Determination: 1934-1953 ................................................................... 47 Termination: 1953-1958 .............................................................................. 48 Reform: 1960s and Beyond ......................................................................... 49 Framing and Reframing American Indian Identity .......................................... 51 Designation as American Indian ................................................................. 53 Official Recognition of American Indian Identity ...................................... 54 Language, Literacy, and Cultural Identity .................................................. 57 Psychological Theory of Human Development ................................................ 60 Education for Hegemony .................................................................................. 63 American Indian Boarding Schools as Total Institutions ................................. 64 Self-mortification Processes in Indian Boarding Schools ........................... 65 Resiliency .......................................................................................................... 67 American Indian Education Today ................................................................... 68 Tribal Gaming and American Indian Education ............................................... 69 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY .......................................................................... 71 Rationale for Qualitative Research ................................................................... 71 Political Implications of the Qualitative Approach .......................................... 72 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 73 Data Collection ................................................................................................. 74 The Semi-structured Interview .................................................................... 74 Addressing Researcher Subjectivity: The ―Separating Out‖ Analytic Technique ............................................................................................... 76 Archival Data: Recovering Voices of the Past ............................................ 77 Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 77 Ethical Considerations ...................................................................................... 78 vii viii CHAPTER 4: RESULTS/OUTCOMES ................................................................ 79 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 79 Research Questions ........................................................................................... 80 Research Design ................................................................................................ 80 Limitations ........................................................................................................ 82 Schooling Experiences: Tule River Tribe of Yokuts Indians ........................... 86 Interviews with Tule River Tribe Members ..................................................... 92 Tule River Tribe: Reservation School ......................................................... 95 Porterville Unified: Vandalia Elementary
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