Divine Lives

BEDE BIDLACK

DIVINE LIVES

Christ, Community, and Divine Embodiment

Introduction Christian approaches to divine embodiment have two presuppositions: 1) divine embodiment was a unique, historical event in the person of Jesus Christ 2) the body of the incarnation was numerically singular and isolated. At the same time, Christian anthropology presents human persons not only as solitary individuals, but also as social beings inseparable from the rest of humanity. The singular nature is attributed to the body because the body, unlike the soul, is definable in time and space. Thus the boundaries on the embodiment of God in the person of Jesus Christ are set as a singular occurrence of about two thou- sand years ago in the country surrounding Jerusalem.

The soul is less marked by time and space and therefore the more obvious choice as the locale for the social capacity of the human. The soul as the site of psychic processes can more readily join other minds in forming a community of shared ways of thinking, belief, and social mores. The body outwardly ex- presses these interior dispositions such as standards of clothing or customs of behavior.1 But, what happens when the social and communal capacity of the human person is expanded to the body? How is divine embodiment recon- sidered if the body itself is viewed as a community of beings? And if the body is a community, what forces hold it together and give it coherence? Reconsid- ering the body will change how one envisions divine embodiment. A com- parative reading of French Jesuit Pierre Teilhard de Chardin (1881-1955) and Daoist Xiao Yingsou (fl. 1226) inspire these questions.

More than any other theologian up to the twentieth century––with the possible exception of Irenaeus––Teilhard wrote his theology from the understanding of a changing, evolving cosmos. The conventional reading of the creation story in Genesis led Christian thinkers to see the world as God’s completed work on

1 Rahner takes a Pauline anthropology––people are body, soul, and spirit––and places the body as the concrete existence of spirit in time and space. See Rahner 1981: 84 and 1966: 245-52.

134 DIVINE LIVES the sixth day followed by a day of rest on the seventh (Genesis 1:31; 2:2). The realm of earth changed, but the heavens did not. Teilhard, being a paleontol- ogist and geologist by training, knew that the cosmos changed a great deal over a vast ocean of time. Even though Teilhard never explicitly defined the body in any detail, a close reading of his work reveals an implicit theory of the body. Xiao provides categories that make this implicit body in Teilhard more clear.

Xiao was a Daoist alchemical and ritual master and advisor to the emperor, Song Lizong (宋理宗 r. 1225-1264). Xiao, too, viewed the world as constantly changing. Ultimate Reality––the Dao––is a fluctuating, self-sustaining ground of all things. Heaven, Earth, and humankind are all manifestations of the Dao and are therefore intimately interconnected in a dynamic relationship. To ex- press the interpenetration of all things while contemplating the human, Xiao chose the image of a mountain to represent the body of a person in sitting med- itation, rather than an image with any obvious human characteristics, like a head or limbs. Xiao and Teilhard shared a vision of the affinity of the divine, cosmos, and the human. Xiao communicated this intimacy through a potent image; Teilhard explained it with vivid words.

The Body According to Teilhard de Chardin From his extant writings, scholars know that Teilhard speculated on the theological significance of the body, but by 1920 he dropped the question in favor of developing a theological account of human beings within an evolu- tionary understanding of creation.2 He summarized his ideas in the posthu- mously published The Divine Milieu and The Human Phenomenon. From these and his other works, one can derive a view of the body with its theological sig- nificance, even though it was unclear to Teilhard himself. Furthermore, the importance of Teilhard’s body for divine embodiment only emerges after a comparative study with Xiao.

In The Human Phenomenon, Teilhard begins with the fully developed human being as it has been for about the last 20,000 years. Then he makes two moves. First, he looks back to the beginning of time and considers how the human being could have evolved from the initial dust of creation. Second, he looks to

2 His last exclusive treatment of the body was in an essay entitled, “What Exactly is the Human Body?” possibly written in October 1916. Teilhard would expand this three-page essay to eight pages and sent it to his friend August Valensin. In September 1919, Teilhard mentioned the longer essay in a letter to his cousin Marguerite Teilhard- Chambon, and related: “Valensin was delighted with what I wrote and wants to send it to Blondel.” This longer essay is not extant, however. See Teilhard 1965: 306, 1968a: 13, and de Lubac 1967: 10, note 17.

135 STUDIES IN INTERRELIGIOUS DIALOGUE 22 (2012) 2 the future and speculates on where the universe is going. The first move de- velops within a Neoplatonic metaphysics that states there is nothing new in the universe.3 Anything present today has always been present in some way (Teil- hard 2003: 36). What makes the human––biologically, psychically, socially, and spiritually––has been present since the beginning of the universe fourteen and a half billion years ago. At the dawn of time, matter––by itself nothing–– received some spark of spirit: creation ex nihilo. This initial, gigantic blob of matter could have remained homogenous, but it did not. It turned in on itself to form atoms. The atoms likewise could have simply bounced around, but did not. They joined to form molecules. Molecules formed more complex mole- cules until life emerged three point eight billion years ago.4

Life grew in complexity to form more sophisticated groups of cells that joined to become bone, muscle, and importantly the nervous system that would allow for a network of neural connections. When the network of nerve cells became complex enough, these cells formed a brain that performed sophisticated neur- ological tasks called consciousness. The brain continued to become more complex until something remarkable happened with the emergence of human beings: reflective consciousness. From the brain’s material structure, reflective mind emerges in the human.

Teilhard concludes that if self-awareness and reflective consciousness are pres- ent in the human, it must have been latently present from the very beginning. Matter, even in its most primeval form, must have within it consciousness of some sort. Consciousness is capable of relationship with itself and other be- ings; it is subjective. Thus, one can agree with Thomas Berry, drawing from Teilhard: people are not surrounded by objects, but live in a community of subjects (Swimme and Berry 1992: 199). Drawing upon Teilhard, Berry insists that the fundamental view of the world should not be that it is primarily dead matter, but that it is pregnant with conscious subjects in relationship with each other. Turning the lens of this idea to the body, one can say that the matter that constitutes the body is a community of subjects that share a common bond that give it coherence as a community. The power of the community bond is pro- vided by the soul.

The soul is the site of what Gottfried Leibniz called the substantial bond (vin- culum substantiale; Grumett 2005: 105; Blondel 1930). For Leibniz, the uni-

3 He gives the image of an hourglass with the sands flowing upwards. Everything above comes from what is below, see Teilhard 1967: 33. Elsewhere he presents the idea as a cone, see Teilhard 1968a: 48. On Teilhard’s Neoplatonic metaphysics, see Grumett 2005: 220-23. 4 Ilya Prigogine, a chemist, won the Nobel Prize in 1978 for his work presenting the self-arrangement of matter.

136 DIVINE LIVES verse was composed of monads each held together by a unifying energy of the substantial bond. Where Teilhard, and previously Maurice Blondel, split from Leibniz is in the view that the substantial bond does not have its own energy. Whereas, Leibniz proposed that each monad holds itself together, Teilhard de- scribes things as having the source of their bonding power from somewhere beyond themselves. A thing cannot hold itself together. The soul provides the substantial bond for the community of subjects that forms the body, but the power of the soul to function as the substantial bond ultimately comes from God. What this amounts to is that there is really only one Bond, the Perfect Bond, and one Monad, Jesus Christ (TB 26), who holds the universe together and draws it to himself in his love. The universe will reach its ultimate ful- fillment at the end of time when Christ will draw everything into his Being and God will be “all in all” (I Corinthians 15:28).

By itself the connection between this body derived from Teilhard’s work and the topic of divine embodiment is not clear. Daoist Xiao Yingsou more explic- itly presents the body as a site for divine embodiment. However, the body is not a single site for a single incarnation, but a divine community possible for every human being.

The Body According to Xiao Yingsou Little biographical material remains of the life of Xiao Yingsou. Scholars know him primarily through his commentary on the Scripture of Salvation (Duren jing 度人經 DZ 1) called Inner Meaning of the Scripture of Salvation (Duren jing neiyi 度人經內義 DZ 90, dated 1226). Inner Meaning opens with a pe- tition to the 13th century Song Dynasty Emperor Lizong (宋理宗 r. 1225- 1264), which attests to his high status as a ritual master and erudite commen- tator (see Boltz 1987: 206; Skar 2008). Additionally, the commentary reveals him to be a master of Daoist internal alchemy.

Internal alchemy is the Daoist meditation practice of quickening the body’s qi (pronounced “chee”)––the breath or energy—and harmonizing it with the qi of the Dao. Various traditions of internal alchemy provide different methods for achieving this, but they agree on harnessing and refining qi through mental focus primarily turned inward to energetic pathways within the body. Adepts understand refinement as establishing harmony between one’s qi and the flow of the Dao. The union of self and Dao is Daoist religious fulfillment.

Not absorbed in the Dao, the perfected Daoist or “immortal” (xian 仙)––or sometimes translated as “authentic being” or “transcendent being”––retains self-identity while completely identifying with the Dao at the same time (see Kirkland 2001; Penny 2000). The cosmology of internal alchemy views the entire universe as Dao, and qi as the manifestation of Dao. All phenomena— Heavenly, Earthly, or of Hell—are qi to varying degrees and of varying quali- 137 STUDIES IN INTERRELIGIOUS DIALOGUE 22 (2012) 2 ties. Heavenly manifestations, like gods, are qi at a great level of spiritual re- finement and resonance with Dao. Entities in Hell are qi too, but of an ex- tremely putrid quality in a process of dispersal and separation. The qi of Earth is of a quality somewhere in between. Alchemists use mental techniques to re- fine the qi of their bodies such that it imitates the qi of Heaven, the qi of the Dao.

Immortals are not gods or spirits (shen 神) but human beings who are per- fected in spirit and body. Enjoying a carefree state of existence their perfected bodies are not limited by time and space but can easily wander through whatever realm they please by flight or instantaneous relocation. Their bodies are therefore different from mortal bodies but at the same time are continuous with their previous, limited bodies. They are not what they were before, but something more. They are paradoxically one with the indefinable, infinite Dao, but at the same time they retain their individual identities and characteristics. For example, in the popular Chinese mythology the immortal He Xiangu (Im- mortal Maiden He 何仙姑) appears as a lovely lady, and Zhangli Quan 鐘離權 (or 鐘离權) is a jolly, fat man (Schipper 1993: 160-64). Although they are in- dividuals, the essence of their being is seamlessly joined with the ineffable Dao. The dual characteristics of their individuality and union with the Dao find expression in their perfected bodies.

The body in this model is not a collection of blood, bones, and tissue but a conglomeration of energies. The human is born with these energies perfectly harmonized and close to the Dao. Shortly after birth, however, the energies begin to fall out of harmony with the Dao. Extreme dissonance results in sickness. After adolescence, the energies of the body begin to dissipate, and the body falls apart in the process of aging. At death, the qi of the body has com- pletely separated, and the remaining qi of the person continues to dissipate to ultimate death in Hell.5 Alternatively, alchemists can continue to refine their qi even after death to achieve post-mortem immortality (see Seidel 1987).

Within this context, Xiao explains that the body can be viewed in three ways: the structural body (dong 洞), the experiencing body (shen 身), and the cosmic body (ti 體). Even though the body is seen as primarily energetic, Chinese med- icine and alchemy are not naive to the presence of the tangible biological body. The flesh and blood constitutes crude manifestations of qi and provides the structure within which the real body––the experiencing body––of the person can form. The structural body allows for the experiencing body, but when the adept joins the Dao, the experiencing body will separate from the structural

5 As early as the fourth century BCE, the Zhuangzi states: “Human life is the ac- cumulation of qi, death is its dispersal” (chapter 27).

138 DIVINE LIVES body. Ascending from the structural body is known as “ascending in broad day light” (bairi shengtian 白日升天), a phrase used to describe the moment when a person is divinized and rises to Dao. The experiencing body is the body most closely associated with the essential self of the person. This is the subject of al- chemical refinement and ultimately with transcendence. Finally, Xiao considers the cosmic body as continuous with the Dao and the rest of the cosmos. The cosmic body holds the greatest similarity to the cosmic body in Teilhard’s work.

Xiao graphically presents all of these aspects in a single diagram: the Diagram of the Body as Yin-Yang Ascending and Descending (Tixiang yinyang sheng jiang tu 體象陰陽升降圖, hereafter referred to as the Mountain Diagram; see Figure 1).

Figure 1. The Diagram of the Body as Yin-Yang Ascending and Descending (Tixiang yinyang shen jiang tu 體象陰陽升降圖) 139 STUDIES IN INTERRELIGIOUS DIALOGUE 22 (2012) 2

The most explicit aspect of the person in this diagram is the cosmic body. Ra- ther than seeing external human features, like eyes, hair, ears, and limbs, the body is a mountain with streams, pagodas, and gates. The viewer sees the structural body as a mountain, the firm foundation within which energy flows along pathways represented by the streams.6 Furthermore, the pagodas, pavil- ions, and gateways suggest habitation, even a community. Close examination of the labels within the diagram reveal the body as juxtaposing Hell, Earth, and Heaven in ascending order (Hartman 1992: 43).7

For example, the bottom portion is a turbulent sea called the Sea of Suffering (Kuhai 苦海), a Buddhist term for sense phenomena that represent false no- tions of self and cosmos. Close by, is Fengdu Pass (Fengdu guan 酆都関) the way leading to Hell. Further up, the labels reveal energetic sites that are cen- ters of transformation: the heart, lungs, spleen, kidneys, and liver. But to dis- tinguish the idea that these are energetic centers and not organs in the under- standing of Western medicine, Sinologists prefer to translate these as “orbs.” Orbs are not tissues, but concentrations of energy where qi is gathered, stored, regulated, and transformed (see Porkert 1974). Three divine abodes in the head at the top stand out to the viewer due to their shimmering rays: Gold Portico (Jinque 金闕), Highest Capital of Jade Mountain (Yushan Shangjing 玉山上 京), and Jade Chamber (Yufang 玉房; see Figure 2 on the following page).

The head serves as a gateway to Heaven. This is a two-way portal: it is where the perfected, experiencing body of the adept, ascends to Heaven, and it is the opening through which the gods descend into the adept (Hartman 1992: 4; Miller 2008: 36; Bokenkamp 1997: 384). On its own, the body is too putrid, too wayward with regard to the Dao for a god to inhabit. Internal alchemy purifies and refines the body such that the orbs become fitting abodes for the gods.

This diagram features three gods––collectively called the Three Primes (San- yuan 三元): Lord Wuying (Wuying 无英, “Lord Blossomless” or “Nonpar-

6 Dong is literally translated as “grotto” or “cavern.” Dong are understood to be complete vessels within which events take place, especially encounters with the divine (Miller 2008: 36-38). 7 Hell is an idea adopted from Buddhism and brought into Daoist nomenclature by associating it with water. The three realms in Daoist cosmology are Water, Earth, and Heaven. By the 6th century, Daoists had a fully functioning concept of Hell, complete with various tortures for the dead, see Despeux 1994: 97-99 and Mollier 2008. Likewise, the presentation of movement from Hell to Heaven (from chaos to order) as being from the bottom to the top of Daoist artwork, has precedents in Buddhist iconography, see Wong 1998-1999.

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The Heavenly abodes of the Three Primes (Sanyuan 三元) in the head.

The bodily abodes of the Three Primes (Sanyuan 三元) in the liver, heart, and lungs.

Figure 2.The Heavenly and bodily abodes of the gods, the Three Primes: Lord Wuying, Lord White Prime, and Yellow Heavenly Lord.

STUDIES IN INTERRELIGIOUS DIALOGUE 22 (2012) 2 iel.”), Lord White Prime (Baiyuan 白元), and Yellow Venerable Lord (Huan- glao 黃老). In the center the viewer sees the Prefecture of Wuying (Wuying fu 无英府). Its association is the liver, where Lord Wuying is the ruler of the es- sence (jing 精), the finest quality qi in an ordinary person. Lord White Prime takes up residence in the lungs, the Palace of White Prime (Baiyuan gong百元 宮). Here he presides over the hun 魂 and po 魄, spirits respectively associated with the lighter, heavenly elements and the heavier, earthly elements of the person. Just below is the Crimson Palace (Jiang gong 絳宮). Usually paired with the heart and the color red, it sits at the base of the trachea near the biological heart where it houses the Yellow Venerable Lord (see Figure 2).8 Once these gods inhabit the adept’s body, it takes on their divine character. In other words, the experiencing body maintains its cohesiveness and does not die. Death in this respect is understood as the dispersal of the energies that constitute the person. The gods represent a permanent relationship with each other, with the adept, with Heaven, as a divine community. The cosmic body of gods, Heaven, and Hell juxtaposes the experiencing body undergoing al- chemical transformation.

Divine embodiment is not that of a single entity, but of a community of divine beings coming together from the cosmos to the experiencing body. Xiao’s ideal body is, on the one hand, relational, communal, and divine, and on the other structural, experiencing, and cosmic. The perfected, experiencing bodyperson sheds the structural body and ascends to the Heavenly realms of the Dao. The experiencing body becomes its own divine and relational structure. The indi- vidual maintains his or her identity, but this identity is completely spiritualized and joined with the Dao. Divine embodiment is not a unique event, but a pos- sibility for anyone willing to take up the task of internal alchemy. Furthermore it is not temporary, like a medium possessed by a god, but permanent, so long as the adept continues with the mystical regimen.

Comparative Consequence: A Tripartite Body Such a model strikes the Christian as so different that it may appear useless, but the difference is precisely what expands the horizon of the theologian to notice new things already present in Christianity. Even though Teilhard is una- ware of it himself, his theological scheme suggests a tripartite body similar to Xiao’s model: structural, experiencing, and cosmic. The structural body is im- portant insofar as it allows for the emergence of the experiencing and cosmic bodies. The experiencing body is the site of the process of divinization, but this

8 The color scheme may seem strange: the Crimson Palace is the abode of the Yellow Venerable Lord. The Highest Clarity text, the Authentic Scripture of Great Cavern (Dadong zhenjing 上清大洞真經 DZ 6), lists it as such, however.

142 DIVINE LIVES aspect of the body is related to the cosmic and structural bodies. The focus here, then, is on the cosmic body and its significance for the topic of divine embodiment.

In many of his works, Teilhard is explicit with regard to the cosmic body as that of the Cosmic Christ, which comes to completion at the Pleroma, the ful- fillment of the cosmos (2004: 83). Naturally, this vision may lead one to think of the grand expanses of time, space, and dimensions, as does Teilhard. But Xiao draws attention to the cosmic body, which juxtaposes Heaven, Earth, and Hell and is the abode of a community of divinities within the particular body of the adept. The macrocosm is already present in the microcosm of the human body. The idea of a body––a numerically singular entity––is not only superim- posed on the cosmos in an external movement, but the cosmos is drawn into the body as the meditating Daoist turns the mind inward. As alchemists use the mind to guide the qi through the body, they are simultaneously traversing the cosmic landscape with all of its beings and realms that, in other circumstances, are assumed to be external to the body.

Teilhard views the body in much the same way. The entire expanse of the universe is summarized in the human body.9 “When we pray, we pray with the entire cosmos” (2003: 213). But Teilhard’s vision of the cosmos is not simply that of the scientific naturalist who only sees the atoms of the universe shared with the atoms of the body. He sees consciousness shining forth from within the matter of the universe. Furthermore, that consciousness is divine. It is Christ’s consciousness present, but not fulfilled.

The cosmos is conscious, subjective; so too the body. The monads from the be- ginning of time possess latent consciousnesses, which join to form larger and larger communities of consciousness until that community becomes so robust that it becomes aware of itself in the human. Xiao regards the human body as a potential community of consciousness, but he goes further to suggest that, once the gods take up residence, that community is divine. What changes with divinization is that the potential divinity becomes actualized. The divinized Daoist body is a community of gods. The divinized Christian body is a com- munity of consciousnesses that participate in the divine life of God.

The post-resurrection Jesus gives us a vision of what the divinized body will be like (see Schneiders 2005; John 20). The body of the post-resurrection Jesus is a human body, a community of subjects transformed from potential divinity to full divinity. The microcosm of the Resurrected body is a proleptic vision of

9 He writes this in many places, for example, 2003: 201, 213; 2004: 19, 104, 106; 1968b 23, 25, 27, 97, 118, 238-39, 268; 1968a 12-13, 16, 172; 1969a 49, 148; 1969b 119-20.

143 STUDIES IN INTERRELIGIOUS DIALOGUE 22 (2012) 2 the fulfilled macrocosm at the Pleroma. The resurrection body of Christ is pure Being, but the matter that participates in nothingness, returns to nothingness. It falls away at the resurrection and only the subjective, divinized community remains (cf. 2003: 207; 223).

Teilhard and Xiao agree that the dichotomy between body and spirit or the physical and spirit is a false one. The divinized universe is physical. An ab- solute association between matter and the physical is incorrect. Matter cannot exist by itself. Ultimately, matter is nothing. This suggests a view of the physical that is not dependent upon matter. To give an image: acupuncturists insert their needles to treat the qi-bodies of their patients, but they insert the needles into something. The needle does not pass into formless energy, but sinks into energy manifested as skin. The importance of this point is to assert that the future resurrected body is not an idealized body devoid of any taint of the physical universe, but that the resurrected body leads to an expanded notion of the physical. The body of the resurrected Christ is physical. The tomb is empty, and Christ is not a ghost. Thinking macrocosmically, Teilhard writes: “The mystical Body of Christ should, in fact, be conceived as a phys- ical Reality, in the strongest sense the words can bear” (1968b: 51; italics his). Nor is the divine body isolated from the rest of the universe. Just as the pre- Resurrected body is a community of subjects––a microcosm of the universe–– so is the post-resurrected body. The Resurrected body is the perfected relationship between Christ and cosmos. It is a promise of an enduring, perfected relationship––running throughout the cosmos. This relationship is the Perfect Bond of substance that is the source of energy for the infinite network of bonds between beings.

Conclusion What one notices in Teilhard after reading Xiao is a tripartite body composed of a structural body, an experiencing body, and a cosmic body composed of a community of beings that summarize the cosmos. This vision informs the understanding of Jesus’ body as communal and cosmic. The divine embodies cosmically precisely because the divine body is a human body. At the resurrection the subjects that composed the resurrection body were taken up into Christ’s divine nature. Thus, our promise of divinization is not assured by the incarnation as much as by the resurrection.

Teilhard and Xiao my not offer insights into how the infinite divine embodies in a temporal world, because they both accept that it does. What they offer is a novel way of considering the body that may open new avenues for under- standing the incarnation. The incarnation is unique in that it results in perfected relationships of the body at the resurrection. Divine embodiment in the Chris- tian tradition remains a unique event, but one that presages the ultimate fulfillment of the bodyperson at the future resurrection. The bodies of human

144 DIVINE LIVES beings are not yet divine, not yet resurrected or perfected. Nonetheless, they are more than functioning biological parts composed of matter. They are mul- titudes of beings held together in a relationship with the substantial soul of each person. The relationship of the multitude with the soul is in the process of perfection insofar as one allows the activity of Christ to operate through the soul and throughout the body. Seen as a site of being and divine activity, the human body itself is not a temporary object for the soul’s use. Instead, the body is a community of subjects who are potentially divine, cosmic, and won- drous.

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