Records of the Western Australian Museum Supplement No. 52: 39-47 (1995).

Australian : an opportunity for conservation

Alan L. Yen Invertebrate Survey Department, Museum of Victoria, 71 Victoria Crescent, Abbotsford, Victoria 3067,

Abstract - Attempts to conserve invertebrates face many conceptual and practical problems. Spiders are one group of invertebrates with an undeserved bad public image, and it could be thought that any attempt to promote conservation in Australia would be seen as a waste of time and effort. The utilitarian values of and the threats to spiders are summarised. It is argued that spiders have one advantage over most over groups of invertebrates: they are well known, although not well appreciated, by most of the populace. It is suggested that spider conservation in Australia is at a stage where programmes emphasising the positive benefits of spiders may result in a more sympathetic attitude towards spiders.

INTRODUCTION Koch, which is found in swampy paperbark forest There is probably more fear and destined for housing subdivision (Gray 1992). misunderstanding for two large groups of , It is interesting to compare public attitudes snakes and spiders, than for any other animals at towards the introduced honey bee, Apis mellifera similar levels of classification. There are possibly L., and spiders. Between 1960-1970, more people three reasons for this: both are carnivorous, both died as a result of bee venom than from spider contain venomous species, and both contain venom in Australia (Southcott 1978), and many species that generally do not make much noise. people have severe allergies to bee venom There is a very real fear of spiders (Sutherland 1981), yet bees are deemed to be of (arachnophobia) amongst a significant proportion commercial importance and are not feared in the of the Australian people exacerbated by same way as spiders. In contrast, most people are sensationalist popular media. This is due to unaware of the ecological importance of spiders, occurrence of three species whose venom has and thus do not view them as important. Spiders resulted in human fatalities, such as the funnel­ are probably the most important group of web spiders Atrax robustus Cambridge and predatory invertebrates in urban, horticultural and Hadronyche formidablis (Rainbow), and the redback agricultural systems (Humphreys 1988). spider, Latrodectus hasselti Thorell, and other Although spiders have been the subject of almost species that have possibly undeserved bad universal fear, there was an early call for the reputations, including the white-tail spider, conservation of spiders by McKeown (1~36), who Lampona cylindrata (Koch). From 1927-1980, 14 outlined the harmless and useful nature of the vast deaths were reported due to funnel-web spider majority of species whose names were tarnished bites, but none have occurred since the by the very small number of "deadly" species. development of an antivenom (Queensland Later calls for spider conservation were made by Museum 1987a). More people have been bitten by Main (1976, 1987a,b, 1991b). redback spiders, and there were 13 deaths up to This paper is dedicated to Barbara York Main for 1956, and between 1968-1976, nearly 2,000 people her admirable achievements in arachnology, were supposedly bitten; however, there have been including her championing the need for spider no deaths since the development of an antivenom conservation. (Raven and Gallon 1987). This paper briefly: -summarises the history of With the development of antivenom, people have spider conservation in Australia, and the possible to learn to live with funnel-web spiders. Ironically, threatening processes that confront spiders. The the largest human settlement in Australia (Sydney), importance of spiders is outlined, and it is is located in the centre of funnel-web spider proposed that the bad public image that spiders distribution and, in fact, urbanisation may be have can be used to promote their conservation threatening some species of funnel-webs such as because spiders, as a group of invertebrates, are the southern tree funnel-web, Hadronyche cerberea well known. 40 A.L. Yen

Table 1 Australian spiders that have been listed as 'threatened'. Information derived from the following references (1) Hill and Michaelis (1988); (2) Davey et al. (1992); and (3) Watts (1992).

SPECIES DISTRIBUTION HABITAT THREAT REFERENCE

Aganippe raphiduca Rainbow and Pulleine WA (RottnestIs.) Swamp Tourism 1 Aganippe smeatoni Hogg SA 3 Anidiops sp. SA 3 Arbanitis inornatus (Rainbow and Pulleine) WA 1 nigrum Main WA Forest Pastoral 1 clearing/ agriculture Kwonkan anatolian Main SA Pastoral! agriculture 1,3 Kwonkan eboracum Main WA agriculture 1 Kwonkan moriartii Main WA pastoral, agriculture 1 Kwonkan wonganensis (Main) WA pastoral, agriculture 1 Moggridgea australis Main SA (Kangaroo Is.) 3 Troglodiplura lowyri Main WA Cave recreation 1,2

LISTINGS OF THREATENED SPECIES OF commercial development, and urbanisation (Wells SPIDERS IN AUSTRALIA et al. 1981). While these same threats operate in Australia, spiders are faced with threats that can Selected threatened species have been used as be grouped into three major categories: (1) habitat flagships to educate the public about the need for destruction and fragmentation; (2) habitat conservation. In the cases of the less speciose management regimes; and (3) biotic interactions. groups of vertebrates, this generally includes all known threatened species, usually brought together in national lists, or as international lists Habitat destruction and fragmentation such as in the IUCN Red Data books. For the more Land clearance for agriculture speciose invertebrates, lack of information prevents Since European settlement of Australia, large compilation of large lists of threatened taxa, and tracts of land, have been cleared for agriculture, generally a small number of taxa is listed as either for cropping, plantations, or grazing. The flagships for other, still undocumented, threatened effects of total alienation of habitats on the native taxa. Six species of spiders are listed in the IUCN spider fauna have not been studied, and Invertebrate Red Data Book (Wells et al. 1983). In speculation can only be made as to possible effects the more recent 1988 IUCN Red List of Threatened because of the large number of variables involved. Animals there are at least 16 species (14 species These include geographical location, type, extent, and one ) of spiders (IUCN 1988), although and sequence of land clearance, amount of land none are Australian. cleared, and the extent of remnant habitat as a In Australia, there are 11 species of spiders that source of recolonisation. It is likely that some have been listed as possibly under threat (Table 1) native species of spiders were adversely affected (Hill and Michaelis 1988; Davey et al. 1992; Watts by land clearance, while species that are adapted 1992). All 11 species are either trapdoor or cave­ to more open, early successional, habitats may dwelling spiders, which probably reflects two have been advantaged. groups of spiders that have been given greater According to Main (1987a), much of the attention rather than the absence of threatened invertebrate fauna of the wheatbelt region of species in other groups of spiders. It is important Western Australia was adapted to living in to note that as more information becomes available, naturally fragmented or tenuously continuous some of these listed spiders may be found not to be microhabitats, even before European settlement. threatened, while other species may be added to Trapdoor spiders survived natural catastrophes the list. because they did riot affect alL the habitat, and recolonisation from undisturbed habitat was possible. Since European settlement, ~e landscape THREATS TO SPIDERS IN AUSTRALIA has been artificially fragmented, barners between On the international level, the main threat to remnant fragments are more difficult to cross, and spiders is habitat loss including destru~tion of fewer species will survive in the long term (Main caves, drainage of wetlands, forestry, agnculture, 1987a). l

Australian spider conservation 41 Forestry lichen-crusted surface of bare ground, leading to There have been relatively few studies on the erosion of top soil, and possible reduced prey effects of forestry on spiders. Two overseas potential (Main 1976, 1977). Anidiops villosus, the studies, one in Finland (Huhta 1971) and the other females of which may live for 25 years or more, is in the United States (Coyle 1981), found that clear a large trapdoor spider found in the wheatbelt of felling resulted in altered species composition with Western Australia. It builds deep , and iln increase in number of species of hunting spider depends on ground-litter cover to provide material characteristic of more open habitats. In the Finnish for twiglines as part of the rim. Grazing study, elements of the original forest spider fauna destroys the litter structure and the species is began to appear seven years after clear felling. unable to survive. In Queensland, areas grazed for In the karri forests of Western Australia, clearing two years by cattle only had trapdoor spiders in and burning resulted in marked changes to the sheltered situations such as against logs, tussocks, community, and species richness shrubs and butts of trees, where cattle hooves had recovered from these practices more slowly on not broken the ground; further, there was no creek sites than on ridge sites (Curry et al. 1985). evidence of recruitment (i.e. small burrows) (Main The effects varied according to the species; e.g. 1976). lycosids were affected immediately by clearing, but Small areas fenced off from grazing can protect different species returned immediately after trapdoor spiders. A healthy area is indicated by burning. The nemesiid villosa (Rainbow and presence of both mature and immature trapdoors, Pulleine) was not affected by clearing but almost while the presence of mature spiders only suggests locally eliminated by burning (Curry et al. 1985). decline (Main 1977).

Urbanisation Cultivation The effects of urbanisation on native spiders may Cultivation leads to a loss of habitat structure be similar to the effects of land clearance, although and subsequent loss of spider diversity. This can it is possible that more native spiders would be minimised by permitting recolonisation from survive because many urban dwellings are located adjacent habitats, habitat manipulation and in remnant bushland, and the urban habitat (except management taking into account the source of in inner city areas) can be more diverse than a spiders, providing suitable conditions for their monoculture crop. However, urban habitats are survival (Riechert and Lockley 1984). more likely to have exotic species of spiders introduced along with exotic plants. Insecticides Habitat management regimes Insecticides can kill all spiders (Raven and Gallon 1987), and broad scale application against pest Fire insects or mites will be deleterious to non-target Fire is a major ecological factor in many parts of species such as spiders. Insecticide application Australia, yet there is very little information on the limits the effectiveness of spiders as predators effects of different fire regimes on spiders. In one (Riechert and Lockley 1984). The effects of of the few studies on fire and spiders, Main (1991b) insecticides on spiders can be reduced by halting studied the differential responses of two species of regular blanket insecticide applicath;m, using mygalomorph spiders in forests of south-western selective insecticides in a sparing manner, Western Australian. One species, Anidiops villosus restricting spraying to appropriate times in the life (Rainbow), is a large door-building species that can cycle of the prey, localising spraying, and spraying survive fire by remaining underground, but the at a time of day when spider activity is minimal absence of shade and litter after the fire reduces its (Riechert and Lockley 1984). chance of survival. Furthermore, it disperses on the ground and is a slow recoloniser. In contrast, Cethegus sp. is a smaller spider that builds a Fertilisers curtain-like web over its burrow and is killed by Main (1976) suggests that fertilisers may be fire, but is a faster recoloniser than Anidiops damaging to spiders, although there is no because it disperses by ballooning (Main 1991b). Australian data on this issue. In Poland, fertiliser treatment over a five year period resulted in Grazing changes to the numerical dominance of species, Much of the Australian environment, although with the replacement of larger species (Lycosidae) not actually cleared of native vegetation, is by smaller ones (), resulting in reduced subjected to grazing by introduced hard-hoofed biomass and locomotory activity of spiders on the mammals. The hooves break up the litter and fertilised plots (Kajak 1978). 42 A.L. Yen

Biotic interactions spiders and native Australian predatory invertebrates. Main (1976) lists nine species of Trade (legal and illegal) spiders introduced into Australia since European There is a small trade in spiders as pets, display settlement. More recently a figure of 33 species has animals, or for scientific research. Larger spiders, been proposed (Raven, pers. comm. 1993). such as , form a major component of the The introduced species include the poisonous invertebrate pet and invertebrate zoo trade. There Loxosceles rufescens (Dufour), established around are several societies that specialise on tarantulas, Adelaide (Gray 1974), and the North American and among the invertebrates, they are probably brown widow spider (Latrodectus geometricus Koch), only behind butterfly and conchological societies in which has the potential to build up in plague terms of popularity. They appeal because of their proportions (Queensland Museum 1987b; Raven large body size and bizarre nature. Many are long­ 1992). lived and take several years to mature (Main 1985), and are capable ofbeing kept in captivity. Speleology Euathlus smithii F. Pickard-Cambridge, the red­ Caves are a specialised habitat and invertebrates kneed -eating spider from Mexico, is the best often form the major faunal component. Many known in the pet industry, but the invertebrate species are confined to caves and conservation status of wild populations is not possess morphological adaptations to th~ cave known. It is listed in the IUCN Invertebrate Red environment (troglobitic). Main (1976) hsts 15 Data Book (Wells et al. 1983), and is the only spider species of troglobitic spiders from caves in listed in Appendix II of CITES, which means it Australia, although this figure has been increased cannot be moved from one country to another with more recent surveys on the Nullabor (Davey without appropriate permits. It is a popular species et al. 1992), Chillagoe (Howarth 1988), Cape Range for collectors (Hancock and Hancock 1992), and (Harvey et al. 1993), an in Tasmania (Eberhard et al. captive breeding has been quite successful (Clarke 1991). Ironically, although cave invertebrates are 1991); however, its slow developmental rate could protected in Tasmania, their actual cave habitats encourage collection of adults in the wild. may not necessarily be protected. In Australia, the theraphosids are the largest In the Nullabor caves, one species of spider, spiders (Main 1976). In a rather confusing Troglodiplura lowryi Main, is considered publication on theraphosid classification and endangered (Davey et al. 1992), although it occurs identification aimed at the collector market, Smith in three widely separated caves in the southern (1992) lists seven species of Australian Nullabor (Main 1993). Tartarus mullamullangensis theraphosids, although Main (1985) only recognises Gray (), though not considered five of these seven. Of the five species, possibly threatened, was considered to have become locally only Selenocosmia crassipes (Koch), S. stirlingi Hogg, extinct or very severely reduced in an area known and S. subvulpina Strand would be of interest to as the Dome in Mullamullang Cave because of overseas collectors. The rather bizarre idea of disturbance by speleologists (Poulter 1991). There keeping Atrax robustus as pets cannot be have been requests in speleological journals for discounted. speleologists to take care for the sake of the cave Legal trade of wildlife into and out of Australia invertebrates (Poulter 1991). is controlled by the Wildlife Protection (Regulation of Exports and Imports) Act 1982. Although-ilie'l'e have been requests to legally import live spiders as THE IMPORTANCE OF SPIDERS pets or for research purposes, all have been rejected because of the risk of accidental release Utilitarian reasons into the Australian environment (Robert Moore, ANCA Wildlife Protection Authority, pers comm. Biological control 1993). Several illegally imported tarantulas have Spiders are all predators and their main food ~s recently been confiscated by the Australian , especially insects. Due to theu Quarantine and Inspection Service in Australia, but diversity and abundance, spiders may be the top the level of trade is thought to be very low. invertebrate carnivore in natural, agricultural and Specimens of the (Latrodectus urban environments. They occupying a position hasselti) have been legally exported either for that could affect the species composition of the venom products or as mounted specimens (Robert invertebrate fauna (Humphreys 1988). Moore, ANCA Wildlife Protection Authority, pers There has been no applied spider work on grain comm.1993). crops in Australia (Humphreys 1988), although there has been studies of the spiders associated Introduced species ofspiders. with cotton fields (Bishop 1980, 1981). However, Biotic interactions may occur between introduced applied control studies elsewhere suggest that it is Australian spider conservation 43 the spider community, rather than particular Attempts are being made to develop light high­ species, which effect control of pest populations tensile fibres derived from spider silk (Beattie (Humphreys 1988). This is a compelling reason for 1992). Some strong spider silks have a breaking advocating the use of spider assemblages as a strain greater than that of steel wire of the same flagship for conservation rather than using diameter (Preston-Mafham 1991), yet it is more individual flagship species. elastic than nylon, and tougher than a bulletproof The theory behind using spiders is to increase vest: it absorbs more energy before it breaks than the effectiveness of by native species and any other material (Eliot 1993). to reduce pesticide use (Booij and Noorlander Research is under way on the development of 1992) and reduce the need to introduce exotic new insecticides based on spider venom (Beattie biological control agents (Lockwood 1993). 1992; Quistad et al. 1992). Most research on spider Classical biological control emphasises the use of venom has involved medically important species specialist predators and parasitoids to control a that are known to cause death in humans (such as single pest species. Spiders do not fulfil this role latrotoxins), and are unsuitable as insecticides. The well because they are mostly generalist predators assumption that other spider venoms are similar to with limited functional and numerical responses to latrotoxin has discouraged research on other spider population changes of specific prey species venoms, but recent research has shown that there (Riechert and Lockley 1984). However, spiders can are other novel neurotoxins that are of potential as kill many more prey than they will actually insecticides and in the pharmaceutical industry. consume, and a suite of generalist predators such Research on less toxic (to humans) spiders has as spiders can effectively control a complex revealed toxins that disrupt the nerve and muscle assemblage of prey species rather than a specific link in invertebrates, although further work is prey species. Spider assemblages, through their required before commercial insecticides are composite foraging activities, can serve as buffers developed (Quicke 1988). to limit exponential growth of prey populations, Research has been conducted on the possible but no single spider species can keep a prey application of spider venoms that temporarily population in check once an outbreak occurs. paralyse their prey in medicine (Beattie 1992). A Community diversity must be maintained to class of compounds found in spider venom may be maximise the number of predators (Riechert and useful in treating stroke victims and epileptics Lockley 1984). (Faulls 1991). The main component of Latrodectus There have been attempts to build up natural venom is latrotoxin, which is used as a populations of spiders by habitat manipulation, neurophysiological probe in both vertebrates and although this area is still in a pioneering stage. The invertebrates (Quicke 1988). effectiveness of an assemblage of generalist The spitting spiders, Scytodes, shower their predators (spiders) was demonstrated in a victims with mucilage-like substance that fastens vegetable system by adding mulch (which provides the prey to the substrate (Main 1976), and there is high humidity and moderate temperatures): spider potential in the use of these adhesives (Beattie numbers were significantly higher and prey 1992). numbers and levels of plant damage lower in plots with added mulch (Riechert and Bishop 1990). Scientific study Habitat manipulation is directed to encourage the Spiders have been important in scientific studies, colonisation of early stage agriculturai systems, including the areas of systematics, biogeography, and relies on an assemblage of spiders rather than ecology, behaviour, and are an important any individual species. The significance of spiders experimental organism (Humphreys 1988). is that spider assemblages are often species rich, Archival biological collections can be used spiders are generally generalist predators, and theoretically to reconstruct biological scenarios spider populations are self-damping through present at the time of and subsequent to European territoriality and cannibalism (Riechert 1990). settlement. Instead of using fossils, Main (1990) advocates the use of fugitive species whose general Source ofuseful products biology is known or can be deduced from available Spiders are noted for two products: silk and information. Cave spiders are valuable in venom. The biological uses of the former are well reconstructing evolutionary and zoogeographic documented; e.g. many species of smaller history of the Australian spider fauna (Davey et al. throughout the world use spider silk in the 1992). construction of their nests, especially the silk cocoons that protect spider eggs (Hansell 1992; Environmental indicators McCulloch 1993). Spider silk is also used by There is a never ending search for easily humans; e.g. orbwebs are collected for use as identifiable indicators of environmental change or fishing nets in New Guinea (Faulls 1991). disturbance, generally at the species level. This 44 A.L. Yen often presents problems for the applied (non­ However, spider assemblages work together as a taxonomic) biologist, and spiders are one group natural biological control community (Humphreys that should be examined more closely to determine 1988), then selection of single taxon or groups of tJ.1eir suitability as user-friendly indicators of spiders may be inappropriate. Possibly a diverse environmental change at the higher taxonomic suite of spiders, representing different habitat use level (genus, or preferably, family). and foraging strategies, may be appropriate that While urging caution on the use of spiders as can include families with high habitat specificity, indicators of change, Main (1977, 1987a, 1991a) pioneering taxa, and introduced taxa. Mawson argues that a major component of the Australian (1986) examined the of rehabilitated spider fauna is comprised of burrowing bauxite minesites, and found that' it took eight mygalomorph spiders (trapdoor spiders) which years for rehabilitated sites to be capable of can act as indicators because they (1) often have supporting arachnid communities comparable to high habitat specificity and depend absolutely on a that in surrounding undisturbed jarrah forests. It stable soil/litter structure for survival; (2) have a took this time for a suitable depth of leaf litter, long life cycle; (3) live their entire lives in one adequate ground cover, and numbers of heights of burrow, and adults cannot initiate a new burrow if trees to develop for spiders. the old one is destroyed; (4) can only disperse Australian spiders include a broad range of taxa within a restricted area near the parent burrow; (5) that are indicative of biogeographical affinities, do not readily colonise habitats modified by often at the genus or family level, e.g. ancient, anthropogenic factors; (6). display high levels of Gondwanaland and recent (tropical) (Main 1981b). local endemism and diversity in relatively small Main (1981a) classifies the families of Australian isolated areas because of their low dispersion spiders on the basis of their generalised residency/ powers, long life cycle and sedentary life style; and foraging strategies (ground or plant dwelling, (7) as predators, their prey is caught within close sedentary or vagrant, snare builders, etc; Table 3 of range of the burrow, and their persistence also Main 1981a) and their generalised habitat indicates the persistence of other terrestrial distribution (humid forests, seasonal wet/dry invertebrates. forests and woodlands, semi-arid, arid, and Main (1987a) warns of the danger of interpreting specialised habitats such as caves, the alps, and the presence of particular spiders in disturbed marine habitats; Table 4 of Main 1981a). It would habitats as an indication that the species are able to be an interesting and worthwhile exercise to re-establish rapidly and survive in those habitats. combine these two criteria in an attempt to identify Often the presence of active male mygalomorph a suite of spider families in each major habitat that spiders on the surface of the ground is a measure could be used as environmental indicators. of biological activity rather than conservation status. Main (1987a) cites the studies of Curry et al. Ethical reasons (1985) and Mawson (1986) as examples where this The ethical reasons for conserving spiders are mistake has been made, and cites an example of an difficult for many people to comprehend. They can agricultural area which was cleared and only range from respect for all life, regardless of cropped once but has not been recolonised in 20 whatever form it takes, to an acceptance of the years by mygalomorph spiders from adjacent need to conserve all natural components of areas. There is also the danger that the persistence ecosystems (Callicot 1986). of adults of long-lived species may also be misinterpreted as survival of the species; these adults may actually outlive the viability of the FUTURE STEPS FOR SPIDER habitat and not breed or if young are produced, CONSERVATION IN AUSTRALIA they may not survive. In the selection of indicator To achieve the conservation of spiders in Australia, species, it is important to consider the life history there are three major requirements: of the species, microhabitat needs, and distribution. (1) Educational programmes to make people Compared with insects, spiders a,re relatively aware of the biological diversity of spiders, immobile because they do not fly, although some their ecological importance, and the need for species can disperse widely by ballooning. As a their conservation; group, spiders have some of the characteristics of 'good' indicators, including high relative (2) Increased knowledge of the , abundance, ease of collection, not too speciose, biology, ecology and distribution of spiders; occupying a diversity of habitats and micro­ and habitats, and a diverse range of foraging strategies (3) Identification of threatened species and and tactics. As they are all predators, they could preparation of recovery plans, which may have a major influence on the composition of include captive breeding programmes and invertebrate communities. translocation. Australian spider conservation 45

There is a major conservation impediment: how many people are simply not aware of invertebrate to conserve something that is feared by a large diversity and function. Spiders, to some extent, proportion of the human population, yet form a have already straddled this barrier; there is much major, and ecologically essential, part of the spider awareness in the community, albeit not a Australian biota. The solution may be relatively very sympathetic awareness. The next step is to simple: people are already aware of spiders, unlike alter this unsympathetic attitude by developing many other groups of invertebrates, and it is a educational programmes to emphasise the matter of educating them about the need for their ecological and utilitarian aspects of spiders, and conservation. thus the need for their conservation. In any conservation discussion, there is a sequence of events that starts with (1)' knowing what it is, (2) obtaining public support, and (3) then ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS' actually getting things done. With groups such as The. following people kindly. provided spiders and snakes, there is a sub-sequence (la) information and comments for this paper, although creating public hysteria about the danger of these the opinions expressed by the author may not animals, and this generally, but not necessarily, necessarily be shared by them: Andy Austin, Mike prevents (2) and (3) occurring. With spiders, the Gray, Ellery Hamilton-Smith, Mark Harvey, Lionel current situation is somewhere between (la) and Hill, Robert Moore, Robert Raven, and Glen Sant. I (2). Although there is still much taxonomic, also wish to thank Barbara Main for providing systematic, distributional and biological research interesting insights and information on trapdoor required on the Australian spider fauna, the spiders. "knowing what it is" phase has been well under way for many years. This has manifested itself in the numerous books about Australian spiders and REFERENCES their biology (Froggatt 1935; McKeown 1936, 1952; Austin, A. (1980). Spiders. Longman Cheshire, Main 1976) and identification guides (Child 1965; Melbourne. Clyne 1969; Hickman 1967; Lee and Southcott 1979; Beattie, AJ. (1992). Discovering new biological resources Main 1964; Mascord 1970, 1978, 1980; Walker and - chance or reason? BioScience 42: 290-292. Milledge 1992), and keys to families (Austin 1980; Bishop, AL. (1980). The composition and abundance of Davies 1986). Another group of publications dwell the spider fauna in south-east Queensland cotton. on the venomous spiders, and range from the Australian Journal ofZoology 28: 699-708. scientifically/medically based publications (Garnet Bishop, AL. (1981). The spatial dispersion of spiders in 1968; Hadlington 1962; Southcott 1978; Sutherland a cotton ecosystem. Australian Journal of Zoology 29: 1981) to the more popularly based ones (Worrell 15-24. 1977). Today there are many more publications that Booij, CJ.H. and Noorlander, J. (1992). Farming systems look at spiders from a more balanced and and insect predators. Agriculture, Ecosystems and sympathetic approach, and many of these books Environment 40: 125-135. are aimed primarily at children (Carter and Howes Callicot, J.B. (1986). On the intrinsic value of nonhuman 1982; Cullen et al. 1986; Hunt 1982). species. In Norton, B.G. (ed.), The Preservation of Sympathetic overtones towards spiders are Species: 138-172. Princeton University Press, found in Child (1965), Hickman (1967), Mascord Princeton. (1980), although Mascord (1978) illustrates Carter, R. and Howes, J. (1982). Australian Spidtrs. Gould representatives of spider families but has groups League of Victoria, Prahran. .:. classed as "deadly" and "dangerous". In an Child, J. (1965). Australian Spiders. 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