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Geological and Morphological Investigations of the Underground Cities of Cappadocia Using Gis

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Geological and Morphological Investigations of the Underground Cities of Cappadocia Using Gis GEOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE UNDERGROUND CITIES OF CAPPADOCIA USING GIS A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF NATURAL AND APPLIED SCIENCES OF MIDDLE EAST TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY BY ARDA AYHAN IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN THE DEPARTMENT OF GEOLOGICAL ENGINEERING DECEMBER 2004 Approval of the Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences Prof. Dr. Canan Özgen Director I certify that this thesis satisfies all the requirements as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Asuman Türkmenoğlu Head of Department This is to certify that we have read this thesis and that in our opinion it is fully adequate, in scope and quality, as a thesis for the degree of Master of Science. Prof. Dr. Vedat Toprak Supervisor Examining Committee Members Prof. Dr. Asuman Türkmenoğlu (METU-GEOE) Prof. Dr. Vedat Toprak (METU-GEOE) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gül Asatekin (METU-ARCH) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Tamer Topal (METU-GEOE) Assist. Prof. Dr. Lütfi Süzen (METU-GEOE) I hereby declare that all information in this document has been obtained and presented in accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct. I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited and referenced all material and results that are not original to this work. Name, Last name : Ayhan, Arda Signature : iii ABSTRACT GEOLOGICAL AND MORPHOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE UNDERGROUND CITIES OF CAPPADOCIA USING GIS Ayhan, Arda M. Sc. Department of Geological Engineering Supervisor: Prof. Dr. Vedat Toprak December 2004, 120 pages The purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of rock types and morphologic classes on the locations of underground cities existing in Cappadocia. To achieve this purpose four databases are created that contain related information of underground cities, present settlements, rock types and morphologic classes. Four main analyses are carried out using the data created fort the study. These analyses are: 1) Distance analysis to determine the distances between underground cities and present settlements, 2) Density analysis to inspect the areas where the underground cities are concentrated, 3) Distribution analysis to explore the spatial distribution of underground cities within the rock types and morphologic classes, and 4) Neighbourhood analysis to examine whether the underground cities within rock types and morphologic classes are located along or far inside the marginsof the polygons. iv The conclusions reached after the analyses are as follows: 1) The mean distance between two underground cities is about 4 km. 2) The mean distance between an underground city and the nearest present settlement is about 700 m. 3) Underground cities are concentrated in Derinkuyu- Nevşehir-Özkonak belt. Present settlements, on the other hand, are concentrated along Aksaray-Ortaköy-Hacıbektaş. 4) For the underground cities, pyroclastic dominant Neogene sequences are preferred whereas all other units are avoided. 5) In terms of morphology, the class defined as “mesa” is strongly preferred for underground cities. 6) Neither lithology nor morphology played a role in the site selection for present settlements. 7) Both for rock types and morphologic classes the underground cities are located along margins of the polygons. Keywords: underground city, rock type, morphology, Cappadocia, Turkey v ÖZ KAPADOKYA YERALTI ŞEHİRLERİNİN CBS KULLANARAK JEOLOJİK VE MORFOLOJİK İNCELEMELERİ Ayhan, Arda Yüksek Lisans, Jeoloji Mühendisliği Bölümü Tez Yöneticisi: Prof. Dr. Vedat Toprak Aralık 2004, 120 sayfa Bu çalışmanın amacı, Kapadokya bölgesinde yer alan yer altı şehirlerinin lokasyonlarında kaya türü ve morfoloji etkisini araştırmaktır. Bu amaca ulaşabilmek için yeraltı şehirleri, güncel yerleşimler, kaya türleri ve morfoloji sınıflarına ait birbirleriyle ilişkili dört veri tabanı oluşturulmuştur. Çalışma için oluşturulan veriyi kullanarak dört ana analiz yürütülmüştür. 1) Yeraltı şehirleri ve güncel yerleşimlerin aralarındaki mesefeleri belirlemek için mesafe analizi ; 2) Yeraltı şehirleri ve güncel yerleşimlerin nerelerde yoğunlaştıklarını araştırmak için yoğunluk analizi; 3)Yeraltı şehirleri ve güncel yerleşimlerinin, kaya türleri ve morfoloji sınıfları içindeki dağılımlarını araştırmak için dağılım analizi ve 4) Yeraltı şehirleri ve güncel yerleşimlerinin, kaya türleri ve morfoloji sınıfları içindeki yerlerini araştırmak için yakınlık analizi. vi Analizler sonrası varılan sonuçlar şunlardır: 1) İki yeraltı şehri arasındaki ortalama uzaklık yaklaşık 4 km’dir. 2) Bir yeraltı şehrinin en yakın güncel yerleşime olan ortalama uzaklığı yaklaşık 700 m’dir. 3) Yeraltı şehirleri Derinkuyu-Nevşehir-Özkonak kuşağında yoğunlaşmıştır. Güncel yerleşimler ise Aksaray-Ortaköy-Hacıbektaş hattında yoğunlaşmaktadır. 4) Yeraltı şehirleri için piroklastikçe zengin Neojen yaşlı litolojik istifler tercih edilirken diğer birimlerden kaçınılmıştır. 5) Morfolojik açıdan ise “mesa” olarak tanımlanan sınıf yeraltı şehirleri için çok belirgin olarak tercih edilmiştir. 6) Güncel yerleşimlerin yer seçiminde ne litoloji ne de morfoloji etkin bir rol oynamamıştır. 7) Hem kaya türleri hem de morfolojik sınıflar için yeraltı şehirleri poligonların kenarları boyunca yerleşmiştir. Anahtar kelimeler: yeraltı şehri, kaya türü, morfoloji, Kapadokya, Türkiye vii To the supreme mountains of Anatolia viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Before and above all… Thank you God. I would also like to thank to following people. To mom and dad… Your patience and common sense always keeps me on the bright side. Without you, what would I do? To my supervisor and mentor (Yes sir, you are.) Vedat Toprak… You led and I followed. Of course to Lütfi Süzen… You have become a brother for me. Mucos Gracias El Turco. To my old pal, Cüneyt… For this brilliant idea of graduate study in METU. To Erdem,Pınar and Deniz… Long live the gang! To Murat Gülyaz… For your assistance in Nevşehir. And finally to my Eda… Thank you my patient lady. I love you. Also to all whom I collaborate in METU, Geological Engineering Department: Bora Rojay, Nuretdin Kaymakcı, Arda Arcasoy, Başak, Çağatay, Alper, Çağıl, Çağrı, Gence and others… You’re an amazing and an amusing staff! ix TABLE OF CONTENTS PLAGIARISM . iii ABSTRACT . iv ÖZ . vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENT . ix TABLE OF CONTENTS . x LIST OF TABLES . xiii LIST OF FIGURES . xiv CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1. Purpose and Scope . 1 1.2. Study Area . 4 1.3. Previous Studies . 4 1.4. Softwares Used in the Study. 8 1.5. Organization of theThesis . 9 2. REGIONAL GEOLOGY . 10 2.1. Regional Setting . 10 2.2. The Geological Evolution of CVP . 12 2.2. Stratigraphy . 13 2.2.1. Basement Rocks . 14 2.2.2. Ürgüp Formation . 15 2.2.3. Volcanic Complexes . 17 2.2.4. Plio-Quaternary Continental Clastics . 18 2.2.5. Quaternary Cinder Cone Fields . 19 2.3. Fault Systems . 20 2.3.1. Tuzgölü-Ecemiş Fault System . 20 2.3.2. CVP Extensional Fault System . 23 x 3. UNDERGROUND CITIES: A REVIEW . 24 3.1. Historical Research . 24 3.2. Dating Underground Cities . 29 3.3. Reasons for Underground Settling . 30 3.4. General Features of an Underground City. 35 4. DATA USED IN THE STUDY . 37 4.1. Underground Cities . 37 4.2. Present Settlements . 41 4.3. Rock Types . 43 4.4. Morphological Classes . 48 5. ANALYSES AND INTERPRETATION . 54 5.1. Distance Analysis . 54 5.2. Density Analysis . 59 5.3. Distribution Analysis . 64 5.3.1. Distribution in Morphological Classes . 64 5.3.2. Distribution in Rock Types . 69 5.3.3. Relationship Between Morphological Classes and Rock Types . .. 75 5.4. Neighbourhood Analysis . 79 5.4.1. Neighbourhood Analysis for Rock Types . 80 5.4.2. Neighbourhood Analysis for Morphological Classes . 81 6. DISCUSSIONS AND CONCLUSION . 86 6.1. Extend of Study Area . 86 6.2. Accuracy of Input Data . 87 6.2.1. Morphological Class Data . 87 6.2.2. Rock Type Data . 88 6.2.3. Present Settlement Data . 89 6.2.4. Underground City Data . 89 xi 6.2.5. Reasons for Lack of Information . 90 6.3. Prediction of Unexplored Underground Cities . 91 6.4. Evaluation of the Results Obtained . 92 REFERENCES . 97 APPENDICES A. Table of Underground Cities . 106 B. Table of Present Settlements . 109 C. Layouts of BASIC Programs Used in the Study . 118 xii LIST OF TABLES Table: 1.1 Previous studies categorised according to the purpose of the study . .6 1.2 Softwares used in the study . .8 2.1 General characteristics of the volcanic complexes exposed within the CVP . 18 2.2 Monogenetic cones of CVP identified by Arcasoy (2001) . 20 4.1 Distribution of underground cities and modern settlements in the area . 41 4.2 Basic statistics of the rock types used in the study . 45 4.3 Basic statistics of the morphological classes identified in the study area . 51 5.1 Basic statistics for the distances for underground cities (uc) and present settlements (ps) . 56 5.2 Distances provided by random generation of site location . 58 5.3 Comparison of the mean distances computed by three methods . 60 5.4 Frequencies of the density analysis of underground cities and present settlements for different percentages . 61 5.5 Classification of the area into four distinct regions for two cases . 65 5.6 Frequency and percentages of study area, underground city and modern settlement for morphologic classes . 68 5.7 Frequency and percentages of study area, underground city and modern settlement for rock type classes . 71 5.8 Frequencies of underground cities after alluvium is neglected . 75 5.9 Scores for underground cities after alluvium is removed . 76 5.10 Summary of the relationship between underground cities with rock types and underground cities . 77 5.11 Initial data produced by intersection of rock type map with morphological class map . 78 5.12 Distribution of rock types in morphological classes in terms of percentage. 79 5.13 Distribution of morphological classes in rock types in terms of percentage. 79 xiii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1 Examples of rock-hewn settlements in Cappadocia . .2 1.2 Location map of the study area . .5 2.1 Regional setting of Cappadocian Volcanic Province (CVP).
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