Published in Essays in Honor of László Somfai: Studies in the Sources and the Interpretation of Music Lanham, Maryland: Scarecrow Press, 2005: 87-108

Towards a Performance History of Bach’s Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin: Preliminary Investigations

Dorottya Fabian (UNSW)

Nowadays Bach’s Six Sonatas and Partitas for solo violin (BWV 1001-1006) are regarded as touchstones of any violinist’s technical and musical maturity. This has not always been the case. In this paper I sketch the performance and reception history of these compositions reporting on initial observations of written documents, various editions and sound recordings. The material at hand is large (see number of editions and sound recordings available in Appendices 1-2). Therefore the present discussion is limited to mapping out major trends and highlighting significant issues.1

Origin, Reception, Editions

Apart from surviving manuscript sources, among which Bach’s autograph dated 1720 is the most precious, our first record of the pieces comes from the middle of the eighteenth century. 2 C.P.E. Bach mentions them in his obituary of his father, published in the last volume of Lorenz Christoph Mizler’s Musikalische Bibliothek in 1754. He stresses that the works demonstrate how well Johann Sebastian understood the possibilities of string instruments and states that a “great violinist” once told him “that he had seen nothing more perfect for learning to be a good violinist, and could suggest nothing better to anyone eager to learn, than the said violin solos without bass”.3 Whether because of CPE Bach’s authority or because the pieces are so different from Italian baroque violin music, the notion of regarding Bach's Solos as indispensable for perfecting

1 This project has been supported by a University of New South Wales Goldstar Award for research development. I am also grateful to the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences for a 6 months sabbatical that enabled me to collect data in European archives and to Eric Sowey for his comments on an earlier draft. Selected short audio examples of discussed recordings can be accessed from: http://empa.arts.unsw.edu.au/research/em/bachsoloviolin.html 2 For a list of sources consult Kritischer Bericht (ed. Günter Hausswald), Neue Bach-Ausgabe VI/i (Kassel: Bärenreiter, 1958). 3 Hans T. David & Arthur Mendel (eds.): The New Bach Reader revised and enlarged by Christoph Wolff (New York: Norton, 1998), p. 397. 2

the violinist’s polyphonic technique — rather than as supreme compositions in their own right — remained strong for a long time. This is evidenced in the subtitle of Ferdinand David’s 1842-3 edition which reads: “For use at the Conservatoire …”.4

Since about the middle of the twentieth century, however, the opinion has been strengthened which holds that the Solo designation in the title indicates concert pieces.5 Bach researchers have also been pointing to contemporary virtuoso violinists active in Dresden and Weimar, such as Johann Paul von Westhoff (1656-1705), Johann Georg Pisendel (1687-1755), and Jean Baptiste Volumier (ca. 1670-1728), and to similarly polyphonic compositions for violin by Heinrich Ignaz Franz von Biber (1644-1704) and the Dresden court violinist, Johann Jacob Walther (ca. 1650- 1717) or even Pisendel himself. From Bach's immediate circle, Franz Benda (1709-1786) who worked in the Prussian court of Frederick the Great, should also be mentioned. Benda was fond of playing the pieces and introduced them to his pupils. Among the best of these were Friedrich Wilhem Rust (1739-1796) and Johann Peter Salomon (1745-1815) who “played a major part in keeping the Bach tradition alive”.6 Contemporary records inform us, for instance, that Salomon performed the pieces on several occasions. He also had a key role in disseminating the works outside Germany, especially in Paris and London at the turn of the 18th century. It is likely that his performances influenced the inclusion of the Fugue movement from the C Major Sonata into Jean Baptiste Cartier’s L’Art du violon published in 1798. Apparently Cartier obtained a copy of the score from Pierre Gaviniés (1728-1800), who may have acquired a copy from Salomon while the latter was in Paris on his way to London from Berlin in 1780-81.7 This publication, together with Simrock’s 1801-2 edition of the three sonatas represent the first printed versions of the pieces. The first complete publication was prepared by Ferdinand David (Leipzig: Kistner, 1843); the Bach-Ausgabe of the Bach-Gesellschaft brought out the works in 1879 (ed. Alfred Dörffel).

4 Cited in Walter Kolneder: Das Buch der Violine (Zürich: Atlantis, 1993). Eng. trans. by Reinhard G. Pauly as: The Amadeus Book of the Violin (Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press, 1998), p. 311. 5 Eduard Melkus: ‘Gedanken zur Interpretationsgeschichte der Chaconne für Violine solo von J. S. Bach’ Österreichische Musikzeitschrift 40 (1985) 100-108, esp. p. 103. 6 Kolneder: The Amadeus Book of the Violin p. 373 7 Hubert Unverricht: ‘Spieltraditionen von Joh. Seb. Bachs unbegleiteten Sonaten und Partiten für Violine allein’ Bachfest (55) der Neuen Bachgesellschaft (Mainz, 1980) pp. 176-184. 3

While in the eighteenth-century the general opinion was that it would be impossible to add an accompanying part to the works, during the nineteenth-century this changed. Then it was believed that the public needed an aid to facilitate their understanding of the music and saw the solution in providing accompaniment to the Solos. The result of this was the publication of innumerable transcriptions as well as newly composed piano accompaniment from the 1840s until the turn of the century.8 The most famous of these are the accompaniments of Mendelssohn (1840) and Schumann (1854) and the transcriptions for piano alone, especially of the Chaconne from the D minor Partita, by Brahms and Busoni. The Chaconne became so popular that there even exists an arrangement for orchestra and violin by August Wilhelmj (1845-1908), the first Bayreuth concertmaster and a pupil of Ferdinand David.9 Brahms captured its awe-inspiring power in a letter to Clara Schumann, written in June 1877:

The Chaconne is for me one of the most wonderful, incomprehensible pieces of music. On a single staff, on a small instrument the man writes a whole world of the deepest thoughts and the most powerful feelings. If I were to imagine how I might have made, conceived the piece, I know for certain that the overwhelming excitement and awe would have driven me mad.10

This kind of reverence has since been shared by many generations, elevating the status of the Solos from being studies in mastering polyphonic violin technique to being regarded as the artistic pinnacles of the instrument’s repertoire.

The stream of modern editions started with that of Joachim and Moser in 1908. Here, just as in David’s 1843 edition, Bach's autograph score is reprinted in modern notation under the edited staff, as an alternative. Violinists writing in the first half of the twentieth century or later all stress the importance of studying the original markings as well as the editorial suggestions.11

8 For an account of 19th century publications and transcriptions of the Solos see Zay David Sevier: ‘Bach's Solo Violin Sonatas and Partitas: the First Century and a Half’ Bach (Journal of the Riemenschneider Bach Institute) 12 / 2-3 (1981) pp. 11-19; 21-29. Many individual movements that were recorded during the first half of the twentieth century were also done with piano accompaniment (e.g. Kreisler). 9 For an account of the Chaconne transcriptions see Georg Feder: ‘Geschichte der Bearbeitungen von Bachs Chaconne’ in Martin Geck (ed.): Bach-Interpretationen – Festschrift Walter Blankenburg zum 65. Geburtstag (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1969), pp. 168-189 10 Styra Avins (ed.): : Life and Letters (New York: OUP, 1997), p. 515 11 : Violin Playing as I Teach it (New York: Dover, 1980; first published by Frederick A. Stokes Co., 1921); Carl Flesch: The Art of Violin Playing (New York: Carl Fischer, Inc., 1930 English text by F. Martens); Joseph Szigeti: Szigeti on the Violin (New York: Dover, 1979; first published by Cassell & Co., 1969). 4

This insistence allowed for such an editorial practice to become expected standard (e.g. Marteau, Busch, Flesch, Havemann, Rostal) whilst Bach’s fair copy itself has also been reprinted in various facsimile editions (refer to Appendix 1 for detail).12

Close study of the various editions enables one to gain an insight into changing interpretative approaches to the Solos. Apart from editorial slurs and other phrasing or articulation marks, fingering and bowing indications provide further information. Copies of scores used by particular artists, for instance Joseph Szigeti, are especially telling because they reflect a single artist’s view of the piece and reactions to editorial suggestions.13 Out of the many early 20th century editions, Adolph Busch’s (1919) is practically devoid of markings. This might reflect the severe and literalistic approach, which became typical in the 1930s and beyond. This ‘objective style’ that is often linked to Stravinsky’s neo-classical ideology and referred to as Neue Sachlichkeit can be observed on many recordings as well, even beyond the 1960s. Carl Flesch’s (1930) edition reflects more the late romantic tradition, in spite of providing a reprint of the autograph in modern notation. Phrasing marks are generally useful but fingering promotes the use of high positions. Rhythm is often altered in an attempt to indicate performed values in polyphonic section. Jean Campeil’s (1959) edition is the first to include the facsimile in an appendix. Although it seems cluttered with editorial additions, these often contribute to stylish solutions, for instance in regard to rhythmic flexibility and inequality. In his survey of editions Stowell deems Campeil’s version “pioneering in its reverence to 18th century conventions … and texts”. More recent editorial approaches and their implications for performance are also noted by Stowell. He reports, for example, that the fingering in Szeryng’s edition (1981) reflects a “stylish preference for the lower positions” whereas Rostal’s (1982) promotes an “indiscriminate and unstylish use of harmonics, in spite of being “based largely on 18th-century principles”. The

12 A good summary of the strengths and weaknesses of available editions is provided by Robin Stowell: ‘Building a Library: Bach’s Violin Sonatas and Partitas’ Musical Times 128 (1987), pp. 250-56. See also Joel Lester: Bach’s Works for Solo Violin (New York – Oxford: OUP, 1999) and Richard Efrati: Treatise on the Execution and Interpretation of the Sonatas and Partitas for Solo Violin and the Suites for Solo Cello by (Zurich: Atlantis, 1979). 13 The research library of the Liszt Academy of Music in Budapest has a rich collection of these; a telling set documenting aspects of the Hungarian violin school fostered by Hubay around the beginning of the twentieth- century. In his cited book Szigeti mentions the importance of studying old editions and earlier violinists’ markings in them because “[w]e are so poor in documentary evidence about performance traditions … that scraps of information … are of great value”. Devoting attention to such minutiae reveals “how little one can depend on Urtext without oral tradition supplementing it.” (Szigeti on the Violin pp. 202-203). 5

edition of Babitz is controversial: Although it is “intended to capture 18th-century ideals on articulation …, aims for the speaking performance … and advocates lower positions”, it is “invariably mislead[ing], heavy with annotations [and] numerous misprints in the preface”.14 Field’s dissertation gives an overview of certain other trends regarding interpreting Bach’s Solos that can be deduced from the various editions.15 However, no written score can be as telling about performance style as a sound recording. Before these are discussed it might be useful to briefly recall the performance history of the pieces prior to the advent of recording technology and independent of editions.

Early performance history

As mentioned earlier, during the 18th century the works were better known among German violinists than among other European musicians. Their historic appearance on the international concert platform in the 19th century is traceable to Mendelssohn’s role in reviving Bach's compositions in general. Sevier informs us (see note 7) that Mendelssohn asked David to play the Chaconne during the 1839/40 season of the Gewandhaus Orchestra in Leipzig. However, David only obliged when Mendelssohn agreed to accompany him on the piano. The performance took place on February 8, 1840 and David offered the Preludio from the E Major Partita as an encore, also with accompaniment.

All sources seem to agree that it was Joachim who first performed the pieces unaccompanied and not only in Germany but in London as well. The reception was, however, not always very positive, indicating the level of difficulty both for player and listener in the performance of these works. Bernard Shaw reports in The Star on 28 February 1890:

[Joachim] played Bach's Sonata in C at the Bach Choir Concert at St James’s Hall on Tuesday. The second movement of that work is a fugue some three or four hundred bars long. Of course you cannot really play a fugue in three continuous parts on the violin; but by dint of double stopping and dodging from one part to another, you can evoke a hideous ghost of a fugue that will pass current if guaranteed by Bach and Joachim. That was what happened on Tuesday. Joachim scraped away frantically, making a sound after which an attempt to grate a nutmeg

14 Stowell: Building a Library pp. 255-56 15 Elizabeth Field: Performing Solo Bach: An Examination of the Evolution of Performance traditions of Bach’s Unaccompanied Violin Sonatas from 1802 to the Present DMA diss., Cornell University, 1999. 6

effectively on a boot sole would have been as the strain of an Eolian (sic) harp. The notes which were musical enough to have any discernible pitch at all were mostly out of tune. It was horrible – damnable! Had he been an unknown player, introducing an unknown composer, he would not have escaped with his life.16

Joachim also made the first sound recording of the works. In 1903, just four years before his death at the age of 72, he recorded the Adagio from the G minor Sonata and the Bourrée from the B minor Partita. Although the recording quality is obviously limiting, we can glean something of his style, tone and intonation. Joachim provides a rhythmically defined Bourrée with strong down-beats and some slight long-short unevenness in quaver pairs. Other patterns are grouped so as to emphasize the  pulse and up-beat phrasing. The Adagio is moderately free: ornamental figures are grouped; bowing is light and varied, resulting in a clearly articulated rather than sustained or ‘on-the-string’ legato. Only the abruptly broken accented chords and multiple stops arrest the flow of the improvisatory feel even though they are executed so as to fit the melodic line.

Joachim’s violin tone sounds rather thin and straight. Spectrogram analysis confirms that his vibrato is narrow and selectively used. For instance, in the Bourrée, vibrato is perceptible only on the minims (e.g. g” in bar 62, and less clearly on a” in bar 17).17 In the Adagio there is hardly any audible vibrato on the high g” preceding the f#” trill in bar 4 (see Fig. 1a), although its use may be observed on other eighth notes (e.g. high g” in bar 12). The different delivery could be related to whether the note is a single pitch or part of a multiple stop; the latter tends to be played straighter. Joachim also uses portamento sparingly and to good musical effect: about four times in the Bourrée (e.g. bar 18 a” to g”, b.27 g” to b”, b.48 second e’” to f#”, b.50 second d’” to e#”) to reinforce rhythm and melodic grouping and a few times in the Adagio (e.g. last two thirty-second notes]in the third beats of bars 17-18) to heighten the melodic expression before the end of a phrase.

Vibrato and Portamento

16 Bernard Shaw: Shaw’s Music – The complete musical criticism in three volumes (London: The Bodley Head, 1981), Vol. 1, pp. 933-4 17 Notes are named according to Helmholtz’s system, where middle c is c’. 7

Both of these devices (i.e. vibrato and portamento) are important enough to warrant further discussion. During the 17th and 18th centuries vibrato was generally regarded as a species of ornament to be employed with discretion, mostly to decorate longer notes. However, just as the singing voice has a natural vibrato, it came to be recognised that a rich, sonorous tone on string instruments could be created by vibration. Thus, by 1751, Geminiani was advocating the use of continuous vibrato for the sake of a singing tone. Much ink has been spilt over the appropriate use and type of vibrato in various repertoires and geographic regions and whether continuous vibrato was really only a 20th century invention and vogue. Some argue that the central German tradition represented by Spohr and David in the 19th century was upheld by Joachim and his pupils who used vibrato selectively, whilst the Franco-Belgian school was more influenced by Southern European traditions and Ysaÿe and Sarasate both employed continuous vibrato. Others highlight Leopold Auer’s role as a teacher and point to his pupils, particularly Heifetz and Elman as key violinists of the early 20th century who promoted a tone quality based on vibrato.18 There are also those who subscribe to Carl Flesch’s claim that it was who introduced a unique sound by employing vibrato even in fast running passages.19 Katz, on the other hand, argues that “the copious, continuous vibrato be understood as a response to the exigencies of sound recording” and that “Kreisler was simply held up as a model when other violinists began to use a prominent vibrato” in order to “compensate for the limitations and liabilities of early recording equipment”, to “obscure imperfect intonation” that are more exposed “on record than in a live setting” and to “offer a greater sense of the performer’s presence on record”.20

Listening to sound recordings seems to support Katz’s point, at least in relation to performing baroque music. Ysaÿe did not record any as far as I could ascertain and only a very fast rendering of the E Major Preludio demonstrates Sarasate’s Bach interpretation on which vibrato practice seems similar to that of Joachim in the Bourrée. All other early Bach (and Handel,

18 Auer himself advocates the sparing use of vibrato even if he allows for an entire phrase—not just a single note—to be expressively enhanced or highlighted by it (Auer: Violin Playing pp. 22-25). 19 See e.g. Carl Flesch jnr.: And do you also play the violin? (Toccata Press, 1990); Kolneder: The Amadeus Book of the Violin; Robin Stowell (ed.): The Cambridge Companion to the Violin (Cambridge: CUP, 1992). 20 Mark Katz: ‘Aesthetics out of exigency: violin vibrato and the phonograph’ in Hans-Joachim Braun (ed.) Music and Technology in the Twentieth Century (Baltimore—London: The John Hopkins University Press, 2000) pp. 174- 185, this citation on p. 179. 8

Corelli or Veraccini etc.) recordings I have heard confirm the continuous presence of vibrato. The difference lies in the speed and width of it. A few spectrogram images (Fig. 1a-d) can serve to illustrate the vibrato of various artists. Huberman’s and Szigeti’s are, for instance, wide, slow and regular; Milstein’s, Heifetz’s and Busch’s narrower but still slow and regular; Menuhin’s, Grumiaux’s, Perlman’s, Ricci’s, Hahn’s and Szenthelyi’s faster than these whilst Suk’s Zehetmair’s and Edinger’s less regular and not continuous. Violinists playing on period instrument use vibrato selectively to ornament certain notes.

In Figure 1c. (Huberman) one can see an upward straight line. This is a portamento. Hauck claims that the 19th-century development of music being regarded as a shaped expression of feeling brought along the emphasis on portamento rather than vibrato as the primary means of this heartfelt and individual expression.21 Looking at violin instruction literature up to and including that of Carl Flesch’s in 1939, this view can be supported by many statements. These emphasize that portamento should be used only for heightened expression, when the performer feels overwhelmed. It becomes objectionable, however, when “it is executed in a languishing manner, and used continually”.22 Sound recordings testify that around the turn of the century there was a much more liberal use of portamento than from the 1940s onwards. It is likely, argues Hauck, that as continuous and intense vibrato became the norm, portamento was gradually abandoned and regarded as an overtly emotional means unsuitable for expression in a more technologically and rationally oriented age.23 Among the recordings of Bach's Solos portamento

21 Werner Hauck: Das Vibrato auf der Violine (, 1971), Eng. Trans., Kitty Rokos as Vibrato on the violin (London: 1975) 22 Auer: Violin Playing p. 24. He compares the sound of the ‘languishing manner’ to the mewing of a cat and states that the portamento should only be used “when the melody is descending, save for certain very exceptional cases of ascending melody”. Although other sources are less categorical in this regard it is noteworthy that whilst descending portamento is the norm on early recordings, the next generation of violinists mostly perform them in an ascending context (e.g. Huberman). 23 This trend can be noted by comparing the playing of two turn-of-the-century violinists. Huberman (1882-1947) is about 25 years younger than Hubay (1858-1937) and his use of portamento is extremely moderate by his elder’s standard. Hubay’s 1929 recording of the Air from Bach's Suite No. 3 in D Major BWV 1068 (Mat. CV 713 HMV AN418, issued e.g. on ‘La Storia Discografica del Violino 1: La Scuola Ungherese Libro 1’ IDIS 276) has a portamento in practically every bar, mostly in descending motion. Huberman uses portamento much more sparingly and more commonly in rising motion. More significantly for Hauck’s argument, this excerpt seems to contradict the view that performers exchanged portamento for vibrato as the primary expressive device, for Hubay uses both and not just moderately. Portamenti are, however, more prominent than the vibrato which is not used, for instance, on the long opening note, nor on the minim a” in bar 3. 9

is employed more liberally by Huberman, Heifetz, Enesco24 and Telmányi up to the 1950s, and also, if somewhat surprisingly, by Ricci and Perlman in the late 1980s.

Fig. 1a: Joachim (1903): G minor Adagio, b. 4: trill Fig. 1c: Huberman (1942): D minor Sarabanda, b. 6: on f#” but no obvious vibrato on previous g” (both c#”—b” sixteenths with portamento in-between, eighth-note value) followed by dotted eighth a” showing wide vibrato

Fig. 1b: Busch (1929): D minor Sarabanda, b. 6 showing slow, regular, not too wide vibrato

24 The Rumanian composer-pianist and violinist Georges Enescu preferred spelling his name as Enesco whilst living in Paris. 10

Fig. 1d: Huggett (1995): D minor Sarabanda, b. 6: notes 1-5. Vibrato is used to ornament the long a” around the middle of its duration

Sound Recordings

Returning now to the recording history of the Solos in general, the following trends can be noted: Initially only individual movements were recorded, often interpreted as showy bravura pieces. The first complete work was recorded by Busch (1929, D minor Partita) and the first complete set by Menuhin (1934-1936) and Enesco (1940). During this time and up to about the 1980s the general approach could be best described as “reverential” with an emphasis on the serious, on sustaining the polyphonic lines, and making the works sound grand. This could be seen also from the fact that the Sonatas were more regularly performed whilst often only movements were recorded from the Partitas.25 Although the D minor Partita might seem an exception, even in this case there is a clear predominance of individual movements, notably the Ciaccona and the Sarabanda. The recordings testify that violinists seemed to be concerned to show their technical mastery, especially when playing double, triple and quadruple stops and other polyphonic sections. There was a tendency to play each note or chord according to the written notation, often causing rather harsh or whipping bow strokes and a loss of clarity in part playing. The difficulties

25 Szigeti clearly must have favoured the G and A minor Sonatas because he marked the score of these but not the others and he also recorded them in the 1930s and 1940s whilst the complete set only in 1955. 11

involved even led to the concoction of a theory that Bach and his circle used a special curved bow that enabled the simultaneous playing of more than two strings.26 Towards the mid 1970s, in the wake of the early music movement, certain musicians started to realise the opportunities afforded by the application of original 18th-century playing techniques and the interpretative information encoded in Bach's original articulation and bowing markings preserved in the autograph fair copy. The increasing awareness of historical practices and experiences with playing on period instruments led to a new trend in interpretation that utilized the characteristic short articulation of the baroque bow, placed emphasis on rhythmic grouping and pulse, and did not strive for sustaining polyphonic lines. Whilst the first such recording by Sergio Luca from 1976-77 is not well known,27 the escalation of available recordings that use a period violin and bow has been considerable, especially since the mid-1990s (cf. Appendix 2). Furthermore, the playing of artists like Christian Tetzlaff and Thomas Zehetmair who use modern violins (and bows) is also audibly inspired by historical performance practice.28 All together, there have been more than 40 complete sets and many single works or movements recorded since Joachim’s historic 1903 recordings. Except for Misha Elman, practically all the famous violinists made recordings of the Solos; some more than once (see Appendix 2 for a detailed list).29

26 Albert Schweitzer was among the most prominent proponents of this idea and encouraged bow makers and violinists to experiment with an appropriate construction and potential playing technique (Schweitzer, Albert: ‘Reconstructing the Bach Violin Bow’ Musical America 70 [1950], pp. 5-13 and Idem: ‘Der für Bachs Werke für Violine solo erforderte Geigenbogen’ in Matthaei, Karl, ed. Bach-Gedenkschrift 1950 [Zurich, 1950], pp. 75-83; see also Joachim, Henry: ‘Bach Solo Violin Sonatas and the Modern Violinist’ Musical Times March 1931, pp. 221- 222). During the 1940s-1950s period Emil Telmányi became a proponent of the ‘VeGa’ bow so named after its maker, VEsterGArd. Apart from having a curved stick, the bow’s hair could also be relaxed so as to play all four strings at once if necessary. However, as Telmányi explained, the strain on the player’s thumb that manipulated the hair tension eventually proved too much, preventing the regular (or complete) performance of the pieces (see Liner notes to his recording from 1955 and Telmányi, Emil: ‘Some Problems in Bach’s Unaccompanied Violin Music’ Musical Times January 1955, pp. 14-18.). The historical existence of this hypothetical Bach-bow has since been unanimously rejected by the entire community of researchers and performers of the baroque violin repertoire (for a major rebuttal see David Boyden: The History of Violin Playing from its Origins to 1761 and its Relationship to the Violin and Violin Music (London: OUP, 1965). Nevertheless, the German violinist Rudolf Gähler has recently (1996) recorded the complete set using such a bow and even published a book in defence of it: Der Rundbogen für die Violine - ein Phantom? (Regensburg: ConBrio, 1997). 27 For instance, it is not mentioned in a recently published and otherwise most comprehensive book on the history of Bach Interpretation: Martin Elste: Meilensteine der Bach-Interpretation 1750-2000 (Stuttgart/Weimar & Kassel: Metzler-Bärenreiter, 2000) 28 How historical performance practice gained ground among solo violinists can be gleaned from Robin Stowell’s book: The Early Violin and Viola – A Practical Guide (Cambridge: CUP, 2002). The book also provides a good summary of the differences between 18th-century and ‘modern’ violin techniques. Apart from studying original treatises, further information on historical practices can be gathered from Stowell’s other book: Violin Technique and Performance Practice in the Late Eighteenth and early Nineteenth Centuries (Cambridge: CUP, 1985). 29 Carl Flesch did not record any of the works but wrote about them in his The Art of Violin Playing. His edition also reflects his interpretative view of the Solos. Besides, he was probably more significant as a violin pedagogue than as 12

Performance Practice

Turning to specific issues of performing the works, the problem of how to render polyphonic sections might be discussed first. Two matters to highlight are the playing of chords and the sounding length of notes relative to their written value. Generally, four-note chords are broken as two plus two or one plus three in modern violin playing. However, historical sources indicate that arpeggiation was the convention during the baroque period. At the same time Melkus warns that the Lyra da braccia—the original instrument for which most early German baroque polyphonic music was composed—played full chords and that arpeggiation seems to be more a pre-classical ideal when polyphony went out of fashion.30 Unverricht further notes that arpeggiation does not have to be from bottom up, but should rather take into account the melodic pitch and return to it as the ‘final’ pitch of the chord in order for the linear aspects of the music to remain clear for the listener. He refers to what he calls zurückschlagenden bow-stroke that was recommended by Karol Józef Lipińsky (1790-1861) to Joachim in relation to playing quadruple stops in these works. Lipińsky, a representative of the Viotti-Spohr violin school, apparently witnessed this bowing in Salomon’s interpretations of Bach’s Solos early in the 19th century.31 This zurückschlagenden Bogen probably means a manner of bowing where the player returns to the main melodic note at the end of the arpeggio.32 It would be particularly useful when the a soloist. Other successful artists of the first half of the 20th century (e.g. Alma Moodie) had fewer opportunities to make recordings. Furthermore, even in concerts it was more likely for them to perform concertos or short bravura pieces with piano accompaniment than to play Bach’s Solos or fill their program entirely with chamber sonatas (for more on recital programs at the time see, for instance, Flesch: The Art of Violin Playing pp.115-124 or Szigeti: Szigeti on the Violin pp. 9-18). 30 Eduard Melkus: ‘Gedanken zur Interpretationsgeschichte’ p. 101 31 Unverricht: ‘Spieltraditionen von Joh. Seb. Bachs unbegleiteten Sonaten’ p. 177. He borrowed this information from Andreas Moser: ‘Zu Johann Sebastian Bachs Sonaten und Partiten für Violine allein’ Bach Jahrbuch 17 (1920) p. 42 32 I’ve asked many baroque violinists about this term and this seems to be the most reasonable meaning, even if it is speculative. I am grateful to Marc Strümper and his friends in for the clarification. [Since publication Ferenc Rados has kindly drawn my attention to another source: Meyer-Sichting, G. (ed.), Georg Kuhlenkampf: Geigerische Betrachtungen (Regensburg: Gustav Bosse Verlag, 1952). On p. 52 there is an account of Joachim’s use of zurückschlagenden Bogen and Mendelssohn’s tirade against it: "Wie instinktsicher ein Künstler wie Mendelssohn hinsichtlich der Darstellungsart der Chaconne war, zeigt am aufschlussreichsten seine Begegnung mit dem jungen Joseph Joachim. Der damals 16jaehrige war der erste Geiger, der nach Pisendel den Mut fand, die Bachschen Solosonaten in ihrer Originalfassung öffentlich vorzutragen. Joachim spielte Mendelssohn die Chaconne vor - und zwar spielte er die oben erwaehnte Stelle (=the first 2 motives of the first variation) mit zurückgeschlagenem Bogen. 13

melody is in the middle or lower voice, as it often happens in the D minor Ciaccona but also in the G minor Adagio, and elsewhere. Without it the melodic line is easily blurred because the chord’s top note is emphasized (held) instead of the melodically important pitch (in the middle or the bass). Nevertheless, 20th-century violinists do not seem to use it, not even baroque specialists. Among recordings from the 1930-70s, it is common to hear the opening bars of the G minor Sonata as notated in Ex. 1.a (e.g. Menuhin, Heifetz, Szeryng ‘68, Suk), whereas Enesco, Szeryng ’65, Milstein ’55, Wallfisch, Szenthelyi, Zehetmair, Tetzlaff, Huggett, Kuijken, and Luca perform it more like in Ex. 1b, which is more in line with the implications (Ex. 1c) of Bach’s own notation (Ex. 1d).33 In the interpretations of Szigeti, Grumiaux, Milstein ‘75, and Ehnes the melodic notes of g’ (bar 1), c” and b’ flat (bar 2) are somewhat covered by the sustained higher pitches whilst in Podger’s the swell she plays on the chords affect the perception of the melodic notes.

Ex. 1a: Common performance solution to b. 1-2, G minor Adagio. c” (bar 1) and f#” (bar 2) are held over the melodically more important g’ and c” respectively.

Mendelssohn aber rief ihm zu: "Wie können Sie sich auf bloss auf solch verkünstelte Manöver einlassen? Spielen Sie die Bachschen Sachen getrost in ihrer bisheriger gesunden Weise und lassen Sie sich bei allem sagen: intelligente, wirklich musikalische Menschen hören nicht nur mit dem ausseren Ohr, sondern auch mit dem inneren und wissen infolgedessen stets, wo ein Motiv herkommt und wohin es geht; für die unmusikalischen ist ohnehin kein Kraut gewachsen - die mögen die betreffenden Stellen nach irgend eines Anderen Ratschlag ausführen." Joachim, einer der grössten, geistig gestaltenden Geiger, ist diesem Ratschlag Mendelssohns sein Leben lang treu geblieben."] 33 Example 1b is taken from : ‘Zur Interpretation der Violinsonaten J. S. Bachs’ Bach Jahrbuch 59 (1973), pp. 72-78. The citation is from pp. 72-3 14

Ex. 1b: Alternative performance option reflecting more closely the basic melody (3rd beat of b.1 and down-beat of b.2).

Ex. 1c: Basic melody (à la Corelli)

Ex. 1d: Bach's original notation

Apart from straight chords, these works are also rich in long polyphonic passages. Many commentators mention that the notation provides a visual overview of the compositions’ structure that was not meant to be executed literally. In other words, Bach notates the ideal length of notes, but in practice these may not sound for their full value. Editors sometimes indicate the sounding value making the score look cluttered. Proper interpretation depends on analysis of the context and developing suitable bowing techniques, which may be assisted by an awareness of the characteristics of various baroque bows.

Bowing 15

The baroque bow is shorter than the one developed by the Tourte family and currently in use. Its weight distribution naturally distinguishes between up-stroke and down-stroke, highlighting the metrical divisions of bars and other units. Its shorter length makes legato playing of extended sections impractical; its peculiar characteristic of sounding louder in the middle makes dynamic nuances easy to produce. The basic difference between an early and a modern bow-stroke can be clearly seen in the spectral view of sound files. The contrast between the typically even and sustained stroke of Menuhin (Fig. 2a) or Szigeti (Fig. 2b), for instance, and Luca’s (Fig 2c) and Wallfisch’s (Fig. 2d) “period” stroke with its soft beginning and rapid decay is obvious but can be imitated as demonstrated by Szenthelyi (Fig. 2e) who uses a modern bow and who consulted with László Somfai on matters of historical performance.34

Fig. 2a: Menuhin 1934: D minor Sarabanda, b. 1-2 Fig. 2c: Luca 1977: D minor Sarabanda, b. 1-2 showing the sustained bowing style showing typical strokes of a baroque bow with gradual beginning and ending of notes.

Fig. 2d: Wallfisch 1997: D minor Sarabanda, b. 1-2, Fig. 2b: Szigeti 1955: D minor Sarabanda, b. 1-2 illustrating the characteristic arch-shape of period showing the sustained bowing style with some decay bow-strokes. at the end of the long notes resulting in clearer articulation and rhythm

34 Liner Notes to Szenthelyi’s recording of the complete set (Hungarton HCD 32071-72), p. 5 16

Fig. 2e: Szenthelyi 2001: D minor Sarabanda, b. 1-2; bowing imitates baroque practice with more graded beginnings and ends of notes. Note also the limited use of vibrato (e.g. end of first chord). What is perhaps less well known is that already during the baroque there existed a difference between the short French bowing style and longer Italian style that was more suitable for melodic or cantabile interpretation. It is hard to know for sure towards which style Bach was inclined. Although the French orchestral style was much admired at the time, Italian virtuosos were also in high demand at German courts where Bach was employed while composing the pieces. It is perhaps noteworthy, in this context, that Bach labelled the movements of Partitas I and II in Italian rather than in French and wrote embellishments of the Italian kind for the Adagio and Grave of Sonatas I and II. Considering the differences between bow types should also be related to differences among the national aesthetic ideals. Although French, Italian and German baroque sources all drew analogies between music and speech, there are fundamental differences between what they actually meant – mostly because the specific focus of attention differed from country to country. For the Italians a singing melody was paramount. The French refined the art of distinguishing between long and short syllables. The Germans favoured a more general approach that emphasized rhetorical expression based on minute differences between stressed and unstressed notes, as associated with poetic metre and achieved through the subtle differences between up- and down-strokes.35

In contrast, modern violin technique strives for precise regularity and the greatest possible evenness between up and down bows, so as to project a continuous melodic line – an ideal that came to the fore in the 19th century. The near permanent use of the portato-stroke, when hardly any difference remains between legato and détaché, serves this ideal.36 Interestingly, however, this bow-stroke seems to have been developed more in the middle and second half of the 20th century than directly in relation to 19th century compositions. Although sustained legato playing is common on Bach recordings from the 1920s-1930s, these present a greater variety of bow strokes, especially in the dance movements, than those from the 1950s to 1980s period. Heifetz (1935) and Szigeti (1934), for instance, produce seamless legatos for particular phrases, yet they also play closely articulated groups, utilize light staccato, marcato, thrown bow-strokes; 35 Melkus: Gedanken zur Interpretationsgeschichte pp. 103-104 36 Ibid. differentiate between using just the tip of the bow, playing at the nut, or making long strokes. Apart from Grumiaux, and to a lesser extent Szeryng, violinists of the next generation and beyond tend to have a more uniform approach to bowing. Szigeti noticed this decline in right- hand technique in favour of a focus on the left-hand when he remarked: “At a time like ours when the average violinist’s equipment is at an unprecedented high level … it may sound paradoxical when I say that there seems to be—at least to me!—a regression in the use of the bow for effects that are far beyond the ordinary.”37 The ever-present portato-stroke limits the range of musical character that a performer can project making the Solos sound more homogeneous and reinforcing their timeless rather than style-specific qualities. Nevertheless when executed with perfection, as on Hilary Hahn’s recording (1997), the beauty and seamlessness of the violin tone is quite wondrous.

If the striving for evenness and continuous legato created a decline in ‘articulated’ bowing, too much emphasis on differentiating between up and down strokes carries potential problems as well. The exaggerated articulation of the smallest units, too many stresses and too much dynamic nuancing can quickly lead to mannerism; tone quality suffers and the flow of the music is disturbed as can be observed in certain movements on the recordings of van Deal, Wallfisch and Huggett, among others. The messa di voce is an expressive device; it is better to use it only selectively. At the same time, Bach’s polyphony is only perceptible when the hierarchy between the voices is clearly articulated through different shades of tone and by carefully weighing up the relative length or importance of notes. The perception of structure and harmonic implications in movements like the Preludio of the E Major Partita or the Allegro Assai of the C Major Sonata can also be much enhanced when the hidden or implied polyphony is brought to the fore through rhythmical stress, rubato and a feeling of improvisation38 (compare, for instance Mintz with Zehetmair in the Allegro assai or Sarasate or Ehnes with Podger in the Preludio). The baroque violin and bow allows for the exploitation of low positions and the use of the sonorous open gut strings. Players can easily skip strings because they use the middle of the bow much more than

37 Szigeti: Szigeti on the Violin, p. 197 38 ‘Jaap Schroeder Discusses Bach’s Works for unaccompanied Violin’ – edited transcript of the discussion held at Queens College, City University of New York, January 9, 1977. Journal of the Violin Society of America 3 (1977), pp. 7-32. Lester (Bach’s Works for Solo Violin) also argues for a more structural—harmonic approach to performance that takes into consideration the implications of metre. the upper half, which is what is typical of modern bowing. These period techniques as well as the judicious use of rhythmic flexibility and metric stresses contribute substantially to the vitality of rhythm, clarity of harmonic-polyphonic detail and variety of musical character witnessed on recordings of Luca, Zehetmair, Tetzlaff, Huggett, van Deal, Wallfisch, Podger and Szenthelyi. Portato-bowing, terraced dynamics and long-range crescendos and diminuendos create an essentially different effect: more even tone, projection of large-scale structure, authoritative command of intonation, and a generally homogenous delivery of the various movement types (e.g. Milstein, Kremer, Perlman, Ehnes, Poulet, Ricci, Hahn).

Dance Movements

The above already implies that bowing plays a crucial part in projecting the character of the dance movements. Here it needs to be informed by an awareness of the historical meaning of time signatures and their significance for the distribution of metric stresses within the bar.39 Familiarity with characteristic dance steps and patterns also fosters the effective rendering of the Partitas.40

Take the Loure from the E Major Partita, for example. It is often interpreted as a somewhat sad or lyrical “romance with exaggerated sentiment” when in reality the loure is a “dance of Spanish origin with a certain amount of temperament and pronounced stresses on the strong beat” but not on the third or last (sixth) beats.41 The tempo, therefore, should be fairly fast and the articulation should recall the hopping character of the dance. Apart from Zehetmair, only historically informed violinists perform a loure. Even Tetzlaff plays it slow and lyrical, although with perceptible pulse. Others, in particular Hahn, Suk, Milstein, Szigeti, Enesco and Menuhin play the movement either too slowly, or too legato, with little sense of metre and focusing on the melody. There is no emphasis of the characteristic rhythmic groups; in fact accents are often misplaced due to a trill or double stop. Similarly, the performances of the first Minuet in this

39 Geroge Houle: Meter in Music (Bloomington: Indiana UP, 1987) 40 A useful source here is Meredith Little & Natalie Jenne: Dance and the Music of J.S. Bach. Expanded edition. (Bloomington & Indianapolis: Indiana UP, 2001). 41 Schroeder discusses Bach, p.19 partita generally sound like a heavy, over-accented, and melodically oriented rendering of triple stops (e.g. Milstein ’50, Szeryng, Grumiaux, Menuhin ’57 etc.) rather than a dance in 3/4 (e.g. Heifetz, Zehetmair, Tetzlaff, Wallfisch, etc.). In the latter case the pairs of quavers are sometimes rendered with a long–short lilt or dotting (Tetzlaff, Podger, van Dael, Kuijken).

The Sarabanda of the D minor Partita also warrants a few words. The saraband is a slow, stately dance in triple metre with an accent on the second beat. Bach’s scoring fits the pattern perfectly: rhythm, harmony, texture, written out ornaments all support the saraband character. Recordings from the first half of the century play it legato, in a sustained style, rhythmically even and literal. Even lay listeners labelled these versions ‘romantic’. The saraband rhythmic pattern and ornaments are decipherable in Grumiaux’s version but he plays very fast and matter-of-factly. In contrast, Luca’s airy phrasing and grouped figures clearly project the triple metre with accent on the second beat and provide an expressive performance without a hint of romanticism.42

Tempo

It is no coincidence that, so far, it is mostly bowing that has been discussed, whilst the importance of choosing the “right” tempo has hardly been mentioned. Without wanting to deprecate the significance of tempo in musical performance, it seems important to stress that the emphasis researchers have put on the issue of tempo is not always warranted. First of all, there are the statements of Harnoncourt and Schroeder which claim that more clearly articulated music often sounds faster than an under-articulated one. Then there is the growing evidence that, contrary to general assumptions promoted by certain publications,43 performance tempo has not changed as radically as other aspects of the interpretative vocabulary.44 This is borne out by examination of the recordings under scrutiny here as well. An earlier study examined twenty versions of the D minor Partita and found no significant trends for speeding up, not even among

42 Dorottya Fabian & Emery Schubert: ‘Is there only one way of being expressive in musical performance? - Lessons from listeners’ reactions to performances of J. S. Bach’s music’ in C. Stevens, D. Burnham, G. McPherson, E. Schubert, J. Renwick (Eds.) Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition, Sydney, 17-21 July 2002 (Adelaide: Causal Productions, 2002 CD-ROM) 43 e.g. Richard Taruskin: Text and Act (New York: Oxford, 1995) 44 Dorottya Fabian: Bach Performance Practice 1945-1975 (Aldershot: Ashgate, 2003) pp. 97-104. historically informed performances.45 The analysis of the other recordings supports this result to a large extent (see Fig. 3a-b). Although the tempi are obviously varied, more recently issued versions are not necessarily faster than earlier ones and most fit within a standard range of tempi. Statistically speaking, in the Sonatas only five to ten performances deviate from this norm by more than ± 1 STDEV.46 Extreme deviations (i.e. STDEV greater than ± 2) are rare indeed: apart from Heifetz (2.86) and Telmányi (-2.25) in the A minor Fuga, not more than one in any of the movements. Only Zehetmair’s A minor Andante represents an even more extreme tempo choice (STDEV 3.75): his MM quarter note = 48 is way faster than average (MM = 30) or even the next fastest (Luca & Milstein 1975; both at MM = 35). Broadly speaking, tempo choice seems to fluctuate more in the Partitas, especially in terms of degree. There are quite a few with more than ± 2 STDEV and three with about ± 3 (Zehetmair in the E Major Gavotte en Rondeau [3.01] and D minor Corrente [3.02]; Goldstein in D minor Sarabanda [-3.01]). What is also noteworthy is that apart from the extremes, overall trends seem to be similar in earlier and more recent times (e.g. D minor Corrente MM quarter note = 113 in 1929 and MM = 112 in 2001 with average MM = 115). A slight trend towards faster tempi can be observed in the D minor Partita’s Sarabanda movement (MM quarter note = 29 in the earliest and MM = 45 in the latest, average MM being 39), but the fast extremes of the Allemanda in earlier decades seem to have slowed since 1985 (see Fig. 3a). The Giga of the same work is also taken slower by current players (cf. Busch, 1929: MM dotted quarter note = 84; Szenthelyi, 2001: MM = 73). Finally, when one compares performances on period instruments with other interpretations the picture remains fairly mixed: in some cases the former are faster than the latter, in others it is the other way round, and quite often there is no difference. In the Sonatas there is a trend for historically informed violinists to play the fugues and final movements slower whilst the opening movements faster than other violinists. Such generalisations are harder to make regarding the Partitas, except that the B minor Allemanda, the D minor Corrente and Ciaccona and the E Major Menuet II are rendered faster by

45 Richard Pulley: ‘A Statistical Analysis of Tempi in Bach’s D minor Partita’ in C. Stevens, D. Burnham, G. McPherson, E. Schubert, J. Renwick (Eds.) Proceedings of the 7th International Conference on Music Perception and Cognition, Sydney, 17-21 July 2002 (Adelaide: Causal Productions, 2002 CD-ROM) 46 By referring to the number of standard deviations from the mean (STDEV) information regarding the extremity of tempo choice can be obtained. A STDV between ± 1 and ± 2 means that the performance falls within the tempo choice of approximately 65 to 95 per cent of all performances. A negative number means a tempo that is slower than standard. period instrument violinists but the B minor Corrente and E major Preludio slower (see Fig. 3a-b for tempo choices in D minor Partita).

Tempo can, of course, be approached from the point of view of flexibility. How steady it is in certain interpretations or how much it fluctuates and when (or for what purpose) in others? During the last ten years or so researchers of musical performance have experimented with various techniques to account for tempo flexibilities.47 In the present context the so-called tempo mapping method could be used as the material at hand is pre-recorded violin music rather than especially in-putted MIDI or disklavier piano renderings. A preliminary overview indicates that fast and fugue movements have a steadier tempo than dance and slow movements. Tempo fluctuates in a somewhat angular manner in those renditions where the performer articulates the music in greater detail (e.g. D minor Allemanda by Tetzlaff, E Major Preludio by Huggett, A minor Fuga by Wallfisch). By “angular” I mean tempo differences that are either pronounced (i.e. a quasi sudden arrest or rush ahead) or closely linked to rhythmic grouping and therefore locally nuanced. In “phrased” performances of slower type movements tempo fluctuation is smooth and “long-range”; it conforms to the typical custom of slight slowing down for phrase ends (e.g. E Major Loure by Hahn, Milstein 1950s; A minor Andante by Enesco, Ricci, D minor Sarabanda by Huberman, Telmányi, Kagan; G minor Siciliano by Ehnes, Menuhin in 1957). It seems that a detailed comparative tempo-mapping study of these sections would provide essential data regarding the interpretative differences between “traditional” (or “mainstream”) and historically informed approaches; or what I like to call “phrased” versus “articulated” performances.

47 See, for instance, David Epstein: Shaping Time (New York: Schirmer Books, 1995); José Bowen: ‘Tempo, Duration, and Flexibility: Techniques in the Analysis of Performance’ Journal of Musicological Research Vol. 16 (1996), pp. 111-156; John Rink (ed.): The Practice of Performance: Studies in Musical Interpretation (Cambridge: CUP, 1995) Fig. 3a: Tempo choices in D minor Allemanda, Corrente and Sarabanda arranged in chronological order (1928-2002)

MM Allemanda MM Corrente MM Sarabanda 180

160

140

120 s

e 100 u l a v

M 80 M

60

40

20

0 i i i i l i t f t r r r r r t z z t z g g v k s o x t h h h n n n n a n n f n n n n i h y y c t t t t i i e i i i e e l e e e e c n n l o c c c u c e u e l a e a h a a c a c n n h e a e e h e l a e e i g g i s y y v s s s g f t f t t u u k n a s g h g a S m i i i c a z j i i u u r r m m m d h n D i e s t u s s e u u f L R o l h g a i a t t z e r s l l e M l e H n n e e r i i o l u r k n m e d m u d B B B e P n E e l e l K n z z S e e G e H H a h P u K T K E h M M e c b e a o E H r S S c P M M z e v n u T W s G G a Z S H a r r F a P violinists

Fig. 3b: Tempo choices in D minor Giga and Ciaccona arranged in chronological order (1929 – 2002)

MM Giga MM Ciaccona 100

90

80

70

60 s e u l

a 50 v

M

M 40

30

20

10

0 i i i i l i t f t r r r r r t z z t z g g s k v h h h o x a t n n n n n f n n n n i n h y y c t t t e i t i i i i e l e e e e e n c c c c n u c l e o u e h a a l a e a a c c n n e a e l a h e h e e i g e g i y s s s s y v g f f t t t u u n a k s g a h g S m i i i c a z j i i u r u r m m m n d h D i u u u e s s s t e f L R o h l g i a a t t z e r s l l l e M e H n n e e r i i o l r u k m d e n m u B B B d e P E n e l n l K e z S z e e G e H H a h P u K T K E h M M e c b e E a o H r S S c P M M z e v n u T W s G G a Z S H a r r F a P violinists Ornamentation

Finally, a few words about ornamentation are needed. The earlier discussion of the G minor Adagio’s opening bars and of the D minor Sarabanda has already implied that the many small note values and rhythmically intricate looking groups in Bach’s scores reflect the Italian manner of delivering slow movements. Therefore a “gestural” rather than metronomic performance is more appropriate. Keeping a constant beat while playing with a degree of liberty and freedom projects a performance in which melodic embellishments sound improvised at the spur of the moment; an historical characteristic of baroque performance practice and the prerogative of all accomplished baroque performers. At the face of it, Bach takes away the performer’s right to such extempore ornamentation by notating every single small note. But this practice of his does not mean that everything he writes has identical compositional significance and needs to be played with equal importance. On the contrary: modern performers must realise that Bach’s scores represent written out copies and render decorative notes and patterns accordingly. Distinguishing between ornamental groups and principal melodic pitches requires subtle control of tone and rhythmic rubato or local freedom within a fairly strict beat. These means create a different type of expression from that generated by emphasis on large-scale phrasing and long- range dynamic- or tempo fluctuations (compare, for instance, Heifetz, Suk, Menuhin and others with Wallfisch, Luca, van Deal et al).48

But of course ornamentation in baroque music also means the addition of trills and other graces. These, however, do not make a huge difference in overall performance style and most violinists play those indicated by the score some adding a few extra (e.g. Podger in Minuet I of the E Major Partita). Recently a few historically informed performers ventured to add more elaborate figures and groups of melodic notes as well. Luca’s embellishments in the Andante of the A minor Sonata make his rendering especially beautiful. Transcriptions below show Monica

48 This point is discussed at greater length in Fabian: Bach Performance Practice (esp. pp. 159-167). Many recent sources on historical performance practice emphasize the role of articulation and metre in creating inflected or “embellished” performances. See, for instance, Colin Lawson & Robin Stowell: The Historical Performance of Music: An Introduction (Cambridge: CUP, 2000) or Bernard Sherman: Inside Early Music (New York – Oxford, 1997) Huggett’s (Ex. 2a) and Rachel Podger’s (Ex. 2b) virtuosic complete re-writes of the final rondo statement in the E Major Partita’s Gavotte movement.

Ex. 2a: bars 94-100, E Major Partita: Gavotte en Rondeau as performed by Huggett (1995)

Ex. 2b: bars 94-100, E Major Partita: Gavotte en Rondeau as performed by Podger (1998-9) Conclusions

Summing up these necessarily cursory observations the most obvious thing to note is the richness of the material at hand: over fifty editions and more than forty complete recordings, not to mention the numerous transcriptions and arrangements and the extended scholarly and pedagogical literature on the works. Studying them does not simply provide further support for theories regarding general trends in music performance and violin playing but, importantly, expands and refines our understanding of these trends.

Appendix 1: A Selective List of Important Twentieth-Century Editions

Year Editor Place Publisher 1908 J. Joachim / A. Moser Berlin Bote und Bock 1915 L. Capet Paris Sénart 1917 L. Auer New York Fischer 1919 A. Busch Bonn Simrock 1921 J. Hubay Wien Universal-Edition 1922 H. Marteau Leipzig Steingräber 1922 E. Herrmann New York Schirmer 1925 B. Eldering Mainz Schott 1930 C. Flesch Leipzig Peters 1934 J. Hambourg London Oxford UP 1934 E. Polo Milano Ricordi 1935 J. Garcin Paris Salabert 1940 G. Havemann Berlin Bote und Bock 1950 Facsimile (W.M. Luther) Kassel Bärenreiter 1958 Facsimile (G. Hausswald) Leipzig un Wiesbaden Insel-Verlag 1958 NBA; G. Hausswald Kassel Bärenreiter 1959 J. Campeil (with facsimile) Paris Heugel & Cie 1971 I. Galamian (with facsimile) New York International 1972 S. Babitz Los Angeles Early Music Laboratory 1981 H. Szeryng Mainz Schott 1982 M. Rostal Leipzig Peters 1987 K. Rönnau (W. Schneiderhan) München G. Henle Verlag (Urtext) Appendix 2: List of Studied Sound Recordings49

Performer Rec. Date Issue Date Label ID Comment Busch, Adolf 1928 1997 Appian Publications & Recordings Dm Sarabanda 5543 Busch, Adolf 1929 1991 / 1994 EMI Japanese edition TOCE 6781-97 Dm Busch, Adolf 1934 1983 Danacord DACO 136 Gm Edinger, Christiane 1991 1992 Naxos 8.55057 complete Ehnes, James 1999 2000 Analekta Fleurs de lys FL 23147-8 complete Enesco, Georges 1940 1999 Instituto Discografico Italiano IDIS complete 328/29 Francescatti, Zino 1958 1991 Biddulph ? Bm Francescatti, Zino 1940? Columbia/SONY P14194 Dm, EM Gähler, Rudolf 1998 1999 Aretenova Classics 74321 67501-2 complete Goldstein, Mikhail c.1967- *Mitra CD 16239 (ADD) Dm 1980 Grumiaux, Arthus 1961 1993 Philips Duo 438736-2 complete Hahn, Hilary 1997 SONY SK 62793 Dm, EM, CM Heifetz, Jasha 1925 1992 EMI References (mono) CDH 7 64494 Em Minuet I-II 2 Heifetz, Jasha 1935 1992 EMI References (mono) CDH 7 64494 Gm, CM, Dm 2 Heifetz, Jasha 1952 1994 BMG Classics (RCA) 09026 61748-2 complete Henkel, Susanna c.1995+ The Spot Records 28869-3 EM Huberman, Bronislaw 1942 1997 Arbiter 105 Dm Huggett, Monica 1995 1997 Virgin Veritas 5452052 complete; baroque violin Joachim, Joseph 1903 Opal CD 9851 Bm Bourree, Gm Adagio Kagan, Oleg 1979 Live Classics LCC 171 Bm, Dm Kremer, Gidon 1980 circa *Philips 416 235-1 complete Kreisler, Fritz 1910-1946 1995 BMG 0902-61649-2 EM Preludio & Gavotte; with piano

49 All studied recordings were CD issues except when marked with * in the Label column. Those were long playing (vinyl) records accessed in sound archives. Kuijken, Sigiswald 1981 1983 Deutsche Harmonia Mundi GD77043 complete; baroque violin Kuijken, Sigiswald 2000 Deutsche Harmonia Mundi complete; baroque violin 05472775272 Luca, Sergio 1977 Nonsuch complete; baroque violin Menuhin, Yehudi 1934-36 1989 EMI Reference (mono) CHS 763035 2 complete Menuhin, Yehudi 1957 1993 EMI Classics 5 69249 2 complete Milstein, Nathan 1955 1966 EMI ZDMB 6479323 complete Milstein, Nathan 1973 1975 DG Originals DG 457701-2 complete Mintz, Shlomo 1983-84 1984 Deutshce Grammophon DG 413810-2 complete Paraschkevov, 1998 *Telos Studios TLS 007 Gm, Am, Dm Vesselin Perlman, Itzak 1986 1988 EMI Classics 7 49483 2 complete Podger, Rachel 1997-99 1999 Channel Classics CCS 12198 complete Poulet, Gerard 1996 Arion 268296 complete Ricci, Ruggiero 1988 1992 “Ricci: Celebrating Six Decades on Concert; Am, Dm 1991 Stage” One-Eleven URS 92033 Concert; Bm Sarasate, Pablo 1904 Opal CD 9851 EM Preludio Schroeder, Jaap 1984-1985 1987 / 1990 Smithsonian Institution ND-0382 complete; baroque violin Suk, Joseph 1971 1999 EMI ClassicsDouble fforte 5 73644 2 complete Szenthelyi, Miklós 2001 2002 Hungaroton HCD 32071-72 complete Szeryng, Henryk 1965 1991 SONY (AAD mono) 01-046721-10 complete Szeryng, Henryk 1967 1968 (R1996) DG Double 453 004-2 complete Szigeti, Joseph 1908 1991 Biddulph LAB 043 EM Preludio Szigeti, Joseph 1941 1993 Biddulph LAB 070 Bm Bourrée Szigeti, Joseph 1946, 1949 1993 Music and Arts CD4774 Concert; Gm, Am, EM Szigeti, Joseph 1927-1933 1999 Biddulph LAB 153 Gm, Am, Bm Bourree, EM Gavotte Szigeti, Joseph 1955-56 1991 Vanguard Classics OVC 8021/22 complete Telmanyi, Emil 1953-54 1984 Danacord DACO 147-149 complete Tetzlaff, Christian 1993 1994 Virgin Veritas 545089-2 complete van Dael, Lucy 1996 1999 Naxos 8.554423 complete; baroque violin Wallfisch, Elizabeth 1996 1997 Hyperion dyad CDD 22009 complete; baroque violin Zehetmair, Thomas 1983 1992 (R1998) Teldec 903176138-2 complete