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The Zionist Legacy: Water and Agriculture Management in Israel

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The Zionist Legacy: Water and Agriculture Management in Israel Corso di Laurea Magistrale in Relazioni Internazionali Comparate Tesi di Laurea The Zionist Legacy: Water and Agriculture Management in Israel Relatore Ch. Prof. Matteo Legrenzi Correlatore Ch. Prof. Massimiliano Trentin Laureanda Erika Ingami Matricola 831505 Anno Accademico 2011 / 2012 Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Professor Matteo Legrenzi, for his prompt advice and his constant encouragement during the course of the research and writing process of this thesis. A special consideration also goes to Professor Massimiliano Trentin for his support and suggestions. I want to express my profound gratitude to my parents and to the rest of my family for having always believed in me. Their help and support goes well beyond the extent of this thesis, enduring through the course of my whole student career. I must say that without them, I would never have managed to achieve this goal. Furthermore, I thank my closest friends and colleagues who, despite the distance, have always been present and supported me during these past two years. Finally my endless thanks also goes to Kerry and Gerald for encouraging and motivating me during the past six months. I dedicate this work to Christopher. Thanks for being with me through every challenge. ii Table of Contents ABSTRACT IV INTRODUCTION 1 ABOUT THE CHAPTERS 5 RESEARCH AND METHOD 9 CHAPTER I 10 THE PROCESS OF NATION BUILDING IN PALESTINE AND THE ZIONIST IDEOLOGY 10 1.1 LAND AND IDENTITY: A NEW BEGINNING 10 1.2 SOCIALIST ZIONISM AND THE RELATION BETWEEN MAN AND NATURE 22 1.2.1 THE EXAMPLE OF A.D.GORDON 30 1.3 THE CONSTRUCTION OF AGRICULTURAL SETTLEMENTS: “THE DESERT NEEDS TO BLOOM” 32 CHAPTER II 38 IMMIGRATION, LABOR AND AGRICULTURE 38 2.1 THE HISTADRUT 38 2.2 THE JEWISH ECONOMY UNDER THE MANDATE 42 2.3 JEWISH ECONOMY AND ARAB LABOR: A DIFFERENT PERSPECTIVE 49 2.4 THE ECONOMY OF ISRAEL AFTER 1948 59 CHAPTER III 75 WATER POLICY AND AGRICULTURAL POLICY IN ISRAEL 75 3.1 LANDSCAPE AND WATER RESOURCES: AN OVERVIEW 75 3.2 WATER, AGRICULTURE AND THE ZIONIST LEGACY 81 3.2.1 THE “ETHOS OF DEVELOPMENT” 87 3.3 AGRICULTURAL COOPERATIVE SETTLEMENTS 90 3.3.1 CATEGORIES OF COMMUNAL SETTLEMENTS IN ISRAEL 93 3.4 THE ROLE OF THE GOVERNMENT: WATER MANAGEMENT AND MISMANAGEMENT 95 3.5 THE ROLE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES CONFRONTING HARSH CLIMATIC CONDITIONS AND WATER SCARCITY 101 3.5.1 DESALINATION 108 CONCLUSION 112 HYDROGRAPHIC APPENDIX 126 GLOSSARY 135 REFERENCES 142 iii Abstract L‘elaborato si prefigge lo scopo di analizzare il legame esistente fra i valori dettati dal sionismo socialista e i problemi derivanti dall’odierna gestione delle risorse idriche in Israele, focalizzandosi sul ruolo specifico attribuito all’agricoltura nell’ambito della fondazione dello Stato. Nel corso della tesi emergerà come il sionismo1, grazie ai suoi forti valori ideologici e religiosi, abbia offerto al popolo ebraico una via d’uscita dal processo di assimilazione europeo proprio attraverso il ritorno a “Eretz Israel” 2. Il sionismo socialista si prefiggeva lo scopo di realizzare nella Terra d’Israele una società basata sulla collettività e sull’uguaglianza fra i propri membri. Il movimento, intendendo gettare le basi per la creazione di una comunità capace di essere economicamente autosufficiente, decise di promuovere il concetto di “uomo nuovo” attraverso l’esempio del pioniere sionista3, una figura capace di far fiorire una terra arida e ostile grazie al lavoro manuale e alla diffusione di comunità agricole. Negli ultimi vent’anni dell’Ottocento giunsero in Israele migliaia di ebrei provenienti dall’Europa orientale (a causa dei pogrom in Russia). Inoltre il flusso d’immigrati verso la Palestina crebbe notevolmente nel periodo compreso fra le due Guerre al punto che, quando nel 1948 fu fondata la nazione, lo Stato già ospitava 800.000 abitanti, di cui 650.000 erano ebrei. L’unico capitale su cui lo Stato d’Israele4 poteva contare era dunque il “capitale umano”. I kibbutzim e i moshavim5 ebbero un ruolo fondamentale nella formazione della nuova società ebraica, al punto che vi lavorarono anche personaggi di spicco quali Golda Meir 6 e Ben Gurion. Inoltre, sebbene ostacolata dalla scarsità di risorse idriche, l’agricoltura s’impose come settore trainante negli anni ’50. 1 Il movimento sionista creò una sorta di “nazionalismo ebraico”. 2 Terra d’Israele. 3 L’obiettivo era creare una società basata sul lavoro manuale attraverso la diffusione degli insediamenti agricoli. 4 Comunità ebraica in Palestina prima della fondazione dello Stato d’Israele. 5 I kibbutzim e i moshavim sono comunità agricole. A differenza dei kibbutzim, nei moshavim si pone maggiore enfasi sul concetto di “lavoro cooperativo”. 6 Golda Meir fu insegnante e premier israeliano. Fu eletta primo ministro d’Israele nel 1969. Fu la prima donna a guidare il governo israeliano. iv Inoltre, sarà spiegato come dagli anni Sessanta in poi, il Likud7 iniziò a farsi largo creando le premesse per la sconfitta elettorale del movimento politico laburista, che da quasi trent’anni si trovava al potere. Il Likud, sin dalla vittoria elettorale del 1977, ha accelerato un processo di privatizzazione economica e di alterazione dei valori laburisti, sebbene i pilastri del sionismo socialista fossero in discussione già da prima delle elezioni, a causa del rapido sviluppo economico e del cambiamento della società Israeliana. La tesi esporrà alcune fasi centrali della storia dello Stato8, dall’inizio del XX secolo sino a oggi. Lo scopo dell’elaborato sarà di dimostrare l’influenza che l’ideologia sionista continua ad avere sulla gestione delle risorse idriche e sul settore agricolo, nonostante la crisi del sionismo socialista 9 . Per raggiungere quest’obiettivo la discussione partirà da considerazioni di tipo ideologiche e storiche (quali il concetto di “purificazione” legato al lavoro nei campi) sino ad arrivare ad analisi di carattere economico e ambientale. È necessario aggiungere che, anche prima del 1948, l’espansione degli insediamenti territoriali legati all’attività agricola faceva parte di una valida strategia di “conquista territoriale”, ottenuta tramite la dispersione della comunità ebraica nelle aree più periferiche e rurali del Paese. In conclusione, saranno enunciate le conseguenze dell’influenza del pensiero sionista sull’allocazione delle risorse idriche, risultante in un sistema centralizzato che, nonostante la scarsità d’acqua che affligge la nazione, prevede generosi sussidi al settore agricolo. A tal proposito, si analizzeranno le presunte ragioni per cui questo settore, che costituisce solo il 2-3% del Prodotto Interno Lordo del Paese, impieghi il 60% della quantità d’acqua disponibile. L’elaborato è suddiviso in tre capitoli: • Il primo capitolo mira a fornire un quadro storico del pensiero sionista e del fenomeno del “pionerismo” nella Terra d’Israele, soffermandosi anche sulle 7 Il partito trae le sue origini dal movimento sionista riformista di Zeev Jabotinsky. Oggi il Likud è un partito nazionalista liberale. Inoltre, le elezioni israeliane del 2009 hanno visto un ritorno al potere del partito. 8 L’elaborato partirà dalla storia dell’Yishuv, la comunità ebraica in Palestina. 9 Il sionismo socialista rappresenta la corrente di sinistra del movimento sionista che sosteneva la creazione di uno stato ebraico in Palestina attraverso il lavoro della classe operaia tramite la diffusione d’insediamenti agricoli quali i kibbutzim e i moshavim. v cause della migrazione di massa che vide migliaia di ebrei stabilirsi in Palestina. I nuovi immigrati volevano creare un’immagine di “popolo ebraico” capace di rovesciare quelle limitazioni professionali cui erano stati a lungo sottoposti nel corso della diaspora. L’analisi dimostrerà che il movimento sionista riteneva che non vi fosse alcun futuro per la comunità ebraica in Europa, e che quindi fosse necessario stabilirsi in Palestina per creare una società basata sul lavoro manuale e sull’uguaglianza. Nel corso del capitolo saranno anche spiegate le differenze esistenti fra i membri della Prima, Seconda e Terza Aliyah. A tal proposito, sarà illustrato come gli immigrati della Prima Aliyah, non avendo alcuna esperienza in campo agricolo, impiegarono la forza-lavoro locale, invece di coltivare la terra indipendentemente. Inoltre, particolare attenzione sarà dedicata alla natura della collaborazione fra la comunità ebraica e il mandato britannico, iniziata formalmente con la Dichiarazione Balfour10, documento che stabilì in maniera ufficiale il supporto britannico per la creazione di una “sede nazionale” o “national home”11 per il popolo ebraico in Palestina. Saranno inoltre esaminate le idee digli esponenti principali del movimento sionista quali A.D. Gordon. In conclusione, il capitolo anticiperà la natura del ruolo giocato dall’Histadrut, istituzione le cui competenze saranno descritte in maniera più dettagliata nel capitolo seguente. • Il secondo capitolo fornisce un’analisi storica, economica e sociale della nazione partendo dal ruolo dell’Histadrut, elemento essenziale per comprendere il diretto controllo del governo sulle strutture sociali ed economiche del Paese. Inoltre, questa sezione si soffermerà sull’analisi dei cambiamenti introdotti dal rapido sviluppo economico e dalle elezioni del 1977, cui seguirà una descrizione dei problemi riguardanti la bilancia dei pagamenti e le pressioni inflazionarie che hanno afflitto il paese sino alla metà degli anni ‘80. Nello specifico il capitolo verterà sull’analisi dei seguenti elementi: -L’economia dell’Yishuv durante il mandato. -L’economia araba
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