DEVELOPMENT OF THE PH.D. PROGRAM IN UNITED STATES IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

By

'/et'mce. Mary/yBean, B.A., A.M.

* • » » t J ' I 1 I •> 3 ! • » • » » : i ' * i -J j > j C * • I » 3 . J » » » i . ) < > J ! » » * « ) ) J J , 1 J > »•* II I ) J 1 I J j ■ >

The Ohio State University 1953

Approved byx ACKNO WLED GEMENTS

This study was begun in 1933. Due to ill health it was not finished

With improved health it was taken up in 1951. During the first year

Dr. Arthur J. Klein, now Dean Emeritus, was adviser. The writer wishes to express appreciation for the inspiration and interest received from.

Dr. Klein for the field of university education. The subject of this study, on a phase of university education, stems from that interest.

I wish to' express appreciation to my family, Mr. and Mrs. «J. Russell Bean and to friends, Mr. and: Mrs. H. K. Filler, who encouraged me to take up the work and finish it. My deep and sincere debt of gratitude goes to

Dr. Roscoe H. Eckelberry who has acted as advisor during the writing of the dissertation. The unlimited time he has made available through­ out the progress of this dissertation, the valuable criticisms and suggestions, his interest in the subject, his general knowledge and helpfulness have made this work a pleasant task.

M. B.

- ii -

\ 16889 TABLE OP CONTENTS

CHAPTER Pago

GENERAL INTRODUCTION...... x

PAST I

EUROPEAN BACKGROUNDS...... 1

I ORIGIN IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE ...... I Bologna, the earliest university ...... 4 Statutes giving the university form...... '5 Course of study ...... 8 Scholasticism, its influence...... 10 Contribution of Bologna to its successors. . . . 11 University of ...... 12 Position of the Rector...... 14 Course of study ...... 15

II UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE ...... 18 The o rigin of Oxford University ...... 18 The Chancellor ...... 19 The college ...... 20 The H a l l s ...... 22 Professorships...... 23 Origin of fellowships ..!...... 24 Course of study ...... 25 The University as a w h o l e ...... 26 Cambridge University...... 27

III RISE OF THE MODERN UNIVERSITY IN G E R M A N Y ...... 31 Universities of Halle ...... 31 The University of Gottingen...... 34 University of B e r l i n ...... 34 Universities, state institutions ...... 35 Freedom of teaching and learning ...... 36 The philosophical faculty ...... 39

PART II

EXPLORATORY PERIOD IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1800 TO 1875 ...... 43

- iii - TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

CHAPTER Page

IT YALE••!»••••••••••••••••«•• 46 Status of the sciences at at the opening of the nineteenth century ...... 46 Establishment of first journal in United States for publishing research...... 51 Appointment of "University Professors" to offer advanced work...... 54 Department of Philosophy and the Arts, 1847 . • 56 First Ph.D. in United States conferred in1861. 60 Requirements for the Ph.D. degree at Yale 1861 to 1875...... 64

HARVARD...... 71 Founding of Harvard in 1636 .. 71 Resident graduates 1642...... 73 Lawrence Scientific School 1847...... 84 'University L0Ctures from 1860 to 1 8 7 1 .... 88

•••TI CORNELL...... 108 Founded with emphasis on technical eduoation. . 108 Ph.D. offered from outset...... 112 Course of study...... 119

VII ...... 129 A state university as par’ of the public educational system of une state...... 129 The elective system...... 135 Advanced courses of instruction instituted in 1858...... 137 Seminar introduced by Charles It. Adams . . . . 139 Doctor of Philosophy degree offered, not conferred...... 141

VIII JOHNS HOPKINS...... 146 The privately endowed university ...... 146 , president...... 148 The faculty...... 150 Students ...... 153

IX SUMMARY OF PART I I ...... 157

- iv - TABLE OF CONTENTS (cont.)

CHAPTER Pago

PART III

PERIOD OF STANDARDIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 160

X YALE 1876-1900...... 161 Courses o f graduate instruction ...... 161 Requirements for the Ph.D. degree...... 171 From courses of graduate instruction to graduate s c h o o l ...... 172 Enrollments and degrees conferred...... 177

XI HARVARD 1876-1900...... 185 Courses of graduate instruction ...... 185 Requirements for the Ph.D. degree...... 199 From graduate department to graduate school. . . ■ 202 Enrollments and degrees conferred...... 205

XII CORNELL 1876-1900...... 220 Courses of graduate Instruction...... 220 Requirements for the Ph. Q. degree...... 230 The University faculty...... 233 Enrollments and degrees conferred...... 234

XIII MICHIGAN 1876-1900...... 245 Post-graduate courses...... - • 245 Requirements for the Ph.D. degree...... 252 From Department of Literature, Science and the Arts to Graduate School...... 257 Enrollments and degrees conferred...... 259

XIV JOHNS HOPKINS 1876-1900...... 268 Courses of instruction ...... • 268 Requirements for the Ph.D. degree...... 279 The University...... 283 Enrollments and degrees conferred* ...... 284

XV SUMMARY OF PART III...... 292

XVI GENERAL SUMMARY...... 295

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 309

AUTOBIOGRAPHY 320 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE Pago

I COURSES OF GRADUATE INSTRUCTION AT FROM 1800 TO 1900...... 162

II DEPARTMENTAL GRADUATE CLUBS AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1886 TO 1900...... 169

III UNIVERSITY AND GRADUATE ENROLMENTS AMD NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900. 179

IV NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED ON MEN AND WOMEN AT YALE U1HVERSITY FROM 1894 TO 1900...... 180

V COURSES "PRIMARILY FOR GRADUATES" AT HARVARD UNIVER­ SITY FROM 1876 TO 1881...... 186

VI ELECTIVE STUDIES OF HARVARD COLLEGE FROM 1876 TO 1881. 188

VII A COMPARISON OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF INSTRUCTION AT IN 1882, 1890, AND 1900...... 193

VIII COURSES OF GRADUATE INSTRUCTION AS SUBDIVIDED INTO FOUR TYPES AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1890 TO 1900. . 195

IX A COMP ARISON OF THE NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTAL NON-CREDIT CLUBS AND DEPARTlfflNTAL CONFERENCES (OR SOCIETIES) AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY IN 1892 AND IN 1900...... 198

X CANDIDATES FOR HIGHER DEGREES VIZ. TO SUBJECT AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1895...... 210

XI RESIDENT GRADUATES NOT CANDIDATES FOR A DEGREE AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1885...... 212

XII NON-RESIDENT CANDIDATES FOR A DEGREE AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 212

XIII NUMBER OF DEGREES CONFERRED VIZ. SUBJECT AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 214

XIV PROPORTIONATE NUMBER OF CANDIDATES GRADUATES OF HARVARD AID OTHER INSTITUTIONS AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 216

- vi - LIST OF TABLES (cont.)

TABLE Pag©

XV NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED TO CANDIDATES M 10 HELD THE BACHELOR’S DEGREE FROM HARVARD OR FROM OTHER COLLEGES, HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900. . 216

XVI COURSES OF STUDY AT FROM 1876 TO 1900 UNDER ELECTIVE SYSTEM OF STUDIES...... 221

XVII A COMPARISON OF LABORATORIES AND OTHER RESEARCH FACILITIES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN 1876, 1890, 1895 AND 1900...... 228

XVIII MUSEUMS AS RESEARCH FACILITIES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN 1876, 1890, 1895 AND 1900 ...... 229

XIX UNIVERSITY AND RESIDENT GRADUATE ENROLLMENTS AND PH.D.'DEGREES CONFERRED AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 235

XX RESIDENT GRADUATES WHO HELD THE BACHELOR’S DEGREE FROM CORNELL UNIVERSITY AND THOSE VJHO HELD THE BACHELOR’S FROM OTHER COLLEGES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 238

XXI RESIDENT GRADUATES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY VIZ. PROPOR­ TION OF MEN AND VS/OMEN FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 238

XXII NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES' CONFERRED ON MEN AND Y/OMEN AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900 239

XXIII MAJORS AMD MINORS OF PH.D. CANDIDATES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1890 TO 1900...... 241

XXIV LEADING TEN STATES REPRESENTED AMONG CANDIDATES FOR PH.D. DEGREE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN 1890, 1895 AND 1900...... 242

XXV COMPARISON OF COURSE OFFERINGS AT THE IN 1876 AND IN 1885...... 249

XXVI COURSES OF INSTRUCTION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN IN 1890, 1895 AND IN 1900...... 251

XXVII COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF LABORATORIES FOR RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN IN 1876, 1890 AND 1900...... 253 ~ vii - LIST OF TABLES (cont.)

TABLE Fag©

XXVIII COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF MUSEUMS AS RESEARCH FACILITIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHICAN IN 1876, 1890, AND 1900...... 254

XXIX ENROLLMENTS AND NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 260

XXX MAJORS AND MINORS OF THOSE TAKING THE PH.D. DEGREE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1876 TO 1900 ...... 261

XXXI NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AS HONORARY DEGREES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1875 TO 1900 .... 263

XXXII NUMBER OF RESIDENT GRADUATES AND THOSE STUDYING 11 IN ABSENTIA" ENROLLED IN THE DEPARTMENT OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS (THE GRADUATE DEPARTMENT) AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1876 TO 1900 ...... 265

XXXIII COMP.ARISON OF THE COURSE OF STUDY AT FROM 1880 TO 1900...... 271

XXXIV DEPARTMENTAL SOCIETIES AND READING CLUBS FOR GRADUATES AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900. . . 274

XXXV A COMPARISON OF THE LABORATORIES AND OTHER RESEARCH FACILITIES AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1876 AND 1900...... 276

XXXVI COMPARISON OF. THE NUMBER OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH PUB­ LICATIONS AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900...... 278

XXXVII UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGIATE ENROLLMENTS AND NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900...... 286

XXXVIII FIRST TEN INSTITUTIONS REPRESENTED BY GRADUATE STUDENTS AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1885, 1890, AND 1900...... 287

XXXIX TEN LEADING DEPARTMENTS IN ENROLLMENT OF GRADUATE STUDENTS AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY...... 288

- viii - LIST OF TABLES (cont.)

TABLE Page

XXXX COMPARISON OF ACCUMULATIVE TOTAL ENROLLMENT AND ACCUMULA!IVE TOTAL NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGRESS CONFERRED BETYVEEN 1876 AND 1900 IN THESE FIVE SELECTED UNIVERSITIES...... 293

XXXXI LEADING AREAS OF WORK OF CANDIDATES FOR THE PH.D. DEGREE FROM 1876 TO 1900 IN FIVE SELECTED UNIVERSITIES. 293

XXXXII A COMPARISON OF INSTRUCTIONAL COSTS OF GRADUATE STUDY PER YEAR IN 1876 AND IN 1900 IN FIVE SEIECTED UNIVER­ SITIES...... 305

XXXXII I COMPARISON OF DATE WHEN FIRST PH.D. PROGRAMS WERE INSTITUTED IN THE FIVE INSTITUTIONS AND WHEN FIRST PH.D. WAS CONFERRED...... 306

XXXIV REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PH.D. IN 1900 IN FIVE SELECTED UNIVERSITIES...... 307

- ix - GENERAL INTRODUCTION

This is a historical study. Its purpose is to trace the develop- meat of the Ph.D. program in the United States in the nineteenth century. It is intended to show how the doctor of philosophy degree was taken over from German university eduoation and introduc/ed into

American university eduoation. It will be pointed out that as the small Amerioan colleges provided "university professorships," and

"oourses of graduate instruction," set up requirements for the doctor of philosophy degree, and generally instituted programs of graduate work they began transforaing themselves from oolleges into universities*

The period which this study covers is from approximately 1800 to

1900. This particular period was selected because the nineteenth oentury was the time of the origin of Ph.D. programs of work. By

1900 suoh programs had become fairly well established and standardized.

Because this movement is one of the most important in higher education in the nineteenth century it is worthy of study.

The plan of this study includes, first, the European background, from whioh the American Ph.D. program developed, (Part I); second, an historical account of the exploratory period in the United States from 1800 to 1875 (Part Il)j and the period of standardisation from

1876 to 1900 (Part III).

In Part I a brief acoount is given of the earliest degree- granting universities. These were the University of Bologna in and the , . The time was that of the later - x - xi

Middle Ages* the eleventh end twelfth centuries. From France the aeoouit proceeds to * to the universities of Oxford and

Cambridge in the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries. Oxford is disoussed first beoause it grew into a position of strength and importanoe earlier than Cambridge* and also because Cambridge was formed largely by students from °xford and modeled after the Oxford pattern*

From England the aooount leads to . Tho modioval univer- sitiss which were under the Influence of scholasticism were through­ out the fifteenth to the eighteenth oenturies slowly transformed by the new spirit of humanism* In the late eighteenth century scholasticism oame to an end in Germany* and tho new modern spirit assumed control of the German universities. In the first deoade at the nineteenth oentur)| the first modern university was established*

The modern university was so-called beoause it was the first university in the sense in which we knov/ it during the twentieth century* as a place where soientific researches and investigations may be carried on and the results of these researches published and otherwise used to help mankind. This development from the eleventh century to the close of the nineteenth century is important historically beoause it traces the history of the rise of the university in Europe and its transplanation to American soil*

The five universities of Yale* Harvard* Cornell* Michigan and

Johns Hopkins were selected beoause of the unique contribution to early graduate eduoation in the United States which each made. This oomprises ^art II* xii

The principal sources of data were for Part I, Hastings Rashdall's,

The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages and The Medieval

Universities; Friedrich Paulsen's* The German. Universities and German

Sducation Past and Present; Simon Somerville Laurie's* The Rise and

Constitution of Universities* with a Survey of Mediaeval Education;

Paul Monroe's* A Brief Course in the History of Education, and his five volumes of A Cyclopedia of Eduoation; William Boyd's, The History of Western Education* and many other books*

For Part 11 the principal souroes of data were the publications of the universities themselves* suoh as the annual oollege catalogues* the presidents' reports* pamphlets on oourses of graduate instruction* and trlfoentenlal catalogues listing all on whom the university had oonferred degrees* A secondary source of data in Part 11 was the histories of these universities whioh were usually written by earlier presidents or members of the faculties at the respective universities* suoh as* Ebeneser Baldwin's* Annals of Yale College from its Foundation;

Timothy Dwight's* Msmoirs of Yale Life and Men; Samuel A. Eliot's,

A Sketch of the History of Harvard College and the Development of

Harvard University since the inaugural of President Eliot j Daniel Coit

Gilman's* University Problems in the United States; Andrew Dickson

White's* lly Reminiseenoes of Esra Cornell and, Autobiography; Henry

Philip Tappan's* University Education* and Carson W. Ryan's'* Studies in Early Graduate Eduoation*

For Part III data were almost exclusively from primary souroes* that is* from annual oollege catalogues* president's reports* pamphlets an graduate Instruction, and bulletins of the graduate sohools. Some xili secondary sources were used in biographies* autobiographies of the presidents of these universities and histories written concerning these universities, -tt may be said that ^art I is based on secondary souroes* ?art II on secondary and primary souroes* and Part III largely on primary souroes* PART I

EUROPEAN BACKGROUNDS

CHAPTER I

ORIGIN IN MEDIEVAL EUROPE

The * the ancestor of the present-day

university, developed at a number of oenters in Tfe stern Europe in the

latter Middle Ages. Among the most important of these oenters were

Bologna in Italy and Paris in France* These medieval universities

were not consciously constructed according to a previously thought-out

plan, but gradually evolved through deoades and centuries. The very

earliest development seems to have developed at Bologna in northern

Italy in the latter part of the eleventh century*

The late eleventh century saw the rise of the fortified towns

and cities* The Middle Ages were coming to a close and southwestern

Europe was now oarrying on a flourishing oommeroe and industry* Of all

the European countries during the Middle Ages, Italy had achieved the highest level of culture* In no country was civic life as strong nor

oommeroe as flourishing* Here was wealth, leisure, an interest in the arts and refinements of life* The soil was ready for the expan­

sion of learning*

The cities of northern Italy were rapidly becoming independent

republics*^ Here was a free munioipal system of town and city govern­ ment, and a vigorous municipal life. The towns, arising as they did

amid the conflict of political and church authority, were able to 2 maintain soma autonomy. Some, in faot, grew from mere municipalities into what often amounted to practically self-governing republics.

As protection against the civic authorities as well as against invaders, there arose among the foreign merchants guilds for mutual protection of their members as well as for the internal regulation of the trade. *n the Middle Ages a man lived in a foreign country at his own risk. Since he had no claim of any kind on the country, his best security lay in associating himself with his countrymen resident in the new country. German customary law granted Germans in foreign countries the right to form trade guilds, and the first trade guild foxidsd in medieval Italy was that of the German merohants.

As the medieval towns increased in sise and importance the inhabitants demanded rights. They began taking an interest in eduoation.

And in spite of the authority of the ohuroh, education in Italy main­ tained a lay spirit.

To learn better how to conduct their commerce, their trade, and the internal affairs of their cities, there grew up among the t o n dwellers an increasing interest in learning. There were oareors ex­ panding for men who were neither churchmen nor soldiers.

The medieval university was in the beginning a foreign soholastio 2 guild, that is, a guild of foreign students. It was patterned after the existing trade guilds. The trade guild was, in turn, modeled after the municipal organisation of the Italian oity. A cltl'sen of

Bologna was excluded from membership in a guild either soholastie or trade in that oity. All guilds were for the purpose of giving the foreigners the legal rights and protection which a oitisen of Bologna 3

had naturally* In Bologna* through his citizenship.

A foreigner meant* in medieval Italy, a person from another town;

he was not necessarily from another country. Citizens of other Italian

towns were foreigners in Bologna. The citizens of one town had no

civic rights in another town. There was one set of town laws for the

citizen, another for the alien* or foreigner.

Thus we see the great praotical need whioh brought about the

rise of the guilds. They were the only means by whioh a person

ooming from outside the oity of Bologna oould secure oivio rights and

legal protection. The students and teachers who were citizens of

Bologna did not belong to guilds. 3 The term Universitaa* which came to be applied to the guilds of

students* or apprentices in study* was a Roman legal term* practically

equivalent to our modern word* corporation. Historically* the word

"university" had no connection with the universality of learning.

It denoted the totality of a group* whether of tradespeople or of

students•

The organized form of TJhiversitas made the students a legal corporation having legal rights under eivll law. The student university represented an attempt to create artificial citizenship.

Because it was to the commercial advantage to the municipalities to recognize the student university* they did so. The guild of foreign teachers* or doctors* was known as colleg. Whore the relation be­ tween the TJhiversitas* the Colleg* and the municipalities was the freest* and the TJhiversitas the most independent* the university movement developed most rapidly. 4

1* Bologna* the earliest university*

It was sometime Shout the beginning of the twelfth oentury that students were flocking in considerable numbers from foreign lands as well as from the vicinity* to Bologna, attracted by the new learning* The earliest scholastic fame of Bologna arose from its instrhotion in the seven liberal arts*

The studies covered by the seven liberal arts* were much the same in all parts of Europe, but the relative importance of the different subjects varied in accordance with the local situation* In Italy* where graranar and rhetoric were always more Important than the other subjects* there sprang up as a branch of rhetoric* jurisprudence* or law* The organization of law students and teachers of law attained a fully developed form earlier than that of any other subjeot*

Due* perhaps* to the presenoe of the great teaoher of law*

Irnerius* (1060-1130)*^ a citizen of Bologna* and probably also to the city* a geographical location (at the intersection of four prov­ inces* and the convergence of all lines of travel between the north entrance to Italy and its oenter)* Bologna became the great center for the study of law* And out of jurisprudence* as a branch of rhetoric* the great law school of Bologna grew*

The juristic side of rhetorio was taught in a broad* praotioal manner* Jurisprudence oovered instruction in the art of persuasion and in preparation for the work of notary and pleader* Under rhetorio also* logic was taught as a sharpener of wits and as a discipline for » word battles of -the law court* Since all offioial briefs and legal documents were written in * and all business transactions of any 5

importance were in that language, some knowledge of Latin grammar was

neoessary to the lawyer. Hence Iatin grammar was a part of the cur­

riculum*

Although the organization of law students and law teachers

developed earlier and attained and retained greatest prominence, the

organizations of students and teachers of medicine, and had

their place also* The law organization was well established at the time the University was given its founding charter, 1158. The organ­

ization of teaohers and students of medicine gained recognition in g 1316, those of Theology in 1360.

2. Statutes giving form to the University 6 As early as 1158 Anperor Frederick Barbarossa issued a charter as a protection to all students at 3ologn&« This oharter has come to be recognized as the foundation of the University of Bologna* Under this charter the scholars were under the protection of the Emperor*

This oharter provided that any legal proceeding against & soholar must be heard before his master, or before the bishop* Constitutionally the University at Bologna was a corporation, or a plurality of cor­ porations* It was an autonomous student university*

The term Rector was the Latin equivalent for the ohief magistrate of an Italian town* The trade guild borrowed the term from the town, and the student guild took the use of the term from the trade guild*

In the student guild, the Rector ruled over the guild members, but not over their studies. The Rector administered the rules of the guild*

He was an administrator, not a teacher* 6

In medieval university language the terns, doctor, master,

professor, were synomyous, and were used interchangeably. The

earliest specialized appellation for what is now called a university

was Stttdiugi or Studlum Generale, that is, a plaoe of study where

students from various countries congregate, as opposed to a merely

local town school, or, Studium Particulars»

The form of the University of Bologna typifies that of prac­

tically all the medieval universities of southern Burope, This

university form evolved through the twelfth and thirteenth centuries

and by the opening of the fourteenth century had achieved a definite

pattern, It m s at the beginning of the fourteenth century that the

University of Bologna was at its peak. These essentials of univer­

sity organization established here have been handed down in unbroken

continuity through the succeeding oenturies,

A papal bill of 1189 regulating student rents, as a protection

against overcharging by the townspeople, gave strength to the growing 7 University, In 1219 the University was conferring degrees. In the

same year Pope Honorius III made all promotions to degrees at Bologna

conditional on the consent of the head of the eocelesiastioal chapter*

Canon law thus asserted the principle of ehureh control, and the

right of conferring degrees belonged to the churoh officer who was the ex officio d ireotor of eduoation, that is, the chancel1 or of the cathedral*

As we have seen, the students or scholars had the University governing power in their hands, through their guild rights. The doctors, or professors, were subjeot to them, Tftiile no trade or craft 7

guild could abandon the city without leaving their houses and goods to

the mercy of their opponents* the scholars oould pack their few books

and migrate in a body to another town. Even the greatest of medieval

sovereigns found themselves powerless against suoh tactios. Tftien the

civil magistrates of Bologna attempted to coerce the students* the

Pope always favored the students* The ohurch wanted to keep this new

learning in its own hands*

In 1224 the doctors led a resistance to control by the scholars* but Pope Hbnorius III recognized their subjeotion to the scholars, in 1228 the head of the university was almost equal in authority to the ohief magistrate of the oity republic* and was almost independent of civic control*

When in 1292 a bull of Pope Nicholas conferred on Bologna professors* or dootors* the right to teach throughout the world, the university system was exalted from a local into a world-wide institu­ tion* The dootcrate now became an order of intellectual nobility in the medieval world. It was the German students who had the largest share in this transformation. Due to its great size* the German student guild was the most powerful* 9 The statutes of 1517 gave to the University of Bologpa what was praotically its final form down to the end of the Middle Ages* In

1517 Canon Johannes Andreae drafted and published a statute-book of the University of Bologna* In 1526 and 1556 additions were made*

In 1546 these statutes were revised* But the revision consisted largely in re-editing and deoiding conflicting points* The body of the statute-book which governed the University remained fundamentally 8 the sane as published in 1517*

3. Course of study.

The course of study was basically that of the liberal arts. The

ground oovered by the liberal arts was the same in all parts of

Europe. The only difference was that of emphasis. The seven liberal arts comprised the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium included

grammar, rhetorio, and dialectics. The quadrivium included arithmetic,

geometry (geography), astronomy (physios), end music.

In the trivium, dialectic was of first importance due to the influence of scholasticism. Latin was the language of the olassroom.

The texts were written in Latin, and expounded in Latin. The teacher usually had the one copy of the text, and the students memorised what he gave to them,

l/Vhen there were sufficient textbooks for law study, jurisprudence oeased to be a part of rhetorio and became the new subject of law.

Law, as it was taught at Bologna, oovered Corpus Juris Civills (Roman

Civil Law as codified under the Emperor Justinian) and Corpus Juris

Canon (churoh law). The course of study in Corpus Juris Civilis was a io cycle of books,

I. The Code, in 12 books containing the statutes of the Emperor

II. The Digest, in 50 books containing pertinent extracts from the opinions of oelebrated Roman lawyers

III. The Institutes, in 4 books, being an elementary textbook on the law for use of students

IV, ‘The Novellas, or new statutes. The course of study in Corpus Juris Canon was*1*

The Deoretum of Gratians es I. Contained 106 "distinctions" relating to eoo^Uastioal persons and affairs

II. Contained 36 "distinctions" relating to problems aris­ ing in administration of oanon lav

III* Contained 5 "distinctions" relating to ritual and sacraments•

Additions*

I* Decretals of Pope Gregory *X, in g books

II* A Supplement to the above by Pope Boniface VIII

III* The constitution of Clementine issued in 1317

IV. Several additions of Papal ^aws, not included in the above*

The Dec return of Gratian vas a codi float ion of the canon lav* ?t vas a compilation of the materials included in vorks by a succession of canons* The Deoretum* it seems generally agreed* vas completed as early as 1142* Of Gratian himself* almost nothing is knoun. He was a monk in the Camaldumensian Monastery of Saint Felix at Bologna*

Although he m s styled Magister Gratian, he m s not* so far as is known a teacher at all; but a solitary soholar*

The foundation and source of all the liberal arts was *-atin grammar* Grammar in the medieval teaching also included the analytical side of the study of literature* analysis* versification* word forma­ tion* and figures of speech* Prisiclan's grammar m s the great Latin gramnar textbook for three centuries* In the earliest part of the thirteenth century Prisiclan's grammar was reduoed to verse by a regent at Paris* Alexander de Villa del* This book remained up to the middle 10

of the sixteenth century the great Latin gramnar textbook*

4* Scholasticism, its influence

Under dialectic and rhetoric logical analysis was applied to the

problems of religion* This was due to the influence of scholasticism*

The textbooks used in teaching dialectic and rhetoric in the thirteenth

century were the Book of Sentences by Peter the Lombard (1100-1160),

the Vulgate Bible, and special translations of Aristotle's Rhetoric and

Politics* In the subjects of the quadrivium Boethius was taught in

arithmetic, Buclid in geometry, Ptolemy in astronomy and Pythagoras in

music•

Kear the end of the thirteenth century the word "baooalareus"

was found in use at Bologna* The completion of the grammar course

(trivium) was the university's "baccalaureus"*^ requirements. At

Bologna, after a number of years of study in Arts under some master,

the student was permitted to present himself for a test. This test

covered his ability to define words, determine the meaning of phrases,

and read the ordinary **tin texts, in grammar, rhetorio, and logic

(trivium) to the satisfaction of other masters than his own*

The passing of this test was equivalent to advancing from appren­ ticeship to the ranks of journeyman and the successful candidate might now be permitted to assist the master, and even to give elementary instruction himself idiile continuing his studies* He was now a baccal&ureus, or beginner* The period of time required to cover the trivium, and become a baooalaureus was from three to four years* »Vhon we keep in mind the want of books, the method of teaching, .in whioh IX

the students had to memorize what was read to them* we see why it took

three or four years to cover the few textbooks of the trivium.

In the fourteenth century it was the study of the quadrivium whioh

led to the mastership in Arts* When the student had finally heard a

sufficient number of the courses of the quadrivium* as required by statute* he might present himself for examination for the teaohing

license* The period of time considered necessary in order to cover the

subjects of the quadrivium was usually three years* The examination for the teaohing license took the form of a public disputation on some stated thesis* in the presence of the masters* Upon being judged satisfactory the candidate became a master and was formally admitted to the highest rank in the teaching guild* the society of masters*

In the late thirteenth oentury (1262) is found the first evidence of the use of the word "doctor"*® in reference to students finishing oertain subjeots* At Bologna* the College of Doctors included full

Doctors of all the Arts* but we also hear about distinct graduation in several of the separate subjects embraced under the Arts* There are Dootors of Philosophy* of Astronomy* of Logic* and of Grammar.

5* Contribution of Bologna to its successors

The medieval university at the close of the fifteenth century had aohieved definite form* Its parts were designated in Latin terminology* The Latin terms Universitas. Scholar. Doctor* Colleg*

Studone. etc** had taken their permanent places. This university structure which evolved through the twelfth* thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries has maintained continuity through the five succeeding centuries. 12

The rise of the University of Bologna constituted an epoch*

During the period of its highest repute, the early fourteenth century,

it is believed to have had some six to seven thousand students*

Evolving at about the same time as this University in Italy, was the

University of Paris, in France* These two— -the first embodying the

lay spirit and the seoond manifesting the olerioal or church spirit—

represent the two main types, after whioh all medieval universities

were patterned* These two universities are by far the most important

for a study of origins*

6* The University of Paris

The University of Paris arose about the middle of the twelfth

century (1150-1170)*^ *t developed out of the guild of masters

teaohing at Paris • It will be remembered that the University at

Bologna evolved from the guild of students* This position of the masters distinguishes Paris in form from the early Italian system*

The second distinguishing feature is that of the position of the

ohanoellor at Paris*

The control of the ohanoellor over the masters was exercised in his capacity of eoolesiastioal judge* The chancellor could grant or refuse a license at his own discretion* He oould deprive a master of his license or a scholar of his eoolesiastioal immunities and privileges* In spite of the large extent of his powers over the masters as individuals, the ohanoellor had no position whatever in the university* He was not even a member of it*

In their powers of refusing admission to their guild, the master's society possessed an equivalent to the chancellor's oontrol over the 15

license* The new master could be refused inception by the other

masters* This aoted as an exclusion of the ohanoollor. As the papal

authority in its decisions favored the masters* the university system

entered more and more under the churoh at Home* But since the papacy

at Home was a long way off* this meant a high degree of autonomy* or

self-government* But it was the neoessity of the united opposition

of the masters to the chancellor which called into existenoe the

university organization* if not the university itself*

The earliest definite record of a graduate of the diversity at

Paris is about the year 1175* But the young University still lacked

much of the-fullness of stature of an unquestioned legal corporation.

Until at least 1208 and probably 1210 the University had no written

statutes* About 1210 Paris received its first written statutes that

we have record o f from the Legate Hobert de ~ourcon* At nearly

the same time Pope Innocent III* himself a Paris master* empowered

Faria to elect a proctor and to be represented in its own law suits

and in its own interests at the Papal oourt* Law suits at Home were

oonoerned largely with disputes with the chancellor* The Pope also

granted the University the right to sue and to be sued* thus making the University a legal corporation*

In 1216*5 the University received fresh statutes frcsi the

Legate Hobert de Couroon* and between 1219 and 1222* it obtained the

right of electing its own offioers* At faris the young University

grew up under the wing of the ohanoellor* who had existed long before the university* As the masters grew in strength and threatened to emancipate the University from the ohanoellor*s control* the chancellor 14

fought hard against it. These struggles resulted in oonstant appeals

to Koine. In these the Pope constantly favored the cause of the

growing corporation of masters, as at Bologpa the Pope favored the

appeals of the growing mass of scholar*.

By the end of the thirteenth century, the ohanoellor was com­

pelled by the Pope to lioense any master sent up to him, after due

examination by the masters. Although the ohanoellor kept his anoient

dignity formally, as a deputy of the Pope, his power was gradually

overshadowed by that of the reotor.

7. Position of the Rector

The masters, or doctors, at ^aris elected the rector. The

largest and most important faculty was the Faculty of Arts. And the masters of that faoulty were the leaders in the struggle with the

chancellor. In the oourse of this long and successful oonfliot with

the chancellor, the Faculty of Arts developed a strong organization.

It eleoted its own reotor who was head of the Faoulty of Arts.

By the end of the thirteenth century the rector of the Faculty

of Arts had become the most powerful official of the University.

By the middle of the fourteenth, he was its recognized head. The faculties of theology, lanr, and medicine took an oath to the rector.

The University passed under the authority of the rector, and the power of the chancellor was restricted to the formality of granting, as a representative of the Pope, all licenses requested. 15

8. Course of Study

A s was stated earlier, the ground covered by the liberal arts

was muoh the same in all parts of Europe. At ^aris emphasis m s

placed on dialectic, and its application to metaphysios and theology.

The first definite list of studies is contained in the statutes drawn 16 up by the papal legate, Robert de Courcon in 1215. It was the list

of books required to be heard fbr the mastership in the Faoulty of

Arts.

This list was,

1. Aristotle, insofar as he bore on dialectio and ethios

2. "Topics” (fourth book), of Boethius

3. Prisiclan's grammar (with abridgments)

4. Other worfQi by authors now unknown on philosophy, rhetoric, mathematics, granmar.

Rhetoric and dialectic were also taught from portions of Cicero and

Vergil. The most popular textbook of logic for centuries was the

Summula, by Petrus Hispanus.

By the early part of the fourteenth century (1366) the books used at -^aris in the trivium were*^

Grammar - The Dootrinale, b y Alexander de Villa Dei

The Greoismus

Logic - The Organon and De Anima of Aristotle

The Iaagoge of Porphyry

The Principle of Gilbert de la Porree

The Divisions and Topiss of Boethius

For the Quadrivium:

Fhysloa by Aristotle 16

De Generations et Corruptions,

De Caelo et Mundo,

Parva Naturalia and Liber Metaphysioae

Together with "certain mathematical books," (possibly such books as ware prescribed in other universities * the first six books of Euclid, the Almageatum of Porphyry, and De Sphaera of Johannes de Sacrobosco, the Perspective Comanmia of John of Pisa),

The completion of the quadriviujl qualified the student to apply for the lioense to teach. The lioense became a sort of diploma.

Originally the lioense m s conferred without examination. Gradual progress was made toward regulation and a system of examinations.

It was altogether natural that he who had obtained the lioense or permission to teach, lloentla docendi. should be called, doctor.

The inception or admission of the applicant into the society of doctors was the origin of the degree at *aris, as it was at Bologna.

i’re have seen how the two greatest universities of medieval

Europe, Bologna and ?aris, achieved definite constitutional form, and became flourishing institutions with fame and influenoe beyond the bounds of their own countries. We shall now prooeed to England where, although certain elements of the oontinental universities were put into praotioe, a different type of university developed. The moat distinctive contribution of the English was the tutorial college of liberal arts. 17

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER I

1. Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Vol. 1* p. 97, Oxford, At the Clarendon Press, 1895.

2. Ibld«i p. 163.

3. Simon Somerville I«urie, The Rise and Early Constitution of Ualversities, with a survey of ^odiftoval Education, p. Hew ^ork, D. Appleton and Company, "1887•

4. William Boyd, The History of T/festera Education, p. 125, , England, Adam and Charles Black, 1947*

5. Ellwood ^atterson Cubberley, The History of Education, p. 225, Hew York, Houghton Mifflin Co.", 1920.

6. Paul Monroe, editor, A Cyclopedia of Education Vol. V, p. 652. Hew York, The MacMillan Co., 1914.

7. Hastings Rashdall, op. oit., Vol. 1, p. 148.

8. *aul Monroe, op. cit♦, Vol. V, p. 654*

9* Hastings Rashdall, op* oit., Vol. 1, p. 176*

10. Ellwood Matterson Cubberley, op. oit., p. 196*

11. Ibid.. pi 197*

12. Hastings Rashdall, op. oit.. Vol. II, Part II, p* 466.

13. Hastings Rashdall, "The Medieval Universities," Chapter XVII in The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. 6, p* 584. Cambridge, England, At the University ^ress, 1929.

14. Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, p . 284 .

15. Hastings Rashdall, "The Medieval Universities," p. 571.

16* S. S. Laurie, op. oit., p. 269.

17. Hastings Rashdall, "The Medieval Universities," p. 572* CHAPTER II

UNIVERSITIES OF OXFORD AND CAMBRIDGE

The universities of England are typified by two main institutions* the anoient and honorable institutions of Oxford and Cambridge*^ We shall here treat Oxford University first because it grew into a position of strength and importance earlier than Cambridge* and also because the university at Cambridge was largely formed by students from Oxford and modeled after the Oxford pattern*

1, The origin of Oxford University

The university at Oxford in its primitive form may be regarded as an imitation or perhaps as an unoonsoious reproduction of the

Parisian society of masters. It was originally almost a oolony of

Parisian sohools transferred to English soil*

In the twelfth oentury Paris was the ordinary place of higher education for English eoolesiastios* and the English formed by far the largest body of foreign students at Paris. About 1167 or 1168* there must have been a great exodus of English scholars from Paris. An edict of 1167** of King Henry II of England stated* "The King wills that all scholars shall be compelled to oross the sea*n The scholars on the continent had to return to England*

It was the custom of medieval scholars when disputes with the ohuroh or state prevented than continuing their studies in one plaoe to migrate* with whatever of a scholastio organization they possessed* to another more hospitable city* Most of the older universities of

- 18 - 19

Europe, except the few great mother universities, such as Bologna and

Paris, were founded by scholastic migrations of this kind.

At about the date of the exodus from Paris we hear of scholars

coming to Oxford from distant regions. The names of writers, paroh- ment makers, illuminators, began to appear in deeds relating to Oxford property. Oxford this blossomed out into a studium gene rale and for a while in the thirteenth century was the most famous university in northern Europe*

2. The ohanoellor

At the date of the earliest constitution of Oxford known to us, the masters and soholars were under the authority of the chancellor*

The chancellor was elected by the masters, but his authority came from the bishop* He was in no way oonneoted with any monastic or church body in Oxford. By the middle of the thirteenth century, the univer­ sity had gained the originating voloe in the appointment of the ohanoellor. But the bishop conferred the office, on the one proposed by the university congregation. Since the ohanoellor was eleoted by the vmiverslty, his connection with it outweighed his allegiance to the bishop. Thus he came to be regarded as a member of the aoademio body*

One of the great deficiencies of the medieval university was that it provided no pecuniary return for teaching. Each teaoher was left to find his own income from the fees of the students he gathered around him. Houses were hired by masters, for the purpose of instruction*

This was the origin of the halls and colleges in England* 20

3. The College

By the middle of the fifteenth century the great mass of students

either Hired in colleges or halls* the majority in the former* In

1445 we find the University declaring that "almost the whole univer­

sity resides in the colleges." In 1457 the university forbade resi­ dence out of a college or hall. Thus the essential unit of residence at Oxford became the college. But the eollege was not only a unit of residence, *t was also a unit of education. For each college had its own staff of teachers* a body of fellows who gave instruction to the students in the college*

The corporate rights of the scholastic bodies at Oxford had often been recognised and confirmed by Pope and King since the twelfth century* So by 1571^ there ims at Oxford an institution which was an incorporation of corporate colleges* On the continent the faculties

(medicine* theology* law) became corporate bodies with separate and independent administration. This was not true in England; here the professional faculties of medicine* theology* law* never became sepa­ rate bodies.

Oxford became organised on the basis of colleges. Eaoh college had its own administration* its own endowment and budget* its own buildings* tutors* and library* Each oollege was entirely independent6 in its program of work (except through the holding of examinations)* its course of study* The course of study was the liberal arts. The col­ leges varied due to the slse of their endowment and the desires of their founders. But in one characteristic they were the same: they were all colleges of liberal arts* 21

6 The term "college” was primarily applied to a corporation of individuals having a common purpose, not to buildings. The collegiate system soon dwarfed the university. The university was not one unit, as on the continent. The University of Oxford became a federation of colleges. Bach college had a system of fixed principles upon which it governed i tself • It had its own governing body consisting of a ^ead and a body of Fellows*

Every student was required to be a member of a college. No one could reside at Oxford University without belonging to a college.

The University was the government of the federation of colleges.

The University legislature consisted of three parts, first, an elective council, made up equally of colleges, professors, and masters of arts} second, the congregation of residents, most teachers of the University or colleges; and third, the convocation which consisted of all masters of arts. The University held all examinations (except those at entrance which were held by the colleges), conferred all degrees and honors.

Colleges existed at the University of Paris, but not in the form which they took in England. In Paris they were incorporated lodgings, or boarding houses, only, where a single scholar or a company of scholars lived.

The original purpose of the college in England was to enable the master of arts to complete the long oourse necessary to a degree in theology. The theology course required some fifteen to sixteen years.

Here is & point to remember in the evolution of the college, partic­ ularly after its transplanation to American soil. The colleges were 22

originally intended to train in theology. The English collage was an

endowed incorporated unit of tutorial instruction to undergraduate and

to graduates (those who held the master of arts and were now studying

theology)* It was a oolloge of both instruction and residence*

4 * The Halls

There were also halls at Oxford. The halls were distinguished

from the colleges primarily in their want of all material foundations* 7 They were not endowed nor incorporated* From earliest times halls

existed over which an academic teacher generally presided, who some­

times set up at his own cost a sort of boarding house. A hall under

suoh a principal had not even the appearance of a corporation*

Although the want of permanent property distinguished the halls

from the colleges, some halls gradually acquired houses and land,

and drew revenue from them* In so doing they gradually passed over

into the position of endowed incorporated colleges. Halls were at

times established by students voluntarily choosing their own manager,

or prinoipal* The principal, or head, represented eaoh hall in the

congregation of masters. This congregation of masters transacted the business of the halls*

The University gradually asserted its control over the halls. The starting point of the chancellor's jurisdiction over the relations be­ tween the prinoipal and his fellows was simply the giving of security before the chancellor for the rent of the house* This proceeding was enforced merely to secure the payment of rent, and to prevent disputes between competing applicants for halls. At the same time it 23

gave the chancellor an opportunity to reject an applicant if he wished.

Gradually the chancellor took to himself the power of removing an

offending principal.

In 1411 the principals werd forbidden to receive scholars expelled

from other halls for breach of rules. In 1421. ^enry V enjoined that principals should receive only scholars of good character. And all scholars were required to reside in the halls of principals who had been lawfully approved by the chancellor. In 1432 the university restricted the principalship to graduates and passed statutes binding the prinoipal to assist the scholars in some measure in their studies.

By the olose of the medieval period most of the halls had passed into the possession either of the monastic bodies or the colleges, and

Oxford had become a federation of colleges.

5. Professorships

Every Master of Arts was compelled to lecture for a year after admission to the body of Mag-taps. This was called his "necessary g Eegency." The Asters of Arts who were proceeding to the finishing of the course in theology, were known as Fellows. The Fellows and

Regents were the tutors in the colleges. Bach ooliege was independent of every other college and had its own body of tutors, and administered its teaching in its own way.

As has been stated earlier, the University was merely a federa­ tion of these self-sufficient colleges. In 1311 Pope Clement VII ealled upon the University to establish University professorships in the Oriental languages. This proposal of the Pope was not reco&iized 24 in any way, and was nob put into effect. In 1437, Humphrey, Duke of

Gloucester, founded certain temporary professorships in the liberal arts and the three (natural, moral, intellectual)* But these were not pennanently endowed, and shortly ended*

In 1497** Lady Margaret, mother of Henry VII, established at

Oxford the Margaret Professorships* These however were not adequately endowed and never attained much importance. Bounties were offered from time to time to certain teachers, gifts which never led to endowed professorships* The oolleges in their tutorial system of teaching were unfavorable to the university professorships* The col­ leges did not permit the professorships to assume their rightful places, and these professorships sank into mere sinecures, without any real teaching duties*

About 1555 the Pope enjoined the colleges, as far as their revenue allowed, to establish professorships* And the students from the poorer colleges were not only permitted, but required, to attend these lectures* Oxford and Cambridge together established five pro­ fessorships as a result of this request* These together with the

Margaret Professorships of 1497 became the main organ of university instruction and marks the real beginning of the system of university prof es so rah lps •

6* Origin of fellowships i At ®xford fellowships were largely confined to the Masters of

Arts, who were members of the ohurch of England and who were willing to take the training of an eooleaiastio*^0 This desire of the college 26

was enforced partially by statutes. It was in the interest of the

college* because the ecclesiastics could not so easily and openly

burden the college with families.

Fellowships were not intended for undergraduates. In some oases

the fellowship stipend even oeased to be a temporary income and was

tr&zisfonaed into a life maintenance for learned eoclestiastics.

Fellows received lodging quarters gratis. All fellows being master

of arts were qualified to teach if they so desired* but there was no

compulsion. One who desired oould act as tutor* lecturer* librarian*

bursar* in his college and receive additional emolument. With lodging

gratis* and additional eaoluments fbr services in the colleges* the peouniary value of the fellowships was considerable. Until the fifteenth century statutes of the colleges did not require any duties of the Fellows.

7. Course of Study

The system of study at Oxford was largely formed on the Parisian model. But at Oxford more importance came to be attached to the theory that the University should be based in the Arts. The first written statute for Oxford* 1252* ^ required that no one should bo admitted to the lioense in theology* who had not previously been a

Regent in Arts. A Regent was a Master of Arts who continuing teaching for a period in his own college. The basic oourse of study at Oxford was* as on the continent* the seven liberal arts.

At Bologna emphasis was plaoed on rhetoric* and jurisprudence which developed as a branch of rhetoric* became the University's distin­ guishing feature. At ^aria where importance was plaoed on dialeetio 26 and * -theology beoame the leading subject* So at Oxford* in its teaching of the Arts* importance -was attached to mathematics* music and astronomy* Medieval traditions were so strong that even though

England had its own body of written national jurisprudence* Oxford offered no legal studies but in Roman civil and canon law* Latin m s still the language of instruction* both in writing and speaking*

8* The University as a Whole

In England the colleges beoame separate* but the power of bestowing the degree was in the hands of the University*** The Regents of Masters of Arts at Oxford olaimed the right of previously considering proposed statutes* before they were proposed to the entire ngreatt> congregation* and vetoing them if they pleased* This developed into the initiative of the Faoulty of Arts and has become a permanent principle of the

English University*

The training in Arts was prerequisite to training in the other faculties and to all offices and powers in the university* The prin­ ciple that the university should be based in Arts* which we first find in the English universities* is the principle which was transplanted* to American soil and after which the early American universities were modeled*

In the ea rly s eventeenth century* 1630*** the first systematic oodification of the University of Oxford's laws and customs was made*

Oxford now stood seeond to paris in its scholastic fame throughout

Europe* Oxford had little international oharaoter* its students being recruited largely from the British Isles* *n the seventeenth century 27

Oxford had joined the universities of Bologna and Paris as being one

of the three great outstanding types of universities of Europe.

Cambridge University

The great University o f Cambridge will here be treated with some

brevity because it is almost impossible to find anything to say about

medieval Cambridge which has not already been said of Oxford. The

organisation is so completely framed on the Oxford model15 that it

will be sufficient to mention only a few points*

The origin of the University at Cambridge seems traceable to the

student migration from Oxford in 1209,*6 and a like migration from

Paris in 1229* King Henry III of England offered asylum to the dis­

persed scholars from Paris, stating there would be towns provided

for them* The first papal reoognitlon of Cambridge occurred in 1233 when Pope Gregory IX, authorized the bishop to confer upon soholars the right of not being suamoned beyond the diocese*

It may be contended that in the thirteenth century the atudlian at Cambildge possessed all the characteristics which were inoluded in the then oonoeption of a studlum gene rale. That is, there were a con­ siderable number of masters both in arts and in one of the superior faculties, students from distant regions, regular licenses and incep­ tion, royal recognition, and privileges. In the early part of the fourteenth oentury Cambridge degrees were in all probability fully rscognized at Oxford*

At Oxford the university had reached European fame before its earliest oollege was fomded. At Cambridge there is reason to believe 28

that the university was kept alive during its obscurer period and

eventually nursed into fame and popularity very largely through the munificence of college founders. Up to the end of the fourteenth century, that is, up to the end of the decline of scholasticism,

Cambridge was a third-rate university in its relation to Oxford.

It was not until Oxford became impregnated with the "7/ycliffe 17 heresy that Cambridge came into fashion and attracted the patronage of cautious parents and royal and eoolesiastioal advisers. Its numbers grow rapidly during the last half of the fifteenth century, and toward the close of the century must have nearly equalled those at Oxford.

The system by which halls were let to parties of students under a prinoipal was exactly the same at Cambridge as at Oxford. At Cambridge, however, the mere usual name was hospicium or hostel. Eventually the halls passed into the possession of the col leges, and the system of halls died out before the olose of the sixteenth century.

The most characteristic feature of the studies at Cambridge was the devotion to mathematics, which was supreme at Cambridge for more 18 than two hundred years. Cambridge olaims the honor of being the first University in England to print a book. This is supposed to have been done in 1478, four years after the printing of the first book in England. By 1554 the Cambridge University was printing "all and every kind of book," thus it olaims the honor of having the first

University Press.

The duty of the English universities, as they saw it* up to the eighteenth century, was not to form jurists, physicians, ohemists, or 29

political economists, but to form gentlemen and next schoolmasters, who

would educate the rising generation of gentlemen. For this reason the

English universities offered a broad and deep culture in the Arts.

It m s from Cambridge that a few distinguished graduates, versed

in the Arts, and in the college system, came to America and founded

Harvard College in 1636. Thus the English college system, with its faoulty based in Arts, was transplanted to American soil, and the early colleges of Amerios were copied from the colleges of the English universities,

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER II

1. Freidribh Paulsen, The German Universities and University Study, p. 1, New York* Charles Scribners Sons, 1906,

2. Hastings Rashdall, nThe Medieval Universities," Chapter XVII in The Cambridge Medieval Hlatory, Vol. 6, p, 587, Cambridge, England* At the University ^ress, 1929,

3. Hastings Rashdall, op, cit. p. 575,

4. Victor Aime Huber, pie English Uhlvorsitiei, edited by FranoesW, Newman, vol. 2, p, 103. London'* W. Fiokering, 1845.

5. William Septimus Taylor, Education in England, p, 126. Lexington, Kentucky: University of Kenbuoky, 1939,

6. Simon Somerville Laurie, The Rise and Early Constitution of Universities, with a Survey of Medieval Education, p. 249, New Yorki D. Appleton Co,, 1887,

7. Victor Aime Huber, op. oit., Vol. 2, p, 178,

8. Hastings Rashdall, "The Medieval Universities," p. 575,

9. Victor Aime Huber,

10. Christopher Wordsworth, Soholae Aoademlcae, Some Account of the Studies at the English Universities in the Eighteenth Cehtury, p, 264. Cambridge, England1 Cambridge University Press, 1910, so

11. Hastings Rashdall. The Universities of Europe in The Middle Ages. p. 562. Vol. II. i'art II. Oxford * At the Clarendon ^ress, 1895*

12. Paul Monroe, editor, A Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. 4, p. 224# New Yorki The Macmillan Co., 1914.

13. , Oxford and Her Colleges, p. 6. New York* The LiaoMillan Co., 1895.

14. Paul Monroe, editor, A Cyolopedia of Education, vol. 4, p. 586. New York* The MacMillan Co., 1914.

15. Hastings Rashdall, The Universities of Europe, Vol. 2, p.583.

16. Plaul Monroe, op. clt., Vol. 4, p. 578.

17. William Septimus Taylor, op. oit., p.

18. Christopher Wordsworth, Scholae Academics, p. 214. CHAPTER III

RISE OF THE MODERN UNIVERSITY IN GERMANY

Both th© English universities -which have just been described and

the German universities -which will be discussed in this chapter stemmed

from the same source* That source was the University of ^aris, some­

times referred to as the "mother of universities*" We will now des­

cribe the form which the university took in Germany, which made it

during the early nineteenth century, a mecca for those seeking scholarly

university work*

1* The University of Halle

The era and the earliest beginnings of the m odem university in

Germany was marked by the establishment of the University of Halle in

1694*1 Salle was founded as a conscious protest against the tra­

ditional studies of scholasticism. The modern movement initiated at

Halle was tiiat of the principle of academic freedom, that is, freedom

of learning and teaching*

Universities had existed In Germany sinoe the middle of the four­

teenth oentury* Prague (1343), (1365), Heidelberg (1385), £ Cologne (1383), Erfurt (1396), Leipsig (1409), were all universities

of medieval culture. This new modern movement instituted at Halle

involved the reform of the older universities and the establishment

of new on©3 imbued with the new spirit of scientific investigation*

The basio philosophy which culminated two centuries later in the new scientific spirit was laid to large extent by the great teacher 32

Philip Melanohthon (1497-1560). With persistent but quiet efficiency

this labor-loving man planted and fostered the humanistic studies at

the German universities in the sixteenth century. Combining in his

person almost a complete philosophical faculty, he leotured for

forty-two years (1518-1660),® upon -well nigh all the philosophical and

philological historical subjects as they were then understood.

Long after Melanohthon* a time, he controlled through his methods

and textbooks, the instruction in the Protestant universities. It

was primarily due to him that the Protestant half of Germany won the

ascendency over Catholioism in the realm of education and culture.

And in Germany, s&ienoe grew up in the soil of Protestantism.

Melanohthon laid down the principles for the organisation of the

Protestant universities. In many oases he took part in the actual

framing of their constitution.

Melanohthon wrote excellent textbooks, which remained in use for

centuries, for the teaohing of letin and Greek grammar, rhetoric, logic,

physics (psychology), and . During his forty-two years of work he created a new teaohing profession. Thousands of his students went into other universities to teach thus establishing the new spirit of humanism on a wide-spread basis.

Another factor in developing the new spirit was the Protestant rveformation inaugurated by Martin Luther (1517) early in the sixteenth century. The Deformation was also a social revolution and emphasised the needs of the common man for learning. Printing had oome into wide-spread use in Germany during the sixteenth century and books were printed in the vernacular, the . The Deformation marks S3

an important period in the transfer of the educational funotions from

the ohurch to the state* From this time on we see the increasing

aotivity of the state in education*

Also of the- great significance in the breaking down of the old

scholasticism* and the instituting of the new humanism was the

philosophy of Christian Wolff *ho taught in the Philosophical Faoulty

at Halle from 1707 to 1723 and from 1740 to 1754. The break in

the periods of time in his teaching at Halle is due to his banishment

by Frederick William I and his restoration by Frederick the Great*

Wolff's suooess really indicates the end of soholastio philosophy in

Germany* Its place was taken by the m o d e m spirit whioh now assumed

control of the German universities*

This new modem spirit had a nationalistic aspect* Furthermore

it was based on a scientific attitude* that is* on a rational knowl­

edge of human life and sooiety* The older university instruction had everywhere been based on the assumption that the truth had already been given; the new instruction began with the assumption that the truth must be discovered* The reception of this new point of view* that the truth remains to be discovered* marks the turning point in the German universities* and the opening of the m o d e m era*

The mo d e m movement broke through the prevailing orthodox theological teaching* swept away the prevailing prejudices in political and ecclesiastical law* and tore down the soholastio barriers between philosophy* mathematics* and the natural sciences. This was the breaking down of scholasticism in Germany and cleared the way for aoademic freedom* and this freedom now began its triumphant oourse* 34

£• Tho University o f Gottingen

The University of Gottingen founded in 1737* took ^elle as its

model* Under the leadership of Halle and Gottingen a complete reforma­

tion of the entire Gorman system of university instruction mas brought

about* During the eighteenth century Halle remained the larger of the

two universities, with from 1000-1500 students in attendance, while

Gottingen did not go beyond 1000 students. By the d o s e of the

eighteenth century all the German universities had been reshaped after

the model of Halle and Gottingen*

2• University o f Berlin 6 The University of Berlin founded in 1809 was the first modern

university in the present day sense, that is, scientific investigation

was plaoed first in importance in the work of the university* The

Universities at Halle and Gottingen had been already established in­

stitutions in which reform took plaoe.

Friedrich nTilhelm von Humboldt, who was appointed Director of

Public instruction in 1808, was instrumental in the founding of the 6 University of Berlin* von Humboldt said*

The State should not look to the universities for anything that directly concerns its own interests, but should oherish a conviction that in fulfilling their real function, they will not only serve its purposes but serve them on an infinitely higher plane* . . . affording room to set in motion much more efficient springs and forces than are at the disposal of the State itself*

At Berlin the professors were independent scholars. They were scientific investigators first, and their teaohing was allied to their work in their researches* The entire university program was built 35

to o&rry out scientific work. The professor*' teaching load was small,

often ten to twelve hours a week. Excellently equipped laboratories

endowed by the state were provided. Ample means for carrying on

research were maintained. Instruction was oarried on with a view to

liberty of teaching and learning.

The real aim of the university and therefore of the teacher was to

achieve genuine scientific progress. "Soientifio" in this sense applied

to all fields of learning, and not just to what we call the "sciences."

Wissensohaff is the German term. This principle of the greatest academic freedom* on which the University of Berlin was founded, found

its way into all the German universities and laid the foundation on whioh was built Germany's contribution to international culture.

New universities which followed the University of Berlin both in time and pattern were Breslau (1811), Bonn (1318), and Munich (1826).

3. Universities, State Institutions 8 The German universities were state institutions. They were founded, supported, and governed by the state. The actual founders were the territorial governments or perhaps the municipalities. The ruler oalled the sohool into being, supplied it with buildings and endowment. He gave it certain corporate rights suoh as autonomy, jurisdiction over its own members, and exemption from duties and taxes.

Universities oould only be established by the state, or with the approval of the state. All existing German universities in the eighteenth century were state institutions, established by the separate

states of the German Rapire, suoh as the state of Bavaria, or Prussia. 36

The authority in the at&te to which the universities were subjected was the Minister of Public Worship and Education. The universities were represented in the legislature of the state by each sending one professor to the upper House of their respective legislatures. The university and the church were both under the same authority, both being state institutions*

Although the universities were state institutions they were also independent corporations of scholars. The early German m i varsities were modeled after Paris. Historically their position is traceable to their origin as corporate bodies having the autonomy of the old universitas. Through their evolution they retained to the close of the nineteenth century the unrestricted right of choosing their own academic offioers. The head of the university, the rector, is always ohosen annually by the full professors, and is chosen from one of their number. The rector represents the university in external affairs, and the university officials are subject to his orders. The

German universities were state institutions without state control, a condition which remained to the close of the nineteenth century.

4. Freedom of Teaohing and Learning - Seminar, laboratory

According to the German idea, the university professor was at once both a teacher and a scientific investigator. As suoh, emphasis was laid on the latter function so that one ought to say that in

Germany, ttie scientific Investigator was also the instructor of youth.

The intimate union of investigation and instruction gave the modern

German university its peculiar character and was nurtured in the 1 0 intellectual atmosphere of freedom of teaching (Lehrhreiheit)• 37

The character of university instruction showsd itself as muoh in

the student as in the teaoher. This is illustrated in the use of the

seminar and laboratories, where the student was supposed to learn how

to do independent scientific work, the nineteenth century the

seminary system developed els a second"^ great form of academic instruc­

tion. The lecture and exercises as two forms of instruction had

existed side ty side in the university. Out of the exercises grew the 12 seminar exercises aimed to introduce the student to scientific work

and to teach him how to perform it. 13 The oldest seminar was that established by Gesner in teaching

philology at the University of Gottingen. The seminar was a small

group of students, sometimes two or three, under the guidance and

assistance of a master. The seminar was first used in the Philosophical

Faculty a t Gottingen. The nineteenth century adhered to the method and extended the seminar system to all departments of university instruction.

Modern scientific teaohing in the sense of experimental use of

laboratories by students began with Justus von Liebig, in his ohemistry 14 laboratory at the University of Giessen in 1825. Liebig obtained his own training as an apprentice to an apothecary. The inspiring personality of the Baron von Liebig attracted so many students that a systematic course of instruction beoame necessary. As other labora­ tories arose, the procedures used at the University of Giessen were copied. Although in other oountries parts of Liebig’s program, for training chemists, were adopted, his high level of research was seldom reached, due to laok of men and means* 38

To the ohemlstry laboratories were added those of physics,

zoology, botany, mineralogy, and geology. Scientific institutes were

established and their collections and specimens were available for

researoh study. Clinics and special experimental institutes in

medicine were provided. The last third of the nineteenth century

saw amazing advances along these lines^ particularly as applied in

practical technological uses. In the teaching staff, the expansion

of the branohes of science caused a proportionate narrowing range

of the field in researoh. Specialism increased, and departments were

progrevsively subdivided.

The development of the seminar and the laboratory in the German

universities during the nineteenth century contributed more than any

other cause to the leadership that Germany held in the scientific

world in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.

Germany's greatest men were connected with her universities• At

no other time nor plaoe has so overwhelming a proportion of the

national talent been absorbed by the university as In modern nine­

teenth oentury Germany. When the name of a great man was mentioned

in Germany it was at once asked with what university was he conneoted.

This high level of teaching and research made Germany during the

nineteenth century a Mecca £br all those who desired the highest level

of training. This system of absorbing the greatest of the national talent into the position of instructor of youth is one of most

remarkable in the history of education. It aooounts for the greatness

of the German universities during this period and their long-range effect cn foreign countries. 39

5. The Philosophical Faculty

Under Frederioh Wilhelm von Humboldt1a reorganization of seoondary education in Germany in 1809 (as Director of Public Instruction), a new curriculum was drawn up for the seoondary schools. This new curri­ culum included more advanced subjects than heretofore, they were in

Latin, Greek, German, Mathematics and Soienoe. This formed the one and only course of study for entrants to the University. *t involved a considerable amount of the work formerly done in the Arts faculties 15 of the universities to be transferred to the secondary schools*

The name of the Philosophical Faculty points back to the time when philosophy was conceived as embracing all the sciences* cos- 16 mology and physics, logic and metaphysics, ethics and politics*

After the temporary rejeotion of this view by speculative philosophy which followed Emmanuel Kant, philosophy was set apart from the other sciences as a special kind of science. This conception assumed that all the sciences really belong to the Philosophical Faculty*

Its two great divisions were the mathematio-physioal sciences and the philologioal-historioal} together they inoluded all possible fields of investigation*

Until the eighteenth oentury, the Philosophical Faculty appeared to be merely a preparatory school for tho three professional facul­ ties*^ The Germanic University oonsisted of four faculties, theology, Law, Medicine, Philosophy. The Philosophy Faculty comprised beside philosophy proper, natural soienoe, mathematics, politioal economy, histoty, geography, literature and philology* The Philosoph­ ical Faoulty d eveloped out of the Arts Faculty. 40

In the establishment of the University of Berlin under the direotion of von Humboldt, the oonoeption of the Faoulty of Philosophy 18 was remodelled. It had formerly fulfilled the purpose (of an Arts

College) of a preparation for professional study. (But this had now- been transferred to the seoondary schoolsJ It now became a faoulty coordinate with the Faculties of law, Medicine, and Theology. Itv influence over the other Faculties has promoted the enlargement of the subjects of their teaching and the enrichment of their instruction.

The rise of the modern university in the nineteenth century in

Germany was parallel with the rise of the Philosophical Faculty. This

Faculty became the real exponent of purely scientific research. In its influence upon the entire university this Faculty stands foremost in the nineteenth century. So well was its position established during that time that there was no vital change in its function to the close of the century.***

Now the intellectual world was out from under the domination of scholasticism. Humanism which had succeeded it as the controlling influence was now in turn being displaced by the scientific spirit.

We shall now oonsider the influence of the scientific spirit of the nineteenth century on colleges in the United States.

The first Americans to go to Germany to study went largely to the University of Gottingen. letter the Universities of Halle and

Berlin proved to be the attractive points. Americans were attraoted by reason of the reputation of great soholar-teachers.

The German universities were looked to as models to be patterned after and copied. During the first three quarters of the nineteenth 41 century tho then small -American colleges* in attempting to adopt oertain elements of German university instruction, transformed them­ selves into universities*

Although the whole field of American higher education was affected and permanently changed, five outstanding institutions have been selected for this study because of their representative character in showing the way American colleges responded to these foreign influences, and the ways in which they went about as many practices as they could*

The five institutions selected are Yale, harvard, Cornell, Michigan, and Johns Hopkins* Each makes a most valliable and unique contribution to the education of the succeeding century. This contribution as it developed in these five selected institutions will be presented in part II.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER III

1* Friedrich Paulsen, The German Universities and University Study, p* 45. New Yorks Charles Scribners Sons, 1906.

2. *bid., p. 14*

3. Friedrich Paulsen, German Education, Past and Present, p, 59* New York* Charles Scribners Sons, 1912*

4* Ibid., p. 45.

5* pbid., p. 57*

6* William Boyd, The History of Western Education, p. 356* The A and C Black Co., 1921*

7* Paul Monroe, editor. A Cyclopedia of Education, Vol. p* New York* Tho MaoMillan Co., 1914.

8* F* V. N. Painter, A History of Education, p* 292. New York: D. Appleton Co., 1890. 42

9, Hastings Rashdall, 'Tho Medieval Universities,11 Chapter XVII in The Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. II, p. 217. Now York* Tho itacMillan Co., 1929.

10. Charles Franklin Thwing, Universities of the World, p. 281. Now Yoik: The MacMillan Co., 1911.

11. Friedrich Paulsen, German Universities and University Study, p. 71.

12* Friedrich Paulsen, op. oit., p. 212*

13. Ibid., p. 212.

14. Paul Monroe, A Brief Course in the History of Education, p. 361. New Yorki The MacMillan Co., 1928.

15. William Boyd, op. c i t p. 356*

16. Friedrich Paulsen, German Universities and University Study, p. 408*

17. Ibid., p* 409.

18. Charles Franklin Thwing, op. oit., p* 135*

19* Friedrich Paulson, German Education, Past and Present, "Philosoph­ ical Faculty," p. 188*

1 PART XI

EXPLORATORY PERIOD IN THE UNITED STATED PROM 1800 TO 1875

i*art II will deal with advanced instruction leading to the doctor

of philosophy degree as it began to b© provided in the United States*

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries many young American men of

means who desired advanced training left the United States and studied

in the universities of Europe. In the early part of the nineteenth

century these students were attracted largely to Germany where the

first modern universities had developed. Germany became the mecca for

young men seeking a complete training in the sciences, and the apex of the American educational system practically lay in Europe.

These students v«ere drawn partly by the high level of the develop­ ment o f technical education. The scientific subjects wero taught as they applied practically to everyday life in the fields of surveying, mining, road building, engineering, agriculture, and various phasescof manufacturing, opening up a whole new class of occupations and activi­ ties of practical usefulness. They saw well-equipped chemical

laboratories, scientific collections in geology, mineralogy, and zoology, sizeable libraries of books and manuscripts, in which students could oarry on scientific investigations under highly trained scientists and scholars.

These American students witnessed a freedom in both learning and teaching which created a very high level of scholarship. They saw the new methods called the laboratory jaothod and the seminar, for the first time. This practioal scientific university education could be pursued

- 43 - 44

systematically and lead to the reward of the doctor of philosophy degree,

conferred by the university. What -they witnessed so far exoeeded any­

thing they had ever known that they returned to the United States

embued with the idea of putting into practice some of these m o d e m

German ideas of university education*

Upon returning to the United States these young men were most fre­ quently appointed to important positions in the strongest of the then

small American colleges. In attempting to develop and expand their own

fields o f work, they made use of some of the "new" procedures they had learned abroad. They suggested the teaching of the sciences of chem­ istry and physics, by the laboratory method, not just by 1 ectures or reading from a textbook as was then being done. They urged the teaohing of the modern languages of French and German in addition to the ancient languages, of ^atin and Greek*

They began recommending that the college provide laboratories and museums as means of study. In connection with their own work they

£ L began making their own private collections in geology, mineralogy, and zoology for research. As it began to be seen what the young Americans trained abroad could do in the technical fields, it be^an to be demanded generally that the American colleges offer some of the bene­ fits of a technical education such as was to be had in Europe. It was protested that the study of the classics, produced no telegraph, created no engines, laid down no railways, turned no wheels*

Those who had been educated in the United States only, and knew only the rigid classical liberal-arts curriculum, and the traditional methods o f teaching which had been adopted from the English and the 45 medieval universities, distrusted the modern German ideas of university training. Furthermore, laboratory equipment, soientifio collections, books, cost money which the college did not have. But slowly and with difficulties and conflicts these ideas were accepted, and there began the transformation of the American college.

This superimposing of the elements of the modern German university on the structure of the American liberal-arts English-patterned college oreated a new institution, the American university. This prooess took place, largely, during the first three quarters of the nineteenth century. By 1875, the American university had come into being.

Yale, Harvard, Cornell, Michigan, Johns Hopkins, have been selected as representative institutions of different types and for their leader­ ship in developing graduate instruction and university education, as distinct from college education in the United States. Constitutionally,

Yale was a combination of private endowment and olose corporation.

Harvard is an example of the close corporation. Cornell is the com­ bination of private endowment, and state aid, under the lend Grant

Act. The University of Michigan is the first important state university in the northwest territory. Ilohns Hopkins is an example of an entirely privately endowed university, established primarily as a graduate institution. Yale will be discussed first because in the providing of instruction leading to the doctor of philosophy degree,

Yale led the way. CHAPTER IV

YALE

1. Status of the sciences at Yale College at the opening of the nineteenth century

Yale College was founded as a Collegiate School at Saybrook,

Connecticut* October 9, 1701. On September 12, 1716, the Trustees voted to remove the School to a more convenient place, and it was settled at Hew ^Wven. September 12, 1718 the School was renamed Yale

College in honor of its benefactor, Yale. Yale College was patterned after the colleges of the English universities of Oxford and

Cambridge*

From the date of the original Charter, in 1701, a course of instruction leading to the degree of Baohelor of Arts has been contin­ uously offered at the College; at first only three years of undergrad­ uate study were required, but before 1710 a four years' course was provided, which has since been maintained*^

At the opening of the nineteenth oentury, ^ale Colls ge was

8till little more than a "collegiate school*" The president, one professor, and three young tutors constituted the teaching staff*

Only two professorships had ever been established, and that of

Divinity had not been filled for two years. President Timothy Dwight in addition to his administrative duties, taught the divinity sub­ jects.

The single professorship was held by Josiah Meigs, Professor of

Mathematics and Natural Philosophy. The teaching group did not even

— 46 — 47 pretend to go by th© name of flaoulty. Tho tutors w©r© rocent unmarried graduates who usually stayed no longer than two or three years and exercised no permanent influence. The student body numbered little over a hundred. The limited faculty had no trouble handling the curriculum, since it was restricted to the traditional classical oourse with emphasis on the ancient languages.

The physical facilities were on a similar scale, consisting of four simple buildings. In 1801, a part-time Professorship of Law was estab-

O lished. From this grew the Law Sohool founded in 1824. In 1802, a

Professorship of languages and Ecclesiastical History was added. From this Professorship came the Sohool of Divinity in 1822.**

At the same meeting of the Corporation at which it was voted to establish the Professorship of Languages, the Corporation also voted to found "a Professorship of Chymistry and Natural History in the

College, as soon as the funds shall be suffioiently productive to support it." At this time, chemistry in this country was scarcely even in the embryonic stage. At Yale the very name was hardly known, certainly as far as the students were concerned, lectures from the ohapel pulpit on Natural Philosophy occasionally mentioned things chemical. This was the Professorship of Chymistry to which in 1802,

Benjamin D. Silliman was appointed. And suoh was the size and strength of Y&le College at the time,

Silliman,upon reoeiving the bachelor of arts degree (Yale 1796)^ returned to the family ihrm, Fairfield, Connecticut, to restore it from the effects of the Revolutionary War. Hj.s father (Yale 1752), a

General in the War was not now living, and yojfcig Silliman atayed to 48 oversee the family affairs. In 1797, the family fortunes being improved, Silliman took charge of a seleot private sohool at Wetherafield,

Connecticut.

In 1798 he returned to New Haven, entered the private law offioe of a member of the state legislature, and began the study of law, the profession which both his father and grandfather had followed. In 1799 he aooepted a tutorship at Yale College, continuing at the same time his study of law. In 1802, he passed the law examination and was admitted to the Connecticut bar. On September 7, 1802, when he was appointed to the first Professorship of Chemistry at Yale College, ho was twenty-three years of age. This position he retained fifty-one years, and became Yale's first and foremost man of science of the first half of the nineteenth century.

Silliman was selected for this new venture, of adding chemistry and natural history to the curriculum, because of the qualities he had shown as a student and tutor. He had not only been a thorough student, but he had been liked by both his fellow students, and fellow faoulty members. And the President desired to retain harmony in his small teaching group. It was the intention of the President that after the appointment, Silliman would be given the opportunity to train himself in ohemistry.

Silliman went to Philadelphia and attended lectures on anatomy, surgery, and ohemistry in the %dical Sohool of Philadelphia which had been founded in 1765. In March 1803, Silliman returned to tutoring at

Yale. In addition to his tutoring he taught himself chemistry. During the winter of 1803-1604 Silliman returned to Philadelphia a second time 49 and studied chemistry and anatomy in the Medioal Sohool*

°n April 4, 1804® Silliman entered on his duties as ^rofessor of

Chemistfcy. His laboratory equipment was meager, and he was yet with­ out laboratory space. The Corporation then designated the basement of

Connecticut Lyceum ^all as a place for Silliman's laboratory. How little was known about the needs of a laboratory is indioated by the faot that, this basement location placed Silliman'a laboratory from fifteen to sixteen feet below the surface of the ground. This almost underground working space had little light from outside. It was so damp, iron rusted rapidly, and all preparations which attracted water became moist.

It m s in this laboratory that for fifteen years, Professor

Silliman lectured to undergraduates, demonstrated experiments at the close of the lecture, and here carried on his own researches. Since no cue else knew much about chemistry# it was considered Professor

Silliman's private laboratory. Chemistry was taught from a textbook with the teacher demonstrating an experiment to the class as observers.

In 1802 when Silliman first went to Philadelphia he took with him all the minerals owned by Yale College. These he carried in a coranon- sized candle box, to learn their names and classification from Dr.

Adam Soybert, who was at the time almost the only person in the United

States who made any pretensions to mlneralogical science. Dr. Seybert had studied mineralogy under Dr. Abraham Gottlob Werner, at the School of Minos, Freiburg, Germany. Silliman hero had his flew specimens named and arranged. This collection became the nucleus of Yale's Cabinet of

Mineralogy and Geology. 50

Chemistry and mineralogy now had a small beginning in Yale College.

Silliman*s next step was to attempt to secure facilities with which to work. *n September 1804, the Corporation voted funds for the purchase of books for the library and fot ’’philosophical and ohemical apparatus," to be bought in Europe. *t would be necessary to purchase it in

Europe since it was not yet manufactured in the United States.

Silliman sought out the President and certain members of the

Corporation and asked that he might be allowed to make the trip to

Europe. He wished to see what was being done in chemistry in Europe, talk to other scientists, and study ohemistry himself. This was 6 granted and in 1806 Silliman sailed for England. Besides buying laboratory equipment in England, Silliman travelled through Europe gathering geology and mineralogy specimens. ^ talked to famous scientists, visited their laboratories and studied ohemistry.

With the new laboratory equipment purchased abroad, and with what

Silliman had learned about laboratories and the general field of chemistry, his work expanded. In 1807 the College bought a cabinet of some two thousand mineralogy speoimens, which had been collected in Europe. In 1810, the Gibbs Cabinet was acquired consisting of some ten thousand mineralogy and geology specimens. From these be­ ginning collections grew the ^eabody Museum (founded 1866). Yale

College earliest provided the best researoh facilities in the field of mineralogy, and maintained leadership in this field throughout the early part of the nineteenth century.

Chemistry and mineralogy were now established with what was, for that time, well equipped laboratory and scientific collections. These 51 facilities were# however, for the use of the professor in instructing the student, and not for the use of students. Occasionally an espec­ ially gifted student was taught as a private pupil by Professor

Silliman in his private laboratory, but that was all*

In 1810 Silliman was asked to serve on a College committee to investigate the feasibility of establishing a medical school at Yale*

The school was established in 1812, and Silliman was appointed

"^rofessor of Chemistry and Pharmacy in the Medioal Institute of Yale 7 College*”

In the early nineteenth century, Silliman fostered the sciences more persistently and effectively at Yale than any other figure*

Still more important, however, was Silliman*s contribution to higher education. Through his efforts in teaching the soienoes and the building up of researoh facilities he laid the foundation of graduate education at Yale, 1847, and largely in the United States* After getting his laboratory sohool established, the next step Silliman took was that of establishing means of publishing the results of scientific investigations, that these findings could be of use to workers in the field*

2. Establishment of first Journal In United States for publishing researoh

In 1816, ^rofessor Silliman established the first soientific publication in the United States*® It was known for a generation as

A Silliman*a Journal* Volumes 1 to 49 srfcill oarry that name as binder's title* In 1840 the name was ohanged and has remained to the 52 present, the American Journal of Soienoe*

Silliman announced in the beginning that the plan was to embrace the circle of the physioal sciences with their application to the arts and to every useful purpose. It was designed as a deposit for original American communications end contained as well occasional selections frcmi foreign journals and notices of the progress of science in other countries.

Ho future historian will fail to commemorate this work of our earliest purely scientific Journal supported by original American communications. It was from the outset international in scope of interest and contributions, the oldest scientific publication in the United States

The American Journal of Science, more than any other periodical published in the United states, has been a record of the outstanding scientific discoveries of the nineteenth century.

The means vfcloh Silliman used fbr collecting material was to write his former students who were now scattered throughout the oountry and ask each about the geologic conditions in his area. Or, he asked questions about the status of certain river beds, or any special pieoe of work in which he knew the student to be interested.

As a result muoh of these early journals, although written in a form which carried confidence as to its aoouraoy, was nevertheless in letter fom, that is, replies to Silliman1 s inquiries.

Learned sooieties were invited to make the Journal the vehiole of their communications to the public. Activities of other scientific societies and of scientists in other countries were recorded. During 55 the early years publishing the magazine proved to be a one-man work.

Silliman's own researches and those of his students, now engaged in their own mark in various parts of the United States, made up the bulk of the contents. Uevertheless the magazine appeared regularly and included two to three hundred pages a volume.

The American Journal of Science has had a continuous publication from 1818 to the present. It was edited and published for over one v 11 hundred years by members of a single family in the *ale faculty.

1818-1864 Benjamin D. Silliman, Sr. Professor of Chemistry and Natural Philosophy

1838-1864 Benjamin Silliman, Sr. , Benjamin D. Silliman, Jr. ^Yale 1837) Professor of Practical Chemistry

1846-1864 Benjamin: D. Silliman, Sr* Benjamin D. Silliman, Jr. James D. Dana ^Yale 1833) Professor of Geology (Silliman's son-in-law)

1865-1885 Benjamin D. Silliman, Jr. James D. Dana (brother-in-law) Bdward S. Dana (son)

1885-1900 Bdward S. Dana (Silliman1s. Sr. Grandson)

Silliman wrote and published textbooks for his work. He wrote

Silliman's Elements of Chemistry, ^e edited henry's Chemistry and

Bakewell's introduction to Geology. By the middle of the nineteenth oentury Silliman was something of a national figure. For thirty years prior to the date of the offering of graduate instruction at

Yale in the sciences, Professor Silliman had been building the founda­ tions . 54

3, Appointment of "University Professors" to offer advanced work:

T 12 An 1841 a step of first importance was taken in the field of

the classical languages. Edward Elbridge Salisbury ^Yale 1832) was

appointed, without salary, as Professor of Arabic and Sanskrit.

Salisbury was a man of wealth and could give his services permanently without payment from the College. This appointment was the first provision at ^ale for instruction of graduates by professors inde­ pendent of the College*

We may regard the establishment of this Professor­ ship and the opening of instruction in his department as the earliest beginning of the more definite organ­ ization of graduate instruction**3

After graduating from Yale, Professor Salisbury had studied long at the , Germany, and at the Garcen de Tassy, Paris*

In establishing this chair of Sanskrit it was intended to broaden the curriculum in the classical languages in order to meet the needs of advanced students, and of the divinity students. In 1854 Professor

Salisbury provided permanent endowment for a chair of Sanskrit and

Comparative Philology and assigned lb to one of his students, William

Dwight Whitney* Whitney was referred to as the "University Professor in the Classics." ^n 1856 Professor Salisbury became a member of teaching group which offered courses in the Department of Philosophy and the Arts, ^ale's graduate department*

Whitney did more than any other man of his time to establish sound views of the origin and growth of language. Whitney was assigned to teach Sanskrit* Professor Salisbury was to oontinue with Arabic*

This constituted the Department of Oriental ^angtiages. Whitney had only 55

an occasional pupil} his time* it was Intended* was to be at his own

disposal for researoh* In this Department which was renamed Sanskrit and

Comparative Philology* Yale preceded in date of establishment and in

renown all other American colleges*

Whitney was honored at home and abroad for his work on the origin

and growth of language* In his writing and publishing of textbooks he made an international contribution to his field* He wrote and pub­

lished*^4 German Reader (1869)* Language and the Study of languages

(1872)* life and Growth of languages (1875^, English Grammar (1879)*

French Grammar (1886)* He was Joint author of Compendious German and

English Dictionary (1877), find Editor of the Century Dictionary*

This ’’University Professorship in the Classics” whioh Professor

Whitney held was set up as a research professorship* Since he taught

only an occasional advanced student in the French and German languages there were no actual new course offerings introduced for the instruction of advanced students*

During the winters from 1840 to 1843 there was in attendance, as a private pupil, in Professor Silliman*s leotures and laboratory* a young man of ”an original genius for natural soienoe*” John Pitkin Norton*

After a short period attending lectures in ohemistry and anatomy at

Harvard College* Norton went* in 1844* to the Agricultural Chemic4

Association of Edinburgh, Sootland* for two years to study chemistry*

Norton could read French and German fluently* and Dutch to some extent*

He kept thoroughly acquainted with all that was being accomplished in the field of chemistry throughout Europe* Probably no Amerioan had ever enjoyed such opportunities for scientific training in agriculture* 56

In 1846 Norton returned to Yale, and Professor Silliman wished to secure his services to Yale as a teacher* An unknown donor (later known to be Norton’s father) gave $5000.00 & year for the permanent endowment of a ’’University professorship" of "Agricultural Chemistry and Animal and Vegetable Physiology." This was established August 1846* • • • for the purpose of giving Instruction to graduates and others not members of 15 the undergraduate classes* 16 TiVlth this the first chair of agricultural chemistry was founded in the United States*

In 1843 Professor Thomas A. Thaoher, of the classical language 17 department was perhaps the first to advocate the establishment of a regular oourse of instruction for graduate students. The course was set up in 1843 and consisted ofs Luoretius, Early Latin, Satires of

Horace, Latin Philology, Epic Poetry, Aeschylus, Pindar, Herodotus,

Sophocles, Greek Arts, Plautuis, Historical Syntax, Catullus,

Thucydides and Greek Orators. This Course was set up in the same manner as the oourses were established later in the Graduate School*

4. Department of Philosophy and the Arts, 1847*

At intermittent periods in 1759, 1814, 1819, and 1820— there had

18 T been resident graduates enrolled in Yale College. ^n 1819, there were thirty resident graduates enrolled. In 1820, there were thirty- one. But the relation between these graduates and the College was unsystematie and intermittent. There had been throughout the years an occasional gifted student who came to study under a renowned teacher*

In August 1846, Benjamin D . Silliman, dr. who had been assistant 57 to his father in his laboratory for nine years* -was appointed

••University Professor" of practical chemistry* Silliman* Jr., in collaboration with the other newly appointed "University Professor" of agricultural chemistry, John P. Norton, opened the first laboratory in the United States, giving regular instruction to others than

IQ members of the undergraduate olasses*

Silliman, Jr. and Norton were referred to as the two "University

Professor*" of the "new education." Their laboratory was called the

Tale Analytical laboratory*

In the Tale College Catalogue of 1847 there appeared this statement.

Professors Silliman and Norton have opened a labor­ atory on the college grounds for the purpose of practical instruction in the application of science to the arts and agrioulture* ®

The new laboratory was housed in an old building, formerly the

President's Nouse*

laboratory instruction was at that date an innovation in the

United States, and aroused adverse criticism in many quarters* Some doubted the educational value of puttering around in what appeared to be little more than a trade sohool or workshop. Professor Silliman,

Sr.*s laboratory had not offered laboratory instruction to graduate students ingroups*

The appointment of these two "University Professors' of the sciences, whose duties were in no way conoerned with the teaching of the undergraduates of the College, raised the question of the propriety of their assignment to the faoulty of the Aoademio College. This led directly to the consideration of the desirability of establishing a new 58 department to whioh they and other professors who might be appointed in the future oould be properly assigned* Aooordingly a committee was appointed to consider the desirability of establishing a new depart­ ment, under which instruction could be given in subjects not otherwise 21 then provided*

The committee reported on August 19, 1847, and the Corporation adopted the recommendation*

There shall be a fourth department of instruction for other than undergraduates who are not in the departments of theology, medicine and law, to be called the Depart­ ment of Philosophy and the Arts. All graduates of this and other oolleges may be allowed to pursue such studies included in this department as they may desire*^

In the College Catalogue of 1847, it was announced,

*t has long been felt at ?ale College to be important to furnish resident graduates and others with the opportunities of devoting themselves to special branches of study either not provided for at present or not pur­ sued as far as individual students may desire.23

Thus the Department of Philosophy and the Arts was created* The first year, there were eight graduate students enrolled in the Department.

Historically the account should begin with Yale College where in 1847 graduate courses in "Philosophy and the Arts," were established and the attempt was made to superadd on the framework of the college the four faculties of law, medicine, theology, and phil­ osophy* The honor of having established the first creditable course of study for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy is due to ^ale#<54

The Department was soon divided into Section First and Seoond

Section*^® In Section First the Soiences were taught. Seoond Seotion was known as Philosophy, Philology and Mathematios* Out of Seotion

First developed the Sohool of Chemistry (l85l) and the Sohool of

Engineering (1852)* In the early years the Schools of Chemistry and 59

Engineering furnished practioally all the life of the Department. In

1854 these two Schools were joined as the Yale Scientific School.

In 1850, John P. Norton presented to the Corporation a letter endorsed ty Professors Salisbury, Silliman, Sr. and Dana suggesting that it might be found advantageous to adopt a practice somewhat 26 analogous to that of the German universities and award a degree, such as a Doctor of Philosophy, to students who had completed a thorough course of study, and passed examinations in three separate branches of scientific study. But ten years passed before Yale was ready to take this step. Those who studied in the Department the first thirteen years, did so without reference to an advanced degree, because none was provided*

In 1860 the Yale Scientific Sohool was renamed the Sheffield 27 Scientific School, in honor of its benefactor, Joseph Sheffield, a wealthy Connecticut farmer. The Sheffield was Seotion First of the

Department of Philosophy and the Arts. Seotion Section was still loxown as Philosophy, Philology and Mathematics. It is noteworthy that as the sciences became established in the curriculum, they did not so muohbeoame a part of the liberal-arts college as they became a separate sohool,

Daniel Coit Gilman, who was graduated from Yale in 1852, and taught on the Sheffield faoulty from 1863 to 1867, and who in 1874 became the first president of Johns Hopkins University, said of the

Sheffield*28

The Sohool is mainly responsible for many important movements in American education. These include originating the group system of studies, the work for 60

the Doctorate of Philosophy degree* the plan of giving a combined scientific and liberal college eduoation without Greek* and oertain new lines of instruction such as agricultural chemistry* and the course in physiological chemistry as a preparation for medicine.

5* First Ph.D. in United States conferred in 1861

Certainly to Yale and Sheffield is entitled the credit of introducing among Amerioan institutions the degree of Dootor of Philosophy, demanding for it a high standard of attainments, and never be­ stowing the honor (not in a single case as far as I can remember) by any irregular promotion**®

The dootor of philosophy degree was first offered in I860, The

College Catalogue carried the following statement*

For graduate students pursuing higher courses in soienoe followed by original investigation in some chosen field of work* the degree of Dootor of Philosophy is provided.30

From 1861 to 1869 sixteen candidates received the doctor of philosophy degree* an average of two a year. From 1870 to 1879* forty- seven reoeived the degree, a little more than nine annually. In 1862 the first doctor's degree in mathematics was conferred; in 1866* ohemistry; in 1867* Zoological and Comparative Anatomy; in 1867,

Geology. In 1861 the bachelor of arts degree at Yaie m s a four* year degree. With the two-year course of study which has required for the doctorate, the doctor of philosophy degree was in 1861* a six- year degree.

The candidate prooeeded directly from the bachelor's degree to the dootor ate without taking the Master of Arts*

The College had for many years conferred the degree of Master of Arts* but not for scholarship and the only requisites for this honor were that a student must have lived 3 years after graduation and have been able dur- 61

ing that time both to maintain a good moral character and to accumulate a su n o f five dollars with which to pay for his sheepskin. In 1874 this method of award was abandoned, and the degree was henceforth given only to scholarly attainments

The Master's degree at Yale was never stressed*

In 1861 the first year the doctorate of philosophy degree was conferred* the two-year course of study could be pursued in the following subjects

The studies are optional and may be seleoted by the student from the branches below*

First Seotion

Sheffield Scientific Sohool Physics* Chemistry, Natural History, Industrial Mechanics, and Engineering

Seoond Seotion

I* Philosophy and History

II* Philology General Philology, Ethnology, and Oriental Languages, ^atin and Greek Languages and Literature, Modern European Languages*

III* Mathematics and Physios Pure and Mixed Mathematics Astronomy

The oourse of study leading to the doctorate remained the same from 1861 to 1869* In 1869 History was added under Sdotion II,

Philology* There were no further changes until 1871 when the offer­ ings were greatly expanded. To give some idea of the size of Yale

College in 1861, there were 521 students in the Academical Department,

22 in the Sohool of Theology, 30 in the Law School, 38 in the Sohool of Medicine, and 38 in the Department of Philosophy and the Arts*^ 62

The Faoulty of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts in 1861 was listed to inolude nineteen members* Many of these names also appeared on the faoulty in other departments. Of the nineteen, one, , had the Ph.D. degree* Two members had the L.L.D. degree, one the M*D., while the remainder had only the M.A* degree, which was probably an unearned degree. The college catalogue for 1860-61 stateds "Professors of the aeademio and scientiflo departments unitedly constitute the Faculty of the Philosophy and the

In 1869 the College Catalogue listed for the first time, under a

section entitled "Graduate Students," the name and home address of eaoh graduate student, in the same manner as it listed the undergrad­ uates. ^n 1870 ths title "Instruction of Graduate Students" appeared, as the heading of the course of study, for the first time*

The same year, the Catalogue began to use the cl as si float ions of 36 graduates, undergraduates, special students*

In 1871 course offerings leading to the doctorate were greatly expanded. Under "instruction for Graduate Students" and in the

Department of Philosophy and the Arts the following appeared

I. Philology Linguistic Soienoe Comparative Philology, the Indo-European languages Sanskrit Greek Language, Greek Authors Matin, Plays of ^lautius and Terence Matin forms, construction and metres Gothio, Anglo-Saxon Romanio Manguages, Frenoh, French Mj-terature, Relation of Matin and Frenoh Hebrew and other Semetic Manguages Chinese and Japanese Manguages 69

II. Mathematics, Astronomy and Physios Caloulus, Status, Dynamics, Lunar and Planetary theories Higher Geometry Mechanics of rigid bodies and of fluids Spherical Astronomy Meridional and other Astronomical instruments including Spectroscope Meteorology, meterologioal observations Capillarity, Wave-motion-Potential function Thermodynamics and Conservation of Energy Heat, Light, and Electricity

III. Natural and Physical Sciences Chemistry, Mathematics, Mineralogy Metallurgy, Botany, Zoology, Geology, Palaeontology, and Agriculture

17. Political Scienoe, History and English Literature Polity, Political Economy and international Law Textbooks used! Ahrin’s, Naturreoht, Ton Mohl's Encyclopedic der Staatswissenschaflen, Fawcett’s, Political Economy, and Mills’, Pplitioal Economy

English and American Constitutional History General History Textbooks * Creaay's English Contributions from Earliest Times to end of kiddle Ages. Hallam1s, Constitutional History of England fran Accession of Henry VII to death of death of George II. May’s Constitutional History of England sinoe Aooesslon of George III." Works of Gneist, Cox, Fisohel, Stubbs, L&ppenberg, Turner, Kemble, Freeman, Palgrave, Thierry, Llngard, Ranke, Froude, Guizot, Laoom.be, Macaulay and Knight are read or consulted.

English Literature, Chaucer Psychology, Logic, History of Philology#

These numerous course offerings in many fields of study, the listing of whioh covered three pages in the college oatalogue, continued the same until 1875. In 1875, the following were added*38 64

Fine Arte Public finance and statistics of industry Sociology Finance in the United States American *ndian Languages, Algonkin family

This exoellent selection of studies constituted Yale's courses

of study leading to the doctorate, at the close of the third quarter

of the nineteenth century* It -will be remembered that at this time

the average number of doctor of philosophy degrees conferred annually

at Yale was little more than five*

6. Requirements for the Doctor of Philosophy degree at Yale 1861 to 1875.

In 1861 the bachelor of arts degree was a four-year degree at

Yale. Those who held the bachelor's degree from Yale, or elsewhere, were admitted as candidates for the doctorate without examination.

They would pursue a course of study at Yax© for two years, pass a

final examination in all studies of the last two years, present a thesis, and pay a graduating fee of ten dollars.

If the candidate did not hold the baohelor of arts degree, he was required to take the bachelor's degree examinations at a cost 39 of twenty-five dollars.''

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy is conferred in this Department on conditions to be hereafter stated. It is required of candidates for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy that they shall faithfully devote at least two years to a course of study selected from branohes pursued in the Department of Philosophy and the Arts. The seleotion may be made from the studies of either or both sections, but must belong to at least two distinct departments of learning. All persons who have not previously received a degree furnishing evidenoe of acquaintance with the Latin and Greek languages will be required before presenting themselves for final examination for the Doctor's 65

degree to pass & satisfactory examination in these languages, or in such other studies (not included in their advanced course) as shall be accepted as an equivalent by the Faculty* The degree of Doctor of Philosophy will be conferred on all members of the Department who having oomplied with the condi­ tions above shall pass a final examination and present a thesis giving evidence of high attainment in the studies thoy have pursued.

These requirements as they were stated in 1861, the first year of the conferring of the degree, remained unchanged until 1865*

In 1865, the residence requirement was instituted*^

For the purpose of encouraging those who have been admitted to a Bachelor s degree to continue a course of higher studies under the direction of the Faoulty, the Corporation will confer the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, upon the following conditions. Persons desiring to be admitted to this degree must remain in New Haven at least two aoademic years, after securing their first degree, during which they must engage faithfully in a course of study selected with the approval of the Faculty from branohes pursued in the Department of Philosophy and the Arts. The selection may be made from the studies of either or both Sections but must belong to at least two distinct departments of learning. At the close of the course the candidate must pass a satisfactory examination and present a -thesis giving evidenoe of high attain­ ment in the studies to vhich he has attended*

in 1870 an Executive Committee was appointed to oversee the individual needs of the student*^

An Executive Committee designated by the Faoulty, has a general oversight of the department. They will receive and record the names of applicants for in­ struction, and judge and approve the course of study proposed; and information may he obtained from the Executive Committee as to conditions, terns, etc* Students may also make special arrangements with any instructor aocording to their mutual convenience*

The requirements for the degree remained the same from 1865 to 1671*

In 1871, the m o d e m language requirement was added, German and French 66 were added to the I«tln requisite, Greek was dropped. The knowledge of these two mo d e m languages and Latin was required for admission to the Department of Philosophy and the Arts*

Except in extra-ordinary oases and by special vote of the Faculty, no one will be admitted to the depart­ ment without a good knowledge of French and German, and not without so much knowledge of ^atin as is acquired by the end of the Freshman year.^2

This same year attention was drawn to the fact that if the under­ graduate period of study had been less than four years, the graduate period must be proportionately longer.

Graduates of institutions (as the Sheffield Scientific) having an undergraduate course of three years -only, can be admitted to this degree only after three years post graduate study.*S

In 1872 it was announced that the degree would not be given upon examination of studies taken elsewhere. From 1872 to 1875, the close of the third quarter of the century, there were no ohanges made in the requirements •

In 1875, the date of the close of Part II of this study, the requirements for the doctor of philosophy degree at ^ale were*

Baohelor's degree

Two year course of study in residence (three years if bachelor s degree was leas than four-year degree)

Knowledge of French, Geman, and Latin for admission to the Department

Final examination on all studies beyond the bachelor's degree

Thesis, "giving evidence of high attainment•*

Graduation fee of ten dollars. 67

It was now a six-year degree* not given on examation of studies pursued elsewhere) the master's degree was not required*

In 1876 graduate instruction at Yale was a well accomplished fact.

Section Second of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts (of whioh the Sheffield was Section First* was referred to as the Graduate

Department and admitted only graduate students. In 1841 there had been provision made in Arabic and Sanskrit which attracted only an occasional student*

In 1843 a regular course in Latin and Greek was provided. In 1846 advanced instruction in practical chemistry and agricultural chemistry was added. In 1847 the Department of Philosophy and the Arts was established* In 1861 the first advanced degree was conferred by the

Department. Although Yale was constituted of the Aoademic College* three professional schools and a graduate department* it was still officially Yale College, *t had not yet been incorporated as a university* this came little more than a decade later* 1887*

We have seen the Collegiate School* founded at Saybrook*

Connecticut* in 1701 beoome Yale College. We have also seen Yale

College grow during the first three quarters of the nineteenth century. In ^art II of this study we shall see Yal© College beoome

Yale University, but first we shall trace the development up to 1875 in other institutions. 63

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER IV

1* Catalogue of Yale University 1889-1900, p. 43, New Haven: The Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor Press, 1899.

2. Law Department of Yale University, No# 5 in the Series, 1824-1899, (Alumni Record), p. 3, New Haven, Conn.: Hoggson and Robinson, Printers for the Law Department of Yale University, 1899#

3. Divinity School of Yale University, Bulletin, Eighth General Catalogue, Centennial Issue, 1822-1922, ^ew Haven, Conn** , 1922. 584 pp.

4# Catalogue of Officers and Graduates of Yale University, Triennial Catalogue, 1701-1898, p. 56# New Haven, Conn.: Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor ^ress, 1898,

5. Ebenezer Baldwin, Annals of Yale College from its foundation, to the Year 1831, p# 224, ^ew Haven, Conn. i B and W tfoyes Publishers, 1838.

6# p# 260,

7# John Farquhar Fulton and Elizabeth H# Thomson, Benjamin Silliman, 1779-1864, pathfinder in American Science, p# New Yorks’ H. Scheeman, 1947,

8. George Uenry Hettleton, p. 180#

9. Ibid., p#

10. £bid., p. 180.

11. Ibid., p. 180.

12. Timothy Dwight, Memories of Yale Life and Men, 1845-1899, p. 417. New ^ork* Mead and Co., 1903,

13. Lewis Sheldon Welch and Walter Camp, Yale, her Campus, Classrooms, and Athletics, p. 327. > LV 6. Page & Co., 1899,

14. Ibid.. p. 327,

15. John Farquhar Fulton and Elizabeth H. Thomson, Benjamin Silliman, 1779-1864, Pathfinder in American Soienoe, p. 210. New *ork* H. Schuman, 1947.

16. Daniel Coit Gilman, University Problems in the United States, p. Ill, New Y^k: The Century Co., 1898, 69

17. lewis Sheldon Welch and Walter Camp. op. oit.. p. 326.

18. Daniel Coit Gilman, op. cit., p. 121.

19. President’s Annual Report, of Yale College, p. 42. Now Havens B. Hamlen, Printer to ^al© College. 1846.

20. Catalogue of the Officers and Students in Yale College, p. 44. NewHaven! B. L. Hamlen, Printer to ^ale College,1851-52.

21. John Farquhar Fulton and Elizabeth H. Thomson, op. oit., p. 49.

22. Ibid., p. 49.

25. Catalogue of the Officers and Students in Yale College, p. 43. 1851-52.

24. Graduate Sohool, of Xale University, Doctors of Philosophy with Titles of Their Dissertations, 1862>-1915, p. New Haven* Yale University Press, 1916.

25• Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, p . New Haven* Printed by Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, 1865.

26. John Farquhar Fulton and Elizabeth U. Thomson, op. oit., p.

27. Sheffield Scientific Sohool of Yale College, Annual Statement, p. 2. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1869.

28. Anson Phelps Stokes, Memorials of Eminent Tale Men, vol. ii, p. New Haven* Yale University Press, 1914.

29. Daniel Coit Gilman, op. oit.. p.

30. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, p. 1860-61.

31. Graduate School, Doctors of Philosophy of Yale University and Titles of their Dissertations, p. vi.

32. George Henry Nettleton, op. cit., p. 45.

33. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, p. 53, 1860-61.

34. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, p. 1865-70. 35. Courses of Graduate Instruction of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts, of ^ale tfnivoralty, 1895-96. p. 1. Mew Haven: Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1896.

36. Sheffield Scientific Sohool of Yale College, Ninth Annual Report, 1873-74, p. 48. ^ow ^aveni Tuttle, Mbrehouse and Taylor, 1 874.

37. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, P* 61, 1870-79.

38. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, P. 50, 1875 -76.

39. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, P- 54, 1860-61.

40. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, P. 56, 1860-65.

41. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, P. 48, 1870-79.

42. Catalogue of Off!cers and Student8 in Yale College, P« 9 1871-72.

43. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College, P* 67, 1870. CHAPTER V

HARVARD

1, Founding of Harvard in 1636

Harvard College was founded as Newtown College by vote of the

General Court of the Colony of Bay, in October, 1636.*

The following year, 1637, the General Court changed the name of the town, in which the new College was lodated, from Newtown to Cambridge.

Thus they took over the name from Cambridge University, the place in the parent oountry where many of the principal men of the colony had re­ ceived their education.

Support had come from all New-England and contributions had come from Old England, toward the establishment of a college of liberal arts for the development of civil and religious leadership in British

America." The inhabitants of "both Englands" considered themselves fellow members of one Qapire, that of the "British Dominions in Europe and America."

The College opened in the Autumn of 1638. In 1638, John Hartrard,

O a graduate of Emnanuel College, Canfcridge University, in 1635, came to the new Colony to establish a business. &e generously endowed the new College, and in March, 1639, its name was changed from Newtown

College, to Harvard College.

In 1642 the first Board of Overseers was established, it was con­ stituted of the President of the College, the Governor of the State, the Deputy-Governor and Assistants of the Colony, the ministers of

- n 7 2

Boston and Cambridge and four adjoining towns. This first Board of

^rerseers included seven graduates of Cambridge University, England, one graduate of Oxford University, and four who were either brothers or fathers of Cambridge University graduates*

During the nineteenth century the composition of the Board of

Overseers was frequently altered, but it had an organic connection with the state government and the until 1865*

By Act of the Legislature the Board of Overseers was then made a board of thirty members all holding Harvard degrees. The duties of the

Board are largely confined to ratifying the acts of the Corporation after discussing them with the President*

The Latin phrase, "pro modo Academiarium in Anglia," which means,

"aocording to the manner of universities in England," was used in the statement of the first Harvard bachelor of arts degree. In the teach­ ing in the College, Latin was required to be used. English, the mother tongue, was prohibited. The bachelor of arts degree was 4 offered from the beginning as a four«*year degree*

The first president, the Reverend , who served from

1640 to 1654, was a graduate of the University of Cambridge, who had e reoently oome from England* Until the early part of the nineteenth century, Harvard was consistently referred to as the "University at

Cambridge."®

The Charter of the College was confirmed in 1780 in the Constitu­ tion of Massachusetts. The Charter was under the Seotion entitled,

"The University." *n the text of the Charter, Harvard College is referred to as "which University." *t is from this Charter of 1780 that 73

7 Harvard dates its right to be oalled a University*

The seoond president of Harvard college, the Reverend Charles

Chaunoey, (1654-1672), had al3o recently, at the time of hi3 appoint­

ment, come from England. He was a graduate of Trinity College, g Cambridge University* Until 1672, the close of President Chauncey's

term of office. Harvard was under the direction of scholars from the

English universities. From 1672 to the present, Harvard has been 9 under the administration of her own alumni*

All the presidents of Harvard from 1672 to 1909, were graduates

of Harvard who studied abroad* From 1909 to the present, advanced

study was not taken abroad. In the seventeenth and eighteenth

oenturiea study abroad was done by these future presidents, in the

English universities. In the nineteenth century, the Harvard graduates

who became its presidents had done their study abroad both in

England and in Germany*

The English ancestry of Harvard College is pointed out, beoause

Harvard continued to show this English patterned classical form

throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. It was, to some

extent, this inheritance which delayed the adoption of scientific methods which would have more early transformed Harvard from a

college into a university*

2. Resident Graduates, 1642

Since 1642 some graduates of Harvard had remained in residence

after taking the bachelor's degree, although no special instruction was provided. These "resident graduates” were required to attend 74

chapel, as well as the public lectures of the teachers* a not arduous

task since teachers "were few and lectures infrequent*

This practice for resident graduates continued for almost two

centuries* until the German university influence was felt at Harvard

in the early part of the nineteenth century. Through the latter part

of the eighteenth century there was a continuous flow of American

young men to the European universities. By the early part of the nineteenth century* the ideas they had gained of advanced scholarship

in Germany began making themselves felt at Harvard.

In 1816^® the Corporation authorized the President to offer to

George Tioknor a Professorship at Harvard. The Corporation is the

principal governing board at Harvard, corresponding to the trustees 11 _ or regents of most American universities* its official title is*

The President and Fellows of Harvard College. It consists of the

President* the Treasurer* and five other Fellows*

All the property of every department of the University stands

in the name of the Corporation. All departments are subject to Its

authority, all changes in policy or in the statutes require its

consent* all appointments of teachers and important administrative

officers are made by it. The authority of the Corporation over the

University is limited only by the required consent of the Board of

Overseers to most of its acts*

Ticknor (who the Corporation had appointed in 1816) had taken the

M.A. degree at Dartmouth* and had proceeded to the University of

Gottingen, Germany. It was while he was at Gottingen that he received

news of his appointment to the newly created Professorship of French 75 and Spanish Languages and Belles l»ettres. Ticknor accepted on condition that his salary start at the time of acceptance, and that the first year's salary be devoted to the purchase of books suitable to his department, for the College library. This was agreed to, and Ticknor accepted the professorship.

Ticknor also was granted the privilege of staying on three more years in Europe, preparing himself for the new work. From Germany he prooeeded to Paris, Venice, Rome, and into Spain, studying the organization of the European universities, as well as the languages.

LJ Ticknor upon taking up his work at arvard, in 1824, immediately 12 began making proposals of reform in the organization of the College.

Under Ticknor's influence the Board of Overseers appointed a committee to study the matter. A few months later the Committee made its report recommending radical changes.

Among the most important of these recommendations, was that for establishing the Faoulty of the University. That is, that the professors of the three Professional schools, I«w, Medicine, and

Theology, together with the Professors of the College, comprise a unified governing group. The Sohool of Law had been founded in 1817,^® the school of Medicine in 1814,^ and that of Theology in 1817.^®

The professional schools were considered graduate schools of the

University.

In 1802 the ’’Medical Institution of Harvard University," as the medical school was called, established its own medical library and anatomical museum. In 1820 the Professorship of Mineralogy and

Geology and Chemistry was introduced, so that these sciences were first 76

taught at harvard in the medical school. In 1840 the Medical faculty

consisted of seven professors and the president*

In 1829 the Law faculty consisted of two professors and the

president. The first teacher on being appointed was called the

"University Professor of Law." In 1832^® the Law Sohool had its own

building which was its home fbr the next fifty years. The head of

the Law Faculty had wished to make the Sohool a purely graduate and

professional sohool of law, but the penalty of two years residence

for students lacking the bachelor's degree seemed too drastic, and it

was not done*

In 1826 the theological school was given its own building.

Divinity Hall* From earliest times graduates who intended to become

ministers "read" Divinity in the College with the President and one

Professor. Theology, like Medicine and Law, were in the apprentice

stage. In 1840, the Theological Sohool had three professors and the

President. So during the time Ticknor was attempting to introduce

at Harvard some real university practices, the professional schools were in a small yet solid way, already established.

A second recommendation was included in the Ticknor proposals

that the Faculty be divided into departments, each with its profes­

sors, and sometimes an assistant. This would lessen the tendency for

one professor to teach a wide variety of subjects. It would allow a

soholar-teaoher to devote himself to one field, and thus develop a higher level of teaching scholarship*

These two recommendations were accepted. In 1825*? the Corporation and Board of Overseers passed a new Code of Laws dividing Harvard Col- 77 lege into Departments, and establishing the Faoulty of the University.

A third recommendation of this Committee was that students be olassified in sections according to proficiency in their subject, instead of alphabetically. Had this been done in the way Ticknor recommended, the division into classes would have been abolished and the whole course in a given subject thrown open as in some European universi ti es •

This proposal, however, was not accepted. But finally the College

Faculty voted its assent to try this experiment in Professor Ticknor*8

Department, the newly created Department of Modern Languages, only.

Less far reaching recommendations were* admitting special students to instruction, permitting alumni of other colleges to become

"resident graduates," and more frequent and more rigorous examinations.

The traditions and influences of foreign scholarship which Professor

Tioknor promoted met with much opposition from the majority of the

Faculty who had no acquaintance with foreign scholarship.

If the Faoulty had been prepared for such radical changes as proposed by Ticknor and the Committee, Harvard College would have thereby gained enough to place Harvard almost a generation ahead of other American oolleges, and made her in some measure comparable with the smaller European universities.

Ticknor, fortunately, realized that the Faoulty was not ready and so was consistently willing to take less than he had hoped for. As the older professors dropped out of the Faculty, their places were taksn by younger men who had studied abroad, and the more liberalizing influenoe took root. 78

Professor Ticknor's appointment had introduced the study of the modern languages of French and German at Harvard. For almost two centuries Harvard had had the form of the graded sohool of the four classes— Freshman, Sophomore, Junior, Senior— -with a rigidly pre­ scribed oourse of study.

Since French and German could not be prescribed for all students, there began the provision of optional and elective studies. This was taken over from the practiee of the German universities, and was the beginning of the elective system in the United States.

When Professor Ticknor obtained the first provision in 1825^® for alumni of other colleges to become "resident graduates," he also obtained permission for them to audit courses, and to use the library and scientific collections, in return for a small fee. Ticknor intended this to be an entering wedge for graduate instruction, but no such instruction was provided. With so little to attract them the annual enrollment of resident graduates did not rise very high; it was usually under ten.

After a little more than a decade of persistent effort to get advanced instruction definitely established, and of trying to insti­ tute something of the freedom of learning and teaching indicative of a university, Tioknor resigned. Ticknor had been constantly and vigorously opposed in his effort, by other membors of the Faculty.

Ticknor resigned from the Harvard Faculty feeling he had been defeated in his purpose. But his effbrts had taken root, in the introduction of the elective system, the organizing of the College Imto depart­ ments, and the establishment of the Faculty of the University. These 79 remained as permanent parts of the organization which slowly trans­ formed harvard from a college into a university.

Upon Professor Ticknor*s resignation in 1836, Henry Wadsworth

Longfellow became his successor. Professor Longfellow remained in this post of Professor of French, Spanish, and Belles i'ettres, and

Head of the Department of Modern Languages, until 1854. Longfellow was a poet, rather than an educator. And the students in the

Department returned to prescribed courses and the innovations lapsed.

The elective system instituted in the Department of M o d e m languages only, disappeared about 1849. In addition to Professor

Longfellow, Head of the Department, having little interest in it, the presidents of the College, during this period were clergymen, who had been educated in the English universities, and they believed in the prescribed studies and the graded course of study.

In 1860 resident graduates were listed in the College Catalogue following the listing of the members of the four undergraduate olaases, and in the same general manner. Name, degree held, home 19 address, Cambridge address, was the fbrm. There were seven resident graduates recorded, of whom six held the LLB degree, and one had no degree. Under the section in the Catalogue listing prizes to be awarded at Commencement, a prize for writings by the resident gradu­ ates was named. 80

Prizes Dissertations for Frizes For Resident Graduate«20

Recent charges against the character of William Penn The Limits of Religious Thought Importance of the Study of Roman Law in the U.S.

Under the section in the college catalogue concerning requirements and college facilities available, there is also a statement on resi­ dent graduates.

Graduates of the University, or of other collegi­ ate institutions desirous of pursuing their studies at Cambridge without joining any of the Professional Schools, are permitted to do so, in the oapacity of Resident Graduates. They are allowed to enjoy the use of the Library and scientific collections, on the payment of five dollars a year, one-half in advance, at the beginning of each term,21

President Hill, upon taking office*, 1860, immediately re-instated the elective system, and expanded it through the various departments of the College. By the end of that year, the course of study of the

Junior and Senior years was about one-third elective. By 1867, almost half of the work of the Sophomore, Junior and Senior years was elective.

Because all elective courses in Harvard College were open to resident graduates, and this was the curriculum for graduate students, the "Eleotive Studies1* of Harvard College was listed here to show the rather broad extent of offerings. 0 9 To graduates at this time (i860)

Junior Class - First Tern Elective Studies

1 . Mathematics. Peirce's Algebra Chapter VIII Pierce's Curves and Functions, Vol. I

2. Chemistry. Galloway's Analytical Chemistry, with instruction in the laboratory.

3. French. Robertson's Gransnar. Amoult's Pronounciana French Reader. Moliere

4. German. Donae's Grammar and Exercises. Fallen's German Reader

5. Spanish. Jose's Grammar and Exercises. Sale's, La Colmena Espanola - Iriarte Fabulas Idterarias.

Junior Class - Second Tens Elective Studies

1. %thematics. Pierce's Curves and Functions, Vol. I concluded. Vol. II commenced.

2. Chemistry and Mineralogy. Dana's ^Vnual of Mineralogy - Crystallography.

3. French. The same books as in first term.

4. German. Donae's Grammar and Exercises• Gallon's German Reader.

5. Spanish. Don Quiqote, Sale's Edition - Cancio-Bello*s Historic de la Revolution de los Estados Unidoa

6 . Botany Leotures Senior Class - First Term Eleotive Studies

1 . Mathematics, Pierce's Curves and Functions, Vol. II concluded.

2. Greek. Plato's Gopgias - Greek Composition

3. Latin Juvenal (continued). The Miles Gloriosus of Flautius - Latin Exercises and fixtemporalia.

4. German Donai Grammar - Goethe’s Clavigo - Lessing’s Bnelia Galotti - written translations into German.

5. Spanish. Gil Bias. Sale's Grammar

6 . Italian. Nieoolo del Lapi. Fontana's Grammar.

7. Modern Literature. Lectures.

8 . Geology. Lectures

9. Anatomy. Lectures

Senior Class - Second Term Elective Studies

1. Mathematics. Pieroe's Analytical Mechanics

2. Greek. Demosthenes on the Crown Greek Composition

3. L*atin Catallus. Latin Compositions

4. German. The same books as in First Term.

5. Spanish. Calderon's. El Principe Constants, Calderon's. El Magico Prodigieso

6. Italian. .Monti Grammar and Reader.

7. Zoology. Lectures.

8. Modern Literature. Leotures. 83

23 , in 1669, on beooming president, began immediately to enlarge the eleotive system. Eliot was completely committed to the system of optional studies, He advocated abolishing prescribed studies, and the enrichment of the elective program. Bit by bit the required studies or courses became optional and elective studies greatly increased in number and scope#

In 1870-71 there were six resident graduates^ listed in the

College Catalogue by name, the degree held, home address, and

Cambridge address. Two of the resident graduates held the &.B. degree; one the Ph.D., one the S.B., and one had no degree. These resident graduates had the privilege of taking such courses as they desired. They were not required to pursue a systematic course of study under the guidance of the Faoulty.

In 1872 it was provided that students who by examination anticipated any of the required courses, could take eleotive courses in their places. In 1874 President Eliot announced that all, except a few, required studies were now in the first year.

President Eliot during his European study had also seen the eleotive system in operation. He said he saw clearly that a pre­ scribed system had a very deadening effect on scholarship and intellectual ambition in the teacher as well as the student. It was

?resident Eliot's commitment to the elective system that delayed the providing of advanced graduate studies at Harvard. 84

3, Lawrence Scientific School# 1847

About 1845 a few men conneoted with the governing boards of

Harvard began to study means of creating a body of systematic instruc­ tion in the physical and exact sciences and their application in mining# manufacturing# and agriculture* In support of this project,

Abbott ^awrenoe# a cotton mill owner# oame forward wiuh generous gifts*

Lawrence had learned that the mills needed great engineering works to establish their water power securely* He had come to see that men skilled in engineering and chemistry were necessary to the successful prosecution of American manufacturing in many lines.

For these reasons# Lawrence in 1847 endowed a scientific school at harvard, built its first building# set up an excellent chemical laboratory# and endowed a professorship in engineering. This was one more important step toward the development of Harvard into a m o d e m university*

The first announcement of the School in the annual Catalogue,

1847,25 stated*

Ln the course of the past winter, arrangements were made by the government of the University for the organ­ ization of an advanced Sohool of Soience and Literature* It is intended that instruction should be given in this Sohool to graduates and others# in the various branches of exact and physioal sciences# and in classical learn­ ing* 26 In 1846# Dr* Louis Agassiz was introduced to the general public of the United States. Through the influence of Agassig's friend# the German scientist# Alexander von Humboldt, the King of Prussia commissioned Agassiz# the already renowned Swiss soientist# to make a journey of scientific exploration to America. The opportunity to 85

deliver a course of lectures at the , Boston, arranged

by another ftfiend, Sir Charles Lyell, the English scientist, was an

added inducement*

The fee for the lectures at the Lowell Institute combined with

the fifteen thousand franc grant from the King of Prussia made the

expedition possible* Scientific expeditions from Europe to the new

world of America were usual* Alexander von Humboldt, himself had

made one from Prussia to America in 1817*

Agassiz was, at the time, Professor of Natural History at the

Lyceum of Neuchatel, . He was thirty-nine years of age

and for a decade had been renowned throughout Europe for his researches

and writings* He held the "Dr. Phil" degree from the University of

Erlangen, Germany (1829), M, D. University of Munich (1830), L.L.D.

University of Edinburg (1834), L.L.D. University of Dublin (1835)*^^

Agassiz brought with him from Europe a great love of research

and scientific adventure, and a love of teaching. He could lecture

effectively to a large audience, but his strong preference was for

laboratory teaching* Because as a student he had not had the means

to buy a great number of books, he had acquired the habit of studying

from natural phenomena* He had already made new and upsetting dis­

coveries on the glacial phenomena, the natural history and the geology

of the Swiss Alps*

In zoology he had started his researches by using fossil fishes,

these being easily available without expense. Here again he had pub­

lished scientific studies on the origins and relations in animal life which had cost him the favor of some of the older European scientists. 86

because his findings upset accepted theories. A professorship of

biology and geology was created for him in the new Lawrence

Scientific School. Agassiz accepted it and deoided to stay in the

United States*

In the first few years of the School there were four regular

departmentss chemistry, zoology, geology and engineering. Instruction

was also offered, ’’should a sufficient number of students require it,”

in botany, physics, anatomy, physiology, astronomy, and mathematics*

New expenditures also began on collections in natural history due to

the receipt of new funds for that purpose from Mr. lawrence*

The first scientific collection of any size for use in research was that of Agassiz's private collection. This zoological collection had been made from all parts of the world, through Agassiz's explora­

tions, through other scientists in other parts of the world, and through Agassiz's students who had now engaged in their own scientific work. This collection considered by Harvard associates to be probably one of the best in the world, remained unseen and almost useless in a shed at the outer edge of the campus*

Agassiz, who was devoting his life to the advancement of the natural sciences in this country, had no adequate means of preserving his collection, and of arranging it with the proper laboratory facilities for using it* Were this collection made available for scientific study. Dr* Agassiz believed it would attract to Cambridge students even from Europe*

Dr. Agassiz now offered this valuable collection to the Harvard

Corporation. At onoe $50,000 was given by a friend of science and the 87

University toward the proper housing of this collection. Boston and vicinity pledged $70*000* and the state of Massachusetts set aside

$100,000 from proceeds from the sale of land. A Museum of Comparative

Zoology was to be built* and Dr. Agassiz was instructed to overwee the 28 planning and the building. In 1859 the Museum of Comparative

Zoology was completed. Dr. Agassiz was made Its Director and remained in this position until 1873.

To the dedication of the new Museum were invited famous European scientists who were friends and colleagues of Agassiz. Several attended. Scientists from Yale and other institutions were also invited. Harvard held a two-weeks soientifio conference. The

Europeans were thoroughly amazed and gratified at what they saw being accomplished in the sciences in the United States*

In 1859 the Museum was incorporated*

By an act of the 6th of April last* the Governor* the Lieutenant Governor* the President of the Senate* the Speaker of the House of Representatives* and the Secretary of the Board of Education* and the chief Justice of the highest judicial court* ex officio, and Louis Agassiz and William Gray* together with Jacob Bigelow* * George Ticknor* Nathaniel Thayer* Samuel G. Ward, James Lawrence, and their successors were made body politic and corporate* by name of the "Trustees of the Museum of Comparative Zoology,” with all the powers and privileges set forth in this 44th Chapter of the Revised Statutes* as far as the same are applicable to the purposes fbr which said Corporation was established*^®

The instructional uses to whioh the Museum would be put was under the direction of a faoulty group*

By the terms of the donations the Museum is to be under the oharge of a Faoulty group responsible to the Corporation and Overseers of Harvard College. This 88

faoulty group consists of* The President of the College* Louis Agassiz*

The large and -valuable collection gathered by Professor Agassiz* or under his direction* was mo w transferred to the Trustees of the new

Museum. Eight thousand dollars was then appropriated by the Trustees*

for additional purchases. Agassiz was authorized to spend five thousand of this sums in case he deemed it expedient, for purchases in Europe. Agassiz was* of oourse* deeply interested in the success

of the whole undertaking* and the achievement of this excellent set up Museum of Comparative Zoology was due to his energy and scientific ability. The new Museum housed the departments of Biology, Mineral­ ogy* Geology, and Zoology* with their scientific collections and laboratories.

Up to this time almost all instruction at Harvard was oarried on by recitation. The use of the library was not necessary to the prosecution of the studies. Recitations were from prescribed text­ books and every student owned his own texts* and was not supposed to go outside of them. Laboratory work had had a bare beginning under a few outstanding soholar-teaohers*

Now with the L&wrenoe Scientific School and the Museum of

Comparative Zoology* scientific investigation* research* and publication began with vigor.

4. University Lectures from 1860 to 1871

In 1860®^- another step was taken which was Intended as a means of providing advanced instruction in the non-scientific subjects. This 89 was by establishing a series of University Lectures, which were to be more advanced than the subject matter of the College curriculum, and to supplement it* President Cornelius Conway Felton -who inaugurated the ays torn of University Lectures , had some understanding of the nature of a university, and during his short two-year tenure, strove to expand the university attitude*

He advocated the investigating spirit throughout all the subjects of the curriculum. In his inaugural address, July 1860, President

Felton said I

I have said that the object of a university was partly to educate the young, the picked and chosen of the country. But it is also in part the duty of professorsto add to the literature and science of their respective departments. The university that fails to do this, fails in an essential portion of its proper business.®^

The system of University lectures was to be tried by successive presi­ dents of Harvard until 1871*

President , in 1862, upon succeeding Felton strengthened the University lectures. The Corporation ordered that the President and professors in all departments be authorized to meet in a body for the consideration of educational interests, and for the arrangement of such courses of Lectures as might be thought expedient for the benefit of the mssabers of the professional schools, graduates of

Harvard, and other colleges. The desire of the Corporation was to attract students seeking advanced work to Harvard*

In 1863®® a permanent body was formed to supervise the

University lecture system. This body was comprised of the President and professors and was named the Academic Council* The number of 90

University Lectures to be offered m s to be Increased, and better known lecturers were to be employed. This more expansive enterprise,

President Hill hoped would open the way to a kind of advanoed scholar­ ship similar to that found in the German universities.

Consequently, in the Spring of 1863, eight ^eetures were offered.

They were in Natural History, Science, Pure and Applied Art, Medieval

Learning, and Music. the Fall, seven lectures were offered in

Literature, Music, and Science. In 1867, eight lectures were again given, six in Medicine, one in chemistry, and one in Mathematics*

These lectures were open to graduates of colleges, but not to under­ graduates. Attendance was small*

in 1868 the Corporation chose as the new ^resident, Charles

William Eliot. Those devoted to the olassical-liter&ry heritance of

Harvard, distrusted this devotee of chemistry and the soiences, and twice vetoed his election. But the Corporation stood firm and in

1869 the Overseers accepted this ohoice, and Charles William Eliot, who was to prove to be a genius in administration, became president; the Harvard University that the earlier twentieth century knew was largely the work of this great educator.

Young Eliot, who beoame President of Harvard at thirty-five years of age, had reoeived the bachelor's degree from Harvard in 1853, was

Tutor in the College 1854-58, Assistant Professor of Mathematics 1858-61,

Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Head of the Chemistry laboratory in the Lawrence Scientific Sohool 1861-63*®^ In 1863 when his assignment at ^arvard did not oontinue, Eliot sailed to Europe with his wife and two small sons* He spent two years in London, Paris, Germany, traveling 91 moderately# and observing university administration and practices, in tbs different parts of Europe*

He studied the prevailing methods of teaching chemistry and physics, and the organization of the European technical schools. He made the acquaintance of some of the principal libraries and museums on the continent, and in England. Eliot did not distinguish himself as a student, or as a teacher. His genius lay in administration.

While traveling in Europe, since there seemed nothing open for him at

Harvard, he was invited to become Professor of Chemistry at the

^Massachusetts Institute of Technology. This he acoepted and returned to his duties. *t was while teaching there that he was informed that he had been elected president of Harvard.

Zn his inaugural address the young president did not conciliate those devotees of the classical education who had opposed his election.

He said*

The endless controversies whether language, philos­ ophy, mathematics, science, supply the best mental training, whether general education should be chiefly literary or chiefly scientific, have no practical lesson for us today. The University recognizes no real antagonism between literature and science, and consents to no such narrow alternates, as mathematics or olasaics, scienoe or metaphysics. We would have them all and at their best.®°

President Eliot began at onoe to seek large endowments, in order to modernize and expand the instructional facilities. ?he endowments were forthcoming, and he established new professorships of a high enough level to attract great scholars. Against great opposition from the Sohools themselves, he reov^nized the Medical and haw Sohoola, and set up modern methods of instruction. President Eliot set up a 92

faculty of scholars inferior to none in the English speaking world*

^resident Eliot strongly believed in the system of University

Lectures as a means of attracting serious students* He therefore

attempted to put more life into the Lectures* by reducing their number,

and elevating their standard*

Eliot thoroughly believed that the University Lectures could be

made to supplement the curriculum, and that combined with the elective

system of the curriculum, would make excellent offerings for advanced

students* H© felt that the names of the lecturers all renowned in

their fields, would attract such students. i3Jo oombine the lectures more

closely with the elective system of the curriculum, Eliot renamed them 36 "University Courses of Instruction."

The College Catalogue of 1869 announced thb "University Courses of

Instruction1"

The following systematic courses of instruction are given this year to graduates, teachers, and other com­ petent persons. There is no examination for admission. Residence at Cambridge is not essential. At the end of the year an examination for honors will be held in each of the two subjects; but attendance at these exam­ inations will be voluntary. The precise nature of the honorable mention is not yet determined. Similar instruction will be given next year, but in greater variety,

Two complete courses were set up, the Modern Literature Course and the

Philosophy Course*

Fpr each Course, a group of lecturers, probably such as were never before assembled in one endeavor in higher education in the

United States, cooperated. Yet few students registered. Six students signed for the Modern Literature Course, four registered for the Course 93 of Philosophy. Pour students* all graduates of Harvard* presented themselves for the examinations at the end of the course. No diplanas nor degrees were provided*

The ^ d e m literature Course was as follows*®®

Early Italian and Spanish Lit. - dames Russell Lowell* Prof* French, Spanish, Belles Litres Harvard

English Poetry, 13th & 14th C. - Frances dames Childs, Prof* Rhetoric, Oratory, Harvard

Newiltalian Literature - William Dean Howells of Cambridge

Moliere & French Comedy, 17 C - Ferdinand Booher, Professor, Anglo-Norman & Early French Languages* Mass. Institute of Technology

History, Relations of the - William Dwight Whitney, Prof* German Languages Philology, Tale

The fee for the M o d e m literature Course was $150, the same as the tuition in the College. All professors of the College were permitted to attend free of charge*

For the Philosophy Course an equally notable group of lecturers were assembled.3®

Philosophies of the 17 C* - Frances Bowen, Professor# Logic, Metaphysics, Harvard

Theism, Pantheism, Atheism - Levi Hedge, Professor, Natural Religion, Harvard

Stoicism -

The British Logicians - Benjamin Peirce, Professor Mathematics, Harvard

Positive Philosophy - dohn Fiske, Professor, History, Harvard

The Natural History of the Intelle ot - Ralph Waldo Shierson of Concord 94

The flee fbr the Philosophy Coarse "was also $150• Seniors in the

Divinity School were admitted free of charge, as well as the professors in the College,

The following year, 1870, the Courses of University instruction or the University lectures, was greatly expanded.

Under the heading University Lsotures, (1870-71), the following 40 explanation was carried in the College Catalogue,

The University Lectures are intended for graduates of colleges, teachers, and other competent adults. There are no examinations for admission. Residence in Cambridge is not essential. They are open free of charge to all pro­ fessors in colleges or professional schools and to all officers of instruction and government in this University, The first eleven courses are now (Deo. 15) in progress. They are attended by 155 persons. Advanced students whose wants are not met by any of the courses announced can obtain direction in their studies from the Professors and Lecturers of the University during the entire aoademio year.

The ’’University Lecturers" for the year 1870-71 were:^

Ralph Waldo Emerson, LLD of Concord

Austin Phelps, DD Professor in the Theological Seminary, at Andover, on the Study o f Literary ^odels and on English Style,

Samuel Eliot, LLD of Boston, on the History of the XlXth Century

Ezra Abbot, Ll d , on the Sources, Principles, and History of the Textual Criticism of the Hew Testament

James Elliot Cabot, LLB of Brookline, on Kant

James Hadley, LLD Professor in Yale College, on Roman Law

Charles Callahan Perkins, AM of Boston, on the History of Ancient Art

John Bulkley Perry, AM of Cambridge, on Geology

Chauncey Wright, AB of Cambridge, on Psychology Ferdinand Bocher, Professor in Massachusetts Institute of Technology, on the Anglo-Norman-Early French and Provencal Languages

Benjamin Joy Jeffries, MD of Boston, on Optical Phenomena and the Eye

Charles Sanders Pierce, SB on Logic

John Fiske, LLb of Cambridge, on the Positive Philosophy

William Dean Horwe 11, AM of Cambridge, on New Italian Literature

The eleven courses now in progress or under the University 42 Lectures, were as follows:

1 . Heading with Comments from the Early Literature of the Romance Languages. By James R. Lowell, thirty- five lessons. Fee $10

2 . Anglo-Norman, Early French and Provincial Languages and Literatures. By Ferdinand Bocher, thirty-five lessons. Fee $10

3. Vergil and his place in Literature. By William Everett. Eighteen lectures. Fee $5

4. The Early Christians as viewed by Pagan Authors* 3y E. A. Sophocles. Eighteen lectures. Fee $5

5. French and German Philosophy from Deoartes to Megel* Thirty-five lectures. Fee $10

6 . Expositions of the Principles of Psychology from the Text of Bain* By Chaunoey Wright. Thirty-five lectures* Fee $10

7* Palaeontology with Practical Exercises in the Study of Reoent Fossil Animals* By N. S. Shaler. Fifty-two lessons. Fee $15

8. Practical Exercises in Geology and Excursions. By N. S. Shaler. Fee $5

9. The Geology of ^Massachusetts. By J. B. Perry* Thirty-five lectures. Fee $10

10* The History of Musio (with Vocal Illustrations of Mediaeval and Modern Masters)* By J. K. Paine* Eighteen lectures. Fee $5 96

11* Physical Geography and Structural Dynamics Geology. Thirty-five Leotures. Fee $10

Although thirty-five such courses were given during the academio year of 1870-71, still few attended regularly. So the experiment of offering graduate instruction by means of University Lectures or

"University Courses of Instruction" was not repeated.

Bliot admitted that the plan had failed hopelessly, and in an unexpectedly short time, Pt had not induced the bachelor of arts, of

Harvard, to remain in Cambridge for the purposes of systematic study.

Nor had it attracted advanced students from other institutions. Such wtudents, Bliot said, wanted "profound, continuous, and systematic teaching.1' And the lectures taken as a body of teaching had been dis­ connected, lacked consecutiveness, and unity of plan and method. The lecture system had failed and another had to be found. After 1871,

University lectures listings disappeared from the college catalogue.

From this meager showing it appeared that the lectures were regarded, for the most part, as intellectual recreation. A lecturer,

President Eliot, insisted would scale his lecture to the level of his audienoe. He would inevitably be affected by the quality of his listeners. He would treat an audience of real students very differ­ ently from a lyceum audience. Host of the audience was without the proper preliminary training. Eliot soon perceived that the University

Courses of Instruction, which really resembled very closely what later became known in the United States as university extension work* w&s not the means by which graduate instruction oould be provided. 97

For more than two years* discussions were carried on by the

Corporation, the Overseers, and the Faculty. As a result The Master*s and Doctors* Degrees were officially and permanently established in

1872, and the area of advanced study assumed a more formal organization.

The term graduate department was not used, however*

5 , The Master*s and Doctor’s Degrees, 1872.

Until 1872 when the doctor of philosophy degree was established, there was no earned advanced degree offered by Harvard. The Master of Art3 degree which Harvard had offered since 1642 was not an earned degree, but was conferred **in course." That is, in the course of three years after receiving the bachelor of arts degree from Harvard, the candidate, i f he had preserved a good moral character, could present in writing a request, pay a fee of five dollars, and receive the

Master of Apts degree*

This practice of conferring the Master of Arts degree, "in course," which prevailed at Harvard for more than two centuries, had been adopted from the medieval and English universities. In 1870 the

College Catalogue announced that after 1 872, this degree would no longer be given "in course." In 1872^® the Master degree was conferred

"in oourse" for the last time*

In 1872 the Master’s degree was modernized and the medieval practice dropped. The annual Catalogue announced that henoeforbh it would be granted to graduates of Harvard, or of other accepted col­ leges, after at least one year spent in a course of liberal study at

Harvard, approved by the Academic Council, and followed by suitable examinations in the courses pursued. No thesis was required. Thus late 98

in the nineteenth century the Master's degree at Harvard firrst became

an earned degree*

When the proposal to establish graduate work was first brought

before the College Faculty, there was much opposition* It was said that the University had insufficient funds to teach undergraduates

properly, and that graduate work would weaken the College* To this

President Bliot replied that it would strengthen the College* He main­ tained that so long as the main duty of the faculty was to teach boys, professors need never pursue their subject beyond a certain point*

Y&th graduate students to teach professors would regard their subjects in broader s ense and keep up that constant investigation which is neces­ sary for best teaching*

In January, 1872 the doctor of philosophy degree was established by action of the governing board. The Academic Council which had super­ vised the University ^ctures and the University Courses of Instruction now directed the doctorate* There was, however, no establishment of definite graduate courses. Graduate students simply took the elective studies which they had not been able to take as undergraduates* With the help of the Academic Council, the candidate set up a two-year course of study from the elective courses of the College. There was no distinction pointed out by the University as to undergraduate and grad­ uate courses*

It was president Eliot's conviction that the course of study was already so enriched that students could find ample courses for further study* agreed with the wisdom of this arrangement* Eliot felt that under the eleotive system there was no natural line of demarcation 99 between graduate and undergraduate instructions hence no distinction should be set up. This policy was followed from 1872 to 1875.

In 1872 when the doctorate was introduced, there appeared a new section in the Catalogue entitled ”The Master’s and Doctors* Degrees.”

It was under this section that all information about advanced degrees and instruction was carried. At the same time the title of the

Catalogue was changed to read, ’’The Harvard University Catalogue.” The #■> term graduate department was at no time used in the University* s Cata­ logue, and no statement made concerning one.

In the annual Catalogue for 1872, in the Seotion on "The Master’s and DoctorsDegrees,” the following sub-sections were carried. ’’Other

Resident Graduates," which covered the name, degree held, and Cambridge address of graduates who wore attending courses in the College, without faculty guidance. The next section was entitled ’’Instruction Open to

Graduates.” It stated that all the elective courses of study of Harvard

College were open to those who held the Bachelor of Arts degree.

The last heading in this Section was that of "Fees and Bonds,” whioh gave the cost of the doctorate instruction.^

The fees to be paid by Bachelors of Arts who receive instruction as candidates for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy are as follows*

For not; more than 3 hrs. instruction a week - $50 a year

For more than 3, but not more than 6 hours instruction a week - $90 & year

For more than 6 hrs. instruction a week -$120 & year

For a year’s instruction in any of the laboratories and in Museum of Compara­ tive Biology $150 a year 100

For the examination for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy - $60

There is no additional charge for the right to use the library.

In 1872, when the procedures required to obtain the doctorate were first set up, the candidate was required, upon his admission to the oourse of study, to set the tentative date at which he expected to take the final examination on the two-year oourse of study. To have the date set fbr the final examination was to have been "admitted to candidacy."

Any one who wishes to be a candidate fbr either degree must apply in writing to Secretary o f the Academic Council, stating explicitly in his application his present qualifi­ cations and the course of study which he intends to offer naming also the year in which he desires to be examined, and the period of his past or proposed residence at the University*^*

The purpose of this ruling was to lessen the number of auditors, such as the resident graduatew frequently were. But the oonfusion the ruling entailed was so great that it tended to lessen the number of candidates to take the doctorate. In 1875, the rule ooncoming "admis­ sion to oandidacy" upon entrance to the two-year period of study was rescinded*

At the time the doctorate was established at harvard, the require­ ments for the degree were definitely set up and were of a high order*

They were*^®

The candidate for the Doctor of Philosophy degree must hold a bachelor of arts degree from Harvard, or another college. If from another college, he must satisfy the College Faculty by examination, that the degree is of the quality of that awarded by Harvard* And he must pass suoh additional examinations as the College Faculty may require* The degree will be con- 101

ferred after at least two years spent in a oourse of liberal study at Harvard, under the approval of the Academic Counoil. The candidate must pass a thorough examination in this oourse of study and present a satisfactory thesis showing original research.

In 1872, the oourse of study leading to the doctorate could be

pursued in philology, philosophy, hiBtory, political science, mathe­ matics, physics, natural history. The first year Hai-y^a offered

this degree it was a six-year degree. No language requirement was

stated. It was assumed that because of the strong classical nature

of the unde r grad via te curriculum that a student would by the time he

received the bachelor's degree be thoroughly grounded in the languages.

In 1873, at the Commencement, the doctor of philosophy degree was conferred at Harvard for the first time upon two candidates. They 47 were:

Charles Leavitt Beale Whitney, Subject* History The sis* Unknown Professor of History and Political Science, H a r v a r d (Cousin of William Dwight Whitney at lale)

William Elwood Byerly Subject* Mathematics Thesis* The Heat of the Sun Professor of Mathematics, Harvard

It is sometimes stated that there were three candidates, the third being John Trowbridge in Physics. Trowbridge, however, did not receive the Doctor of Philosophy degree, but the Doctor of Science, according to the President's Report fbr that year, and to the Graduate

School Catalogue, published later, but covering the first year.

In 1874 a new sub-division appeared in the University Catalogue under the Section, "The Master's and Doctors' Degrees." It was

"Candidates for the Degree of Ph.D." H^re candidates for the year were 102 listed by name, subject, and heme address* There were twenty-one candidates listed in that year all of whom held the A.B. degree.

The course of study for Harvard College for the year 1873-74 was so extensive that it covered thirteen pages in the University Catalogue.

This was the course of study for the four years of the College and in­ cluded both the prescribed and the elective courses. Since all elective courses were open to graduates, the electives for that year , 48 are here given.

I. The Classics. Greek (8 courses) Latin (6 courses) Hebrew (l course) Sanskrit (l course)

II. Modern languages English (3 courses) German (4 oourses) French (5 courses) Italian (3 oourses) Spanish (l course)

III. Philosophy and Psychology (l course)

IV. History (6 courses)

V. Political Soience (l oourse)

VI. Mathematics (10 courses)

VII. Physics (including Chemistry) (4 Physics, 5 Chemistry)

VIII. Natural History (8 courses)

IX. Music (3 courses)

For the year 1874-75 the four-year course of study of Harvard

College was even more extensive, oovering fourteen pages of the

University Catalogue. About the only prescribed studies left in the curriculum were in the ancient languages. The prescribed studies now comprised about two per oent of the curriculum. With electives compris­ ing almost the entire College curriculum one can see cwHjr President Eliot felt it unnecessasy to inaugurate separate graduate courses. 103

r

The following is a list of the elective oourses of Harvard College

for 1874-75.49

I. Ancient languages Hebrew (l course) Sanskrit (2 courses)

II. The Classics Greek (9 courses) I«tin (9 oourses)

III. Modern Languages English ( Scourses) German (4 courses) French (5 courses) Italian (3 courses) Spanish (2courses) Philology (l course)

IV. Philosophy (8 courses)

V. History (7 courses)

VI. Mathematics (14 courses)

VII. Physics (5 courses)

VIII. Chemistry (5 oourses)

IX. Natural History (8 courses)

X. Music (4 courses)

XI. The Fine Arts (2 courses)

The requirements for the doctor of philosophy degree remained with­ out change from the time it was inaugurated 1872 to 1875, the close of the third quarter of the century, *t was established as a six-year degree and had continued so. The requirements in 1875 weret

Bachelor of Arts degree

Two-year course of study in residence

Final examination in courses of last two years

Thesis, "showing original research."

Either a language requirement nor the Master of Arts degree was mentioned.

In 1875 the doctorate could be taken in the same seven departments as viien It was first established in 1872. These were the Departments of* 104

Philology, Philosophy, History, Political Science, Mathematics, Physics, Natural History

There were in this year, seventeen candidates fbr the doctorate* Fifteen

held the A.B* degree from Harvard, one held the A.B. from Ohio Wesleyan

University (1868), and one 'with the A.B. from Haverford College (1870).

Of the seventeen candidates for the degree in 1875, there were

seven in History, four in Philology, two in Physics, two in Philosophy,

two in Natural History, and one in Political Science. In addition to

the "Candidates” there were listed by name, ten, "Other Resident

Graduates,” all of whom held the A.B. degree who were pursuing studies without guidance from the Faculty.

Since 1642 a few resident graduates had remained in attendance at

olasses at Harvard. But it was not until the nineteenth century that

the College took any real notice of their needs, and tried to provide

instruction for them. In 1824 the elective system was instituted to provide optional studies for graduates. In 1860 a system of University lectures was established to supplement the curriculum, and offered more advanced work, open only to graduates. In 1869, the elective system which had lapsed in 1849, was reinstituted and its expansion began.

From 1869 to 1 871 the system of University lectures greatly expanded.

But so few attended that after 1871 the University lectures were discon­ tinued. In 1872 the doctor of philosophy degree was first offered,

in 1873 it was first ocnferred upon candidates. In 1875, the

close of the third quarter of the nineteenth century. Harvard had laid the ground work in offering studies leading to the doctorate. The studies could be chosen through the elective system, the requirements for the degree were high, and it could be taken in almost every field of

the vast curriculum*

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER V

1* Benjamin Peirce, A History of Harvard University from its foundation in the year 1636, p. 2* Cambridge* Brown, Shattuok and Co*, 1333*

2* Josiah Quincy, The History of Harvard University, Vol. 1, p. 10* Cambridge* Published by John Owen, 1840.

3 * , editor* Development of Harvard University since the inaugural of President Eliot, 1869-1929, p. xxx* Cambridge, Maas.* harvard University Press, 1930•

4. Benjamin Peirce, op* cit., p. 8 .

5. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Founding of Harvard College, p. 242* Cambridge, Mass.* Harvard University Press, 1935*

6 . The Harvard University Catalogue, p* 268* Published by the Univ. Press, Cambridge, 1901*

7* Benjamin Peirce, oj>* oit*. Appendix, p. 72, Section 1, Article 1.

8. £bid., p* 18*

9* Samuel A. Eliot, A Sketch of the History of Harvard College, p* 21* Boston• Charles C. Little and James Brown, 1848*

10. Josiah Quincy, op* oit., vol. ii, p* 324*

11. Samuel Eliot Morison, The Founding of harvard College, Appendix, p. xxviii.

12. Josiah Quincy, op* oit., vol. ii, p* 346*

13. Samuel Eliot Morison, Development of harvard University, p.464*

14. Ibid., p* 464*

15. Ibid., p*464*

16. Josiah Quincy, o p . cit., vol. ii, p.374*

17. Ibid.. vol. ii, p* 347*

18. Samuel Eliot Morison, op* cit., p* 4 52* 106

19. Catalogue of the Officers and Students of Harvard College, 1860-61, p. 26. Cambridge* Sever and Francis, 1861.

20 • ^bid. , p • 43 •

21. ibid., p. 50.

22. Ibid., p. 32.

23. Addresses at the Inauguration of Charles William Sliot as ^resident of Harvard College, p. 40. Cambridge* Sever and Francis, 1869.

24. Catalogue of the Officers and Students of harvard College, 1870-71, p. 32. Cambridge* Sever and Francis, 1871.

25. Catalogue of the Of fleers and Students of Harvard College, 1846-47, p. • Cambridge* Sever and Franois, 1847.

26. ^ames David Teller, Louis Agassiz, Scientist and Teacher, p. Columbus, Ohio* Ohio State University i'ress, 1947.

27• ibid., p.

28. Catalogue of Officers and Students of Harvard University, 1861-62, p. 96. Cambridge: Sever and Francis, 1861.

29. The Massachusetts Teacher, A Journal of School and Home Education, vol. xii, p. 302. 1859.

30. Catalogue of Officers and Students in Harvard College, 1860-61, p. 96.

31. Ibid. , p. 148.

32. Arthur Stanwood Pier, The Story of harvard, p. Boston* id-ttle, Brown and Co., 1913.

33. Annual Report of the President of Harvard College, 1871-72, p. 17, 1873.

34. Henry James, Charles TIH.lliam Sliotf President of Harvard University, 1869-1909. Boston* Houghton Mifflin Co., 1930, 2 vols.

35. Addresses at the Inauguration of Charles William Eliot as ^resident of Harvard College, p. 29, 1869. ""

36. Catalogue of Qffioers and Students of Harvard College, 1869-70, p. 1 0 2 . Cambridge, Mass'.'*- 1870•

37. Ibid., p. 107

38. Ibid.» p. 104#

39. Ibid., p. 104.

40. Catalogue of Officers and Students of harvard College. 1870-71, p. 108.

41. JCbicl. * p. 10.

42. Ibid., p. 108.

43. Ibid. , p • 58•

44. The Harvard University Catalogue, p. 133. CaJribridges Published for the University by Charles Vf. Sever, 1874-75.

45. The Catalogue of Qffioers and Students of Harvard College, 1872-73, p. 140.

46. Annual Report of the President and Treasurer of Harvard University, 1875-76, p. 16, 1876.

47. Forty-Eighth Annual Report of the President of Harvard Col lye, 1872-73, p. 25. 1874.

48. The Harvard University Catalogue, p. 156. 1874-75.

49. Ibid., p. 71. CHAPTER VI

CORNELL

1. Founded with emphasis on technical education

The history of Cornell presents a sharp contrast to that of

Harvard. Cornell University was new, it was free to attempt the untried in university education, ^t was a university which intended to intro­ duce training which would serve the state. It was founded soon after the close of the when the government was seeking ways in which to build up and to unite the country. We shall now turn to the founding of Cornell University.

The establishment of Cornell University is due to the combined bounty of the United States government and of the Honorable Ezra Cornell.

On the second of July, 1862, Congress passed the National Land Grant

Act, an Act granting public lands to the several states and territories, which might provide colleges for the benefit of agriculture and the mechanic arts.* Under this Act, 30,000 aores for each of its senators and representatives to Congress were appropriated to each state. Under this provision, the share of the State of New York was in land scrip representing 990,000 acres.

*n 1865 the state legislature of New York transferred the entire proceeds of the land grant to the Cornell University upon its compli­ ance with certain conditions.

The Charter of the University, adopted April 1865, under "The Act of Incorporation," "Section 4," states something of the educational

- 108 - 109

policy which guided the development of the University,

Section 4— The leading object of the corporation hereby created shall be to teach such branches of learning as are related to agriculture and the mechanic arts, including military tactics, in order to promote the several pursuits and professions in life. But such other branches of science and knowl­ edge may be embraced in the plan of instruction and investigation pertaining to the University as the Trustees may deem useful and proper.

Section 9 « T h e several departments of study in the said University shall be open to applicants for ad­ mission thereto at the lowest rates of expense con­ sistent with its welfare and efficiency, and without distinction as to rank, class, previous occupation or locality. But with a view to equalize its ad­ vantages to all parts of the State, the institution shall annually receive students one from each Assembly district, of the state, . . . and shall give them instruction in any or in all the prescribed branches of study, • . • free of any tuition fee, or of any incidental charges to be paid to said University.

The opening of Cornell University marked a new era in the history

of higher education in America. It showed that the university can maintain high scholastic and cultural ideals while at the same time meeting modern needs and requirements. From the outset Cornell was known as a technical institution, ^t was able at once to place

emphasis on the immediately practical and workable uses to which the

sciences could be put.

The Honorable Andrew Dickson Vvhite, member of the New York State

Legislature from Syracuse, who had worked with Ezra Cornell of Ithaca, to bring about the necessary educational legislation, became the new

University's first president. *t is significant that whereas most of the colleges and universities which were established with the aid of the land Grant Aot took the name of the state wherein they were located, this one took the name of its liberal benefactor, Cornell. 110

Andrew Dickson White was graduated from Yale College in 1853, and

Immediately left for Paris to study at the Sorbonne for a few months*

In 1854 and 1B55 he was attache to the United States Legation at St.

Petersburg, . In the later part of 1855 and in 1856 he attended the University of Berlin. In 1857 he returned to the United States and became lecturer in History and English Literature at the University of

Michigan utiiere he remained until 1867.

In 1867 he returned to New York and was elected to the State

Senate. As a member of the state legislature he was able to procure the benefits of the national land-grant for agriculture to the new institution Ezra Cornell was developing. The successful development

of Cornell University as both a first-rate university and a place of

technical training is due in large measure to Andrew D. White.

The first term of the Cornell University, at Ithaca, New York,

opened October 7, 1868 with the inauguration of the President and

professors. In his inaugural address. President White stated that the

scientific education would be of the same quality and caliber as the 4 classical education.

First of these of equality between different courses of study, it is determined to give special oourses like those of agri­ culture, mechanic arts, engineering and the like, equality in honor with other special courses. To this we are pledged. The Cornell University presents to students coming to its halls, several oourses separate and distinct, suited to different minds, looking toward different pursuits. . . . Still another idea which has shaped plans for instruction is that of making much of scientific study. . . . We would endeavor to inculcate scientific methods for their own sake.

\ Ill

The new faculty seems to have been selected for holding the same attitude toward the new technical education. The faculty representative 5 in replying to President White's address stated*

You have, Sir, happily described the great change which is coming over men's minds as to the purposes and means of education. Although we, like yourself, have been educated upon the old system, and have en­ joyed the mental training of the classical languages, yet we agree with you in thinking that the time has fully come when that change should be radical, and that Latin and Greek should cease to hold, in systems of education, a place so important as that of scientific studies. . . . We wish that this shall be in spirit, in aim, and in deed, the Cornell University having within itself a College. . ., but reaching far beyond the college curriculum and giving special in­ struction in the highest branches of learning, where any man may learn in his special department all that can be taught on that subject, where he shall be brought up to the then highest point in that branch, and be prepared himself to investigate and discover, with no occasion fbr going elsewhere except for local information. . . . We wish, in a word, to see all energies strained, not to carry on a college, but to become a university.

This new university which was emphasizing technical education attracted so many students that four hundred and twelve enrolled on the opening day. By the third year of its existence, 1870, with an enrollment of 600, it outnumbered any three colleges combined of the state of New York, colleges which had been in existence half a oentury.®

As proof that Cornell considered itself a technical institution, the first Register at the time of the opening of the University, 1868, announced, beside the offering of the doctor of philosophy degree, the offering of the master of science degree, and the degree of civil engineer. President White, who had largely formulated the educational policy of Cornell University, said he had become convinced of the values 112

of scientific education through observing Daniel Coit Gilman (later

president of Johns Hopkins), when he and Gilman were at Yale.

2. Doctor of philosophy degree offered from outset

Cornell was a university both in name and in practice from the out­

set. The first Register, or college catalogue, 1868, announced the

offering of the doctor of philosophy degree. The first two years the

degree was offered (but not conferred), 1868 and 1869, the requirements 7 were*

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy is conferred*

1. Upon such Bachelors of Philosophy as may give proof, satisfactory to the Faculty of literary or general proficiency.

2. upon such Bachelors of Arts, of Philosophy, or of Science, as have completed a meritorious original investigation in Chemistry*

For the first two years, 1868 and 1869, the phrase”as have com­ pleted a meritorious original investigation in Chemistry,” appeared in the statement of requirements. *t was discontinued in 1870. From

1870 to 1875 the field of subject matter in which the doctorate could be taken was not mentioned in the statement of requirements*

There was, from 1868 to 1875, no organized graduate department*

Neither was there any University Counoil whose duty it was to supervise graduate work. Graduate students were accepted by the professor in the department in which the study would be pursued. The professor in charge of the student’s field of subject matter would then arrange a oourse of study fbr him. This practice was maintained until the close 0 of the third quarter of the century, 1875* 113

In 1870, President White in his semi-annual Report to the Trustees called attention to the need of enoouraging graduate study*

The 'University needs a small body of meritorious resi­ dent graduates for speoial servioe* We need them as examiners, as speoial instructors, and as monitors*9

In 1870, "one year's additional study,” beyond the baocaulaurate degree, "in some one department of science," "was added to the require­ ments*^ However, the degree was not yet conferred*

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy is conferred*

1* Upon such Bachelor's of Philosophy as may give proof, satisfactory to the Faculty of literary or general prof i cienoy*

2. Upon such Bachelor's of Arts, of Philosophy, or of Science as shall, during at least one year s additional study and practice in some one department of science have completed a meritorious original investigation*

Graduate students were first listed by name in the Register in

1871j in that year there were two "resident graduates." -^n 1872, the requirements were greatly expanded, to include, "knowledge of the

Latin languages," "at least two years ^of stud,y/ after graduation under the direction of the Faculty," "an original Investigation in the departments in which they have studies," and, "examinations."^

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy is oonferred only upon such Bachelors of Arts, of Literature, or of Science, as having a knowledge of the Iatin language equal to that required for admission to the Classical Course in the University, shall have pursued their studies in Science or Literature for at least two years after graduation under the direction of the Faculty, and having passed & satisfactory examination thereon shall have presented & meritorious thesis based on an original investigation in the departments in which they have studied, provided, however, that they have taken their studies in such courses, as have been or hereafter may be specifically established for resident graduates* 114

It will be notioed that the period of study was extended an additional year and the sciences as field of 3tudy were no longer indicated, end that a comprehensive final examination was required over the studies of the last two years. In 1872 two resident graduates were listed in the Register. One was studying in chemistry, the other in natural history* Both held the bachelor of science degree*

Although the doctorate had been offered since 1868, it was first conferred at the dune Commencement 1872* The one candidate was a Yale graduate who had the year before, 1871, received the first Civil

Engineer degree from Cornell*

In 1872 the first year the doctorate was conferred, the requirements touched all particulars of later requirements, that is, language, resi­ dence, thesis, comprehensive final examination, two-year period of study beyond the bachelor's* The language requirement of 1872,

"a knowledge of the latin language equal to that required for admission 12 to the classical course in the University," meant* i

Latin Grammar and Prosody, Composition, four books of Caesar's Gallic Wars, Vergil exclusive of the last six books of the Aeneid, and six orations of Cicero*

In 1873, a knowledge of Greek was required "equal to what is now 13 required for admission to this University in the Classical Course."

Greek Grammar, four books of Xenophon's Anabasis, the first three books of the Iliad and Smith's Small History of *

At the same time the Latin requirement was extended to include a knowl­ edge of Vergil's £ologues, Georgios, and six books of the Aeneid* i In 1873, the doctorate was again conferred on one oandidate, one of the resident graduates who had been listed by name in the Register the I

I 115 year before who studied in the field of chemistry. 14 The entire statement of the requirements for the year 1873 is:

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy will be conferred on Bachelor's of Arts, literature, or Science, of this University, or on such graduates in the Bachelor’s degree of other colleges or universities as shall satisfy the Faculty that they have completed a course equivalent to one of the three General Courses in this University, on the following conditions:

1. A knowledge of Latin and Greek equal to what is nowiequired for admission to this University in the Classical Course*

2* Two years spent at this University after gradu­ ation in the pursuit of studies in some post graduate course, and passing satisfactory examinations in them*

3. Presenting a meritorious thesis based on some original investigation in one of the departments in which the studies were pursued*

Provided, however, that they have taken their studies in such courses, not strictly professional in character, as have been or may hereafter be specifically established for this Degree*

That year, 1873, there were eleven "resident graduates” enrolled in the University* In 1874, there were thirteen, and the requirements for the degree remained the same*

In 1874, the Register carried the foiloxving statement of the

University’s attitude toward the "post-graduate" student*^

• . • he is -then to be regarded as having laid the foundation for his professional career. His studies must have been to an extent theoretical and can scarcely be considered as anything more than prelim­ inary preparation for what is to be the work of his life* He needs more study and in some departments much praotice before he oan be considered qualified to take an independent and leading position. Books, and means of that kind, are still indispensable, and the aid of accomplished and experienced teachers is of great value* • • • Accordingly the Cornell University. . • has provided to some extent for the want8 of those who have taken their first or Baccalaureate degree, and who wish to further prepare themselves in the 116

various departments of post-graduate studies. To suoh purposes, its library and Museums including the in­ struction of its professors are placed at the service of its own graduates and of the graduates of like standing from other Colleges and Universities, free of charge for tuition and use of the Library, Museums, etc., they being required to pay for only the material they may have occasion to use.

To encourage and build up a body of graduate students no tuition was charged for graduate instruction during the first twenty-four years it m s offered, up to 1394, nor was there a graduation fee*® for the doctor of philosophy degree.

It was pointed out each year in the university Register that "post­ graduates" need not be candidates fbr a second degree. In 1874 there were thirteen "resident graduates," and one doctor of philosophy degree m s conferred. In 1875 the only change or addition to the requirements 17 was that fifty printed copies of the thesis would be required. In that year, 1875, there were thirteen resident graduates enrolled. From

1872 to 1875 only three dootor of philosophy degrees were conferred.

There was none conferred in 1875.

The first year the doctor of philosophy degree was conferred at

Cornell, 1872, it was a six-year degree. The requirements were high*

Bachelor’s degree

Knowledge of latin Ijanguage

Two-year oourse of study in residence

Original investigation

In 1875 the close of the third quarter of the nineteenth century, the degree was still a six-year degree attained aftor fulfilling the following demands* 117

Bachelor*s degree

Knowledge of letin and Greek

Two-year course of* study in residence

Original investigation

Fifty printed copies of thesia

In 1871 the technical courses of study had become a separate school named the Sibley College of Mechanic Arts. Professor Daniel Coit

Gilman who was at the time a teacher and the guiding spirit of Yale's scientific school* The Sheffield, was invited to make the dedication address. Gilman in his address at this time showed a clear insight into and understanding of the new technical education.

Professor Gilman's survey of higher education in the United States wa3 a clear-cut historical statement which describes accurately the facts *

Superior education in this land has already passed through two distinct phases. The first wa3 the estab­ lishment of simple colleges, based upon the plan of the English college (with which so many of the Puritan ministers of were personally familiar), a place of prolonged residence under tutorial instruction and rigid supervision, with one curriculum for all sorts of students, in which classical studies were predominant, with a liberal recognition of the value of scientific, mathematical, and especially of metaphysical and logical learning. From Harvard, the mother of us all, and from ^ale, her eldest and most prolific daughter, . . . in­ fluences have gone forth to control the destiries of our land. . . . We can never too highly praise the large mindedness, the far-sightedness, the open-heartedness of the early emigrants from England who planted here on their arrival, the seeds of liberal culture, the acorns from an English oak, whioh they had gathered in Oxford and Caab ridge. Until the beginning of the present century, these simple colleges were the only seats of higher learning. . . . they have assumed a distinctive American character. . . . The simple "college," good as it was, proved at length insufficient for the requirements of the country, *t became essential to supplement it with schools of ’’professional” training,” which grew up, sometimes as i ndependent plants, sometimes as grafts upon the college stock. The consequence of this move­ ment has been that within the first half of the present century large numbers of schools of instruction in law, medicine, and theology have been established many of them well manned and endowed, and highly serviceable in training of the three ancient professions, ^ike their predecessors, the colleges, these higher institutions have a decidedly .American character*

We are now in the opening of the third period in which there is a strong tendency toward the establish­ ment and development of universities, as superior to and inclusive of colleges, and also more comprehensive than the sohools of professional discipline. We are not agreed as to exactly what we want, and we are more at a loss as to how to get it. But far and near in the country we feel the need of more men of education and of men of more education; both in quantity and in quality we are conscious of our deficiencies*

Some would prefer to change our colleges into univer­ sities, either omitting altogether the traditional four years discipline, or transferring it to the high sohools and academies; others would cling to the tradi­ tional college and make its four years* course, improved in details but essentially unchanged, the basis of all higher professional and universities culture; others again would duplicate the traditional classical course, in which science is subordinate with a parallel and co­ ordinate course in which science shall predominate and language be subordinate; and others again retaining the traditional four-year course, as the basis of yet higher learning, would allow of great freedom of choice in respect to the studies which make up the curriculum. Here are at least fbur tendencies.

There are many other unsettled questions, especially in respect to the constitution of a university; whether a state organization, as in Michigan. . . . is the more desirable form, or a combination of the state control and the private or close corporation as in Ithaca and New Haven; or a totally private corporation like the present organization in Cambridge*

Thus has grown our desire fbr superior education, first shown in the college with its tutorial learning, next manifest in the professional lectures, and now exhibited in our crescent universities with their complexity of de­ partments and sohools, libraries, cabinets, observatories and mus eums . In the history of education I know no coincidence more remarkable than the opposition which has been twice exhibited against what has been called the "New Education." Nowadays the term is applied to the in­ structions of scientific sohools and colleges. But* let me remind you, three hundred years ago "the New Education" meant instruction in Greek. Some of us may find comfort in remembering that what is said against science was once said against Greek. The world was then under the tuition of the scholastic lecturers, who indeed pretended to teach Aristotle. . . . It is more­ over curious to notice that the changes in the scheme of study came from outside pressure and not from inside preference•

No one can prophesy what our universities will be. But one thing seems sure. They are likely to be peculiarly and thoroughly "American" universities, as our colleges and professional schools are likewise American. . . . No one could predict the course of events among us, for the circumstances of the new world are so different from the old that precedents fail here which are trustworthy there.

So in education, our political wants, our undeveloped country, our religious habit3, our systems of common schools will all tell on the future university, and while we may learn from Oxford and Cambridge, from the canny Scotch and the erudite German, our mode of promoting the highest education will differ as our social ways and our political theories.

Sibley College of Mechanic Arts was housed in a new building* showing how far the development of the technical courses of the university had come in three years and making room for and assurance of their further expansion. On the first floor of the Sibley build­ ing were placed enlarged facilities and equipment for practical work the machine shops, the modeling rooms, and the university press.

3. Course of Study

1868 when the University opened, Cornell had a broad curricu 18 lum. The course of study of the entire university was* 120

A* Division of Science, Literature, and the Arts in General

B. Division of Speoial Arts and Sciences I. Department of Agriculture II. tt ti " Mechanic Arts III. tt it w Civil Engineering IV. n ii w Chemistry and Mineralogy V. n it w Natural History VI. n ti " Military Science and Tactics VII. it ti n History, Social and Political

In 1868, the opening year, the faculty was comprised of the resident professors and the non-resident professors, or lecturers. It is worthy of note that in drawing certain professors as non-resident lecturers, to that extent, some certain universities had the same teaohers in. certain fields. As for example, when Agassiz and Lowell came to Cornell to lecture, both from Harvard at Cambridge.

For the year 1868 the non-resident faculty, or lecturers, were*^®

Louis Agassiz, Professor of Natural History 20 Lectures Cambridge, Mass.

John Stanton Gould, Prof. of Mechanics Applied to Agriculture 12 Lectures Hudson, New York

James Hall, Professor of General Geology 12 Lectures Albany, New York

James Russell Lowell, Professor of English Literature 12 Lectures Cambridge, Mass.

George William Curtis, Professor of Recent Literature 12 Lectures New York City

Theodore W. Dwight, Professor of Constitutional Law and Lecturer of Constitution of United States 12 Lectures New York City 121

The lectures were supplementary to the instruction and work of

the classroom. Cornell University opened, 1868, with broad facilities 20 for investigation and research. They were*

Museum of Geology and Mineralogy Museum of Botany and Agriculture Huseum of Zoology and Physiology Museum of Technology (working models in brass and iron* to illustrations of mechanical principles applied to machinery) Collections in Chemistry and Physics Collection in Fine Arts

Out of these two Divisions (Division of Science, Literature and

tte Arts in General, and Division of Special Arts and Sciences) could be built up three types of courses of study.

Course in Science (Scientific Course) Course in Arts (Classical Course) Course in Philosophy (Combined Course) 21 There were also Elective or Optional Courses.

Any student after matriculation instead of entering upon either of the General Courses, Science, Philosophy, or Arts, may select his own. course. . . . Those who adopt this method of choosing their own studies are known as students in Elective or Optional Courses. These Elective Courses are intended to give to the student full and entire freedom in the selection of his studies~a freedom every way equal to that which prevails in the universities of continental Europe. • > . The degree given is that which best corresponds to the character of the subjects they have studied*

Those Cornell conferred were the Bachelor of Arts, of Science, of

Philosophy, corresponding to the three types of Course of Study, each a four-year degree*

In addition to the "Elective Course,” there was offered from the 22 outset the "Special Courses." 122

The Special Courses are those pursued by students who desire to devote themselves to any single branch of knowledge combined with practice, and to study only such other branches as may assist them in acquir­ ing a thorough acquaintance with their specialty*

A careful and solid basis was laid for Technical training. In the

college catalogue. The Register, for the year 1869-70, under a section

entitled 11 Agriculture and the Mechanic Arts" the following statement

was made***5 referring to the activities of the first year of the

university*

Considerable progress has been made, during the past year in developing the two departments of the University specially established by the land grant act. In the College of Agriculture, the professor­ ships of Agricultural Chemistry, Agricultural Geology, Horticulture, Zoology, and Veterinary Science had been previously filled. Collections of models of agricul­ tural implements, of models of plants, and of anatomical models of farm animals, had been purchased in Europe, before the opening of the Institution, and formed an Agricultural Museum entirely unique in this country* Ample laboratory rooms for the analysis of soils and rocks, for the investigation of plants, their character and diseases, and for the dissection of domestic animals were provided in the spring of 1869* At the same time the chair of Mechanics applied to Agriculture was filled, and an Assistant Professor o f Agriculture was chosen, who was placed in charge of the Farm. The latter was put under careful tillage, during the last season, some twenty selected students performing the printipal portion of the labor* In the summer a collection of cereals and grasses, of invaluable aid to the agricultural student, was received through the generosity of the British Government, and was mounted in a room specially prepared for it. More than two-thirds of the whole body of students, in the first academic year received instruction in one or more agricultural branches. Although but thirty (total enrollment 388) devoted their entire attention to the subject*

In the Register for 1871-72, under Members of the University, there was for the first time a listing entitled "Post graduate Students."

Here were listed byname and address two students. Bach held the 123 bachelor of science degree, one was now studying natural history* one,

chemistry.

In 1872, for the first time, the Register oarried the listing

"Resident Graduates." There were five in that year, one from Vassar, two from Cornell, one from McGill, one from Michigan State Agricultural#

In 1873 when the doctor of philosophy degree was conferred for the second time, it was conferred on one of the five resident graduates of the previous year. In 1873, there were eleven "Resident Graduates," nine fTcm Cornell, one from Tufts, one from Swarthmore#

In 1874 the number of "special Faculties" had much increased, 24 indicating-much expansion in the Elective course of study. They were*

Agriculture Architectu re Chemistry and Physics Civil Engineering History and Political Science Ancient and Asiatic languages North European languages South European languages Mathematic s The Sibley College of Mechanic Arts Military Science and Tactics Natural History Philosophy and Letters

The "special Faculties" were those in which studies were optional or eleotive#

In 1874, for the first time, the field of study was listed for each of the "Resident Graduates." There were thirteen resident graduates: four i n architecture, two in chemistry and history-political science, and one each in physiology, engineering, mechanic arts, natural history-comparative anatomy, and mathematics-natural philosophy. 124

In the University Register, 1876, it is explained for the first

time how the post graduate student is expected to proceed*^®

No regular post-graduate courses have been marked out by the various Departments of the University, It is found that in most oases students who desire to spend a portion of time at the University, after taking their Baccalaureate Degree, have each of them some one special study to pursue, or object.to accomplish which differs in so many respects, from those of any other student, that it is hardly possible to classify them, or to arrange beforehand, in any general way, a course that will meet their wants. Accordingly, the practice thus far has been for the student himself to indicate on his entering the University his wishes; and in case the studies he wishes to pursue are not already provided for in the schedule for the term, his application is referred to the appro­ priate Faculty or to some one Professor who is in charge of the department in which his studies are chiefly comprehended, when a course is arranged for him and pro­ vision made for his presenting it*

In 1875 the means and facilities for education outside the text­

book, the lecture, and the classroom were extensive. These consisted 26 of:„

I. Machine Shop II. Chemical I*aboratory III. Physical laboratory (Physics) IV. The Farm V. The Barns VI. The University library VII. The Reading Rooms (department libraries) VIII. Museums 1. Agriculture 2. Architecture 3. Botany 4. Geology and Mineralogy 5. Military Science 6. Zoology and Physiology Ix. Collection of'Fine Arts

In the Uni vers it y Register for the year 1875 mention was made for the first time of the conditions for admission to the post graduate courses. Under a new section entitled "Admission to Post Graduate

Courses," it was statddt^^ 125

Students of good character and industrious habits are admitted to pursue post graduate studies in the University, after having taken their Baccalaureate Degree in this University or on presenting their diploma of any equivalent degree elsewhere; they are at liberty to attend any of the lectures, recitations or other exercises with the undergraduates; they have full use of the Library, Museums, etc., and are expected to take some studies, not included in any undergraduate course, under the direction of some particular Professor or Special Faculty. And if they in end to take any ad­ vanced degree, they should announce their intentions on entering the University.

In 1875, the close of the third quarter of the nineteenth century,

Cornell offered a varied and extensive course of study. Cornell

University had now been open but seven years, and its curriculum offerings probably exceeded those of some older institutions.

I. General Courses 1. The Course in Arts 2. The Course in Literature 5. Hie Course in Science 4. The Course in Philosophy

II. Optional Courses 1. Agriculture 2. Architecture 3. Chemistry and Physics 1. School of Chemistry, Mineralogy 2. School of Physics 4. Civil Engineering 5. History and Political Science 6. languages 1. School of Ancient Languages a. The Greek Language b. The Latin LangUag0 c. Living Asiatic and Oriental Languages 2. School of Modern Languages a. Language of the South in Europe b. The Germanic Languages 7. Mathematics and Astronomy 1. The General Course 2. The Advanced Course 8. Mechanic Arts 9. Military Science 10. Natural History 1. School of Botany 126

2. School of Geology, Palaeontology 3. School of Zoology 11* Philosophy and Letters 1. School of Philosophy 2* School of Letters a. Anglo-Saxon and English Li-fcerature b# Rhetoric and General Literature Journalism

Both of Cornell’s presidents during its formative period, Andrew

D. White and Charles &endall Adams, came to it from the state university

of Michigan, the institution which is sometimes referred to as the mother of state universities, and may have applied some of the policies

of the University of Ann Arbor to the new state university at Ithaca*

The unique contribution of Cornell University to university education in the United States was its ability to blend practical technical training into a highly creditable education of university level* It proved this could be done. It has been said that there was more change in the university course of study from 1850 on, than from 450 to 1850, The broad and extensive curriculum instituted at

Cornell is evidence on this point*

The need in the United States for roads, bridges, railroads, factories, mills, electrical plants, mining enterprises, called loudly for engineer** To meet this need Cornell advanced from the traditional treatment of the pure sciences to elaborate equipment and large facil­ ities for teaching applied science. The soiences became utilitarian*

This attitude and practice met a public need and students flocked to this new state university for practical training*

This institution did not have to go through a slow period of growth. It opened its doors with an enrollment of more than four hundred students. In 1870 its third year of instruction, Lit had in— ~ 127 creased to six hundred. In 1871, the technical courses of* study branched off into a separate technical school, the Sibley College of

Mechanic Arts. Mechanic Arts was at first understood to mean engin­ eering. The sciences as applied to agriculture or scientific agri­ culture, developed second.

Cornell "was constitutionally a university from the beginning.

Its original policies and practices "were in line with university practice. It offered the degree of doctor of philosophy from the out­ set, and on a high level of achievement. In 1870 the degree was offered as a five-year degree. In 1872 it became a six-year degree.

As evidence of student interest in the technical education, the first candidate for the doctor of philosophy degree at Cornell, 1872, also held the degree of Civil Engineer from Cornell.

Cornell charged no tuition for graduate instruction the first twenty-four years it was offered, that is, until 1894.

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER VI

1. The Cornell University Register, 1868-69, p. 12. Ithaca: Printed for the University at the office of the Ithaca Journal, 1869.

2. Ibid., p. 10.

3. Paul Monroe, editor, A Cyclopedia of Education, "Andrew D. White,” p. New Y0rk* The McMillan Co., 1914, 5 vols.

4. The Cornell University Register, 1869-70, p. 33.

5. Ibid., p. 35.

6. Paul Monroe, editor, ^ Cyclopedia of Education, "Cornell,11 p.

7. The Cornell University Register, 1868-69, p. 39.

8* Ib3-a»« P* 39- 128

9. The Cornell University Register, 1870-71, p. 55.

10. ibid., p# 71,

11. Ibid., 1872-73. Requirements

12. Ibid., 1872-73. Requirements

13. The Cornell University Register, 1873-74, p.

14. Ibid., p. 67.

15. The Cornell University Register, 1874-75, p. 46.

16. ibid., p. 46.

17. The Cornell University Register, 1875-76, p. 85.

18. Catalogue of the Officers and Students of the Cornell University, for the academic year 1868-69, p. 9. New York* Ithaca, Journal Steam Power Press Print, 1869.

19. Ibid., p. 11.

20. The Cornell University Register,1868-69, p. 34. Ithaca* Printed for the University at the Office of the Ithaca Journal, 1869.

21. Ibid., p.47.

22. Ibid., p. 51.

23. The Cornell University Register, 1869-70, p. 58.

24. The Cornell University Register, 1874-75, p. 15.

25. Ibid., p. 76.

26. Ibid., p. 81.

27. Ibid., p. 106. CHAPTER VII

MICHIGAN

I. A state university as part of the public educational system of the state

The University o f Michigan in its origin was at once* in a sense* both a national and a state institution. It owes its origin to that national policy declared in the Ordinance of 1787*^ that in the great

Northwest Territory, means of education should be encouraged. This principle was reasserted upon the organization of the Territory of

Michigan in 1804. It took practical form in the reservation by Act of

Congress, of a Township of land for the support of a university*

Michigan's origin is therefore both national and state, and it was the first great state university of importance in the Northwest Territory.

Of the founding of the University of Michigan Professor Burke A.

Hinsdale, in referring to the work -which inspired the founders, that is, Cousin's Report on the State of Public Instruction in Prussia* says * ^

^t is no exaggeration to say that a single copy of M. Viotor Cousin's Report* which found its way into the oak openings of Michigan* produced results, direct and indirect, that far surpass in importance the results produced by any other educational volume in the whole history of the country*

The importance lies in the fact that the University was a pattern used by later state universities in this country. The idea of a state educa­ tion that should go beyond the common schools had at that time only limited acceptance*

- 129 - 130

In 1817, the year of the establishment of the institution which later became known as the University of Michigan, Michigan was still a territory. There we ire less than seven thousand inhabitants within its boundaries, and these were settled chiefly at and at trading posts and missions on the lake shore. In 1817 the governor and the judges enacted the first legislation for education in the territory.

Be it enacted by the Governor and Judges of the Territory of Michigan,

That there shall be in the said Territory a Catholepestemiad or University denominated the Catholepestemiad or University of M i c h i g a n . ^

This institution was to have sixteen professors, who would teach moral and intellectual philosophy, ^atin and Greek. It was also to have branches in other places in the territory, the branches being primary schools and classical schools. These branches were to furnish the primary and secondary education for the entire territory.

The first step toward putting this enactment into practice was taken in September, 1817 when the first two professors were appointed*

The first, a Protestant clergyman of Detroit was made President and also assigned six professorships* The second, the Catholic bishop of

Michigan was assigned six professorships* Each professorship paid twelve dollars and fifty cents a year. Branches were also established in Detroit, of one primary school and one classical school. The whole organization was located in Detroit and known as the Catholepestemiad*

Pn 1821 its name was changed to the ’'University of Michigan,” and it continued to hold all the rights and properties formerly held by the officers of the Catholepestemiad. The one primary and the one 131

classical school at Detroit continued to receive support from the nevr

Trustees until 1827. In 1827 the two branches no longer received

finano_ 1 support from the trustees, but became dependent upon their

-own tuition fees. The Catholepestemiad and the first University of

Michigan offered courses of collegiate level.

In 1835 Michigan became a state, and appointed a Superintendent of Public Instruction, "the first that ever held the office in this 4 country under a state government. His first duty was to prepare and submit to the state legislature a plan for the organization of schools, and a plan for a university. A report was prepared and submitted, and the part relating to a university was embodied in an Act passed by the state legislature, ^ r c h 1837.®

Sec. 1. Be it enacted by the Senate and House of Representatives of the State of Michigan, that there shall be established in this state an institution under the name and style of fThe University of Michigan.T • • • Sec. 8. The university shall consist of three depart­ ments . 1. The department of literature, science and the arts. 2. The department of law. 3. The department of medicine.

3y act of the legislature the university was no longer to be at

Detroit, but would be located at Ann Arbor.

At this time, 1837, the primary and secondary schools were separated from the university organization, under a separate plan, under a Superintendent of Public Instruction. Vfe shall however continue to confine our interest here to the development of the new

University. 132

In 1838 the fl rst p rofessor was appointed in the new organization.

Dr. Asa Gray was made Professor o f Zoology and beside his annual salary

of fifteen hundred dollars, without local duties, was given thirty-six

hundred dollars for the purchase of books for a library and philosophical

apparatus for a laboratory. Dr. Gray was instructed to go to Europe and m k e his purchases. He selected a valuable library of some thirty-seven hundred books, and sane philosophical apparatus. In 1840 Dr. Gray's

connection with the University closed. He had not tendered any

teaching service, as the University had not yet opened. But because of these efforts the University had at the time it opened a remarkable

library.

in 1841, the University was finally able to open its doors, and then with an enrollment of but six students. In 1850 the constitution

of the state of Michigan was revised; the revised constitution gave the University and its officers enlarged powers and provided a Board

of Regents. Among the new powers was that of selecting its own president. In 1852 after a long contest, the Board of Regents chose

Dr. as president. Tappan was at the time Hj-ofeggoj. of Moral and Intellectual Philosophy at the University of the City of

New loik (later ). Tappan had long admired the

German educational system, which he had been able to examine during many years of residence abroad.

His views on higher education he set forth in his book, ^niversit^

Education, published in New York in 1851.6 These views were in reality little more than an exposition of the German system. He was convinced that more than a college was needed to lift American thought to the 133

creative level. Because he desired to carry out his ideas in the

establishment of a real American university, and because he felt that he could not carry out these plans in any of the eastern states, and

could in Michigan, he accepted the offered presidency.

Tappan believed that the excellence of the German universities

rested on two facts, namely, that they were purely universities having no admixture of collegiate tuition, and that they were complete univer­ sities, providing libraries and other means for study and providing eminent scholars to lecture. In 1851 Tappan published a book, setting forth his views on university education. There were no real univer­ sities in America at this time. In view of that fact Tappan*s organi­ zational form as set forth in University Education was most complex and comprehensi ve • 7 The university as Tappan proposed it should have*

1. A varied and ample library with available resources of scholarship

2. All necessary apparatus for physics and chemistry, an observatory, natural history cabinet and a gallery of fine arts

3. Four faculties viz.* The faculty of Philosophy and Science The faculty of letters and Arts The faculty of Law The faculty o f Medicine

Under these faculties there should be a sufficient number of endowed professorships to make a proper distribution of the various subjects.

4. The University degrees, to which the Bachelor’s degree from any college admitted, were to consist of two grades. (a) The lower grade, the M.A., Ph.D., M,D. and Bachelor of Laws to be awarded after 3 or 4 years of study, on examination 134

(b) The higher grade, the Doctor of Laws and Doctor of Theology and others, to be conferred as honorary degrees or to those who should remain a still longer term after receiving the lower grade degrees, and to eminent men.

5* The course of study should likewise provide for "those engaged in commerce and the useful arts."

6. The institution was to be free from all political and sectarian influences.

The desire to establish such a university led Tappan to Michigan. Prom the very start he emphasized graduate work. The first catalogue, 1852, stated the intention of the university to open a course of lectures for graduate students, and the following year these lectures were definitely announced. This course of University lectures was identical with those recommended in his inaugural address and in his book. In 1852 and 1853 students were listed in the catalogue under the headings, Undergraduates, and Graduates, though there were but two or three graduates enrolled.

Q President Tappan in his inaugural address, December 1852, said*

A system o f education established on the Prussian principles o f education can not discard that which forms the culmination of the whole. An institution can not deserve the name of a university which does not aim, in all the materials of learning, in the profes­ sorships which it establishes, and in the whole scope of its provisions to make it possible fbr every student to study what he pleases and to any extent he pleases, -^t is proposed therefore to open a course of lectures for those who have graduated at this or other institutions and for those who in other ways have made such preparation a^ may enable them to attend upon them with advantage.

The course of lectures for those who have graduated which Tappan proposed in his inaugural address and also in his book were listed in the oatalogue of 1852 as being offered. H® was putting his plan 135

into practice.

President Tappan*s enthusiasm for the German educational system

9 brought about strong criticism.

In his inaugural address, in addresses before the students* literary societies and before the legislature, in his public speeches everywhere and in his private conversation he endeavored to recommend his own broad theory of public education and everywhere he extolled the Prussian system. So much was this foreign school system the burden of his discourse that it brought upon him a storm of censure and abuse from some of the journals of the State, whose editors were alarmed for the glory o f the American eagle, or were possibly glad of a theme so potent to arouse the stout patriotism of the American hearts. "Of all the imitations of English aristocracy, German mysticism, Prussian imperiousness and Parisian nonsensities, he is altogether the most un-American the most completely foreignized specimen of an abnormal Yankee we have ever seen.” Such was the style of attacks made upon him.

Such criticism, and trouble with his Faculty, and with the Board

of Regents led to his dismissal after eleven years in office. In

1863, Dr. Erastua 0. Haven was elected to succeed him. During

President Haven’s administration of six years, the heading "undergrad­

uate students" was dropped from the catalogue, or calendar, graduate

students being such a negligible quantity.Haven was known to be

not friendly toward the German type education in the United States.

This was one of the reasons the Regents now selected him as president.

He immediately discontinued certain of Tappan educational policies,

and veered the university away from the Prussian-like tendency.

2. The elective system

The elective system of studies was provided for in the organization of the University from an early date. President James Angell in his

Annual Report in 1881 says* 136

The idea of* establishing co-ordinate courses of study by the side of those fixed by custom was embodied in its ^/bhe University*3/ organization in 1852.^

In 1856 the elective system was in operation in chemistry, zoology,

botany, geology, German, philosophy, Greek, Latin and history.

Graduate students »f whom there were at this time but two or three

were expected to find their advanced work under the elective system.

From 1863 to 1871 during the administrations of President Haven

and President Frieze the elective system was not expanded. To these

presidents the elective system of studies was associated with the

German university practices in which they did not desire to participate.

In 1871 when became president the elective system

of studies was extended and was enlarged continuously throughout

Angell's administration and to the close of the century. In 1871 when

the seminar was introduced in history by Professor Charles Kendall

Adams, the faculty decided to place the seminar in history among the

elective studies of the senior year.

By 1873 elective studies were available in nearly every department

of study in the University. And ^resident Angell further announced that nearly all the studies of the senior year were made elective. The 12 University Calendar for the year 1874 announced*

It w2JLl be observed by reference to the Synchronistic Table /Course Schedule^ that in the Classical, Scientific, and Latin Scientific Courses an apportunity is offered in the Senior year for large liberty in the choice of studies.

President Angell was committed to the elective system of studies and continued to encourage its extension as a means of expanding graduate work. 137

3. Advanced Courses of Instruction instituted 1858

In the Regents Proceedings, 1858, mention was first made of the necessity of course work and examinations for resident graduates.

Announcement was made of an Advanced Course of Instruction in the form of Lectures,*®

Resolved* That the Board of Regents do hereby inaugurate an advanced Course of Instruction to be given wholly by lectures,

■J-nthe same year, "University Courses" were offered by Professor

Andrew D. White in the department of history, and Professor Francis

Brunnov, in Astronomy, to encourage the attendance of Resident graduates.

In 1869 President Haven left Michigan and for the two years follow­ ing, Professor Henry Frieze served as Acting President. In 1871,

Dr. ^ames Burrill Angell, then President of the , was persuaded to accept the presidency of Michigan,

The University Calendar stated in 1874, that "post-graduate" students wore encouraged to study at Michigan whether they were candi­ dates for a seoond degree or not.

Post-graduate courses are provided for the graduates of any college or university, who may desire to pursue advanced study, whether for a second degree or not.

The Calendar for the same year also announced in the Section 15 entitled, Degrees and Post Graduate Courses*

The higher courses will not be restricted to graduates and candidates for the second degree, but will be open to all who shall give satisfactory evidence of ability to profit by them, 16 The Calendar for 1874 also stated* 138

Resident graduates are required to pay the same annual dues as undergraduates, and no student or graduate shall be allowed to enjoy the privileges of the University except on presentation to the President of the Steward's reoeipt for all fees and dues specified in this or any- other rule or regulation of the Board of Regents*

The first eight years of its existence, the University of Michigan did not oonfer the master of arts degree. It conferred it first in

1849, and this vias of the unearned type. That is, three years after receiving the bachelor of arts degree, the candidate could make a written request for the master of arts degree and receive it upon request. No residence, studies, nor examinations were required. This was the polioy and practice from 1849 to 1874. In 1874 it was announced that after 1877 the degree of master of arts would be an earned degree, conferred only after meeting the University's new requirements in courses and examinations•

The Degrees of Mag-fcer Arts, ^aster of Philosophy and Master of Science will until 1877 be conferred respectively on Bachelors of Arts, Bachelors of Philosophy and Bachelors of Science of three years* standing who are graduates of this University. But after 1877 these Degrees will not be conferred "in oourse*" The Degrees Master of Arts, Master of Philosophy, and Master of Science are conferred respectively upon Bachelors of Arts, Bachelors of Philosophy, and Bachelors of Science, upon examination according to the following conditions * 17

(1) The candidate must be a graduate either of this or some other collegiate institution empowered to oonfer degrees*

(2) Ho must pursue at least for a year two of the courses of post graduate studies designated in the Programme of Studies in the following pages*

(3) Ho must sustain an examination before the Faculty in at least three of the studies so attended} the studies to be elected by the candidate* 139

(4) must present a thesis to the Faculty on one of the subjects chosen for examination.

The second Degree may thus be obtained, on examination, one year after the first degree. In the University Calendar for 1874 the masters degrees conferred "in course?! and "on examination" were listed separately. I Those conferred "in course" numbered ten, those conferred "on examination" one.

The courses of post-graduate studies referred to in section (2) were listed under a heading in the Calendar entitled Programme of Studies for the Degrees of M.A., M.P., and M.S. There were twenty-two such oourses, eleven offered each semester. They were in the subjects of chemistry, mineralogy, Latin literature, history, astronomy, mathe­ matics, Greek language, logic, French literature, civil engineering, lithology, philosophy, paleontology, German literature and physics,^-®

These were the only po^st-graduate courses listed in the Calendar for that year, Nothing is mentioned in regard to the studies for the doctor of philosophy degree. The preceding list covers all post­ graduate studies offered by the University,

4. Seminar introduced by

The seminar is one of those practices which the young American universities adopted from the German universities, ^n the German universities it was in use i n the teaching of the sciences and also in those subjects called the humanities. It was in one of the subjects of the humanities, that is, history, in which Professor Charles

Kendall Adams introduced it At the University of Michigan, 140

As to the origin and nature of the seminar we have the following**®

The seminary method of modern universities is merely the development of the old scholastic method of advancing philosophical inquiry by the defense of original theses. The first seminary that actually assumed the designation of philological was that founded at Gottingen in 1733 by Gesner, the famous Latinist. This seminary has been in many respects the model for all later ones. The transformation of the Seminarium into a laboratory of science was first accomplished more than fifty years ago by Germany*s greatest historian Leopold von Ranke. He was born in the year 1795 and has been Professor of History at the University of Berlin since 1825. There, about 1830, he instituted those practical exercises in historical investigation which developed a new school of historians. The seminary has been extended throughout all the universities in Germany and even to institutions beyond German borders*

In the Presidents Report to the Board of Regents, for the year

1671, is the first printed account of the seminary method of instruction

as introduced into the University of Michigan by Professor Charles

Kendall Adams. Under the heading of 11 Changes Introduced During the

Year," it states*^®

Ever since my observation of the methods pursued in Europe, I have desired to introduce into the historical courses of the University of Michigan something akin to the Historische Gesellschaft of the German Universities. At the beginning of the past year a favorable opportunity presented itself* After consultation with the -^resident of the University, and with the faculty of our department 1 met the members of the senior class and explained the purpose of the experiment* It was found that 27 members of the class desired to take an extended oourse of historical study even in addition to the regular work of the senior year. After this ex­ pression the faculty decided to place this course in history among the elective studies*

As to how the seminar was carried on, an American student who took the doctor of philosophy degree at Gottingen, in history, with the 141 highest honors of his year said:

The German historical seminary aims to Inculcate the scientific method. *t is the workshop in which the experienced master-teacher teaches his young apprentice the deft use of the trade. In the lecture room the professor presents the results of his investigation; in the Seminar he shows just what he had to do in order to secure those results. The German student lays far more stress upon his seminar than upon his lectures. Two different kinds of work predominate in the German historical seminary, the writing of short thesis on the critical reading of some document or documents. . . . The professor selects a list of subjects for theses from the field of his special line of investigation and assigns them to the students. One or two critics are appointed for each thesis who comment upon the production after it has been read. A free discussion of the subject then follows, the Professor and students doing all in their power to show Jhe utter lack of Wissenschaft Scientific learning^ in the author's method. As regards the other element of seminary work, viz., critical reading of some chronicles, to each student is assigned a certain portion of the text which, with the aid, if necessary, of other contemporaneous sources pointed out to him by the professor— he is expected to treat in accordance with the canons of historical criticism, the other students commenting ad libitum.

Charles Kendall Adams became known as a historian and as an educator. Adams spent his student years at the University of Michigan, graduating in 1861, and abroad. Upon returning from abroad he returned to Michigan to teach history. There he remained until 1885, when he became president of Cornell University following Andrew D. White.

5. Doctor of Philosophy degree offered, not conferred

In 1874 the University of Michigan offered the Ph.D. degree upon the completion of two years of resident study beyond the bachelor's P*l degree.

The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy is open to the graduates of this University, or of any other reputable university or college, who shall have satisfied the Faoulty on examination that they have made special proficiency in some one branch of study, and good attain­ ment in two other branches to be specified by the Faculty. They will be expected to reside here, and to perform an amount of work which will occupy at least two years. Persons who are not graduates, will be received as candidates for the Degree if they satisfy the Faculty that they have made attainments equivalent to those re­ quired for the Bachelor of Arts.

it will be observed that the first year that the University of

Michigan o ffered the German degree of doctor of philosophy, there was no statement that either a knowledge of foreign languages, or a thesis showing ability to carry on investigation and research were required.

Although the degree was o ffered, it was not conferred in 1875 as an earned degree, it was conferred in 1875 but as an .

Joseph Beal'Steere had spent some two years in South American and also some time in the British East Indies making collections in zoology, geology, botany and archaeology for the University's Museum. It was upon him that the University conferred the degree as an honorary degree in 1875.

The University of Michigan was founded as a part of the public educational system of the State. In accordance with the laws of the

State, it aimed to complete and crown the work which was begun in the public schools. As the time of its founding the idea of a public educational system of a state extending from the primary through the university was still new. Today it is the com&pnplaoe. In 1852 the

University of Miohigan began taking those steps which transformed it into a university in practice as well as name.

This m s with the instituting of "University Course of Lectures," which were intended, "for those who have graduated." In 1856, the elective system of studies which had been introduced in 1852 was in 143 operation in nearly all the studies of the senior year. The operation of the elective system of studies -was intended as a means of encour­ aging the attendance of resident graduates. In 1858 some expansion in offerings to graduates was made in adding "Advanced Course of

Instruction" in the form of lectures.

In 1871 the historical seminar, "akin to the gesellschaft of the

German universities," was introduced giving more freedom in both teaching and learning, and giving the student some training in carrying on investigations of his own. In 1874 the doctor of philosophy degree, the German degree, as it had earlier been referred to at

Michigan, was first offered. In 1875, this degree was first conferred but as an honorary, not an earned, degree.

By ths close of the first three quarters of the nineteenth century the University of Michigan was offering twenty-two post-graduate courses each year, eleven each semester. It further offered instruction to graduates throygh the choice of studies under the eleotive system.

It offered the degree of doctor of philosophy to those who already held the bachelor's degree and who continued two more years of study in residence. It did not require a knowledge of foreign languages or the execution of investigation and research culminating in a written thesis. The degree was offered as a six-year degree. There were in the last year of the third quarter of the century, fifteen resident grad­ uates in attendance, but the Ph.D. as an earned degree had not yet been conferred. 144

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER VII

X. Herbert B • * Study of History in American Colleges and Universities, p. 87. Johns H0pkins University ^ross, 1887•

2. The University of Michigan, University Bulletin, New Series, Vol. V, No. 2, p. 3. The Richmond and Backus Co., 1904.

3. Elizabeth M. Farrand, History of the University of Michigan, p. 8. Ann Arbor* Register Publishing ^ouae, 1885.

4. Ibid*, p. 9.

5. * P * I ® • 6. Henry Philip Tappan, University Education, p. 90. N©w ^ork: George P. Putnam Publishers, 1851.

7. Ibid., p. 91.

8. Calendar of the University of Michigan, p. 21. Ann Arbor* Published by the University, 1852-53.

9. Elizabeth M. Farrand, op. cit. , p. 112.

10. Sdwin E. slosson, Great American Universities, p. 185. New ^ork* G. P . Putnam Co . , 1851.

11. The President^ Report to the Board of Regents, p. 12. Ann Arbor: Published by the University, 1881.

12. Calendar of the University of Michigan, p. 34, 1874-75.

13. iY. Carson Ryan, Studies in Early Graduate Education, p. Bulletin No. 30, New ^ork* The Carnegie foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1939.

14. Calendar of the University of Michigan, p. 10, 1874-75.

15. Ibid., p. 17.

16. Ibid.. p. 20.

jfcld., P« 17.

18. Ibid p. 19.

19. Herbert B. Adams, Methods of Historical Study, In Studies in Historical and Political Soiences, p. 64. Baltimore* Johns Hopkins university, 1884. 145

20. 0£. oit,, p* 71.

21. Calendar of the University of Michigan, p. 9, 1874-75. CHAPTER VIII

JOHNS HOPKINS

I. The privately endowed university

Although Johns Hopkins did not open its doors until September 1876, the building of the University which was done between 1867 and 1876

of course indicated the great charaoter this University was to assume*

The particular structure -which this University adopted was then new on American soil* The highly gifted faculty was of a scholarly and intellectual level American education had not yet seen. The way in which the Johns Hopkins University was basically organized proved to be a point of leadership and of great influence in nineteenth century graduate education*

The observer who has been accustomed to seeing colleges and universities founded with the help of the church or the state, finds counterparts of this practice in the older countries of Europe*

But he can find no real parallel in Europe to the great movement of the middle of the nineteenth century in the United States toward the private endowment of free educational Institutions*^

In a land where almost every strong institution of learning was either "a ohild of the church,” or ”a child of the state,” and was thus liable to political or ecclesiastical control, here mas founded a university to serve both church and state, and free from the guardian­ ship of either.2

This was the nature of the new Johns Hopkins University. It was endowed with three and one-half million dollars, upon which was placed

- 146 - 147 no control of the donor and no limiting restrictions on freedom of

selecting vhat shotild be taught. Being maintained, as it was, entirely

by private muni fence and founded primarily as a graduate Institution,

Hopidns opened a new page in the history of higher education in America.

The trustees of the University were organized in 1867 at the time the University was incorporated under the laws of the state of Maryland, nine^ years before the University opened. On June 13, 1870, the trustees met for the first time and elected a president of the board and a

secretary of the board.

This Board now began a systematic study of how best to build the new University. They gathered together a small but excellent col­

lection of books on university practice in the United States and

Europe. They visited as a body,® other colleges and universities in the United States, including Yale, UarVard, and the University of

Miohigan, where they asked questions concerning university administra­ tion.

When they were ready to select a president for the new institu­ tion, they asked three college presidents separately, Eliot of

Harvard, White &t Cornell, and Angell at Michigan, whom each would recommend for ^resident of the new Johns Hopkins. Each separately recommended the same man. It was President Daniel Coit Gilman, then of the University of California.

After correspondence with Gilman in California, he was elected in December, 1874. Gilman had been profoundly impressed with the low standards of American education whioh had for so many years caused so many of those who wished to specialize to pursue their post-graduate 148 work in Europe, "where, he said, the apex of our educational system had too long been found.

2. Daniel Coit Gilman, president

Gilman was graduated from Yale in 1852. H© then proceeded to

Harvard for one year. Ttfhile there he lived in the home of Arnold

Guyofc the well-known geographer and studied physical geography. In

1854 he went to Europe, studied at the University of Berlin, was attache g of the U.S. legation at St. Petersburg for a few months, and before returning to the United States travelled in England, Germany, and France studying technical and scientific institutions*

Gilman returned to the ^nited States in 1855 and joined the faculty at Yale. His interest in scientific education and his position as teacher of physical geography in the Yale Scientific School, led him to take an active part in the expansion of scientific eda cation at Yale, and in the establishment of the Sheffield Scientific School. Gilman became a member of the governing board*^ of bale's new scientific school,

The Sheffield, as well as professor on its faculty* H© also became

Secretary of the Board of Education of the state of Connecticut, and thus gained an increasingly broader comprehension of public educational needs *

After nine years on the faculty of The Sheffield Scientific School, in 1872 Gilman went to the University of California as president, and professor of physical geography, political economy, and history* He piloted the University of California through an exdeedingly difficult stage in its development from 1872 to 1875* Thus when Gilman came to 149 the new foundation at Baltimore, he brought a background which few men in the United States possessed.

Gilman entered upon his duties at Baltimore in the Spring of

1874. At the request of the Trustees, he spent the summer of 1875 in

Europe conforring with European educators. During the winter of 1875 he and the Board o f Trustees worked out final plans for the University.

Fortunately, the fbunder had left unhampered those who ivere to build the University.

It was during his summer in Europe that Gilman wrote the following letter from , Switzerland.^

It has often seemed to be desirable that one of the specialities of the Johns Hopkins University should be the training up of young men to be the surveyors and engineers by whose skill our interior cotintry will be mapped--the topographical, geological, agricultural and economic aspects.

Gilman said he gained his recognition of how the new scientific educa­ tion, that is, the study of the natural sciences, could and should be applied in training in practical work and careers, f£om his days as a student and as a teacher in Yale's Sheffield Scientific School.

It is chiefly to Daniel Coit Gilman that the character of Johns

Hopkins University must be asdribed. From liie beginning, he set before himself the object of making the new institution a means of supplying to the nation intellectual training of a higher order than could be obtained in the existing American colleges and universities.

Gilman recognized and acknowledged that he and those who were now building a new university were in position to learn and profit from earlier events. He said:^ 150

Wa begin our work after discussions lasting for a generation respecting the aims, methods, deficiencies, and possibilities of higher education in this country; after costly ventures of which we reap the lessons, while others bear the loss; after Jefferson, N0tt, Wayland, Quinoey, Agassiz, Tappan, Mark Hopkins, Woolsey, have completed their official services and have given us their supreme decisions; while the strong successors of these strong men, Eliot, Porter, Barnard, White, Angell, are still upon the controversial platform* we begin after the fhr-reaohing bill of Senator Morrill of Vermont, promoted scientific education • . •

3. The faculty

The first faculty which Gilman assembled during 1875 inoluded six

Resident Professors, ten non-Resident lecturers, twelve Associates and twenty Fellows. The six Resident Professors were his fhmou3 faculty, and the Associates and Fellows were chosen more or less as assistants to them. The Resident Professors who comprised the first faculty 10 were*

Basil L. Gildersleeve, Professor of Greek Ph.D. University of Gottingen Henry Martin, Professor of Biology, M.B. Univ. of London 1871, Dr. Science, Univ. of London 1872, A.B. Univ. of Cambridge, 1874, Fellow and lecturer on Natural History Christ College, Cambridge Fellow of Univ. College, London, Recommended by Thomas H. Huxley J. J. Sylvester, Professor of M&thematios, A.M. Univ. of Cambridge, Corresponding Member Institute of Franoe, Member, Academy of Science in Berlin, Gottingen, Naples, Milan, St. Petersburg, etc. L.L.D. Univ. of Dublin, Univ. of Edinburgh, Prof. of Mathematics, Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, England Ira Remsen, Professor of Chemistry, Assistant in Chemistry, Univ. of Gottingen Henry A. Rowland, Professor of Physics Charles D. Morris, Professor of Latin and Greek 1 5 1

In addition to the Resident Full Professors there were twelve

Associates, most of -whom held the Ph.D. degree from a German university, or from Harvard d t Yale. There were also twenty Fellows, all of whom held the bachelor's degree and some of whom held the Ph.D. For each department there was a Full Professor, an Associate and one or more

Fellows*

Gilman's policy with respect to teachers was to select the ablest whose services could be secured, and to keep them free from petty cares. He also encouraged them to advance by research and publication their own particular field of work by giving them the time, the neces­ sary facilities and trained help*

The non-resident -Lecturers were:

Francis J. Child, of Harvard, Philology James Russell Lowell, of Harvard, M o dem Literature John Vf. Mallett, University o f Virginia, Technical Chemistry Simon Newcomb, Washington, D.C., Astronomy, U.S. Naval °bserv* Leonoe Rebillon, Baltimore, French Francis A. Walker, of Yale, Political Economy William D. Whitney, of Yale, Comparative Philology John S. Billings, Washington,D.C., Medicine, Surgeon & General Office Thomas Cooley, Univ. of Michigan, Law Julius E. Hilgard, American Association, National Surveys Advancement Science

The leoturea offered by the non-resident lecturers were given in the afternoon through the entire sohool year* 12

The various courses of lectures announced by non­ resident lecturers, and also some of those to be given by resident Professors, will be in progress from October to June. These lectures will be open not only to members of the University, but also to others who desire to attend them*

The fee for a course of twenty lectures was five dollars. For the entire series of the year the fee was thirty dollars* 152

Gilman thought that a university should place the emphasis on

graduate work and that the professors should be chosen with special

reference to their promise or achievement in special fields or original

investigation, and quite as important, they should be paid salaries

conmensurate with their ability*

Gilman said that they could not have a great university without

great professors. Some 3aid in reply we cannot have great professors until we have a great university. Gilman then countered, the diffi­ culty applies only to the older men who are great, these you can

rarely move. But the young men of genius, talent, learning, and 13 promise, you can drawj these should be the university's strength.

In gathering together his faculty the most magnifioant the

United States had yet seen, Gilman carried out in practice the attitude he had presented in his dedication speech at Cornell University, on the occasion of the opening of the Sibley College of Mechanic Arts in

1871* At that time he had saidt

In the first place our universities should encour­ age the most profound researches, and investigations* Professors should not be so engrossed by classroom duties, or so fettered in their domestic economies that they have no time for original work. If they are mere teaohers, and not learners, they will poorly serve their generation. Again it should be remembered that the supply of first-rate men of science fitted either to investigate or to teach is very limited. This is true at home and abroad*

Here was launched for the first time in this country a full-fledged graduate school* Here was a University whose standards and activities were on a level with those of the great institutions of Europe. It was Gilman and Johns Hopkins which showed other institutions which were 153 struggling from being oolleges to becoming universities, how advanced university work could be carried on. University education in the

United States owes a great debt to Gilman.

The methods of study and learning used at Johns Hopkins were reproduced from the Atlantic to the Pacific in institutions that had money enough to secure graduates of Johns Hopkins for their faculties•

Under the influence and example of Johns Hopkins some American colleges were able to throw aside some of the rigid traditions which compressed and retarded them and expand into genuine universities.

4. Students

The quality of students which Gilman was able to attract was no less remarkable than the faculty. Gilman's attitude towards students was to care less for numbers and more for m e r i t . ^ When the Univer­ sity opened. September 1876, there were fifty-four young men enrolled.

Each had graduated from an American college within the preceding ten years. Twelve had taken additional study abroad. Six held the

Ph.D. degree and six held the M.D. degree. Among the graduates enrolled were Walter Hines Page, who became Editor of The Yforld* s Work, and later Ambassador to Great Britainj and Josiah fioyce the great

American philosopher and later professor of philosophy at Harvard.

To high-quality students, a wide latitude was allowed in respect to choice of courses and the freedom of using the special research facilities was freely given anyone who showed unusual ability in any department of study. Gilman was especially interested in promising young men could not afford to study abroad, and was eager to set up 154 a course of study for them.** His policy in regard to students attracted a remarkable group of the most gifted young men from all parts of the country*

Although there were each year approximately four time as many graduate students as undergraduates Johns Hopkins accepted undergraduates and nnintained a "Collegiate Department." The under-graduates were called "matriculates." The first year there were twelve matriculates registered in the Collegiate Department.

The Johns Hopkins University opened as a full-fledged university with emphasis on graduate instruction or the University Department.

Collegiate tutorial instruction however was offered because it was felt there would be those students who would feel the need of certain courses in certain fields before specializing in that field. Investigation and research was one of the university’s leading purposes. Various journals were provided at the outset for its publication and dissemination to others working in similar fields. The opening of the Johns Hopkins

University was not only a new advancing step in itself in graduate instruction in the Uni ted States but proved to be an impetus to advanced instruction in other institutions.

The years from 1867 to 1875 were the building years. Instruction was not yet o ffered which of course is the reason description of it is not included in this chapter. In referring to the nature of what he and 16 his associates were attempting to build. Gilman said*

The significance of all this activity is the reaching out for a better state of society than now exists, less suffering in hospitals, less fraud in business, less folly in politics, more wisdom in legislation, more intelligence, more happiness. The study of man should be in relation 155

to history, to jurisprudence, political economy, legisla­ tion, taxation, finance, crime, pauperism, municipal government, national surveys, physical research, geodetical, topographical, meteorological, geological and zoological.

V/hat they did build and something of the results in operation will be described in Part 111.

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER VIII

1. Daniel Coit Gilman, Address at 25th Anniversary of Vanderlip University, p. 161, "The Direction of American University Development.

2. Daniel Coit Gilman, Addresses at the Inaugural of Daniel C. Gilman as President of the Johns Hopkins University, p. 24. Printed by John Murphy & Co., 1876*

3. *’ P* 20.

4. Herbert Baxter Adams, editor, Johns Hopkins University Studies, Educational History and Politics, p. 44, Printed by the Johns Hopkins Foundation, 1891.

5. Ibid., p. 44.

6. Paul Monroe, editor. A Cyclopedia of Eduoation, "Gilman,” p. 112. New York* The Macmillan Co., 19

7. Ibid., p. 112.

2. Carson W. Ryan, Studies in Early Graduate Eduoation, p. 31. Bulletin, No. 30, New York* The Carnegie foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1939.

9. Daniel Coit Gilman, Addresses at the Inaugural of, p. 26.

10. The Johns Hopkins diversity Circular, No. 5, p. 2. Baltimore* Printed by John Murphy & Co., September 1876.

11. Ibid., p. 2.

12. The Johns Hopkins University Circular, No. 4, p. 2. Baltimore* Printed by John Murphy & Co., August 1876.

13. Daniel Coit Gilman, Addresses at the Inaugural of, p. 48. 156

14. Carson W. Ryan, op. clt., p.

15. G. Stanley Hall, Life and Confessions of a Psychologist, p. New Yorks D. Appleton Co., 1924.

16. Caraon W. Ryan, op. cit., p. 31. CHAPTER IX

SUMMARY OF PART II

Part II has dealt with the development of the Ph.D. program in the

United States during the first three quarters of the nineteenth century in five seleoted universities. These five were selected for this study because they were pioneers in this movement in higher eduoation. Their

Ph.D. programs even when small were of high level. Graduate education in the United States has to a measurable extent developed along the paths which these institutions early pointed out.

Yale was first in being able to adapt successfully European university practices to its own program, and thus was the first insti­ tution in this country to offer a course of highly oreditable instruc­ tion leading to the Ph.D. degree. Yale conferred the first Ph.D. in

America in 1861. Yale*3 leadership in setting up the American Journal of Science in 1818 for the dissemination of results of investigations in the sciences of mineralogy, geology, chemistry, was of help and inspiration to the whole new field of university eduoation in the

United States.

Harvard brought to higher education in this oountry its heritage from the English universities, a classical eduoation of university level.

In 1847 Harvard established the Lawrence Scientific School (following

Yale by one year) in setting up a separate school for scientific instruc­ tion of university calibre. Harvard introduced the University Lecture

System, a plan of bringing well-known scholars to the university in a

- 157 158 series of lectures additional to the regular curriculum. This practice ms later followed at Johns Hopkins. Harvard also contributed the practice of using the elective system of studies in instituting grad­ uate instruction into the already existing curriculum, thus maintaining but one curriculum.

Cornell University, a state university which took the name of its founder, instead of the state, introduced practical, technical education of University level. Both Yale and Harvard had had instruction in the applied sciences. But Cornell placed the emphasis in its whole university organization on technical education. It introduced such things as instruction in road building, bridge building, dairying, farm operation, blacksmithing• It was a real university which placed emphasis on the ''mechanic arts." It showed that this could be done and the institution still remain a scholarly university.

The University o f Michigan exemplified a state university which was & part of the public educational system of the state. A state university was in the early part of the nineteenth century something new in the United States. Although the University of Michigan typified the crowning institution of the public educational system of an

American state, it incorporated practices and policies of the German state university. It was this pattern -which later state universities followed, to some extent.

The fifth and last university selected for this study was unique in many ways. Its impaot on the status of university eduoation during its first few years was so immeasurably great that other institutions which had been groping in -ttie transition from colleges to universities 159 now saw the way* They now entered into their work with such increased vision and vigor as to become real universities* The Johns Hopkins

University represented the privately endowed typo. This was in 1867 a new type in the United States* being under neither church or state control. Hopkins was the first university in the United States to have a much larger graduate than undergraduate enrollment*

In 1875 the close of Part II of this study* instruction leading to the Ph.D. degree could be taken in a few departments in four of these universities. Instruction was still largely unorganized and was usually referred to as the Courses of Graduate Instruction. The require­ ments for-the ddgree were quite similar, usually including two years of study beyond the bachelor's degree, a knowledge of two foreign languages, and an original thesis* In 1875 graduate enrollments were still low, and the number of Ph.D. degrees conferred annually was still extremely low, usually one or two a year in each institution*

Graduate instruction in the United States can look back to these institutions for its American origin* It has also profited from these pioneers* It has patterned and adapted procedures and practices from their successes. Credit must go to these for Introducing the doctor of philosophy degree from Germany into the United States. This very early history of graduate instruction in the United States is a proud history* PART III

PERIOD OF STANDARDIZATION IN THE UNITED STATES FROM 1876 TO 1900

Part III will cover the last quarter of the nineteenth century.

The same five institutions which were discussed in Part II— Yale,

Harvard, Cornell, Michigan, and Johns Hopkins universities— will be described. The period of 1876 to 1900 was a time of great expansion in graduate course offerings, and of standardization of requirements for the doctor of philosophy degree. It was a time of great increase in graduate enrollments, and the establishment of graduate schools as distinct units of organization. Yale will be discussed first.

- 160 CHAPTER X

YALE 1876-1900

1, Courses of graduate instruction

^n 1876 Yale published a small bulletin entitled Yale College in 1876#

Some Statements Respecting the Late Progress and Present Condition of the

Various Departments of the University, There was a section in this bulle­ tin entitled, Department of Graduate Instruction. The statement under this section will give some idea of the status of graduate instruction at the opening of the last quarter of the nineteenth century.*

The instruction of graduate students, under the faculty of Philosophy and the Arts, is a part of the University system which continues to grow, steadily though slowly in extent and importance. The catalogue of 1876 shows sixty names of students in this department, 24 of them being graduates of our own Academical Department, 14 of the Sheffield, and 22 of other colleges, and several others have spent a longer or shorter part of the year in study here. The courses of instruction offered have been very nearly the same sls in the preceding year or twoj and the attendance upon them may be roughly stated as follows* In philological branches there have been 13 students of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology, 9 of Greek, 8 of Anglo-Saxon and Old English, 6 of *atin, and 2 o f Gothic. The classes of political economy have numbered 15 students, those in history, 5. In mathematics and physical branches the different classes have numbered together about 15 members.

In 1877 the Department of Philosophy and the Arts had four sub- aeotions. There were* The Graduate Department, the Undergraduate

Academical Department, the Sheffield Scientific School and the School of Fine Arts. The oourses of instruction given in the graduate depart­ ment were in eight departments. The following table will show the increase in the number of courses offered from eighty-three in 1880, to

353 in eleven departments in 1900. - 161 - 1880 1885

I. Intellectual Philosophy* I, Intellectual PhilosopLosopi Ethics 4 Ethics II. Political Science and II, Pol. Sc., Social Sci^ History 17 History, Law III. Philol. So. and Lit. 23 III Philol. Sc. & Lit. Lit* IV. Mathematics 12 IV Mathematics V. Physics, Chemistry, V Physics, Chemistry, j,y^ Astronomy 9 Astronomy ,* * VI. Geology, Nat. History 8 VI Geology, Natural Nis^tory VII. Applied Science 10 VII Applied Scidnce VIII. Fine Arts VIII Fine Arts

* 83 courses \ cour i TABLE I

fRADUATE INSTRUCTION AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1880 TO 1900

1892 1897 ;y, Ethics, I i. Psychology, Ethics, ophy it Philosophy 17 19 fe. History ii. Pol. So. and Social Sc., III* Sanskrit, Linguistics and pology <* and History 29 Classical Philology Law h i . Oriental Langs. & IV* Semitic Languages and ■ and Literature 78 Biblical Literature 26 Biblical Literature it IV. Classical Philology 38 rsian V. Modern Langs. & Lit. 41 | * VI. Natural and Phys. Science 31 an VII. Pure and Applied %th. 29 303 courses VIII. Fine Arts 3 cian IX. Music 3 io Aramaio \ nian L( 08 13 ad Chemistry 4 217 courses Natural History 6, Logy raphy f r sienoe 10 >my Ltural Chemistry .cal Engineering • Music

\ 145 courses 1897 1900 r* I. Psychology, Ethics, 17 Philosophy 32 fal Sc., III* Sanskrit, Linguistics and ' II. Economics, Social So., I 29 Classical Philology 60 History, Law 60 IV* Semitic Languages and III. Semitic Langs. & Biblical mture 26 Biblical Literature Literature 49 |gy 38 Hebrew Jit. 41 Other Semitic Iengs. I Scienoe 31 Biblical Lit. path. 29 303 courses IV. Classical and Indo- 3 1 Iranian Philol. 57 * 3 Indo-Iranian Philol. Linguistics V. Modern Languages 53 Romance Languages courses Germanic languages Russian English VI. Natural and Physical Sc. 73 Mineralogy Geology Paleontology Physics Chemistry Biology Forestry VII* Mathematics 34 Pure Applied VIII* Fine Arts IX. Music X. Physical Education

353 courses }

TABLE I

COUHSES OF GRADUATE INSTRUCTION AT YALE

1885 1890 1892 llectual Philoso^oaophy, I. Intellectual Philosophy* I. Psychology, Ethics, I.' bhics 4 Ethics Philosophy 1$ So., Social Sci^ II* Pol. Sc., Social Science, II. Pol, Sc. & History 19 II. istory, Law 17 History, Law Anthropology ol. Sc. & Lit. Lit. 23 III, Philol. Sc. & Lit. Roman Law III. wnatic8 _ 12 IV. Mathematics III. Philology and Literature 78 Lcs, Chemistry* j»yf V. Physics, Chemistry, Sanskrit IV. stronomy | 9 Astronomy Old Persian V. ogy, Natural M-s^tory 8 VI, Geology, Natural History Hebrew VI led. SciAnce 10 VII. Applied Science Assyrian VII Arts VIII. Fine Arts Arabio VIII. Phoenician IX I ’> courses Targumic Aramaic Babylonian IV. Mathematics 13 V. Physics and Chemistry 6 ; VI. Geology, Natural History 6 Mineralogy Petrography Botany Zoology Anatomy VII. Applied Science 10 Astronomy Agricultural Chemistry Mechanical Engineering VIII. Fine Arts, ifosic

145 courses TABLE I

riON AT YALE TABLE I

OF GRADUATE INSTRUCTION AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1880 TO 1900 1892 1.1 1892 1897 19 II. jology, Ethics, t. I. Psychology, Ethics, plosophy l| Philosophy 17 III. Be, A History 19 II. Pol. So, and Social Sc,, 78 III. Sanskrit* Linguistics and phropology and History 29 Classical Philology IV. pan Law III. Oriental Langs. & IV. Semitic Languages and V. P-ogy and Literature 78 Biblical Literature VI, 26 Biblical Literature bskrit IV. Classical Philology 38 VII, a Persian V. Modern Langs. & Lit. 41 VIII, j brew VI. Natural and Phys. Scienoe 31 IX, lyrian ! VII. Pure and Applied Math. 29 303 courses ibio VIII. Fine Arts 3 >enician IX. Music 3 13 ■gumio Aramaio 6 ^ylonian • 6 itics 15 is and Chemistry Gj 217 courses ;y, Natural History 6, leralogy ; irography any i 10 logy I tony ry d Soienoe 10 ag ronomy loultural Chemistry jhanical Engineering ts, Music

145 courses 162

180 TO 1900

1897 1900 r I. Psychology, Ethics, 9 17 Philosophy 32 and fal Sc., III. Sanskrit, Linguistics and ' II. Economics, Social Sc., y *1 29 Classical Philology 60 History, Law 60 IV. Semitic Languages and III. Semitic Langs. & Biblical e fature 26 Biblical literature Literature 49 38 Hebrew ft. 41 Other Semitic Langs. 1 Scienoe 31 Biblical ^t. irses path. 29 303 courses IV. Classical and Indo- 3 Iranian Philol. 57 j 3 Indo-Iranian Philol. Linguistics V. Modern Languages S3 Romance Languages courses Germanic languages Russian English VI. Natural and Physical Sc. 73 Mineralogy Geology Paleontology Physics Chemistry Biology Forestry VII. Mathematics 34 Pure Applied VIII. Fine Arts IX. Musio X. Physical Education

353 courses 163

The fee for graduate Instruction was generally one hundred dollars o a year but could be more or less according to the number of courses pursued. This was especially true in relation to laboratory courses, where a charge was made according to the number of laboratory courses attended and materials used. The fee for graduate instruction and undergraduate instruction was the same.

In 1888 psychology, which had been taught in group I under

Philosophy, was first included in the title of the department. By 1892 the psychology section of the department had expanded to such extent that it was assigned a building for its own use. The building provided leoture rooms, small seminar rooms, rooms for special apparatus, a departmental library, and a departmental laboratory which later became known as the Yale Psychological laboratory.

In 1890 the greatest expansion in number of courses was in group III,

Philology and Literature, and was in the area of Semitic languages.®

Some of the new courses were* historical Hebrew, Assyrian language,

Assyrian syllabus and mythological inscriptions, Assyrian historical inscriptions, Arabic languages, earlier suras of the Kuran, Arabic geography and history, Arabic commentaries, Phoenician, Old testament legal literature, Targumic Aramaic.

In 1891 group IV, M o d e m languages and Literature, introduced a new course entitled, The Beginnings of the English Romantic Movement.

This course all but marks an epoch in the teaching of English literature at Yale. It was taught by William Lyon Phelps and was an outgrowth of his doctorate thesis in that field, presented at Yale. Throughout

Phelp's fifty years of teaohing English at Yaie his own writings were 164

distinct contributions to English literature studies and the courses he

offered were among the most stimulating and sought after in the

University, In the same year, group VII, music, listed its offerings

for the first time. It offered but five courses. They were:

harmony, counterpoint, canon, fugue and forms.

In 1893 the largest number of courses offered by any one department

4 was in the department of the natural and physical sciences. The forty

courses here offered included such courses as: mineralogy and crystallog­

raphy, structural and dynamical geology, geological history of organisms,

invertebate palaeontology, physical geography, physics, agricultural

chemistry, chemical physiology of vegetation, experimental inorganic

chemistry, experimental organic chemistry, botany, zoology and biology.

In connection with the courses in analytical chemistry statements were in 1893 for the first time made of the laboratories for student g use.

The analytical laboratories are open to students in term time from 9 to 1 and from 2 to 6 o*clock, every week-day except Saturday. The greater part of the instruction is given in the laboratory to each student separately, but the various olasses have, in addition, one or two fhmiliar lectures or recitations a week, in connection with the studies pursued in the laboratory.

This description of laboratory facilities for students in analytical

chemistry illustrates vividly the progress made since the establishment

in 1846 of the first laboratory fbr student use. This was the fruitage

of the pioneering work of Benjamin D. Silliman, Sr., from 1802 to 1852.

In 1894 courses began to appear entitled research. In explanation

of these courses it was in certain instances mentioned that the results worked

In 1896 the seminar was first mentioned* The seminar was in use in the departments of English literature* Semitic languages, psychology, and history. The seminar was used most extensively in the department of history. Every candidate for the Ph.D. in history was required by the department to take the seminar entitled, Ifethods of Historical Research and Criticism, which was based on the German text, Lehrbuch der historischen Iviethode, by Bernheim*

In 1894 it was announced for the first time that these courses of g graduate instruction could be used for teacher training*

The attention of teachers who desire to fit themselves more thoroughly for a higher grade of professional work is called to the advantages offered b y this department for pedagogioal instruction and discipline. In addition to the special and advanced study o£ the subjects in which the graduate student desires instruction, and the pursuit of courses in psychology, ethics, philosophy* and of bther courses cognate with pedagogy, opportunity will be afforded to observe the actual practice in the class­ room as well as the organization of the different departments of the University and their methods of work*

A separate teacher-training program was set up. The program included the following fields of instruction* psychology and pedagogy, history, political, and social sciences, English, Greek literature and life, fine arts, archaeology, biology and morphology. The teacher- training courses were graduate courses, the bachelor*s degree being required for entrance. About 120 teachers enrolled the first year* there was a slight annual increase in enrollment thereafter. However in 1900 the enrollment in the teacher-training program was still under

170. This was considered by the University as a separate program. Its enrollment figures were listed separately from the enrollments of the

Graduate Department* Teacher training was never stressed at; Yale, the 166

the enrollments were always low.

In 1895 instruction for graduates was greatly expanded. This was

done by opening certain undergraduate courses to graduates. An asterick

at the course number in the university catalogue indicated that that

course was open to any graduate who had the consent of the instructor

and the approval of the Graduate Department faculty.

By 1900 the courses of graduate instruction had increased to more than 350* The largest group was that of the natural and physical

sciences, group VI, The natural and physical sciences included at this

time seven areas: mineralogy, geology, palaeontology, archaeology, geology, physics, chemistry, and biology.

In 1877 the graduate department had a separate faculty of thirty- g five professors. These men still taught an occasional undergraduate

course in the Academical College and their names in some instanoes also appeared on the faculty of the Academical College, but the larger part of their teaching load and work was in the graduate depart­ ment. In 1887 the year the Act was passed authorizing the use of the title, Yale University, there were fifty-four on the faculty which gave the graduate courses.

In 1891 the seventy-two on this faculty were professors of* moral philosophy and metaphysics, geology said mineralogy, history of art, law, Sanskrit and comparative philology, music, mathematics, theoretical and analytical chemistry, agriculture, botany, history, painting and design, Japanese, mathematical physics, English, palaeontogy, modern languages, drawing, Latin, zoology, political and social science, philosophy, American history, chemistry, English literature, civil 167 engineering, Greek, physiological chemistry, German, systematic theology, ecclesiastical history, French, anatomy, astronomy, new

Testament criticism, Swedish and Danish,

On this faculty were six men who had served Yale from the early beginnings of advanced instruction. They were William Dwight Whitney,

James Dwight Dana, Sdward Salisbury Dana, Josiah Willard Gibbs, William

H, Brewer, and Thomas R. Lounsbury. Whitney, it will be remombered, was the first "university professor" in the classics. Whitney was appointed in 1854 and worked continuously at Yale until 1893 a period of thirty-nine years. Whitney13 textbooks in Sanskrit, French and German were U3ed i-n Yale's graduate instruction. He taught Sanskrit, Compara­ tive philology, French, and German, conducted investigations of special topics in the history of languages, and wrote textbooks. Whitney witnessed the growth of the graduate staff from three "university professorships" in 1854 to a faculty of eighty-two members in 1893 offering 818 graduate oourses. His period of service saw Yale College becomd Yele University (1887), the Graduate Department established

(in 1889), and the appointment of a dean of this department in 1892,

James Dwight Dana, son-in-law of Benjamin D. Silliman, Sr., taught chemistry, mineralogy, and gplogy at Yale from 1836 to 1894#

From 1846 to 1885 Dana was co-editor of the American Journal of Science which his father-in-law had founded in 1818. From 1866 to 1895 he served as Trustee of the Peabody Museum of Comparative Zoology. His son, Edward Salisbury Dana, received the Ph.D. degree at Yale in 1876 and began his long period of service, teaching physics until 1917.

From 1874 to 1922 he was also Curator of mineralogy for the Peabody and 168 from 1885 to 1929 ono of* its trustees.

Josiah Willard Gibbs, the great mathematical physicist, served

Yale from 1863 to 1903. Gibbs was granted the Ph.D. from Yale in

1863 and the "Dr. Phil." from the University of Erlangen, Germany

(while on leave of absence from Yale) in 1893. William H. Brewer, one of the pioneers in the development of the science of agriculture in the United States, was granted the Ph.D. from Yale ih 1859 and taught agriculture there until 1903. Thomas R. Lounsbury was graduated from

Yale in 1859 and taught English there until 1906. These six men still working in graduate instruction at the opening of the last decade of the century had seen the early, sometimes solitary, efforts of the formative years become long since constitutent parts of the University program.

Departmental graduate clubs played an important part in graduate instruction at Yale. At first, 1886, they were voluntary associations in which instructors and students met together periodically for the reading of papers, discussion, and where reports were made on investi­ gations and researches which were being carried on by members. The meetings were study sessions and the club programs were considered as adjuncts to the instruction offered in the department. The following table will show how these clubs increased from four in their first year, 1886, to twelve in 1900.

In 1893 the University began giving the clubs permanent rooms, and insofar as possible in the same building as the department. The rooms became reading rooms and were the headquarter*- for the graduate students of the department. In the same year the Psychology Club I

1886 1887 1888-1890 1891 Classical Classical Classical Classi Philological Philological Philological ^hilol ,1 Mathemati oal Mathemat i cal Mathemnti cal Mathenn 1 3 Political Science Political Science Political Soience Politi oie Philosophical Philosophical Philos al Semitic and Semitic and Semitic Biblical Biblical Bibl: Modern Greek

1 TABLE II Lb n

DEPARTMENTAL GRADUATE CLUBS AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1886 TO Iff ALE

1895______1895 1891 1891 1892 1894______189- Classical Classioal Classical Classical Classical Cla Classij il Philological Philological Philological Philological %themat5 Phi3 Philolj Mathematics Mathematics Political Mat3, il Mathematioa Mathematics 1,'iathon Political Soience Political Science Philosoph Politii Joience Political Science Political Soience Pol5 sal Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Semitic e Philos| Phi3 Semitic and Semitic and Semitic and Semitic and Biblica Sem Semitid Biblical Biblical Biblical Biblical Comparati B Biblj Modern Languages Modem Languages Modern Languages Modern lenguages Religic Mod Modern) Greek Greek Greek Modern La Gre Greek Greek Pure and Applied Pure and Applied English Pur Mathematics •Mathematics Physics d M Greek Pure and Mathema IS II

FROM 1886 TO 1 STALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1886 TO 1900

1895 1894______1895______1896 ______1897______Classical Classical Classical Classical Classical Mathemat:* Philological Mathematical Mathematical Mathematical Political Mathemati cs Political Science Political Soience Political Science >nce Philosoph Political Science Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Semitic a Philosophical Semitic and Semitic and Semitic Biblica Semitic and Biblical Biblical Biblical Comparati Biblical Comparative Comparative Comparative ;©s Religic Modern languages Religion Religion Religion Modern La Creek Modern Languages Modern Languages Modem Languages ed English Pure and Applied English English English Physics J Mathematics Physics Journal Physics Journal Physics Journal Creek Greek Greek Greek Pure and Pure and Applied Pure and Applied Pure and Applied Mathema Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Engineering Engineering Chemical 1900______1897 1898 1899 I 1898 Classical Classical Classioal Classical . cal Classical i<&thematical Mathematics Mathematics Mathematica. atical Mathematics ice Political Science Political Scienoe Political Soience Political S cal Science Political Science Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Philosophic ophical Philosophical Samitio (Psychology) (Psychology) (Psycholo 0 (Psychology) Biblical Semitic Semitic Semitic al Semitic Comparative Biblical Biblical Modern Lang ative Biblical Religion Comparative Comparative English gion Comparative as Modern Languages Religion Religion Physics Joi . Languages Religion English Modern Languages Modern languages Engineering h Modern Languages \ Physics Journal English English Historical is Journal English Greek Physics Journal Physics Journal Physical Physics Journal ed Pure and Applied Greek Greek md Applied Greek Mathematics Pure and Applied Pure and Applied Lematica Pure and Applied Engineering Mathematics Mathematics iering Mathematics Chemical Engineering Engineering al Engineering Chemical Chemical Chemical Psychology Psychology Psychology DIVERSITY PROM 1886 TO 1900

1895______1896 1897 1898 sical Classical Classical Classical Classical ological Mathematical Mathemati cal Mathematical Mathematics ematios Political Science Political Soience Political Science Political Scienct tical Science Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical osophical Semitic and Semitic and Semitic (Psychology) tic and Biblical Biblical Biblical Semitic blioal Comparative Comparative Comparative Biblical rn languages Religion Religion Religion Comparative k Modern languages Modern languages Modern Languages Religion and Applied English English English Modern Languages thematics Physios Journal Physics Journal Physics Journal English Greek Greek Greek Physics Journal Pure and Applied Pure and Applied Pure and Applied Greek Mathematics Mathematics Mathematics Pure and Applied Engineering Engineering Mathematics Chemical Engineering Chemi cal Psychology 169

1897______1898______1899______1900______Classical Classical Classioal Classical Mathematical Mathematics Mathematics Mathematical ICO Political Science Political Science Political Soience Political Science lencc Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Philosophical Semitio (Psychology) (Psychology) (Psychology) r) Biblical Semitic Semitic Semitic Comparative Biblical Biblical Modern Languages Religion Comparative Comparative English 38 Modern languages Religion Religion Physics Journal English Modern Languages Modem languages Engineering tges l Physics ^oumal English English Historical Greek Physics Journal Physics Journal Physical tal ad Pure and Applied Greek Greek Mathematics Pure and Applied Pure and Applied led Engineering Mathematics Mathematics Chemical Engineering Engineering Chemical Chemical Psychology Psychology 170 l became separate from the Philosophy Club. In that year the University gave the Psychology Club its own laboratory which was also the depart­ mental laboratory and later became known as the Yale Psychological

Laboratory. Year by year the reading rooms became well stooked depart­ mental libraries, largely through friends and scholars outside the

Universi ty*

Certain of the larger clubs, by 1895, had a number of smaller read­ ing groups. By 1900 most of the twelve clubs had their own sizable departmental libraries. Most of these libraries ranged from 2000 to 3000 volumes. The Instructional services of these clubs wore not unlike those of the seminar. Here the graduate students and the instructors met together on a personal friendly basis. The instructors gave supervision to investigations in progress eeindividual research which was being carried on in any part of the general work of the department was here reported. All of these clubs were non-credit*

In 1900 graduate instruction at Yale was most comprehensive. It was under the direction of the Graduate School. Its faculty of 116 members, offered 353 courses to a Graduate School enrollment of 304 students*** Facilities for graduate research inoludedt laboratories, museums, and collections of the University, which included the Peabody

Museum, physical, chemical, biological, andeajgb$eering laboratories,

Eaton herbarium of the Sheffield Scientific School, Yale Psychological laboratory, collections of the School of Fine Arts. The libraries of the three professional schools, of the Sheffield, the University library, and the twelve departmental libraries could be used without charge* 171

2, Requirements for the Ph.D. degree

There were no changes in requirements for the doctorate at Yale from

1872 to 1889. The conditions under which the doctorate could be obtained at Yale had been of high standard, so thus could continue without major change. In 1876 the requirements reads®

The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy is conferred upon those who, after having taken a Bachelor s degree (imply­ ing a course of undergraduate study equivalent to that pursued in the Academical Department) and having studied in this department for not less than two years, shall have passed a final examination and presented a thesis giving evidence of high attainment in the branches of knowledge pursued. It is not given, upon examination, to those whose studies are pursued elsewhere. The requirement for it will in some cases exact of the student more than two years of labors especially when the course of undergraduate study has been less than four years. A good knowledge of Latin, German, and French will be required in all cases, unless for some exceptional reason, the candidate be excused by the Faculty. The graduating fee is ten dollars.

These requirements continued without change until 1889, the year that the "Graduate Department" replaced "Graduate Courses of Instruction."

In that year it was required that the thesis be presented for public inspection not later than June 1. There were no further changes until

1896 the year the Graduate Department was renamed the Graduate School.

This change was "in certain exceptional cases work of equal grade at another University may take the place of a year's residence here." In

1897 it was necessary to deposit the thesis at the library for publio inspection not later than May first. There were no further changes in 1898, 1899, or 1900.

For a quarter of a century, 1876 to 1900, the requirements for the dootorate at Yale stood with little change. In 1900 they were* 172

Bachelor*a degree (equivalent to that offered by Yale*a Academical Department)

Two or more year's residence* but in exceptional cases work af equal grade at another university might take the place of a year's residence

Final examination in all subjects

Thesis giving evidence of high attainment deposited in library by ^ a y first

A good knowledge of Latin* German* and French* unless for some very exceptional reason the candidate is excused by the faculty

The degree was not given on examination of studies pursued elsewhere

The graduation fee was ten dollars

The doctor of philosophy degree was at Yale University in 1900 a six-year degree, and the master of arts degree as a prerequisite was not mentioned.

3. From courses o f graduate instruction to graduate school

in 1876 Yale's Department of Graduate Instruction was receiving graduates from other collegea^and universities, in that year about one-third, or twenty-two of the sixty enrolled* were from other insti­ tutions .1° Yale encouraged the practice of advanced students coming for longer or shorter periods of study without reference to a degree.

Requirements for admission to graduate instruction in 1877 were stated thus* 1 1

Graduates at this and other colleges and persons of liberal education (not less than eighteen years old), are received as students for longer or shorter periods, with or without reference to the attainment of a degree. 173

This statement of admission continued until 1886, when it was 12 restated, but without any real change in policy.

Graduates of this and other Colleges or Universities, nmi (in exceptional cases, by special permission) other persons of liberal education, who are not less than eighteen years old, are reoeived as students for longer or shorter periods with or without reference to the attainment of a degree.

The statement of admission continued until 1900, which means there was no change in the condition of admissions from 1876 to 1900. 13 The fee for graduate instruction was in 1877 as here stated*

In the case of resident students, the charge fajr instruction will usually be one hundred dollars /per year/, with a fee of ten dollars for the degree. In the case of non-residents, the fee for examinations and the degree will usually be twenty-five dollars.

In 1879 the statement was shortened to*

The fee for instruction is generally one hundred dollars /per yeara/, or more or less, according to the course pursued ana the amount of instruction received. 14 In 1886 the policy concerning the use of the library was added*

Students have free use of the Library at the University (including the Linonian and Brothers ^±br&ry)i and are ad­ mitted to the College Reading Room on payment of an annual fee of two dollars.

These fees remained the same until the close of the century.

As to the supervision of graduate instruction, the oatalogue for

1877 stated*^®

An Executive Committee has a general oversight of the students in this department. They receive the names of applicants for instruction, and judge and approve the course of study proposed; and information may be obtained from them as to conditions, terms, ate.| students may also make special arrangements with any instructor according to their mutual convenience. 174

There was no ohange until 1891, when to the preceding statement 16 of policy was added*

All graduate students not regularly enrolled in any other Department of the University, are required to register their names at the Treasurer s office at the beginning of each year of study*

In 1878 all departments of instruction in Yale College were compre­ hended under four divisions*

Faculty of Theology Faculty o f Medicine Faculty of Law Faculty of Philosophy and the Arts

Under the last named faculty were included:

Courses of Graduate Instruction Undergraduate Academical Department Sheffield Scientific School School of Fine Arts

Each of these seotions of the Faculty of Philosophy and the Arts had its own distinct organization. This outline of the organization con­ tinued as above until 1886, when it was revised*

The change in the statement took place in the year Yale adopted the title of "University" (1887)# The new statement was*

The oourses of study offered in the University are comprehended in four Departments, under the control of the Corporation, each Department being also under the administration of a distinct Faculty of instruc­ tion. The Departments are as follows*

Department of Philosophy and the Arts Department of Theology Department of Medicine Department of Law

Under the first named Department are included two separately organized seotions in which instruction for undergraduates is provided.

The Academical Department, and The Sheffield Scientific Schools 176

Also The School of Fin© Art©* with a special organiza­ tion; and The Courses for Graduate Instruction under the combined Faculty of the Department.

In 1889 Courses of Graduate Instruction was renamed the Graduate

Department.

In 1890 the President in his Annual Report stressed the need for a building separate from the buildings of the Academical College, which should be devoted to the use of the Graduate Department. This he said would give the Department a more distinct position and greater strength.

In 1892 the Graduate Department was given a separate building for its own use. Its faculty was comprised of those professors who devoted a large part of their time to instruction in advanced work, and also of those teachers who offered one or two courses in the Graduate Depart- ment.4. 17

The professors of the several sections of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts constitute the Faculty of the Graduate Sohool. The general oversight of graduate instruction and graduate students is entrusted to the Dean and the Adminis­ trative Committee.

In May 1892 the office of the Dean of the Graduate Department 18 was created by the Corporation.

In connection with the more complete organization of this department, the office of the Dean of the Courses of Graduate Instruction was created by the Corporation at their meeting in j^ay. Committees of the faculty mere also appointed to have charge of the matter of admissions, of degrees, etc. Provision was made fbr the publication from time to time, of a limited number of essays prepared by the students of the Department and characterized by peouliar merit.

In j%rch 1892 women were admitted to the Graduate Department as candidates for the dootorate. This was the first department at ^ale 176

19 in which women could be candidates for a degree*

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy with the courses of the graduate department leading thereto is open to candidates without distinction of sex*

For many years it had occasionally happened that women had availed themselves of the courses of graduate instruction at Yale. However, there were no regular provisions for such cases. They were the out­ come of special arrangements with the instructor in each instance*

Women could be admitted as oandidates for a degree in the Graduate

Department, because graduate and undergraduate work at Yaie had developed separately. Yale could admit women to the Ph.D. degree without involving changes in the undergraduate college*

In regard to the policy of opening the candidacy for the Ph.D. degree to women, the President stated in his Annual Report, three years 20 later, that the practice was working out satisfactorily*

The success of the movement by which the graduate courses were opened to young women who had received the A.B., Ph.D., or Soience, has proved very satis­ factory. After an experience of nearly three years, it is found that the opportunities of study here have been used gladly by women students and excellent work done,

1895 mention is first made of the services of a Dean under the statement of organization of uThe Graduate Department of Yale

University. . .11

The general oversight of graduate instruction and graduate students is entrusted to the Dean and the Administrative Committee, who may be called upon for information and advice. Students are expected to report to the Dean soon after reaching New ^aven* 177

In 1896 the Graduate School was organized replacing the Graduate

Department.2*

The Graduate School of ^ale University forms a section of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts, which was first formally organized in 1847 for scientific and graduate instruction, but now includes Yale College, the Sheffield Scientific School, the School of Fine Arts, and the Department of ^usic. The professors in the several sections of the Depart­ ment of Philosophy and the Arts together constitute the Faculty of the Graduate School.

The faculty of the Graduate School Just referred to oonsisted of ninety-eight members. The School had an Administrative Committee con­ sisting of twelve members, and instruction was offered in ten depart­ ments.

In 1900 the Graduate School of Yale University had its own build­ ings, its own funds, a dean, an administrative committee, its own faculty, and its own policy of admissions. As to admissions, it admitted women as candidates for one of its degrees which no other department of the tfaiversity did. The Graduate School functioned as a distinct unit, as did each of the other four sections ^Yale College,

Sheffield Scientific School, Sohool of Fine Arts, Department of

Music) which comprised the Department of Philosophy and the Arts*

4. Enrollments and degrees conferred -

Considering the number of graduate courses offered and the fact that advanced work could be taken in 1876 in eight departments, graduate enrollment was low. There were more graduate courses offered then there were graduate students. In 1876 there were sixty registered under Graduate Instruction and there were seventy-five 178 courses offered. The following table will show the relation of the size of graduate enrollment to that of the entire University. It is to be understood that the figures in the column under Enrollment in the Graduate Department includes not only those studying for the Ph.D. degree but also those studying for the three other advanced degrees —

A.M., C.E., M.E.~ as well as those studying without reference to a degree, a practice which Yale encouraged.

In 1897 the policy was instituted of allowing students to pursue courses of study "in absence under the direction of the Faculty for the degree of master of arts, mechanical engineer, or civil engineer." Those studying "in absence" are included in the enrollment figures for 1897 to 1900. All enrollees in the graduate courses held the bachelor's degree exoepting those from the foreign universities in which cases it stated, "graduated from." The University did not list the candidates for the Ph.D. separately from the figures of the enroll­ ment of the Graduate School, so these can not here be given.

In 1880 registration under Graduate Instruction reached its lowest point with but twenty-nine students. This gradual decrease in numbers from 1876 on to this year was thought to be due to the opening of the Johns Hopkins University in 1876, with its emphasis on graduate education and also to the increased emphasis which the administration at Harvard was placing on advanced work there. In 1892 women were admitted. The reason President Eliot urged the adoption of this policy was to increase enrollments. Of the 125 registered in the Department that year, twenty-three were women. From 1892 on to the d o s e of the decade there was a small but constant increase in numbers* 179

TABLE 111

UNIVERSITY AND GRADUATE ENROLLMENTS AND NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

University Enrollment Ph.D. degrees Year Enrollment Grad. Dept. conferred 1876 — 60 3 1877 1039 50 3 1878 1022 46 4 1879 1003 39 3 1880 1037 29 5

1881 1042 44 0 1882 1096 41 2 1883 1092 30 1 1884 1086 37 2 1885 1076 42 5

1886 1134 56 2 1887 1245 69 4 1888 1365 79 4 1889 1477 81 12 1890 1645 104 9

1891 1784 76 21 1892 1969 125 13 1893 2 2 0 2 143 12 1894 2350 138 20 1895 2415 176 18

1896 2495 227 30 1897 2500 270 21 1898 2511 283 34 1899 2517 283 29 1900 2542 304 26

In 1894 the names of women began to appear in the lists of those upon whom the degree had been conferred. From 1894 to 1900 an average of six degrees a year were granted to women candidates. These candidates came almost exclusively from the eastern women's colleges.22 major­ ity held the bachelor's degree from Smith College, the second college in numbers therefrom was, Wellesleys third, Vassar* 180

TABLE IV

HUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED ON MEN AND WOMEN AT YALE UNIVERSITY FROM 1894 TO 1900

1894 1895 1896 1897 1898 1899 1900 Total Men 13 14 23 20 25 27 21 143 Yfomen 7 4 7 1 9 2 5 35

The 283 enrolled In the Graduate School for the year 1899 were distributed with reference to their major subject and field of specialization as followsr

Psychology, Ethics, Philosophy 31 Eoonomics, Social Science, History, Law 55 Semitic Languages and Biblical Lit. 11 Classical and Indo-Iranian Philology 28 Modem Languages and Literature 73 Natural and Physical Science 46 Pure and Applied Mathematics 33 Fine Arts 2 Music 4

In the year 1900 the fields of the natural and physical sciences and that of biblical literature stood first as choices of specializa­ tion, The distribution of candidates upon whom the degree was con­ ferred among the fields of specialization was*

Philosophy 3 Classics 2 English 1 Modem Languages 2 Political and Social Sciences 3 Natural and Physical Sciences 7 Biblical literature 7 Mathematics 1

During the first part of the 1876 to 1900 period, two-thirds of those enrolled in the advanced courses were Yale graduates and the total enrollment came largely from Connecticut and the other New

England states with occasional students from the nearby states of New 181

York, Pennsylvania. During the latter part of this period more than

one-half of the enrollment were Yale graduates. The second institution from which the largest number of graduates came was Massachusetts

Institute of Technology.

Mo re than one-third of the enrollment was from the state of

Connecticut; New York, Massachusetts, Pennsylvania and New Jersey were the states which had the next largest representations. The remainder came from practically every state and eleven foreign countries. The foreign countries were; Japan, , Hawaii, , Cuba, Macedonia,

Sweden, , England, Switzerland, and France.

Throughout this period the pattern of graduate work remained much the same. During the early part of the period the three main areas of study chosen by the students were: political science, natural and physical sciences, and classical philology. At the close of this period, the order of choice had changed somewhat but there were the same three areas of study: natural and physical sciences; economics, social science, history, law; and classical philology.

It should be pointed out that during this period classical philology had expanded so much that two now separate departments had branched out from it, the department of Semitic languages and Biblical literature, and the m o d e m language department. IVhile political science had added on now areas instead of having certain areas branch­ ing off. If classical philology is considered in relation to its ability to expand into creating new departments, then classical philology was throughout this period the dominant area in graduate work. 182

The period from 1876 to 1900 was one of large unfoldment and fruition on a continuing solid and scholarly basis. In 1887 Yale

College was officially renamed Yale University. In 1889 that section of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts which had been known as Courses of Graduate Instruction was renamed the Graduate Department «>

In 1892 a Dean was appointed to over-see the Graduate Department, and the Department was given a separate building for its own use. Also in 1892 women were admitted to the Graduate Department as candidates for one of its degrees, the Ph.D., this being the only department in the university which admitted women as candidates for a degree. In 1896 the Graduate Department was renamed the Graduate School,

Throughout this quarter-century the number of graduate students increased five-fold, from 60 to 304. The radius from which the students came, Extended from largely the New England states, to practically every state in the United States and 11 foreign countries.

The number of courses expanded from approximately 75 to approximately

353. Throughout this expansion and change the three main areas of specialization chosen by graduate students remained the same. They were: political scienoe, natural and physical soiences, and classical philology.

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER X

!• Yale College in 1876. Some statements respecting the State Progress and ^resent Conditions of the Various Departments of the University. New Haven* Published by Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor for Yal© College, 1876,

2. 1899-1900 Catalogue of Yale University. New Havens Tuttle, ^rehouse and Taylor Publishers, 1900, 183

2, 1890-91 Catalogue of Yale University. New Haven* Tuttle, More­ house and Taylor, publishers. 1891.

4 . 1895-94 Catalogue of Yale Onlversity. New Haven* Tuttle, % rehouse and Taylor", Publishers, 1894,

5. Ibid,

6. 1894-95 Catalogue of Yale University.

7 . 1877-78 Catalogue of Officers and Students of Yale College. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers. 1878.

8. 1899-1900 Catalogue of Yale University. Hew Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Publishers, 1900.

9. 1877-78 Catalogue of Officers and Students of Yale College. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1878.

10. Ibid.

11. 1886-87 Catalogue of Offioers and Students of Yale College* New Haven: Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1887.

12. 1886-87 Catalogue of Yale University.

13. 1887-78 Catalogue of Officers and Students of Yale College. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1887.

14. 1886-87 Catalogue of Yale University. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, publishers*

15. 1877-78 Catalogue of Officers and Students of Yale University. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, publishers.

16. 1891-92 Catalogue of Yale University. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, publishers.

17. Annual Report of the President of Yale University. New Haven» Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1892.

18. Ibid.

19. 1892-93 Catalogue of Yale University. New HaVen* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, publishers, 1892.

20. The Annual Report of the President of Yale University. % w Haven * Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, publishers. 1896.

21. 1896-97 Catalogue of Yale University. New Haven* Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, publishers. 1897. 184

22, The Annual Report of -the President of Yale University, Now ^aven: Tuttle# Morehouse and Taylor, publishers, 1894. CHAPTER XI

HARVARD 1876-1900

1. Courses of graduate instruction

In 1876 Harvard University included Harvard College, The Divinity

School, The Law School, The Medical Sohool, The Dental School, The

Lawrence Scientific Sohool, The Bussey Institution (Agriculture) located

in Jamaica Plain, The Observatory, The Botanic Garden, The Peabody

Museum of American Archaeology and Ethnology, and the Museum of Com­

parative Zoology,'*' In that year, the opening of the last quarter of

the nineteenth century, Charles William Eliot was president of the

University; Benjamin Peirce, the great mathematician was in his 46th

year of service, Asa Gray, the great naturalist, Francis Bowen, the

renown teacher of religion and moral philosophy, James Russell Lowell,

whorbecame one of America*s great poets, and Francis ^ames Childs,

sought after for his teaching of English rhetoric, were among the 70

members of the University* s faculty. Ralph Waldo Emerson was one of

the University's ^verseerw.

In 1876 there was not yet an organized graduate department. All

rules and regulations pertaining to advanced students were printed in

the University catalogue, annually, under a section entitled "Master's

and Doctor's Degrees." A subsection under this division was headed,

’’Instruction Open to Graduates." Here were listed the courses "pri­ marily for graduates." All the elective courses of Harvard College

were also open to graduates and intended as a part of the advanced in­ 186

struction program. Those two groups of courses constituted Harvard's

graduate instruction program. The following table will give a list of

the courses "primarily for graduates" which were offered from 1876 to

1881.

TABLE V

COURSES "PRIMARILY FOR GRADUATES" AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1881

1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 Sanskrit 2 Classical Philology 5 8 8 Pindar 2 Greek Z 1 Latin Z 1 1 Ethics 1 Philosophy 2 4 4 International Law 1 English Literature 1 Political Economy 1 English Rhetorio 1 Modern English Literature 1 Comparative Philology 2 Art 1 Middle High German 1 Quaternions 1 Differential Equations 1 Relation of Physiology to Psy. 1 Physics 2 3 3 2 2 Chemistry 2 1 3 3 2 Botany 1 2oology 1 Physiology 1 Geology 1 Music 2 2 2 2 2 Hebrew 1 1 Modern Languages 6 6 6 5 History 3 2 4 5 Roman Law 1 1 Mathematics 2 2 2 1 Natural History 6 12 13 13 Semitic Languages 1 Totals 25 38 38 45 46 48 187

Instruction to undergraduates in Harvard College was given under tho system of optional studies, or the elective system. As graduate instruction was instituted graduate students could take the advanced courses of the eleotive system. The following table gives the elective group of studies available to graduate students from 1876 to 1881,.

The amount of advanced instruction offered was very large consid­ ering the enrollment of graduate students. There was in 1876 a total from the two separate sources of 279 courses,* There were about five times as many courses as graduate students. Hence the number of students enrolled per course was extremely low. In 1880 the Dean of the

College reported that the eleotive studies of HarTar(j College which were largely chosen by the advanced students, indicated that the scientific turn of mind was comparatively rare. The large majority of the advanced students were selecting in the elective studies, courses in languages, metaphysics, history, and political science,

fresident Eliot stated in his annual report, 1880, this opinion regarding the status of graduate instructions

Since the establishment of the Department a great deal of instruction has been given to candidates for higher degrees, but not with the regularity which characterizes other departments, and the announcement of oourses has not been satisfactory, The Corporation while fully aware of the costliness of this advanced instruction which must be given by the best teachers, and yet is in the nature of things to be addressed to few students are disposed to do everything in their power, with the means at their coianand to increase the privileges and facilities offered by the University to advanced students. The candidates for the doctorate must always be in great measure their own instructors, with the help of books, collections, and laboratories, because their studies are necessarily to a high degree speoial* TABLE VI

ELECTIVE STUDIES OP HARVARD COLLEGE PROM 1876 TO 1881

1876 1879 1879 1881 Hebrew, Sanskrit, Philology 8 8 I. Ancient Languages I. Ancient Langs. Greek 23 23 Hebrew 1 Hebrew 1 Latin 20 18 Sanskrit 1 Sanskrit 1 English 11 14 II. The Classics II. The Classics German 17 19 Comp. Fhilol. 1 Comp. Philol. 2 French 15 15 Greek 10 Greek 11 Italian and Spanish 17 17 Latin 9 latin 9 Philosophy 12 12 III. Mod e m Langs. III. M o d e m Lang. Ethics 3 3 English 6 English 7 Political Economy 6 6 German 8 German 7 Soman Law 3 3 French 6 Frenoh 5 History 23 25 Italian 3 Italian 3 Mathematics 23 24 Spanish 3 Spanish 3 Physics 15 17 IV. Philosophy 7 IV. Philosophy 7 Chemistry 18 18 V. History V. Pol. Science 2 Natural History 25 24 VI. Mathematics 8 VI. History 10 Musio 11 12 VII, Physics 5 VII. Roman Law 2 Fine Arts 4 6 VIII. Chemistry 7 VIII. Fine Arts 6 IX. Natural History 7 IX. Musio 4 254 262 X. Music 4 X. Mathematics 10 XI. Fine Arts 3 XI. Physics 5 XII. Chemistry 7 XIII. Natural History 8 189

As has boon pointed out, from 1876 to 1881, graduato students found their instruction in two places. One group of studies was under the supervision o f the Graduate Department, the other was under the super­ vision of the faculty of Harvard College. In December 1881, the

Academic Council voted to discontinue this separation between graduate and undergraduate courses and return to the practice which had existed before 1876 of opening all courses to whoever was qualified to pursue thorn •

Thus in 1882 the practice of listing the courses of graduate instruction, in the section of the catalogue entitled, Graduate Department, was discontinued. Under the section, Instruction, the following was 4 stated:

All the courses of instruction in Harvard College are open to graduates of any ooliege on the payment of the fees. The courses formerly offered specifically to graduates have now been combined with the undergraduate courses in one list, as it has been found inexpedient to continue the distinction between them.

The fee referred to was one hundred and fifty dollars a year for either graduate or undergraduate instruction.

It was clearly the belief of those in a position to study the matter that this abandonment of the policy of separate courses for the tvjp groups would result in a more "stimulating intellectual atmosphere," which would be created by the "presence and example of persons engaged 5 in the highest pursuits." With this step.

Both as regards the intellectual activity of students and the quality of the instructing body, the vigorous life of the College hereafter is to be promoted most effectively b y the building up of a broad and solid structure of University work* 190

Four of the courses in the Graduate Department were listed as having but one graduate student in attendance. This was the cane in two courses in natural history, in one course in geology, and in one in classical philology* The majority of the courses of the Graduate Department had but two students enrolled, and there was but one course in the entire

Department with three. This would, of course, be the natural result when there were in 1881, forty-eight courses offered in this Department, and about sixty graduate students enrolled. The few enrolled, the groat addition in hours in the teaching load for its members of the faculty to rsach so few students, the fact that a large portion of the courses for graduate students were really under the supervision of Harvard College— those were the factors in the decision to return to a practically un­ qualified elective system.

In 1880 subject matter departments* of which there were now thirteen, began publishing statements of the resources of their departments.

These announcements, called Descriptive Statements, gave the prospective advanced student much more information about the facilities, offerings, and demands of a department than the catalogues. For the first time the texts which would be used in the courses were named. The prospective graduate student could here learn whether a knowledge of French or

German was presumed for reading the tests, and what research facilities were provided for student use. Geology was the first department to publish its own statement; b y 1866 all the thirteen departments were issuing their own statements.

In 1882 harvard was becoming concerned about the small number of graduate students. In referring to this lack the Dean of the College said*® 191

Worthing is now so much needed to strengthen the advanced courses which have been established as a vigorous body of trained students, whose zeal and sympathy would stimulate at once their instructors and one another, ^he presence of such a body, moreover, could not fail to exert a bene­ ficial influence on the College, by keeping before the eye of the undergraduate not only an example of earnest work, but also a higher standard of scholarship than that which marks the first degree in arts the normal goal of an aoademic course#

President Eliot, and the Secretary of the Academic Council, which

supervised the Graduate Department, were also not wholly at ease con­ cerning the future of their efforts in offering advanced work. Again and again the President in his annual report to the Corporation and

Overseers mentioned the need for financial aid to help graduate work 7 go forward*

For a few years to come, it is to the improvement of this department of the University that the attention of the governing boards may be most profitably directed# In all probability, it will ultimately be found desirable to organize a Faculty o f Philosophy which shall bear to the College. • • the same relation which the. professional schools, of the University would bear to the College, it (as will be the case at no very remote day) only Bachelors of Arts were admitted to them#

In 1882 it was stated that the facilities provided for advanced students to do independent researoh were being much extended. Many of the graduate courses were devoted largely or wholly to independent investigation and the preparation of theses. It was pointed out also that outside of the regular courses, opportunities were increasing yearly for private study of special topics and research with the aid and guidance of an instructor. It was further pointed out that no graduates other than those of Harvard were studying political science and history. It was felt that the facilities of the University in this 192 field were running to waste at a time when the country was in need of men with the training which they could offer.

!n 1884 the University Catalogue carried for the first time under the section where instruction had previously been listed, a state­ ment regarding the nature of the Graduate Department.®

The Graduate Department of Harvard University comprises* first, graduates of this and other institutions of learning who are studying at the University without being members of a professional school; secondly, all candidates for the degree of ^ s t e r of Arts, Doctor of Philosophy, or Doctor of Science.

Towards the end of each academic year, the University issues a list of all courses to be given in the following academic year. This list can be obtained on application to the Secretary of Harvard College. All these courses are open to graduates of any college on the payment of certain fees. Graduate students may also, in special oases, be admitted to courses in the professional schools. Any members of the graduate department, having paid the full annual fee of $150, is admitted free to the instruc­ tion given in any department at the University.

The list of courses referred to above was the Elective Pamphlet.

The following table shows the departments in which graduate instruction was provided. In 1882 the first year the University returned to the elective system of studies, oourses were organized into thirteen groups. By 1890 a sufficient number of courses and departments had been added as to now make a total of twenty-five groups. By 1900 this had increased to thirty groups. This policy of the University that all graduate instruction was included in the eleotive studies of the

Faculty of Arts and Sciences continued the same until 1900. 193

TABLE VII

A COMPARISON OF THE DEPARTMENTS OF INSTRUCTION AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY IN 1882, 1890 AND 1900

Faculty of Arts and Sciences Covering Academical College, Lawrence Scientific, Graduate School 1882 1890 . 1900 I. Greek I. Semitic Lang, and I. Semitic Lang, and II. Latin History History III. Mathematics II. Indo-Iranian Langs. II. Indo-Iranian Lang. IV. Physics III. Greek III. The Classics V. Chemistry IV. Latin IV. Classical Philol. VI. History V. Classical Philol V. English VII. English VI. English VI. Germanic Langs. & VIII. Philosophy VII. German Literature Ix. Philology VIII. Germanic Philol. VIT. German Literature X. Natural History IX. French VIII. Germanic Philol. XI. Modern Languages X. Italian IX. Romance Langs. & XII. Fine Arts XI. Spani sh Literature XIII. Music XII. Romance Philol. X. Italian XIII. Philosophy XI. Spanish Xlv. Pol. Economy XII. Comparative Philol XV. History XIII. Slavic Languages XVI. Roman Law- xlv. History & Pol. Ec. XVII. Fine Arts XV. Government XVIII. Music XVI. Philosophy XlX. Mathematics XVII. Education XX. Engineering XVIII. Fine Arts XXI. Physics XIX. Architecture XXII. Chexni stry XX. Music XXIII. Botany XXI. Mathematics XXIV. Zoology XXII. Engineering XXV. Geology XXIII. Physics XXIV. Chemistry XXV. Botany XXVI. Zoology XXVII. Geology XXVIII. American Archaeol. and Ethnology xxix. Anatomy, Physiol. and Hygiene XXX. Medical School Courses 194

In 1882 several of the thirteen department*- included certain related sub-divisions. For example, the department of natural history included geology* zoology, palaeontology, vegetable physiology, and entomology.

By 1890 zoology and geology had become separate departments. The same vms the fact in modern languages. By 1890 French and German had grown sufficiently to be designated as separate departments. In the earlier years political science and law were taught in the department of history.

By 1890 these had become separate departments. In 1890, education and teaching was a subdivision of the department of philosophy. By 1900 it had become a separate and comprehensive department.

In 1890 when the Graduate School was organized there was a total of some 218 courses in twenty-five groups. The usual subdivision of courses

"dthin the department was:

For Graduates and Undergraduates Primarily fb r Graduates Research Courses Seminars

The departments of classical philology, Germanic philology, Italian, and Spanish T"re wholly graduate departments at this time, offering only primarily for graduates courses.

In the courses for graduates and undergraduates and in those primarily for graduates (1890)) the whole general field of philology and ancient languages was most extensive in number of courses offered.

Classical philology included1 I«,tin, Greek, Romance philology of French,

Germanic philology of German, Gothic, Old Saxon, Old Norse (Icelandic), and old High German. The ancient languages included* Semitic languages of Hebrew, Ceramaic, Assyrian, Arabic, Ethiopian, Babylonian and Spanish

Califate. 195

TABLE VIII

COURSES OF GRADUATE INSTRUCTION AS SUBDIVIDED INTO FOUR TYPES AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1890 TO 1900

.... 1890 1895 1900 Graduates and Linder graduates 91 136 228 Primarily for Graduates 100 140 139 Research Courses 20 27 31 Seminars 7 10 26

Totals 218 313 424

The twenty research courses (1890) were, of course, distributed

throughout most of the twenty-five departments. The largest number 9 were in the department of history* next came geology, then Indo-

Iranian l«mguages, English,-French, Romance Philology, Political Economy,

Fine Arts, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Zoology. The re­

search courses were considered among the most important given in the

University. A complete year’s work in the Graduate School regularly

consisted of four full-year courses. A student might by special

arrangement be permitted to spend all his time for a year in a research

course and this could count as a complete year's work or the equiva­

lent of four full-year courses*

For students whose scientific investigations involved laboratory work and the study of collections, extensive facilities were available.

They were: Semitic Museum, Classical Philology Collection, Psychological

Laboratory, Fine Arts Collection, Gray Collection of Engravings,

Jefferson Physical Laboratory, Electrical Engineering Laboratory, Chem­ ical Laboratory, Miuaralogical Museum and laboratories, Botanic Garden,

Herbarium, Botanical Museum and Laboratories, Museum of Comparative

Zoology, Laboratories of Natural History, Peabody Museum of Amerioan 196

Archaeology and Ethnology, Bussey Institute of Agriculture and Horticul­

ture. Graduate students taking anatomy and other subjects in the

Medical School were admitted to the laboratories of that School.

For students whose investigations of special topics required exten­

sive sources, the library facilities were extensive* Departmental

libraries or classroom libraries were allied to the following departments*

Semitic studies, Sanskrit, Classical Philology, German, French, Italian,

Spanish, Romance Philology, Comparative literature, Psychology,

Economics, History, Music, Mathematics, Engineering, Physics, Chemistry,

Mineralogy, Botany, Zoology, Geology, Palaeontology, Physical Geography,

American Archaeology and Ethnology* There were also the large libraries

attached to the Lawrence Scientific School, the Bussey Institution,

Observatory, Botanic Garden, and the Peabody Museum* There were also

the University library and the libraries of three professional schools*

In 1890 several departments of study issued periodicals or yearly volumes, embodying the work of instruction and students at the Univer­

sity. Other departments ma&e regular oontributions, under an official

heading, to the proceedings of oertain learned societies or to journals

of literature and science outside the University* The publications

whioh proceeded directly from the departments were as follows* ^

Harvard Oriental Series; Harvard Studies in Classical Philology; Studies

and Notes in Philology and Literature; Quarterly Journal of Economics;

Annals of the Observatory of Harvard College; Publications of the Museum

of Comparative Zoology; Publications of the Peabody Museum of American

Archaeology and Ethnology* Work done in the research courses and

seminars was frequently reported in these* 197

Prior to 1890 the seminar was in use in but one department, that of

Semitic languages and history.^ In 1890 it was in use in seven depart­

ments. Many of the groups which started as non-credit conferences,

advanced to become seminars, with half-course credit, so by 1900 the number of seminars had increased to twenty-six. The largest increase

in number of seminars offered during this period was in history; there

were, by 1900, nine historical seminars. The seminar was frequently

allied to the research courses of the department. Investigations in

progress in the research courses were reported on from time to time in

the seminars. Helpful discussion and criticism by fellow research

workers and instructors followed.

Considering that there were in 1890 but 125 students enrolled in the

Graduate School, and but 110 of these were in resident study the program

of study of 218 graduate courses, and the extensive facilities in labor­

atories provided most liberal offerings. The Dean of the Graduate School

felt that the offerings of the Sohool were not well enough advertised,

and that too large a proportion of those enrolled were studying the humanities to the neglect of the sciences.

In 1892 non-credit clubs and conferences were first listed in the

University catalogue in connection with the respective departments of

study. The number of non-credit conferences decreased gradually as their

usefulness increased. That is, the detailed discussion of special topics which took place in the conferences and clubs was in some cases

so thorough that many of these non-credit conferences advanced to the grade of a half-course credit seminar. This accounts for the decrease in number of these groups until in 1900 but five remained* 198

TABLE IX

A COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF DEPARTMENTAL NON-CREDIT CLUBS AND DEPARTMENTAL CONFERENCES (OR SOCIETIES) AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY IN 1892 AND IN 1900

1892 1900 Semitic Conference Semitic Conference Sanskrit Conference Celtic Conference Classical Conference Mathematics Conference English Club Physical Colloquium Modem Languages Conf. f Conference in Physical Chem­ Conference Franczise istry Deutscher Verein Philosophical Conference Philosophical Club Conference in Physics Boylston Chemical Society Botanical Conference Botanical Club Zoological Club Geological Conference

During the last decade of the century the largest expansion in the departments of instruction were in engineering, mathematics, philosophy, 12 and geology. Included under engineering was a course in military and naval science. This covered operations of war, coast defense, organiza­ tion of land and sea forces. Philosophy had expanded greatly despite the fact that education had branched off from being one of its sub­ divisions to becoming a separate department. Geology now comprehended physical geography, meteorology, petrography, palaeontology, some mineralogy and the subsection of mining and metallurgy. In 1900 some

424 graduate courses in thirty departments were available to the 341 resident students. 199

2, Requirements for the Ph.H. degree

In 1876 the requirements for the degree were as they had been since 13 the degree v/as established in 1872. They were*

Baohelor's degree

Two yearfs resident study (approved by the Academic Council and taken in any one of the following departments— Philology, Philosophy, History, Political Science, Mathematics, Physics, ^atural History

Examination on that course of study

Presentation of a satisfactory thesis

It was a six-year degree. No language requirement was mentioned, nor was the necessity of holding the master of arts degree.

In 1877 the policy of remission of the entire two years of residence 14 to Harvard graduates was instituted* This continued until 1886,

In the same year (1877) the Academic Council desired to make it clear that the doctorate also carried the master of arts degree, that it was included in it. For that reason a new title for the degree was adopted, "Doctor of Philosophy and Master of Arts." In 1878 the

Academic Council appointed a comnittee in each of the departments in which the degree could be taken. The departmental committee now super­ vised the candidates in that department.

In 1878 the ruling was introduced that a first draft of the thesis must be in the hands of the department committee, on or before the 15 first day of May, and the final copy deposited by June 1. In 1886, it isas ruled that no student would be regarded as a oandidate for a degree until he actually presented himself for his final examination. Since the final examinations were usually held the first of June, a student 2 0 0

was only regarded as a candidate Tor a degree the last month before the

degree was granted. The order was, final copy of thesis deposited, final

examination held and passed, admitted to candidacy for the degree, all

of which took place around the first of June of the month of graduation.

In 1886 the policy of remitting two years residence to Harvard

g r a d u a t e s was changed to remitting but one year of residence, never of

study. Ho portion of the two years residence was remitted to graduates

of other institutions. In 1896 this was changed to requiring two years

of study "at least one of which must be spent in residence at this X6 University." The rule now was the same for Harvard graduates and for

graduates of'other colleges and universities.

Throughout this period the language requirement ms not mentioned.

A reading knowledge of the modern and ancient languages was undoubtedly

taken for granted for one who had finished the undergraduate curricu­

lum. Textbooks used in both the undergraduate and graduate courses

were frequently in French and German. A footnote at the close of the

list of courses in the departments of mathematics and of history

stated that knowledge of French and German was necessary to the mastery

of certain courses. Textbooks used in philosophy, public finance, and

in early English literature were in several cases in Germah. *t seems

apparent that a reading knowledge of French and German was presumed

for one who held the bachelor's degree# A As has been seen, the requirements for the doctorate continued through the period from 1876 to 1900 pretty much the sane as they had been since the degree was established in 1872. The slight changes were* 301

1877 remission of entire two years residence to Harvard graduates

1877 title changed to include A.M., ’’Ph.D. and A.M."

1878 date first draft due, May first; final dune first

1878 successful candidate could have own thesis printed

1886 admitted to candidacy for degree, only after final examination in complete course of study, about June first

1886 one year of residence, not o f study, remitted to harvard graduates

1894 A. M. dropped from title

1896 two years of study, one year of residence for all candidates

Thus in 1900 the requirements for the doctor of philosophy degree at Harvard were:

Bachelor's degree

Tiro years of study, one year of residence

Degree could be taken in one of the following Divisions* Philology, Philosophy, History, Political Science, Music, Mathematics, Physics (including Chemistry), Natural History, and American Archaeology and Ethnology)

Thesis, showing original investigation and independent research, first draft May first, final draft dune first

Final examination in complete course of study, about June first after thesis deposited

Admitted to candidacy for degree after final examination period

Successful candidate could have his own thesis printed. It was a six-year degree; neither a language requirement nor the holding of the master's degree was mentioned. The graduation fee was twenty dollars. 2 0 2

3, From Graduate Department to Graduate Sohool

In 1872 -when the Corporation and Board of °verseers set up the

conditions upon which the doctor of philosophy degree would be

granted, they did not at the same time organize and establish a grad­

uate department. Instead, decisions and duties which arose concern­

ing the candidates for higher degrees were handled by the Academic

Council. The Secretary of the Academic Council also taught mathe­

matics in the College. Allowances were made, to some extent, in his

teaching load. But the members of the Council were expected to super­

vise candidates’ courses of study, examine and recommend for higher

degrees, in addition to a full teaching load. 17 In 1876 Fresident Eliot in his annual report stated that he felt

steps should be taken to organize a graduate department and expand

instruction for advanced students. In 1877 the Academic Council as a

step further in organizing graduate work, adopted what became known as

the Standing Rules of the Academic Covmcil. These Rules stated the

duties and privileges o f the candidate, and the powers and functions

of the examining committee. In 1878 the title, Graduate Department,

was officially established. The requirements for higher degrees,

which were established by University statutes, were called the Standing

Rules of the Corporation and Overseers. These, with the Standing Rules

of the Academic Council, governed the Graduate Department*

From time to time, beginning soon after the organization of the

Graduate Department, dissatisfaction with the organization of the

Department mas voiced by those interested in advanced instruction. It was felt that the administrative machinery had not at any time been 203 adequate and that consequently the growth of the Department was hindered.

It was pointed out that its executive functions had been discharged by a professor in the Academical College who served in this additional capacity without much release from other duties and without additional compensation, it was further stated that its courses of instruction vrere under the control of the Academical College# which arranged the schedule mainly to meet voider graduate schedule convenience, that officers of the College thus regulated the details of the Department,

"It can not be said," the Secretary of the Academic Council further asserted, "that the resources of the Department are utilized by anything like the number who could be benefited." The existing organization, he concluded, was wholly inadequate. "It can not make effective appeals for endowment; it can not long deal with its growing administrative burdens.” The Secretary of the Council strongly recommended a remodel­ ing of the whole Department. "It is worthy of a separate faculty com­ posed of instructors to whom it will appeal in a primary and not a3 a secondary interest.” These reports to the President and to the Overseers had the intended results, and in June 1890 the Graduate School was estab­ lished.

Immediately upon the establishment of the Graduate School, the question was raised of freeing it from the control of the statutes, that is, the Standing Rules of the Corporation and Overseers, and placing it as fully as possible under the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, The statutes, or Standing Rules, it wras felt, had been necessary when there had been no administrative machinery, but wider the new organization many particulars which were contained in the statutes were thought to be 204 regulated by the Faculty supervising the Graduate School*

In 1890 the Faculties of Harvard College and the Lawrence

Scientific School were dissolved and the Faculty o f Arts and Sciences of Harvard University was created. The new University Faculty had charge of the three distinct units, Harvard College, Lawrence Scientific

School, and the Graduate School. Each of these three units was given its own Administrative Board. Two more deanships were created, one for the

Lawrence Scientific School, one for the Graduate School. The new Dean of the Graduate School was the same professor who had been Secretary of the Academic Council. Along with his duties now as Dean he contin­ ued teaching-mathematics in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences*

At this time the Faculty of Arts and Sciences was sectioned into 18 twelve divisions. A division was an administrative unit, and in some cases included several subject matter departments. Each division had a number of coximittees to oversee graduate work in that division.

The new organization affected graduate work favorably. The different divisions and also the departments included in the division now were expected to compare policies and adopt similar or identical practices.

The variances which had existed among departments in regard to higher degrees were now reduced. The Faculty of Arts and Sciences offered four degrees through the work of the Graduate School. These were: bachelor of arts, master of arts, doctor of philosophy, and doctor of science. Kow the work for these degrees was, throughout the divisions and departments, brought more nearly to a common standard.

The organization of the Graduate Sohool as it was set up in 1890 oontinued without change until 1900* The School was under the Faculty 205

of Arts and Soienoes. That Faculty laid down the regulations which it

deemed expedient for the government of the School. It fixed the condi­

tions of admission, provided courses, directed the course of study of

a candidate for a higher degree, held examinations for higher degrees,

and set the requirements for higher degrees. The Graduate School ad­ mitted those who held the bachelor’s degree, and ’’other persons of suit­

able age and attainment by special vote." The Graduate School enrolled two classes of students, resident and non-resident. The non-resident

had completed a period of residence, and were no» pursuing investigations

or studies which required their absence from the University.

4. Enrollments and degrees conferred

The following figures show the proportions between those who were

candidates for the degree and those who actually took the degree. They

also show the relation in numbers to the size of the Academical College

and the entire University.

University College Candidates for Ph.D. degrees Year Enrollment Enrollment Ph.D. Degree Conferred 1876 1278 776 21 5 1877 1370 821 20 4 1878 1332 819 18 4 1879 1356 815 19 2 1880 1364 829 21 5

1881 1382 823 26 2 1882 1428 923 34 0 1883 1522 972 32 5 1884 1586 1006 29 5 1885 1662 1068 17 4

1886 1668 1077 70 4 1887 1813 1138 86 1 1888 1899 1180 95 7 1889 2079 1271 107 4 1890 2271 1339 125 8 206

University College Candidates for Ph.D. degrees yoar Enrollment Enrollment Ph.D. Degree Conferred 1891 2658 1456 189 7 1892 2966 1598 206 5 1893 5156 165 6 252 12 1894 3290 1667 258 16 1895 3600 1771 285 16

1896 3674 1754 295 18 1897 3859 1819 287 25 1898 3901 1851 322 26 1899 4091 1902 326 23 1900 4288 1992 341 35

The figures in the Candidate for Degree Column are to be understood as follows. From 1876 to 1885 the figures are of candidates for the

Ph.D. only. /Eists of candidates fbr the two other higher degrees,

Master of Arts and Doctor of Science were announced in the annual catalogues, separately^ 1886, the practice started of listing all members o f the Graduate Department only as Resident Students and Non-

Resident Students. The figures from. 1886 to 1900 are of enrollment in the Graduate Department, and therefore include candidates for the Ph.D., the A.M. and the D. Sc. resident and non-resident*

In 1876 Harvard was beooming concerned about the small number of graduate students. The few pursuing advanced studies were largely

Harvard graduates and were largely from the state of Massachusetts.

Both President Eliot and the Secretary of the Academic Council in their annual reports to the Overseers, stressed the fact that a greater number of Harvard graduates should be attracted to stay for further study and that the number coming from other institutions should be increased*^

Furthermore, in spite of the University desire to emphasize the physical sciences the majority enrolled were pursuing the studies of the humanities. In cases "where "the graduate student held the bachelor's degree

from a college or university which Harvard considered not acceptable*

that student was permitted to register in the Graduate School while

taking the bachelor1 s degree from Harvard. Then he could enter upon

his doctorate woric. This was a usual and most frequent practice. In

such cases the minimum period of study fbr the bachelor's degree was

one year. The period of study was however set in each case by the com­

mittee on admissions. During this time he was considered a candidate

for the Fh.D. and was so listed. Since candidates were usually in

residence two years or more this is to be remembered in interpreting the

figures. The number of candidates is therefore not an entirely new group

each year.

From 1876 to 1886 the candidates for the degree came largely from

the New England states with the majority coining from within the state

of Massachusetts. From 1886 to 1890 they came from practically one-

half of the states of the United States, with practically one-half

of the candidates coming from within the state. From 1890 to 1900 their

areas of origin extended to practically every state in the United States.

During this last decade about two-thirds came from other states and

about one-third came from within the state.

In 1876 Harvard was attracting advanced students from abroad. Two of the candidates for the degree in thqt year in the field of physics were foreign students, one from Berlin, one from Vienna. From 1876 to

1S90 there was an average of three foreign students a year. The foreign

students who came were apparently of very high calibre. They came from

Germany, Japan, Canady, England, Scotland, Svdtzerland, Spain and India. 208

Those from Europe in some cases already held the Ph.D. from a German

university, largely from Gottingen and Tubingen* Although it seemed that there were not particular fields of study which attracted them, those from Europe largely chose Sanskrit, classical philology,

Germanic philology, philosophy, geology and physics. Those from Asia largely chose political science, government, and the physical sciences*

From 1890 to 1900 the number of students from abroad increased*

From 1896 to 1900 there was an average of seven a year* During this period students who held the bachelor’s degree from the University of

Cambridge were enrolled as candidates for the doctorate in classical philology* .There was one student who already held the doctorato from the University of Strasburg who was now a candidate for the doctorate in Sanskrit* One student who had graduated from the University of

Madras, India, was a candidate in political science. Annually, in his report, the President pointed with pride to the number of students coming to Harvard from abroad, graduates of the great universities of

Europe and Asia*

In the earlier years, 1876 to 1886, the candidates were largely

Harvard graduates. From 1886 to 1890 about one-half held the bachelor's degree from Harvard. This group, of course, included those who held the bachelor’s degree from a small college or university, whose degree ms unacceptable to Harvard, and the oandidate had therefore to take the Harvard bachelor’s degree. Included in this group also were those who took the M.A. separately from Harvard before beginning doctorate study. From 1890 to 1900 the larger portion of the candidates were

Harvard graduates, that is, a little more than one-half* 209

Throughout this quarter of the century, "when the number of candi­

dates increased from 21 to 341, three facts remained constant. They

vreros the majority were from within the state, the majority were

graduates of Harvard, the leading field of specialization was classical

philology* Thus the all over pattern of graduate work remained much

the same.

As is seen from the following table the three leading fields of

specialisation were: first, classical philology, second, history and

political science, and third, natural history* Natural history included

zoology, palaeontology, entomology. The first Ph.D. in political

soience was .conferred in 1879, the first in music in 1881, the first in

agricultural chemistry in 1888, and the first in education and teaching

in 1893*

Prior to 1876 there had been at Harvarti each year a small group of advanoed students who did not intend to become candidates for a degree*

The University had from time to time made various rulings in an attempt to discourage this ’’casual and desultory study.” ^n 1876 the University made another new ruling, that thereafter the title resident graduate would denote only those who were actually receiving instruction in one of the designated eight departments. Resident Graduates not Candidates for a Degree, 1876 to 1886, thus indicates those who were studying in the designated departments but without reference to a degree. This practice of studying without reference to a degree was continuously dis­ couraged by the University and denied recognition in 1886* CANDIDATES FOR HIGHER DEGREES VIZ. TO S'

Ph.D. 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 Classical Philology 4 1 ? lo 6 TT” 14 History 8 6 5 4 3 7 8 English Philosophy Ob 3 1 2 1 1 Mathematics 1 1 1 1 1

Chemistry Physios 2 4 2 3 4 1 3 Zoology Botany Geology

Political Science 1 1 1 2 Modern Languages Natural History 5 5 2 2 3 1 Semitic Lang* Teaching and Education

Romance Philology Physical Science Germanic Philology Fine Arts Music 1

Engineering Biology American Arch. & Entho. Latin Sociology

Palaeontology Agricultural Chemistry Physiology Greek Physical Geography Psychology TABLE X ^ 1E

CANDIDATES FOR HIGHER DECREES VIZ. TO SUBJECT AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1896 KT A

Ph.D. All Higher Depq 1876 1877 1878 1879 1880 1881 1882 1883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 189C 883.1 4 1 1r 10 5 11 14 it ll 6 10 11 13 13 9 8 6 5 4 3 7 8 4 4 2 4 12 9 15 11 5 8 10 7 11 2 3 1 2 1 1 2 3 3 1 5 7 11 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 7 10 7 7 10

3 5 3 7 9 2 4 2 3 4 1 3 5 3 1 3 1 6 3 4 3 3 4 4 6 5 3 4 3 7 2 6 6 3 4

1 1 1 2 1 1 4 7 2 2 2 1 2 3 8 6 5 5 2- 2 3 1 3 4 3 1 4 5 3 7 2 3 2 5

A 1 1 1

1 1 1 2

1 1 1 1 210

IBIE X

376 TO 1896 3CT AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1895

A ll HigherDftP'i All Higher Degrees V 1889 1890■~ip883 1884 1885 1886 1887 1888 1889 1890 1891 1892 18931894 1895Total 13 9- 4 i r “ 11" 6 10 11 13 13 9 23 34 37 39 42 325 15 11 4 4 2 4 12 9 15 11 8 36 27 42 37 252 7 11 5 8 10 7 11 21 29 45 33 47 226 11 12 1 2 3 > 3 1 5 7 11 12 19 21 23 28 24 170 2 j 2 7 10 7 7 10 18 21 17 21 21 159 7 10 1 1 i J 7 9 1 ji 3 5 3 7 9 16 11 11 11 12 88 3 4 5 3 ! l 3 1 6 3 4 4 5 7 5 7 73 i 3 3 4 4 6 7 13 8 9 12 69 4 6 )} 3 7 5 3 4 3 7 8 6 12 14 6 68 3 2 6 6 3 4 8 11 11 1 4 56 4 \ 1 2 2 1 1 4 7 2 2 2 1 16 5 9 55 8 6 i 2 3 8 6 8 3 7 6 43 4 5 3 4 I 3 1 4 6 38 2 5 1 7 ' 2 3 2 5 9 28 1 9 11 21

2 9 2 4 17 2 1 2 14 16 6 9 15 A 1 1 2 3 1 2 14 1 2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 10

1 ir 1 1 1 1 1 2 7 2 1 1 1 2 1 6 1 1 2 1 1 5 1 3 4 4 4

1 1 2 1 1 1 2 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2

j fi 211

In 1886 the non-resident group first appeared. A non-resident stud e n t was required to register in the Hargard Graduate Department 20 annually. The annual registration fee m s thirty dollars. The m a j o r i t y of the non-resident students were studying, or carrying on researches, in Germany. Some, however, were in France, England, and

Greece. An occasional student of philology was in Syria, Peru, and

Hondouras. It did not appear, however, that there were certain fields of study which largely took the non-resident students abroad. Their fields of study were much the same as those of the resident students.

They were: philology* mathematics, history, political science* chemistry* philosophy* physics, Greek and archaeology. All non-resident students were under the supervision of the Academic Council and their program of study abroad had to be sanctioned by the Council, annually.

The figures of enrollment of these two groups are given in the following table. As has been stated the group of Resident Graduates not candidates for a Degree was discontinued after 1885. By that time the Non-Resident group which were candidates for the degree was of sufficient size as to annually be listed by the University.

The University rule in 1886 concerning non-resident students was t h i s :

Students who are conducting special investigations which require their absenoe from the University, and those who have completed a period of residence at the University* and are carrying on actual studies wiihthe purpose of becoming candidates for a degree, may be allowed to register in the Graduate Department as non-resident stu­ dents under such conditions as may be imposed in each case. TABLE XI

RESIDENT GRADUATES NOT CANDIDATES FOR A DEGREE AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1885

Year Number 1876 13 1877 9 1878 6 1879 3 1880 2 1881 4 1882 4 1885 14 1884 15 1885 9

TABLE XII

NON-RESIDENT CANDIDATES FOR A DEGREE AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1886 TO 1900

Year Number 1886 14 1887 13 1888 10 1889 14 1890 15 1891 13 1892 16 1893 11 1894 16 1895 16 1896 16 1897 15 1898 14 1899 13 1900 14 213

As has been stated more Ph.D. degrees were taken in the field of classical philology than in any other. The following table will show in vihioh subjects the Ph.D. degrees were taken annually. Natural history

seems also to have the next largest number. However, it should be

remembered that natural history was listed as including zoology, botany.

From 1876 to 1886 an average of about one in seven who were enrolled as candidates for a graduate degree actually took the degree. Perhaps

this was due in some measure to the long period of study. During this period the President frequently mentioned in his annual reports that two or three years would be found to be a minimum, and in many cases four or five "years might be found necessary, particularly in cases where the undergraduate training had been found inadequate. For the period of 1886 to 1900 the figures for the higher degrees of A.M., D. So. and

Ph.D. are combined in the reports of the University, so we can not know the actual figures for number of candidates. However, considering the number enrolled in the Graduate School, and the npraber of Ph.D.’s conferred, we can assume the ratio continued pretty much the same, at least not higher.

Although the majority who took the Ph.D. degree from Harvard also held the Harvard bachelor’s degree, Harvard early attracted graduates from other institutions. From 1876 to 1895 the large majority who took the Ph.D. were Harvard graduates. From 1896 to 1900 the number of

Harvard graduates was a little less than half. A large number who came from other institutions took the A.B. a second time from Harvard. Also a large number took the M.A. separately before proceeding to the Ph.D.

A count which included these graduates of Harvard would increase the per TABLE XIII

1'IUlfBER OF DEGREES CONFERRED VIZ. SUBJECT AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

© ffl ffl o r-i CO to ^ in (D t'COOOHMW'flC to t- CO O) O C-- S'- fr~ CO CO CO CD CO 00 CO co.coco o> o> o 01 0 0 5 o>o>a> m o CO CO CD 00 CD CO CO GDCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCOOOCOCOCO 01 H H rl rl H ri rl rlrlHHHrlrlHrlHrtHrl rH i—t r-i r*l «“• . , , Total Classical Philology 2 1 2 4 2 2 1 3 1 2 2 1 5 9 7 5 9 11 8 14 91 History 3 1 1 1 5 1 1 2 2 2 1 1 3 3 2 27 Natural History 1 2 1 8 1 2 1 4 2 2 2 3 5 5 31 Chemistry 1 si 2 1 1 1 3 3 3 3 2 20 Philosophy 1 1 1 2 2 2 1 3 3 6 4 26 Physics 1 3 1 1 4 11 Political Science 1 1 2 4 1 3 12 Mathematics 1 1 2 2 7 Physical Science 2 2 Am* Archaaol. and Ethnology 1 1 2 4 Biology 2 3 2 4 11 Geology 1 1 214 215

cent. On that basis more than three-fourths of those who took the Ph.D.

held a previous degree from Harvard. The following table shows the

number who held the first A.B. from Harvard and from other institutions.

Through the years 1876 to 1894 an occasional student from another

college or university continued the long term of study necessary and

received the degree. Usually one who held the bachelor's degree from

another institution found it necessary to continue in study a year or

more longer than a -Harvard graduate. From 1895 to 1900 the number from

other institutions taking the degree exceeded the number of Harvard

graduates. The following table will show the proportion of those from

other institutions in relation to the number who were Harvard graduates.

As the nineteenth century came to a close the picture of graduate work at Harvard was as follows* Harvard had an established Graduate

School organized under the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The School had

an enrollment of more than 300 students and offered more than 400 courses

in some thirty departmentsodf study. It offered the Ph.D. degree as a

six-year degree and had for the last decade been conferring an average

of about eighteen such degrees annually. About one-half of the School's

enrollment came from within the state, and more than half of these can­

didates for the Ph.D. already held a Harvard degree.

Contrary to the desire of the administration which would have liked a larger portion of its advance students selecting the sciences, the

School was largely a school of the humanities. More candidates for the fh.D. majored in classical philology than any one other subject. Features which were somewhat unique to Harvard were* graduates found all their

instruction under the elective system of studies of the University, and a TABLE XIV PROPORTIONATE NUMBER OF CANDIDATES GRADUATES OF HARVARD AND OTHER INSTITUTIONS AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

oHcaw^io(oc»cooioH 60 w in (O CO CD o t-fr-tv co co co co co coco co a> co a o> a Oi CD Oi Oi o> a Oi o COCOCOCOCOCDCOOOCOCOCD m CO B ffl 00 CO CO CO CO co CO co H r^t H H r"ir"trptr “tr “lr ,'lf*tr-t*-'liHftf”l H r l r-i H iH s h Total Harvard 15 16 15 16 18 24 32 29 24 14 43 55 54 62 65 83 93 97 113 150 166 175 192 183 192 1925 Other Insti­ tutions 5 4 3 3 2 2 2 3 5 3 27 31 41 45 60 94 113 155 145 135 129 112 130 143 149 1541

TABLE XV

HUMBER(F PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED TO CANDIDATES YSO HELD THE BACHELOR'S DEGREE FROM HARVARD OR FROI/I OTHER COLLEGES, AT HARVARD UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

to CO CO CO CD Oi CO <0 CO 1876 1881 1877 1882 1878 1879 1880 1883 1884 1886 1887 1889 1890 1891 1894 1892 93 18 1895 1896 1897 1899 H H H 1900 Total Harvard 5 3 2 1 5 2 0 5 4 3 4 1 5 5 7 5 4 11 10 9 7 13 10 7 12 140 Other Insti­ tutions 0 1 2 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 1 2 1 1 6 7 11 12 16 16 23 96

to M 0) 217

kn o w l e d g e of* foreign languages was not mentioned under the requirements for the Ph.D.

Thus the Graduate School at Harvard had its origin in the elective systems. Founded, as it m s , in 1636, Harvard had been for half a century the only college in the United States (William and Mary College in. Virginia was founded in 1693). Its classical heritage of its earliest years as a college was still evident at the close of the nineteenth century as it stood a great American University*

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER XI

1. The Harvard University Catalogue, 1876-77, p. 13. Cambridge: Published for the University by Charles 17. Severs, 1876.

2. Ibid., 1876, p. 149*

3. Oja. cit. 1877, p. 143*

4. Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1877, p. 62. Cambridge: University Press, John Wilson and Son* 1877*

5. The Harvard University Catalogue, 1878-79, p. 173. Cambridge: lublished for the University by Charles W. Sever, 1878.

6. Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1880-81, p. 25. Cambridge: University tress, John Wilson and Son, 1880*

7. Ojj. cit., 1872-1880, p. 23.

8. I b i d ., 1880, p. 57.

9. Ibid. 1880, p. 61.

10. The Harvard University Catalogue, 1882-83, p. 222,

11. Annual Reports of the President, 1880, p. 61.

12. The Harvard University Catalogue, 1884-85, p. 235.

13. 0£. cit., 1886-87, p. 269. 218

14 £j>. cit. 1890, p. 299*

15 Op. cit. 1890, p. 300•

16 Ibid., p. 104.

17 Op. cit. 1875-76, p. 141.

18 Ibid. 1875-76, p. 141.

19 Op. cit. 1878-79, p. 180.

20 Ibid., p. 182.

21 Ibid., p. 181.

22 ibid., p. 182.

23 Op. cit. 1886-87, p. 272.

24 Ojd. cit. 1876-77, p. 147.

25 Annual Report of the President, 1877, p. 19.

26 Op. cit. 1890. p. 15.

27 0£. cit. 1876-77, p. 138.

28 Ibid. 1876-77, p. 139.

29 Op. cit. 1880-81, p. 194.

30 Annual Report of the President 1880, p. 62.

31 0£. cit. 1882, p. 77.

32 Op. cit. 1886, p. 16.

33 The Harvard University Catalogue, 1883-84, p. 219.

34 Op. cit. 1885-86, p. 262.

35 Op. cit. 1888-89, p. 277.

36 Op. cit., 1889-90. p. 298.

37 Annual Report of the President, 1878, p. 20.

38 The Harvard University Catalogue, 1880-1883, p. 222.

39 Op. cit. 1884r-85, p. 235. 40. 0g. cit. 1885-86, p. 247.

41, Og. cit. 1887-88, p. 282,

42, Og. cit. 1888-89, p. 298,

43. Og. cit. 1889-90, p. 316. CHAPTER XII

CORNELL 1876-1900

1. Courses of Graduate Instruction

In 1876 graduate and undergraduate instruction were to be found in

the same curriculum. There were no regular post-graduate courses marked

out by the various departments of the University*^

It is found that in most cases, students who desire to spend a portion of time at the University after talcing the Baccalaureate Degree, have each of them some one special study to pursue, or object to accomplish, which differs in so many respects from those of any other student, that it is hardly possible to classify them or to arrange before­ hand, in any general way, a course that will moot their wants* Accordingly, the practice thus far has been for the student himself to indicate on his entering the University, his wishes, and in case the studies he wishes to pursue are not already provided for in the schedule of the term, his application is referred to the appropriate Faculty*

Admission to post-graduate work was based on holding the baccalaur­ eate degree. Those holding this degree from Cornell, or the equivalent

degree from another oollege or university, were at liberty to attend any of the lectures, recitations, or other exercises with the under­

graduates. Such students were also expected to take some studies, not

included in any undergraduate courses, under the direction of some particular professor, or special faculty* From 1876 to 1900 the grad­ uate student found his instruction in the undergraduate curriculum under the elective system. Out of the University’s course of study ho could form for himself a course of study, with the help and approval of the faculty*

The following table will show the tremendous breadth of the course of

- 220 - 1 I

1876______1880______I* Department of Agriculture Agriculture Veterinary Science I. Applied Agriculture II* Architecture II. Agricultural Chemistry III. Chemistry and Physics III. Economic Entomology 1. School of Chemistry and IV. Horticulture Mineralogy V. Veterinary Science 2* School of Physics Mechanic Arts IV. Civil Engineering Military Science V. History and Political Sci. Architecture VI. language s Civil Engineering 1. School of the Ancient Mathematics and Astronomy Languages Physics 1. Greek Language Chemistry and Mineralogy 2. Latin Language I. Descriptive and Theoretice 3. Living Asiatic and Chemi stry Oriental Langs. II. Agricultural and Analytics 2. School of Modern Lang. Chemistry 1. Langs, of the South III. Industrial chemistry of Europe Natural His-tory 2. Germanic languages 1. Botany VII. Mathematics and Astronomy II. Geology and Lithology VIII. Mechanic Arts III. Palaeontology IX. Military Science IV. Zoology X. Natural History V* Preliminary Medical Educa- 1. School of Botany Languages 2. School of Geology and I. Ancient Classical Language Palaeontology II. Oriental Languages 3. School of Zoology III. Germanic Languages XI. Philosophy and Letters IV. Romance Eanguag03 1. School of Philosophy 1. French 2. School of Letters 2. Italian 1. Anglo-Saxon and 3. Spanish English Literature Literature 2. Rhetoric and General I. Anglo-Saxon English Idter* Literature II. Rhetoric and General Idtei Philosophy History and Political Science

I TABLE XVI

COURSES OF STUDY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900 UNDER ELECTIVE SYSTEM OF STUDIES

1885 1890 Language, Philosophy, History and Ancient Classics Agriculture Politics I. Greek tural Chemistry Latin 12 II• Latin c Entomology Greek 10 III. Comparative Philology lture Oriental Languages 18 Germanic Languages ary Science Sanskrit, Arabic, Persian, Romance Languages li. 8 Turkish and Malayan English ence Germanic Languages 18 I. Rhetoric Romanic Languages 21 II. Philology ©ring English Language and Literature III. Elocution and Oratory and Astronomy I. Anglo-Saxon and English Iv. English Literature Literature 12 Philosophy d Mineralogy II. Rhetoric and Oratory 26 Science and Arts of Teaohing tive and Theoretical Moral and Intellectual History and Political Science stry Philosophy 5 Mathematics and Astronomy tural and Analytical History and Political Science 33 Pure ^Mathematics ) stry General Science Astronomy and Celestial ) 23 ial Chemistry Mathematics and Astronomy 51 Mechanics ) ory Physios 16 Mathematical Physics ) les Chemistry, Mineralogy and Physics and Lithology Metallurgy 40 Chemistry 20 f 1' .tology . Botany, Horticulture and I. Inorganic Arboriculture 14 II. Organic nary %dical Education Entomology and General III. Theoretical Chemistry Invertebrate Zoology IV. Analytical Chemistry Classical Languages Physiology and Vertebrate V. Applied Chemistry 1 Languages Zoology 14 VI. Metallurgy c Languages Geology 6 Natural History tr languages Palaeontology 7 I. Botany ch Applied Science and the Arts II. Geology 5? i&n Agriculture 6 III. Invertebrate Zoology and 101 1 sh Veterinary Science 3 Entomology Architecture 27 IV. Vertebrate Zoology loo axon English Literature Civil Engineering 30 Agriculture c and General Literature Mechanical Engineering and Architecture lJljlo the Mechanic Arts 17 Civil Engineering 25 Political Science Electrical Engineering Sibley College Mech. Engr. and Military Science Me ch. Arts I. Dept. Mechanical Eng. Ho. of oourses 398 II. Dept. Electrical III. Dept. Mechanic Arts a IV. Dept. Ind. Drawings and Art tl V. Dept. Indus. Art A Military Science Hygiene & Physical Culture Ho. of courses 286 -u

I 221

6 TO 1900

1896 1900 Classical Archaeology and Semitic Languages and Literature 13 History o f Art languages and Literature 10 Comparative Philology Hebrew, Neo-Hebraic, Arabic, lilology 6 Greek Efchiopic, Aramaic, Assyrian, 10 Latin Shumerian, Egyptian 12 German Languages Oriental History 12 Romance Languages Geography and Antiquities of Semitics English Comparative Semitic Philology Rhetoric Classical Archaeology and History of Art ) |Oratory Philology Greek Archaeology L ature English Lit, Greek Sculpture Elocution and Oratory r I m 10 Pausanias (Greek topography) 3 f Teaohing 4 Philosophy Seminary al Science 27 History and Political Science Comparative Philology ronomy 8 1. History Science of Languages A. Ancient Mediaeval Sanskrit B. Modern European Vedic Sanskrit ( ) 23 iestial ) C. American Comparative Greek and Latin II. Political Science Greek 9I-Dfics )\ 20 A. Politics Plato, Homer, Demosthenes, Sophocles, 20 B. Social Sci. and Statistics Euripidies, Herodotus, Eligiac, C. Political Economy and Thucydides, Aristophanes Finance Greek Life and Literature emistry Law Political and Legal Antiquities of Gr« mi stry Mathematics and Astronomy Hew Testament Greek 0 try Pure Mathematics Aristotle's Hicomachaan Ethics Astronomy and Mathematical Lyric Poetry Physics 5 10 Seminary 0 ;Physics Latin 5 | Chemistry Livy, Cicero, Horace, Terence, 8 oology and 10 jBotany and Arboriculture Tacitus, Agricola, Catullus, Vergil, Entomology and General Inver. Zoology Georgies 4 Physiology and Vertebrate Zoology .j i°ey 8 Literature and History Early Empire >c 4 Geology, Mineral., Palaeontology Romance Antiquities 12 Geology, Mineral. Phys. Geog Early Latin Inscriptions .e 29 Petrography Historical Latin Syntax . Engr. and Agriculture Latin Epigraphy, Palaeography 18 Horticulture Germanic Languages al Bng, Veterinary Science Schiller, Goethe, Wagner n Architecture Hi one Arts Civil Engineering Lyrical Poetry (wings and Art Meoh. Eng. * Mechanic Arts Hovel and drama rt Military Science Middle High German 4 Hygiene, Physical Culture Romance Languages Culture 6 286 222

TABLE XVI (cent. )

COURSES OF STUDY AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900 UNDER ELECTIVE SYSTEM OF STUDIES

1900______English a. Fhilologv b « Orato ry c. English ■L,Iterature Philosophy &• Psychology b. Logic c. Ethics Science and Art of Education .Music History and Political Science a. Ancient, -‘Mediaeval b. M o d e m European c. American Political Science Bib1iography Mathemati cs, Astronomy Physics Chemistry Anatomy Geology 228

study at Cornell in 1876* In 1876 this ■was the entire course of

instruction for all students enrolled in Cornell University, for candi­

dates fbr any one of the baccalaureate, or any one of the advanced

degrees. In 1890 this was the University’s enbire course of instruc­

tion, outside of the Faculty of Law. In 1900 it was the entire course

of instruction, outside the Colleges of Law and ivledicine.

Since Cornell received endowment from the sale of land given it by

the federal government, or, in other words, was a land-grant university,

it was committed to give instruction related to the mechanic arts.

Therefore the courses Cornell offered in the field of engineering were both numerous and practical. Some of them were* location and construc­ tion of railroads, canals, water-works; survoys and improvements of coasts, harbors, rivers, and lakes; construction of bridges, trusses; construction and management of iron, steel, and chemical works; chart- making; surveying and mining engineering. Prominence was given to studies which would be practically useful. Although the classics were provided in the curriculum, particular attention was paid to those studies of the application of science to living.

In 1883 courses in electrical engineering wore introduced. The new electrical engineering laboratories vrere equipped with apparatus purchased especially for them in England, Germany, and in France. The new group of studies in electrical engineering were designed to train engineers in telegraphy, electrical lighting, transmission of power, eleotroplating, manufacture of electrically operated machinery and apparatus. 224

In 1885 courses labelled "Graduate Courses" appeared in the Course

of Instruction. In 1887 attention -was called to the vast amount of

instruction available to graduate students.

An inspection of the ensuing courses will show that the amount of instruction offered greatly exceeds the amount any person could avail himself of while- an under­ graduate. Though all of the courses are open to under­ graduates# a large number are especially adapted to the wants of graduate students. No sharp line of demareation therefore separates the two classes. Graduates and ad­ vanced undergraduates are taught together. In nearly every branch of study the advanced courses of lecture and the seminaries and laboratories afford abundant opportun­ ities for carrying on profitable work of a high grade during two or three years after the baccalaureate degree has been taken. The facilities thua afforded commend themselves especially to graduates of those colleges which do not offer a large range of electives dttring the under­ graduate oourse.

In 1886 the University pointed out the advantages which Cornell

had to offer graduate students.

1. The work done by graduates is carried on to a large degree in laboratories and seminaries, and thus each is given opportunity for individual and original research,

2. All graduate students, whether candidates for ad­ vanced degrees or not# do their work under the direct supervision of a conmittee of the faculty, appointed for the special purpose of supervising that work.

3. Graduate students have access to the alcoves of the library and to the special collections in the various seminar rooms without charge,

In 1887 civil engineering had a separate building. This building

housed the laboratories, draughting rooms, museums, classrooms, and the meteorological observation room. The stated aim of this department

illustrates Cornell's intentions in 1868 to maintain technical instruc— A. tion on the same high cultural level as classical education. 225

The aim of this department is mainly to make its pupils cultured and well balanced professional men, trained to meet the actual demands of American engineering science and practice, without losing sight of the necessity of fostering professional progress. The several courses of preparatory and professional studies have been planned with a view to laying a substantial foundation for the general and technical knowledge needed by practitioners in civil engineering so that our graduates guided by their theoretical education and as much of engineering practice as can be taught in schools, may develop into useful investigators and constructors.

In 1887 the seminar was in use in many departments; some of these were: English language, literature, rhetoric and oratory; science of teaching; history and political science; mathematics and physics. In the Germanic languages, Vihitney's German Grammar, was one of the textbooks used, as it-was at harvard, and at ^ale, where 7/hitney wrote it.

In 1890 the College of Civil Engineering had added five speoial schools "for graduates desiring advanced study in the separate branches of their profession." These schools were: Bridge Engineering, Rail­ road Engineering, Sanitary and Municipal Engineering, Hydraulic Engineer­ ing and Geodetic Engineering. Field trips, as they were called, were an accepted and constant part of the instruction in oengineering. These field trips were taken throughout the northern part of the United

States and Canada. They were visits to factories, to mining excavations, to construction building, and were without expense to the graduate student.

3h 1890 the Graduate School of Marine Engineering and Naval

Architecture was established indicating once again the constant extension of instructional facilities in the technical subjects. Its object was to provide instruction in branches of engineering which were related to the 226

design, building and powering of marine vessels.

In 1896 three more departments had become colleges. Just as the

department of civil engineering had, in 1890, become the College of

Civil Engineering, now there were established the College of Agriculture,

the College of Architecture and the New York State Veterinary College*

The College of Agriculture now included: General agriculture, animal

industry and diary husbandry, horticulture and ptoology (fruit cultiva­ tion), agricultural chemistry, general and economic entomology, and the

Agricultural Experiment Station. The New Y0rk State Veterinary College v/as a state institution, but was administered by the trustees of

Cornell, therefore administered as a part of Cornell University* 5 In 1876 free tuition was given to all resident graduates. This practice continued until 1893 when a tuition of one hundred dollars per year was charged. In 1878 a graduation fee of five dollars was insti­ tuted. In 1881 this was increased to ten dollars. From the beginning, charge was made for the actual materials used in the physics, chemistry, zoology and entomology laboratories. Undergraduates had paid tuition fees since the beginning, 1868. vYhen the fee was established for grad­ uate instruction it was set at the same amount as was charged for under­ graduate instruction. Considering this difference in attitude toward undergraduate and graduate instruction, we could assume Cornell wished very much to build up a body of advanced students.

It was stated by the University that in all graduate work the aim was to surround the student with "an atmosphere of earnest devotion to the oause of -the advancement of knowledge, and to exoite a true scholarly spirit." The greater part of graduate work, the University stated, was 227 carried on in the numerous well-equipped laboratories and seminars, in which the student with the aid and under the guidance and direction of the professor was encouraged in original investigations of an advanced nature. The following list will show the very large number of labora­ tories in which the student could carry on his own researches with almost no cost and with the help and direction of one better qualified in his. field, his instructor*

In 1876 one of the facilities of graduate instruction which was unique to Cornell was the University farm consisting at this time of 6 some one hundred acres. The larger part was used for experimental purposes and the illustration of the principles of agriculture. Some of the courses in applied agriculture which related to the farm were* wheat culture, preparation of soil, injurious insects, harvesting, threshing, marketing, history of swine breeds, repair and preservation of farm buildings, fences and gates, commercial fertilizers, horse breeding, weeds and their eradication, and farm accounts. Table Xyill will show something of the number of museums and collections which the student had for use in his researches without cost.

As has been seen from the proceeding paragraphs, instruction lead­ ing to the doctor of philosophy degree at Cornell from 1876 to 1900 was so complete and comprehensive as to seem in a measure unique. This in­ struction consisted of lectures, recitations, research courses, seminars in the chosen field of study, plus the supervised use of laboratory equipment, museum collections for research and seminar work. The follow­ ing paragraphs will 3how the requirements which a candidate pursuing the course of instruction leading to the Ph.D. was expected to complete* A COMPARISON OF LADORAT AT CORNELL IMIVERSI

1876______1890______1895______Anatomical Anatomical Anatomical Chemical Botanical Botanical Entomological Chemical Chemical, genera Geological Civil Engineering Agricultural Mechanical Electrical Engineering Analytical Physical Entomology Bacteriology Draughting Invertebrate Zoology Industrial General Farm Geological Inorganic Experimental Farm. Mechanical Engineering Metallurgy Physical Chemistry Organic University Farm Physical University Gardens Quantitative Qualitative An Agricultural Elxp ment Station 1 atories Geology, Mineral Palaeontology Civil Engineerin Electrical Engin Zoology Invertebrate Vertebrate University, Expe tal Farm Mechanical Engin Psychology 228

TABLE m i yARISON OF LABORATORIES AND OTHER RESEARCH FACILITIES ff CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN 187 6» 1890» 1895 A1® 1900

1895 ■1900 Anatomical Psychological Botanical Physi cs Chemical, general Photography Agricultural Chemistry (work space for 737 students at one time) nine different labs. Analytical Inorganicj Qualitative and Quantitative} Physiological} Physical} Baoteriology Sanitary chemistry} Toxicology; Analytical; Organic; Agricultural; Industrial and labs, of Agricultural Experiment Station Inorganic Electrical Engineering Metallurgy Civil; Mechanical Organic Biological Physical Embrology; Miscroscopy Quantitative Geology Qualitative Analysis Mineralogy; Petrography; physiography; geology; economic geology Agricultural Experi­ Botany ment Station labor­ Morphology; mycology; histology; entomology atories Anatomy Geology, Mineralogy ’Zoology Palaeontology Civil Engineering Field Expeditions-Geology Electrical Engineering Greenland, Maine, Adirondack^, Niagara, Coal Mines of Pennsylvania, Zoology Shores of Lake Ontario invertebrate Vertebrate University,-Experimen­ tal Farm Mechanical Engineering Psychology MUSEUMS AS RESEARCH FACILITI]

1876 1890 1895 Agriculture Agriculture Agriculture Architecture Architecture Architects Botany Botany Archaeolog; Geology and Palaeontology Chemistry & Pharmacy Botany Mineralogy Applied Chemistry Civil Engii Military Science Pharmacy and Materia Dairy Built Technology Medica Entomo logit Zoology and Physiology Metallurgical Geology, M: Collections - Fine Arts Conchology (shells) Falaeontt Civil Engineering Herbarium Entomology Horticultu; Invertebrate Zoology Invertebra* Mechanical Engineering Insectary Geology, Paleontology Vertebrate Mineralogy Veterinary Veterinary Science Zoology TA TABLE XVIII

ILITIES AT C O M ”' vlcH FACILITIES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN I

1895- 1900 Agriculture, gi alture Agriculture Architecture tecture Architecture Archaeology Classical Arch* sology Mathematic Col? Y Botany Civil Engineering TiVhite historic* Engineering Chemical Musoui Building Dairy Building Entomological Cabinet Botanical Greei clogical Cabinet Zoological, Ins gy, Mineralogy, Geology, Mineralogy, Newcomb Colie Palaeontology aeontology Marine Zoolo< arium Herbarium Entomological C culture Horticulture Vivarium (livii bobrate Zoology Invertebrate Zoology Fish Colleotio] tary (insects) Insectary (insects) Cat Collection brate Zoology Vertebrate Zoology Geology Museum inary Science Veterinary Science Benjamin Sil? Shell Colled by study o: Jewett Colle< Silurian Col? Devonian Faui Collection oj Collection o: 229

f 1876, 1890, 1896 AMD 1900 grains from foreign countries shaeology Elections, models, etc. Leal Collection sum; collection of carbon compounds, etc, aenhouse; herbarium invertebrate Llection Shells, Corals, etc. Logy Collection L Cabinet (insects) ring animals for study) Lon (living) m (living) m LIliman, Jr., Collection (minerals) sction (for stratisgraphy, world geological history learned of shells) Lection, Invertebrate Fossils 3 llection mnas Collection of iron, copper, gold, silver, lead, zinc of building stones, coals, clays, cement, petroleum 230

2. Requirements for the Ph.D. degree

In 1876 the doctor of philosophy degree at Cornell was a six-year degree."^

The degree of Doctor of Philosophy will be conferred on graduates of this University, and of other univer­ sities and colleges whose requirements for the Bachelor's degree are equal to our own on the following conditions*

1. In order to become a candidate the applicant must have, over and above what is required here for graduation in the Course in Philosophy, a knowledge of Greek equal to that required here for admission to the Course in Arts.

2. The candidate must spend at least two years at this University in a course of study marked out by the Faculty as leading to this degree.

3. He must paws an examination upon the course marked out and present a meritorious thesis upon some sub­ ject included in the course of study.

Section 1 of the requirements in 1876 could be interpreted as follows* the Course in Philosophy required of the student one year spent in the study of Latin, and two years of the modern languages,

French, or Gorman, or both. Thus a candidate who had graduated from the Course in Philosophy, or its equivalent, would of necessity have a reading knowledge of two or three languages, Latin, French, German.

Thus in addition to Greek, the candidates were required to possess a knowledge of one or two modern languages. It is of interest to observe that a university I'tfiich m s emphasizing technioal education also re­ quired an unusual knowledge of foreign languages for its doctor of philosophy degree.

Post-graduate study leading to the Ph.D. was in 1876 marked out in the following general departments; Chemistry and Physics, History 231

and Political Science, Ancient Classical Languages and Literature,

Modern European Languages and Literature, Oriental Languages and

Literature, Mathematics, Natural History, Comparative Philology, and

Philosophy and Lettres. In 1885 two departments were added, civil

engineering and mechanical engineering, and the department of Oriental

languages and literature was dropped. In 1886 the department of

science and art of teaching, and the department of agriculture were

added.

By 1892 the number of departments in which advanced degrees could be taken had greatly expanded. They were* Classical Archaeology and

History of Art, Comparative Philology, Creek, Latin, Germanic Languages,

Romance Languages, English Literature and English Philology, Philosophy,

History and Political Science, Mathematics and Astronomy, Physics,

Chemistry, Botany and Arboriculture, Entomology and General Invertebrate

Zoology, Physiology and Vertebrate Zoology, Veterinary Science, Archi­ tecture, Civil Engineering (including Bridge, Railroad, Sanitary,

Hydraulic and Geodetic Engineering) and Mechanical Engineering (includ­ ing Electrical, Steam and Marine Engineering, Naval Architecture, and

Railroad Machinery), science of teaching and agriculture*

By 1900 an additional seven "departments” load been added, making a total of twenty-nine departments® in which the Ph.D. could be taken.

The seven new departments were* Semitic languages, Neurology, Anatomical

Methods, Human Anatomy, Miscroscopy, Histology, and Embrology; Geology,

Palaeontology, and Mineralogy, and Horticulture*

There were no changes in requirements from 1876 until 1881, when the statement was made that the thesis must be presented six weeks 232

before commencement. In 1885 the system of major and minors was insti-

jnited, and the candidate must take examinations in one major and two

minor subjects by November first of the year before the date of gradu­

ation. The subject of the thesis must be made known to the faculty

by December first of the year of graduation, the thesis in completed

form must be presented by May first before the June commencement. A

successful candidate must print his thesis and deposit ten copies in

the library*

In 1888 the final examination was to be conducted by a committee of

not less than three members. The examination might be both oral and

written. Twenty-five copies of the thesis were required. In 1889 9 one year of the residence might be remitted.

In exceptional cases, a year of graduate work done in a university elsewhere, may by special vote of the Faculty, be accepted in lieu of one of the ■jnvo years in Cornell.

In the same year Greek was dropped from the language requirement. In

1892 it was announced that the studies must be comprised withinone

or tivo or three departments, exoept in special cases of special per­ mission to the contrary. In 1896 fifty copies of the thesis were

required. In 1897 the residence requirement was raised from two to

three years, with the provision that one year elsewhere might be voted acceptable by the Faculty in place of a year at Cornell,

Although Cornell placed emphasis on technical training, the basis

of the doctor of philosophy degree was the general cultural course of the baccalaureate degree. This "general cultural course" of necessity gave the candidate a broad knowledge of foreign languages. The course 233

of Btudy leading to the degree was elected from the course of study of

the academic department and could in 1900 be taken in twenty-nine

departments. The requirements in 1900 were:

Baccalaureate degree

Three years in resident study (one year of which could be remitted for study elsewhere, by vote of faculty)

Course of study must include one major and two minors, and must be taken within one, two or three related departments•

Language requirements, Latin, French or German

Thesis, fifty printed oopies

Final examination on course of study, might be written or oral, or both

It was a seven-year degree

3. The University faculty

From 1876 to 1886 graduate work at Cornell was under the general

faculty of the University. There was no organized graduate department,

no graduate school. The graduate student announced at the time of

registering the field in which he wished to study. A committee in

that department then set up for him a course of study. His period of

resident study was then under the supervision of this committee in his

department. The conditions of admission to graduate study, requirements

for higher degrees, and courses of graduate instruction, were set up by the general faculty of the University.

In 1891 matters of admission and regulations of graduate students was entrusted to a standing committee of the general faculty. This com­ mittee, Committee on Higher Degrees, had charge of the general affairs of graduate work. The appointment of this Committee was an attempt to 234 associate the organization of the advanced work more with the official routine of the University. In addition there continued to be the

special coumittee consisting of the professors under which the student v/as doing his work.

in 1896 with the reorganization of the faculty, the organization of graduate work was altered.*0 Before 1896 the General Faculty had taken care of everything but Law, for which there was a special Law

Faculty. It was now determined that a special faculty for every course leading to a degree, excepting the graduate degrees, was needed. Thus the General Faculty was discontinued. To integrate the several special faculties there m s established the University Faculty.

Graduate work was then under the direct supervision of the University

Faculty. The Graduate School was not established at Cornell until

1909.

4. Enrollments and degrees conferred

In 1876 it was not necessary that a student pursuing post-graduate studies should be a candidate for an advanced degree. He could enter the University for a longer or a shorter time and pursue any one branch of study and investigation. All students registered in post­ graduate studies were listed as resident graduates. There were in 1876 no non-resident students and no resident students who were not candi­ dates for the degree listed.^ The figures in the column Resident

Graduates in Table XlX therefore include candidates for all the higher degrees. From 1876 to 1880 there were M.A., C.E., M.E., Sc.D. and Ph.D.

From 1880 to 1899 there were* A.M., M.S., Ph.M., M.E., M.C.E., M.M.E*

Sc.D. and Ph.D. The number in this column also included those not candi- 235

TABLE XIX

UNIVERSITY Alffl RESIDENT GRADUATE ENROLLMENTS AND PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

University Resident Ph.D. Degrees Year Enrollments Graduates Conferred 1876 561 23 0 1877 529 30 1 1878 505 21 0 1879 463 9 1 1880 399 14 0

1881 384 8 0 1882 407 16 0 1883 461 21 0 1884 563 29 0 1885 638 34 3

1886 829 32 1 1887 1022 43 0 1888 1211 62 3 1889 1329 84 1 1890 1347 98 2

1891 1537 164 2 1892 1665 155 8 1893 1752 222 4 1894 1638 163 16 1895 1654 124 13

1896 1763 127 14 1897 1790 142 11 1898 2038 147 23 1899 2240 153 7 1900 2458 173 19

dates for a degree*

Throughout this quarter century period 1876 to 1900, there ware from time to time for short periods graduate students studying "in absentia," that is, non-resident students. Thewe are not included in the resident graduate enrollment column. Also some statement should be made of the large number of degrees at the master’s level, the candidates 236

for which would of necessity be included in this column. Cornell did

not publish these figures separately. Although the number of master's

degrees which Cornell offered throughout this period varied from one

period of time to another, there were always from three to six offered.

Also throughout this entire period of time (until 1899), there was a

second doctor's degree offered, the doctor of science.

It will be seen from the preceding table that in the twenty-five

year period the university enrollment increased almost four times.

During the same time graduate enrollment increased much more than four times. In 1896 the University began publishing annually the lists of

Graduate Students not in Residence, and Not Candidates for Degrees*

The combined number in these two groups was about fifteen to twenty a year. This would increase the total by that number only during the last four years of the century. It would make the graduate enrollment in 1900 approximately eight times that of 1876.

The number actually taking the degree the last few years of the century showed a remarkable increase. This increase is all the more to be noticed when it is recalled that it was at this time that an annual fee for instruction was first introduced, and also the resident period of study was increased from two to three years. It will also be observed that there was a noticeable decrease in enrollment, the first year tuition fee3 were charged. Graduate enrollment decreased from 222 in 1893 to 163 in 1894.

From 1876 to 1900 the degree was conferred on 129 candidates.

There were during this time a total enrollment of 2000 resident graduates.

This number included all chose who were candidates for any one of the 237

higher degrees. Of the total number of resident graduates one in

seventeen took the Ph.D. The average number of Ph.D. degrees granted

annually was five. During the last decade of the century, when the

enrollment for all higher degrees -was much increased, approximately,

one in eleven took the Ph.D.

Throughout the last quarter of the century a little less than half

of the resident graduates were from Cornell. As will be seen from the

table, the number coming from other institutions was small during the

earlier years. However, by 1887 the number from other colleges and

universities much outnumbered the number from Cornell.

By an act of the Trustees passed in April 1872, women were ad-

mitted to the University on the same terms and conditions as men. 12

The majority of the women graduate students enrolled were graduates of

Cornell. The fields of study largely chosen by them were! first,

ancient and modern languages; second, history, literature, and poli­

tical science. As will be seen from Table XXI the enrollment of

women increased until it was approximately one-fifth of the resident

graduate enrollment.

The figures are not available to show the ratio of Cornell gradu­

ates to those of other institutions among those upon whom the degree was actually conferred. The figures are available showing the ratio

of men and women upon whom the degree was conferred. There were

through this period almost five times as many degrees granted to men as women. The main fields of specialization were the same for both men

and women, being, the languages, and history and political science. TABLE XX

RESIDENT GRADUATES YJHO HELD THE BACHELOR’S DEGREE FROM CORNELL UNIVERSITY AND THOSE VfilO HELD THE BACHELOR’S FROM OTHER COLLEGES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

CO C- CO O o rH CM to *ft to CO C- CO 03 o rH CM to lO <0 <0 O O C"-t>fr'tw COCOOOCOCOCOCDCOC0 0 0 0 1 C l 01 0) 05 0)0)0)0)01 o OOODCOCOCO OfflCO OfflO W t O C D f f l f f l CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 00 01 Total Cornell 17 17 12 8 14 5 4 10 12 18 21 13 16 22 32 72 39 94 79 49 55 66 64 66 89 873 Other Insti­ tutions 8 13 9 1 0 3 6 11 17 9 20 30 46 62 66 92 116 128 84 75 72 76 83 87 103 1197

TABLE XXI

RESIDENT GRADUATES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY VIZ. PROPORTION OF MEN AND 'AOMEN FROM 1876 TO 1900

CO i*- 00 ci o rH W CO to CO C- CD 01 O rH CM M to <0 O- CO 01 o t> t> o t- CO CO CO CO CO CO CO co CO CO 01 CD 01 05 Ol 05 05 05 Ol Ol o CO co CO eo CO 00 CO co CO CO CO CO CD CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO 00 CO CO 05 H H 1—I H pH rHI rH rH rH H rH rH rH rH rH rH rH I—1 rH rH rH rH rH 1—1 rH Total Man 18 27 19 6 9 6 8 18 24 27 33 39 51 72 85 164 129 184 135 100 106 125 120 126 154 1752 Yfomen 5 3 2 3 5 2 2 3 5 7 8 4 11 12 13 22 26 38 28 24 21 17 27 27 38 345 238 TABLE m i

NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED ON MEN AND M E N AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

(0 t- 00 05 o tH CM w to CO I" 00 0) o f“t CM CO to CO t- CO 05 o t> c- t- tv 00 CO CO CO CD 00 CO 00 CO CO 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 05 o 00 a> 00 co CO 00 CO CO 00 00 CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO an CO 00 CO co 00 05 Total

Man 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 0 3 0 2 2 7 3 12 8 11 10 20 5 18 107

Vfomen 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 4 5 3 1 3 2 1 22 240

The following figures will show the number of fields of special­

ization according to departments, progressively, during the period 1881

to 1900. They will also 3how the number in the scientific subjects as

compared with the rion-scientific subjects.

Classical and Modern Languages Inorganic Sciences, Physics, Chem. 1881 - 1890 . . . 6 etc. 1890 - 1900 .. . 67 1881 - 1890 . . . 3 1890 - 1900 . . . 44 History and Political Science 1881 - 1890 . . . 2 Biological Sciences 1890 - 1900 .. . 55 1881 - 1890 . . . 0 1890 - 1900 . . . 26 Philosophy, etc. (including Psych.) 1881 - 1890 . . . 1 Engineering, etc. 1890 - 1900 . . . 70 1881 - 1890 . . . 1 1890 - 1900 . . . 5

Non-Scientific Studies. • 198 Scientific Studies . . 79

As is seen from the preceding table the majority of graduate

students at Cornell chose the non-scientific subjects, the humanities,

or languages, history, political science, and philosophy. Advanced

students in the humanities generally looked forward largely to being teachers. Yet courses in the science of teaching were not instituted until 1885. Advanoed students in the sciences, although a portion would become teachers of those subjects, looked forward largely to entering the technical professions.

Perhaps one of the reasons the largest number of majors and minors were taken in history and political science was because of the compre­ hensive way in which the department was set up. Instruction in this department was intended to ”give training which would be valuable to those intending to enter the profession of law, journalism; the field 241

TABLE XXIII

MAJORS AMD MINORS OF PH.D. CANDIDATES AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY FROM 1890-1900

Number History and Political Science 55 Ethics and Philosophy 54 Psychology 15 Physics 14 Mathematics 13 Zoology 12 Botany 11 Philology 11 English 11 Chemistry 10 Romance Languages 10 Greek 9 Germanic Languages 7 Latin 5 Economics 4 Geology 4 Neurology 3 Sanskrit 2 Electricity 2 Civil Engineering 2 Education 1 Archaeology 1 Mineralogy 1 Hydraulics 1 Agriculture 1 Horticulture 1

of civil service, and that of politics," beside that of teaching those subjects. By 1887 the department had so expanded that it became a school#*®

By action of the trustees taken January 19, 1887 the various courses heretofore given in the several branches of history, political economy, social science, and international law were consolidated into an admin­ istrative unit, and to the consolidated department was given the name of The President White School of History and Political Science* 242

In considering the major and minor subjects which the candidates for the Ph.D. selected from 1890 to 1900, it is also to be remembered that the doctor of science degree was offered until 1899* It is assumed that those who wished to take the doctorate in one of the scientific subjects would select that degree. The main differences in requirements for the two doctorates was that the doctor of science was, during all the years it was offered, a seven-year degree and carried no language requirement. There were few Sc.D. degrees actually taken, however— approximately one to three annually— so in 1899 it wa3 dropped. Graduate students at Cornell came largely from the northern states and Canada, and not.from the South. The following table will show the leading states represented in the order of their representa­ tion.

TABLE XXIV

LEADING TEN STATES REPRESENTED AMONG CANDIDATES FOR PH.D. DEGREE AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY IN 1890, 1895 AND 1900

1890 1895 1900 New York New York New York Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Pennsylvania Ohio Illinois Ohio Illinois Ohio New J e r s e y Massachusetts New Jersey Illinois New Jersey Massachusetts Massachusetts District of Columbia District of Columbia Maryland Indiana Connecticut Indiana Iowa California Connecticut Wisconsin Indiana Wisconsin 243

In 1900 Cornell University comprehended the following departments*

The Graduate Department, the Academic Department (or Department of

Arts and Sciences), the College of Law (founded 1S87), the College of

Civil Engineering, the Sibley College of Mechanical Engineering and

Mechanic Arts, the College of Agriculture, the College of Architecture, and the Medical College* The New Y0rk State Veterinary College and the

New Y0rk State College of Forestry were also administered by Cornell and their work was organically connected with that of Cornell University*

In 1900 graduate work was well established at Cornell, and was under the supervision of the University faculty, with the Committee on higher degrees and the committee of the candidate’s department hand­ ling details. Graduate work had attained an enrollment in 1900 of less than 175. The pattern of graduate work remained much the same through thdse years, history and political sciences, and the languages being the leading fields of specializations. It should be recalled that in the early years of this period the languages included Matin,

Greek, Sanskrit, philology, English, Germanic languages, Romance languages. A total count of these separate subjects now made the languages one of the major fields of specialization*

The Ph.D. was in 1900 a seven-year degree, and could be taken in twenty-nine departments by women as well as men. The majority of those attracted to Cornell were from the northern states and Canada, and the majority were graduates of institutions other than Cornell* 244

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER XII

1• 1876-77 Register of Cornell University* Ithaca, New ^ork* Published by"the University 1877* p. 104•

2. 1885-86 Register of Cornell University. Ithaca, New ^ork* Published by the University, 1886. p. 135*

3. The Annual Report of the President of Cornell University, 1885-86. Ithaca, New ^ork* Published by the University, p. 8.

4. 1887-88 Register of Cornell University, p. 74.

5. 1876-77 Register, op. oit., p. 87.

6. Ibid., p. 70*

7. Ibid., p. 85.

8. 1900-01 Register of Cornell University, op. cit., p. 69#

9. 1889-90 Register of Cornell University, op. cit., p. 154#

10. 1899-1900 Register of Cornell University, op. oit., p. 64#

11, 1876-77 Register of Cornell University, p. 40.

12* Ibid., p. 39#

13. 1887-88 Register of Cornell University, p# 161. CHAPTER XIII

MICHIGAN 1876-1900

1. Post-graduate courses

In 1876 the University of Michigan comprised the Department of

Literature, Science and the Arts (including the School of Mines), the

Department of Medicine and Surgery, the Department of Law, the School of Pharmacy, the Homoeopathic Medical College, and the Dental College.

The Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts was comprised of seven separate four-year courses: Classical, Scientific, Latin and

Scientific, Greek and Scientific, Civil Engineering, Mining Engineer­ ing, and Architecture and Design. This Department represented the collegiate and technological side of the University as distinguished from the professional schools.

In 1876 but two departments were listed as having "courses espec­ ially for post-graduates." These were the departments of Latin and of

Greek. Under Latin, four-post-graduate courses were offered, and under Greek, three. .Tuition for post-graduate courses was the same as for the undergraduates. This fee, , for residents of Michigan, was twenty dollars a year; for non-residents, twenty-five dollars. The eleotive system of studies was in use in the Department of Literature,

Science, and the Arts, and the resident graduates were expected to build their two-year course of advanced study under this system.

There was an astronomical observatory, and the University museum which included collections in natural science, ethnology, agriculture, anatomy, geology, zoology, botany, and archaeology. Under the 246

Department of Literature, Soienoe, and the Arts, the post-graduate

courses were offered#*

Post-graduate courses are provided for the graduates of this University, or for the graduates of any College or University, who may desire to pursue advanced study ■whether for a second degree or not.

At this time, 1876, there were 1110 students enrolled in the entire

University. Of this number 369 were registered in the Department of

Literature, Science, and the Arts; 309, Law; 285, ^dicine and Surgery;

64, Pharmacy; 51, Homoeopathic ^dicine; 33, Dentistry. There were 14

resident graduates#

-*-n 1877 the elective system of studies was much expanded and the

"credit system" was introduced. Under the "credit system" when a student had completed 24 courses, he could be granted the bachelor's degree. "When thirty courses were completed the master's degree could be conferred. Under the multiplication of electives the student could take extra courses. From 1877 to 1884 the credit system was in use and students regularly took the bachelor's degree in three and one- half years, and the master’s degree in four years, thus also reducing the time necessary to complete the doctorate#

In 1881 when the credit systems was in operation and v/hen the

University system (instituted in 1882) was being worked out, the ad- o ministration cited the practice of the German universities:

In the German universities the student can take his examination for the Doctor of Philosophy -when he has attended lectures for 3 years or 120 weeks, that is at the end of the third year from the gymnasium# At this time the years devoted to his education in the primary school, the gymnasium, and the university, will have amounted to 16 or 17 years. If the American student takes the same degree after a residence of 5 247

years, he will have spent 18 or 19 years. In Germany t h e student can offer himself for the doctor of philos­ ophy after 16 years, in the U n i t e d States after 18 years. The residence we propose to require in this Universi-fcy for the Ph.D. is 5 years, or 200 weeks,

AI30 during the discussion which resulted in the adoption of the

University system, the I3resident commented that whenever a new step

was needed to be taken action was frequently delayed because faculty

members "wondered what would be thought of us abroad or in the East,”

But, the President continued, we have our own graded system .of educa­

tion, and the University was a part of the state system of education, a

condition different from certain universities "in the East,”

Under the University System (1882) the undergraduate student com­

pleted two years required work. At the beginning of the third year

he entered upon the University System of study. Under this system

he was not held to the completion of a fixed number of courses. But

under the direction of a committee of the faculty of the Department of

Literature, Sciences, and the Arts, he took a large amount of work in

a limited range of studies. At the end of the fourth year he took a

comprehensive examination on the studies of these two years. If he passed with special merit and presented also an acceptable thesis he could be granted the master's- degree. Yfithout offering the thesis and attaining special merit he could be granted the bachelor's.

Thus under the University System the master's degree could be attained, in fbur years. The administration considered this system to be advantageous to graduate work. President Angell said:0

Another year's experience (1884) with the "university system,” which was described in my last report, confirms me in the conviction that it is of great service to those 248

students who desire to concentrate their work in the last two years of their course or in post-graduate study upon a few lines of research. The tendency of the system is to lead scholars to pursue thoir work in a most generous, unartificial, and earnest spirit, and to accomplish more than they would under the mere stimulus of the ordinary class-room methods.

In 1885 the "limited range of studies" of the University system was,

one major and two minors. Students who intended to later become can­

didates for higher degrees were expected to enroll under the University

System. "Graduation on the Credit System" and "Graduation on the

University System," were both in use from 1882 to 1884, when the

credit system was discontinued. The course of instruction for under­

graduates intending to graduate under each of these two systems, £nd

for graduates studying for any one of the higher degrees, was the same.

It "was the course of instruction of the Department of Literature,

Science and the Arts, and post-graduates found their instruction under

the elective system of studies. The following table will show the

course of study from which post-graduate students could make their

choices, and build their entire course of study.

In 1876 the candidates for the Ph.D. elected their studies from

three Courses in the Department of Literature Science, and the Arts.

These three which are shown in Table XXV were* I. Classical Courses

II. Latin and Scientific Course; III. Greek and Scientific Course.

The group of studies from which any one of these courses were compiled was the same; the emphasis was different. In 1876, in courses in

German, Whitney’s textbooks were used. In courses in mineralogy and geology, Dana'3 System of Mineralogy, and ^lanual of Geology were used*

Those were the same texts which were used for the same instruction at TABLE XXV COMPARISON OF COURSE OFFERINGS AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN IN 1876 AND IN 1885

1876 1885______I. Classicalf II* I&tin and Scientific, I. The Classics III. Greek and Scientific 1, Greek I. English Language, and Literature 2. I«,tin II. Latin Language and Literature II. Mathematics III. Greek Language and Literature III. Modern Languages and Literature IV, Modern Language and Literature IV. English and Rhetoric 1. German V. History 2. French VI. Philosophy 3. Italian and Spanish VII. Science and Art of Teaching V. History VIII. Political Economy VI. Pure Mathematics IX. Sanitary and Social Science VII. Physics X. International Law VIII. Astronomy XI. Physical Sciences IX, Geology and Mineralogy 1. Physics X. Zoology and Botany 2. General Chemistry XI. Logic and Intellectual and Moral Philos. 3. Analytical and Organic Chemistry XII. Political Economy and International Law 4. Astronomy and Meteorology XIII. Anatomy, Physiology, and Hygiene XII. Mineralogy and Geology XIV. Chemistry and Chemical Mineralogy XIII. Biological Sciences XV. Engineering 1. Zoology XVI. Descriptive Geometry and Drawing 2. Botany XVII. Architecture and Design 3. Histology and Miscroscopy 4. Physiology XlV. Drawing XV. Surveying XVI. Engineering 1. Civil Engin. 2. iJech. Engineering XVII• Metallurgy XVIII. Music

XIX. Bibliography (how to use library, how to 249 ______develop research materials) both Yale (where they were written) and at harvard.

In 1892, the year the Graduate School was established,^ the School's attitude toward instruction for candidates for higher degrees was explained, it was said that the work of candidates for higher degrees was not confined strictly to courses. The nature of the work pre­ scribed, and of the committee's oversight, varied in different cases according to the subjects chosen, and the previous attainments of the student. The work may consist of attendance upon certain specified courses, or of reading to be done privately and reported upon, of an original research to be carried on more or less independently. Table XXVI will give the Courses of Instruction (from 1890 to 1900) from which the student could build his course.

In 1900 a new four-year course m s introduced in the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts, that of Commercial Education.

The course was set up for both the candidates for the lower and the higher degrees. Most of the work of the course lay in the areas of history, economics, and allied subjects. The course was intended for those wishing a career in business; "the aim is to give a scientific training in the structure and organization of modem industry and commerce and thus enable the student quickly to master the technique of any business career."

In 1876 facilities for instruction were unusually comprehensive.

From the instructional policy of applying the sciences to training for the practical professions and because money obtained from the state could be used for such purposes, laboratories, museums, and collections related to physics, chemistry, geology, engineering, etc., wore numerous. I

TABLE XXVI ■I XXVI

COURSES OF INSTRUCTION AT THE . r AT THE UNIVERSITY MICHIGAN IN 1890, 1895 A? , 1895 AND IN 1900

1890 1895 Greek Greek Latin L atin Sanskrit and Comparative Philology Sanskrit Hebrew Hellenistic Greek Assyrian Hebrew French Assyrian Italian Arabic Spanish French German I t a l i a n Gothic Spanish Swedish German Dani sh-Norwegian Gothic English and Rhetoric Dani sh-Norwegian Elocution and Oratory English and Rhetoric ic History Elocution and 0ratory atory Philosophy Music The Science and Art of Teaching History Political Economy Philosophy International Law Science and Art of Teachi' Teaching Music Political Economy and Soc- and Sociology Bibliography International Law Mathematics Bibliography Physics Mathematics General Chemistry Physics Analytical, Organic General Chemistry Hygiene and Physiological Cham* Analytical, Organic nic Astronomy Metallurgy Mineralogy Hygiene and Physiological . .^logical Chemistry Geology Astronomy General Biology Mineralogy Zoology Geology Animal Morphology General Biology Botany Systematic Zoology Physiology Animal Morphology Drawing Human Anatomy Surveying Botany Civil Engineering Physiology Mechanioal Engineering Drawing Marine Engineering Surveying Mining Engineering Civil Engineering Metallurgy Mechanical Engineering ring Marine Engineering Mining Engineering 251

5 XXVI

I AT THE UNIVERSITY OP , 1895 AND IN 1900

1900______Greek Latin Hellenistic Greek Hebrew Hebrew Literature Assyrian Arabic Aramaic, Syriac, Ethiopio Semitic History French Italian Spanish German Gothic Scandinavian •ic English Philology and General Linguistics •atory English and Rhetoric Elocution and Oratory Musio History Philosophy Teaching Science and Art of Teaching and Sociology Political Economy and Sociology International Law Bibliography Mathematics Physios General Chemistry nic .Analytical, Organic Matallurgy •logical Chemistry Physiological Chemistry, Bacteriology, Hygiene Hygiene and Household Economics Astronomy Mineralogy Geology General Biology Botany Zoology Anatomy Physiology Drawing Surveying, Ci'vfl. Engineering, Mechanical Engineering, Electrical Engineering and Marine Engineering ring Commercial Education Public Administration 252

So practioal were some of these laboratories, or work shops, that in

1876, the department of mechanical engineering had a blacksmith shop, a brass furnace, and a machine tool room.

As has been seen from the preceding pages, instruction for candid- dates for the doctor of philosophy degree was abundant, instruction was given by lectures, recitations, seminar and laboratory work. There was much liberty allowed in choice of studies by the candidate. He could choose a course of study from the elective studies of the

Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts, under the approval of the faculty. The laboratories and museum collections were large and arranged for instructional purposes. Certain classes were held regularly in the laboratories and in tho university museum. Field trips were used as aids to instruction. Some departments had their own informal discussion group clubs, and their own libraries. We will now proceed to the requirements for the degree.

2. Requirements for the Ph.D. degree

The University of Michigan in attempting to train for career* in the so-called technical sciences, the professions of medicine and law, and the teaching profession, offered fourteen different degrees.

They wore* mining engineer, civil engineer, pharmaceutical chemist; bachelor of arts, laws, philosophy, science; master of arts, philosophy, science; and doctor of medicine, of dental surgery, philosophy, and science. This state university did not have a divinity school, thus did not offer such training and degrees. The University first offered the doctor of philosophy in 1875 but there were not yet any candidates TABLE }QC7II

COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF LABORATORIES FOR RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN IN 1876, 1890, AND 1900

1876 1890 1900 Physical laboratories Physical laboratories Physical Labs. (Quantitative) Chemical, Analytical and Applied Chemical, Analytical, Organic (equipped with European instru­ Geological Geological ments] Zoological Zoological Chemical Botanical Botanical Geological Miscroscopical Morphological Botanical Histological Engineering Zoological Mechanical Mechanical Psychological Blacksmith Shop Iron Room Biology Brass furnace Machine Shop Meterology Machine Tool Room Wood Room Engineering Physiological Pattern Shop Histology Anatomy Chemical Technology Physiology Engineering Steel Analysis Hygiene Metallurgical Ores Analysis Electrotherapeutics Pharmaceutical Pathology Histology Anatomy Physiology Pharmacy Hygiene Metallurgical Pathology Chemical Technology Anatomy Physiological Chemistry Palaeontology 253 V

TABLE XXVIII

COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF MUSEUMS AS RESEARCH FACILITIES AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN IN 1876, 1890, AND 1900

1876______1890 1900______Astronomical Observatory Astronomical Observatory Astronomical Observatory Natural History Natural History Natural History Mineralogical Cabinet Industrial Arts Mineralogical Collections Geological Mineralogical Geological Collections Zoological Geological Zoological Collections Botanical Zoological Bird Collection Herbarium Botanical Mb Husk Collection Agriculture Herbarium Coral Collection Horticulture Chinese Exhibit Botanical Collection Archaeology and Ethnology Y/ork in Ivory Pharmacognosy and Industrial Fine Arts and History Work in Wood Chemistry Anatomy Work in Porcelain Chinese Exhibit Architectural Collection Painting on Glass Archaeology and Ethnology Painting on Silk Fine Arts and History Chemistry (Applied) Industrial Arts Pharmacy Chemistry Archaeology and Ethnology Anatomy Pine Arts and History Agriculture and Horticulture

to £ 255

eligible to receive it.

In 1876 requirements for the Ph.D. were general, no language g requirement m s stated and no thesis was required.

The Degree of Doctor of Philosophy is open to the graduates of this University, or of any other reputable university or college, who shall have satisfied the Faculty on examination that they have made special proficiency in some one branch of study, and good attainments in two other branches to be specified by the Faculty, They will be expected to reside here, and to perform an amount of work which will occupy at least two years.

The graduation fee was ten dollars. Students who pursued laboratory

courses were required to pay for the materials used.

Although in 1877 it was stated that the candidate, "shall evince

power of original research and of independent investigation," the

actual thesis was not mentioned until 1879, when it v«as stated that

candidates would be required to present their thesis by the first day

of December, in the second year of their study for the degree. In

1881 it was required that the thesis be completed by May first, and must be read and defended in public at such time as the faculty should

appoint. Also one copy must be deposited at the University library.

It was also mentioned that the thesis would be examined for literary workmanship.

In 1882 candidates were required to have accepted theses printed

and deposit twenty-five copies at the library. This ruling could be waived in special cases, by the faculty. In 1886 it was required that

the course of study pursued must be that of one major and two minors.

The last year of study was to be spent in the preparation of a thesis.

The thesis was to have a table of contents and a bibliography. The 256

following was the attitude the University took toward the thesis. 7

The thesis is of great importance. It must exhibit creditable literary workmanship and a good command of the resources of expression; but it must depend for acceptance more upon its subject-matter than upon its formal or rhetorical qualities and mpst be a contribu­ tion to scholarship or scientific knowledge.

In 1893 the year after the Graduate School was established, it was stated that "no student will be aocopted as a candidate for the

doctor's degree who has not a knowledge of French and German suffi­

cient for purposes of research."8 In the same year the candidate was

required to deposit xvith the University treasurer fifty dollars to guarantee the printing of the thesis. It was further stated that

starting with the year 1894 all graduates studying in absentia would be required to pay an annual fee of ten dollars.

In 1893 the Graduate School stated that no definite time of

required residence could be specified, but that as a rule three years of resident study would be necessary, the last two semesters of which must be spent at the University. The three-year period, the Graduate

School continued, might be shortened in the case of students who as undergraduates pursued special studies in the direction of their proposed work. Wo one could be enrolled as a candidate for a doctor's degree until he had been in residence as a graduate student for at least one year. This could be waived in cases of those who came fronE a properly accredited graduate school of another university, or those who as undergraduates at the University of Michigan showed special proficiency in the line of their proposed graduate work. 2r>7

In 1899 the number of copies of the thesis which wore roqulred to

bo deposited at this University library was increased to 150. This number m s for purposes of exchange with other universities. This

ruling could bo waived upon rooommondation of the candidate's committee.

The annual fee for graduate work m s now, thirty dollars for residents

of the state of Michigan, forty dollars for graduates from out of the state.^

In 1900 the Ph.D. at the University of Michigan too a sovon-yoar degree. Tho requirements wore:

Bachelor'3 degree

Three years post-graduate study, tho last two some store must be spent at University

Knowledge of Fronoh and Gorman sufficient for purposes of research

Course of post-graduate study must .include tho ma;)or and two minors

Thesis jpkust bo road and defended in public at such time as Administrative Council may appoint

Thesis must be prinked, 150 copies must bo dopositod in library for exchange purposes (Ru II ng waivod if economic hardship).

Graduation fee was ton dollars.

3. From Department of Literature, Science, and tho Arts to Graduate School

In 1876 resident graduatoo and post-graduato instruction wore under the Department of Literature, Soionoo, and tho Arts. This was the department of undergraduate inntimotion in which instruction could be taken also for the master's and tho doctor of philosophy degrees, through the olootive system of studios. In its rolation to 258

tho other departments of the University, it was referred to by the „10 administration as the „ Literary Department*

I think no one can be familiar with the interior liKe of our Literary Department without perceiving that our advanced students are imbued with the spirit of genuine university work. They are not studying for marks or credits, but with a sincere devotion to learning are seeking in a most generous and earnest spirit the broadest and deepest culture attainable here.

In 1892 the Graduate School was established under the Department

of Literature, Science, and the Arts* 11

The Graduate School has been established for the purpose of bringing into greater prominence the numerous advanced courses of instruction that have been developed from the continual extension of the elective system; of securing more efficient and systematic administration of this higher work; and of providing as far as possible for the separate instruc­ tion of graduate students. The school is organized within the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts, and its management is entrusted to an Adminis­ trative Council, chosen from the Faculty of the Depart­ ment*

The executive officer of the Graduate School was the Dean of the

Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts. The Graduate School did not have its own dean*

At the time of its establishment seven higher degrees were offered through the School. There were four master’s and three doctor's degrees* masters of arts, sciences, philosophy, and letters; and doctors of philosophy, science and letters. Since women had been admitted to the University on the same basis as men since 1852, this policy was also the practice of the Graduate School. In 1912 a Dean of the Graduate School was appointed. In 1914 the School was set apart from the administration of the Department of Philosophy, 259

Science# and the Arts and established as an independent School*

4* Enrollments and degrees conferred

The first Ph.D. of the earned type was conferred in 1876. There

had been one Ph.D. conferred in 1875# but it was given as an honorary

degree, a practice which continued until 1892. During the period when

Michigan conferred the Ph.D. also as an honorary degree, twelve such

degrees were conferred. The following table will show that in 1876

this state university already had a sizable enrollment, its enroll­ ment of resident graduates and of those actually taking the degree# however, grew slowly. In 1900 with a university enrollment of well over 3000 .there were but few over 100 enrolled in the Graduate School and only seven doctor of philosophy degrees conferred, in that year.

As has been stated the two-year period of study included one major and two related minors. From 1876 to 1900 the most majors and minors vrere chosen from the department of history and political science. Table 15QCC shows the proportion of majors and minors in the history and political sciences studies in relation to those in other studies.

As is seen from Table XXX more majors and minors were token by candidates for the doctor of philosophy degree in the group of studies of history and political economy than in any other area. Perhaps this was in some measure due to the great strength and particular excellence of this department. From 1871 to 1885# when he went on from Michigan to become president of Cornell University, Charles Kendall Adams attracted advanced students to the University of Michigan who wished to 260

TABLE XXIX

ENROLLMENTS AND NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1876 TO 1900

University College Resident Degrees Year Enrollment Enrollment Graduates Conferred 1876 1110 369 14 2 1877 1230 365 7 0 1878 1376 445 12 1 1879 1427 448 13 1 1880 1534 521 10 1

1881 1534 513 13 1 1882 1440 524 25 2 1883 1377 539 19 0 1884 1295 524 15 2 1885 1401 596 23 0

1886 ..... 1572 693 25 3 1887 1667 748 23 2 1888 1882 824 41 3 1889 2153 1007 45 2 1890 2420 1175 42 3

1891 2692 1330 49 4 1892 2778 1491 65 7 1893 2659 1427 77 1 1894 2864 1523 62 5 1895 3014 1204 57 1

1896 2878 1269 74 1 1897 3114 1333 70 3 1898 3059 1285 70 6 1899 3303 1343 83 4 1900 3712 1369 104 7

benefit from his use of the seminar in his history classes* as ho him- self had learned it as a student in Germany# 12 Later President Angell said*

There should always be named to the honor of this University the introduction of seminary instruction in history and kindred topios, a skillful adaptation of a European method* by Professor Charles Kendall Adams* On this has been founded the second stage of higher education that of post graduate study* which is now growing so rap- 261

TABLE XXX

MAJORS AND MINORS OF THOSE TAKING THE PH.D. DEGREE AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1876 TO 1900

1876-1883 1884-1890 1890-1900 Total 1900 History 1 4 7 12 Political Philosophy 2 2 2 6 Political Economy 6 6 LIO 22 International Law 0 1 4 __5 45 Philosophy 7 3 10 Ethics 3 2 5 Pedagogics 1 2 1 4 Psychology 2 1 3 Logic 1 1 3 History of Education 1 1 1 __3 28 Sanskrit 1 1 0 2 Italian 1 1 1 3 English 1 0 3 Latin 1 1 3 5 Greek 1 1 3 5 French 0 0 1 1 Philology 0 0 5 __5 24 Botany 1 2 0 3 Zoology 1 2 0 __3 6 Chemistry 1 1 0 2 Astronomy 1 1 0 2 Physics 1 1 0 2 Mathematics 1 1 0 __2 8 Finance 1 1 3 5 Music 0 0 1 1 Sociology 0 0 2 2 8

idly over tho country, especially from the centers of Harvard, Cornell and Johns Hopkins. The seminary and laboratory, so early developed here, furnish the means of original investigation, and it is this that makes post-graduate courses worth the time of the student.

In 1881 the School of Political Science was established as an inde­ pendent organization. Under the designation of Political Science the 262

following areas of study were grouped: political and constitutional history; political science; constitutional law; international law and

diplomacy; principles of finance; financial history of the United

States; theories and methods of local government; theories and methods of taxation; political ethics; historical development of educational systems. The School had its own library which, in 1881, contained some

49,000 volumes, and some 11,000 pamphlets. In 1889 the School was dis­ continued and the studies were again considered as a part of the elective system of the Department of Literature, Science, and the Arts,

In 1889 when the political science studies were again placed under the elective system of the "Literary" Department, they were listed in three groups, undergraduate, interned!ate, and graduate. This was the first designation of studies especially for graduates. These facts concerning the unusual comprehensivenews of the history and political science studies are pointed out since this area was one so largely chosen by candidates for the Ph.D,

From 1876 to 1892 Michigan conferred the Ph.D. as an honorary degree*

There were constant discussions in the faculty as to whether this practice 3hould continue, and in 1892 the year the Graduate School was established, the practice was abolished. Table XXXI will show the proportion of the number of Ph.D.’s conferred as honorary degrees, to those conferred after study and examination.

From 1885 to 1895 Michigan had an unusually large number of grad­ uate students studying in absentia. Some of these students were candi­ dates for the Ph.D, degree, since candidates were required to spend only a part of the required period of study in university residence. However 3o 3 P» I E 3 £ o p

I-* o 1875 o to 1876 o o 1877 o H* 1878 o *-■ 1879 §

HJ I-* 1880 M W t?d O 1—* M 1881 g - tn O to to 1882

t-J o 1883 o S ** H o to 1884 oin o l-» o 1885 m ^3 !? ft! h-> Co 1886 to 1887 ^3 0 O >■ o CO 1888 fSj Co o to 1889 CD O -O S cn O H-* CO 1890 1-3 S O & o 1891 to £3 CO -o 1892 8 W «P o Y-* 1893 o cn 1894 E5 o I-1 1895 1-3 o v-< 1896 o CO 1897

o O i 1898

o ft* 1899

o -3 1900 Total

»-* Oi to CO

292 264

from 1885 to 1892 a large portion were undoubtedly candidates for the

master's degree*

During this period the University's regulation concerning the

master's candidates was as follows: In order to have the privilege of

studying in absentia the candidate must hold the bachelor1s degree

from the University of Michigan. Ue could then be recommended for the

master's degree without residence at the University, provided he spend

at least two years on a course of study approved by the faculty, passed

the required examinations and presented a satisfactory thesis* Prog­

ress reports were to be made each semester to the chairman of the com­ mittee in charge of the work. Table XXXII will show the proportion of graduate students studying in abs ntia to those studying in residence.

In 1900 the University of Michigan comprised the following depart­ ments :

I. The Department o f Literature, Science, and the Arts (including the Graduate School)

II. The Department of Engineering

III. The Department of Medicine and Surgery

IV. The Department o f Law

V. The School of Pharmacy

VI. The Homoeopathic Medical College

VII. The College of Dental Surgery

The University of Michigan had been offering the doctor of phil­ osophy degree since 1875. Tt had had but an average annual enrollment of resident graduates of thirty-nine and but an average of two Ph.D* degrees were conferred annually. TABLE XXXII

NUMBER OF RESIDENT GRADUATES AND THOSE STUDYING nIN ABSENTIA" ENROLLED IN THE DEPARTMENT OF LITERATURE, SCIENCE, AND THE ARTS (THE GRADUATE DEPARTMENT) AT THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN FROM 1876 TO 1900

CDt>COOOHWtO*tflOC»Or-lMt0 5ftO'Ot~®C> g fr-t-c-t~cocococococococococoa>a> ffi oi ® ® £5 2 & COCOCOCOCOCOCOCOCO CO 03 to CO CO a) CO C O C O CO CO CO CO CO CD a> ctiHMrHr-lnl p^HHi-ii-liHr-lr-ir-IH Hr-J H H H H H t~* r-i Total Resident 14 7 11 13 10 13 25 19 15 23 25 23 41 45 42 49 65 77 62 57 74 70 70 83 104 1037

In Absentia 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 17 36 24 33 47 37 44 32 15 9 5 2 2 3 3 321 266

The loading area of study was history and political science. The ivork for graduate students was offered tinder the elective system of studies of the combined undergraduate and graduate curriculum. The

University had in 1900 conferred but sixty-two Ph.D. degrees in the last quarter of a century. The requirements, however, were high, the degreo was considered a seven-year one, and was no longer conferred as an honorary one. Graduate work at this state university m s 3low in expanding. There was no Graduate School as an independent organiza­ tion with its own administration until well into the twentieth century.

REFERENCES TO CHAPTER XIII

1. 1876-77 Calendar of the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor* Published by the University, 1877. p. 12,

2. The Annual Report of the President ofthe University of M i c h i g a n , 1881, Ann ArborsPublished by the University. p. 15,

3. The Annual Report of the President of the University of Michigan, 1884. Ann Arbor5 Published by the Uni vers ity. p, 7,

4. 1892-95 Calendar of the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor: Published by the University, p. 117,

5. 1900-01 Calendar of the University of ■■Michigan. Ann Arbor: ublished by the University, p. 118,

6. 1876-77 Calendar, op. cit., p. 20.

7. 1882-85 Calendar of the University of •‘Michigan. Ann Arbor* Published by the University, p. 65.

8. 1895-94 Calendar of the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor: Published by the University, p. 119.

9. 1899-1900 Calendar of the University of I'-ichigan. Ann Arbor* ublished by the University, p. 128.

10, The Annual Report of the President of the University of Michigan, 1883. Ann Arbor* Published by the University, p. 12. 267

11, 1892-95 Calendar, op« oit., p. 116*

12. Quarter Centennial Celebration of the ^residency of James Burrill Angell, 1896. Ann Arbor* Published by the University* 1896. p. 31. CHAPTER XIV

JOHNS HOPKINS 1876-1900

1. Courses of instruction

The Johns Hopkins University w&s organized upon the idea that university instruction is distinct from collegiate instruction; in other words, that the college as it has been developed in English and American society is for collegiate training and leads up to university instruc­ tion. Within the Johns Hopkins University a College ias maintained, where undergraduates could receive instruction leading to the baccalaur­ eate degree. r^he University was open to men. The only other department of the University, other than the College, was the Faculty of

Philosophy. Thus in 1876 the College and the Faculty of Philosophy comprised Johns Hopkins University. There were no professional schools until 1893, when the Medical College m s established.

The Johns Hopkins University did not have to go through a long period of trial and error, nor through the various stages of transition which accompany the transformation of a college into a university*

■^n the organization of the University, the funds were so large, and their application so unrestricted, that the effort was made to discover and adapt the best methods for the advancement of higher education, which the experience of older foundations and the wisdom of able professors might suggest, without endeavoring to follow any existing model. In other words, the desire has been to create an American University.

In 1876 when the Johns Hopkins opened there were about 400 graduate students enrolled in the colleges and universities of the United States.

Such was the status of graduate education in 1876*

- 2 6 8 - 269

Advanced and graduate students ware received with or without

reference to their being candidates for a degree. The University*

professors, it was mentioned, were not absorbed in the details of

college routine, but were free to give personal counsel and instruction

to those who sought it. Books and instruments adapted to investigation

and advanced work had been liberally provided. Seminaries limited to

a few advanced students under the guidance of a director were organized

in certain subjects, particularly in the languages*

One of the largest departments in enrollment of graduate students

was that of history, which was under the direction of Professor Herbert

Baxter Adams. Adams had studied for a long period in the German univer­

sities, and was an ardent admirer of the German methods of teaching.

Adam's method in his classes in history was to have each graduate

student make a comprehensive study of the history of the locality from

which he came. In that way he produced an imposing series of volumes*

known as Studies in History. For the publication of these he at timed, had help from outside the University, from the cities studied, the states, and in some cases from the government at Washington.

The second largest department consistently throughout this period,

1876 to 1900, was that of physics, and the third, chemistry. It seemed in these cases the size of the enrollment in the department was due in some measure to the brillance of the man in charge of the department.

Professor Henry A. Rowland, head of the department of physics, was recognized as the foremost physicist in the United States at the time.

Discussing the fact that certain departments were strong, because of the brillance of the professor in charge, President Gilman says in his 2 7 0

report in 1882:^

in order that they may be well taught instructors have been chosen who were already renowned, or who gave promise of marked distinction in the departments to which they were devoted. Consequently the academic staff is made up of men whose early training has been very different, and who bring to bear upon our incipient plans the experience of time- honored institutions, European and America. These instructors have been encouraged to continue their own investigations and studies, and the requisite apparatus and books have been literally provided. They have also had the means of publi­ cation; and they contributed heartily, each in his own way.

The following table gives the areas of instruction for graduates*

Until 1885 there was one group of courses for both university and col­ legiate instruction, the difference being in the way the curriculum for each was set up, out of the same group of studies. Since there was always an average o f from two to four times as many candidates for the higher degree as for the lower, the curriculum m s set up mainly to train doctors of philosophy. Probably no other curriculum among

American colleges and universities had been set up mainly for doctor of philosophy training.

By 1885 Courses of Instruction were separated into two groups, ■jj "undergraduate courses" and "graduate instruction." The courses therefore which are listed in Table XXXIII for 1885 were entirely graduate courses. In the sciences it was frequently stated that most of the advanced instruction took place in the laboratory, therefore definite courses were not listed, in the languages it was frequently stated that higher instruction was given chiefly through the seminar.

In history and political science it was stated that advanced students wore required to have sufficient knowledge of modern languages to read at least French and German at sight. The psychologiaiL and education I

COMPARIS COMPARISON OF JOHNS HOP!' JOHNS HOPKINS U: 1890 1880 1885 1890 Greek Mathematics 18 i■Mathematics 14 14 Greek Semins Physics 5 Physics 5 5 Seminaries gely Re seai Chemistry 5 Chemistry “largely Research Pr^ ough Lectui Biology 4 through Lectures Latin Greek and Latin 5 Mineralogy Latin _ _ or.ti Semins German 5 Geology labor.’1 Seminaries Reseai Romance Languages 5 Biology 8 Research Prc Loctui English 2 Greek ’’largely gely Loctures ough Semitic History and Pol. Sci. 3 through Semitic Philoi inaries' Semins Philosophy and L0gio 3 Latin seminaries" Seminaries Reseai Comparative Philosophy Sanskrit 5 Research Pr. Sanskrit Sanskrit Comparative Sanskrit £ Co- n Lectui Indo-European Lectures Semine Languages Seminaries English Shemitic Langs. 11 11 English Semins German ’’largely iy Seminaries gh German through German aries’ Semine seminaries’ Seminaries Reseai Romance Langs. Research Pr> aries Lectui seminaries Lecture Cou Romance English Romance Langn. tics 11 Lectui History & Politics 11 Lecture Cou, aries Semine also seminaries Seminaries and History Psychological and History & Pol Philosox Education Philosophy (L Psych, Psych. ^ Et’ Mathemai Plat hematics Astror Astron. Mat" Math.

Math. Physi' Physics

Physics Electric Electrical Hn Chemist) Chemistry Geology Geology Inorge Inorganic G' Miners Mineralogy Strata Stratigraph Palaec

Palaeontolo Phys.

Phys. Googr Petrof Petrography DynamJ Dynamical G< Biologic Biological Sc Pathol Pathology Anima] Animal Morp Physic Physiology Histo] , histology Bactei Bacteriolog H %-giene _____ Botany____ t 271

TABLE XXX111

COMPARISON OF THE COUR3E 0P STiroY AT JOHNS HOPKINS HNIVERSITYFR0M 1880 T0 1900

1890 1895 1900 Greek Greek 14 Greek Latin Latin 5 Seminaries Sanskrit & Comp. Philol. Sanskrit and Comp. Philol Research Problem Oriental Seminary Oriental Seminary Lectures Latin English English German German Seminaries Romance Languages Romance Languages 6 Research Problems Frenoh. Italian, Spanish French Lectures History and Politics Italian Semitic Philology Philosophy Spanish I Seminaries Psychology, Logic, Ethics 5 Research Problems ^Mathematics History, Economics, Sanskrit & Comp. Phil, Astronomy _ P o l i t i c s Lectures Physics Philosophy Seminaries Applied Electricity Mathematics 11 English Geology P h y s i c s Seminaries Palaeontology Chemistry German Historical Geology Geology Seminaries Geological Physics Biological Sciences Research Problem Mineralogy lecture Courses Botany Petrography Zoology Romance Languages Physiographic Geology II Lecture Courses Physiology Stratigraphic Geology Anatomy Seminaries History <5: Politics Chemistry Pathology

Philosophy (Logic, Chief instruction given in laboratories Psych. & Ethics)

Mathematics Biology Zoology Astron. Mathematics Aftimal Physiology Math. Physics Botany Physics Pathology Electrical Engineer. Chief instruction Chemistry

Geology given in laboratory and museum Inorganic Geology Histology Mineralogy Bacteriology Stratigraph. Geol. Experimental pathology Palaeontology Phys. Geography Petrography Dynamical Geology Biological Sciences Pathology Animal Morphology Physiology nxstology Bacteriology a !!iene 22L 2 7 2

courses had been the ones most recently introduced.

The number of courses offered in a department were frequently not

given. Particularly after 1885, courses were not listed. The proce­

dure was to give a paragraph stating what would be expected of a student

should he enroll in that department, and the general areas in which the

student could study, instead of list of lectures available. The student

chose his principal subject, then the University stated what subjects

he could combine with that as his two subordinate subjects. For these

reasons it is not possible to make a numerical statement of the breadth

of instruction for graduates at Hopkins during this period.

In 1890, "the chief organ of instruction" in the language depart­

ments was the seminary. Each of the language departments had a

"director of the Seminary"^ who was usually the head of the department.

The seminary usually met in the departmental library room where books were easily accessible. In some departments the seminary was considered to have two branches, the seminary proper (credit) and the journal meeting (non—credit)• Aside from the seminary each advanced student was expected to be carrying on a research problem of his ov/n. The activities of a department were: seminary, research problem, lecture courses, societies and reading clubs, publication.

In 1890 the courses in "history and politics" were intended for those preparing for the study of lav/, those entering some branch of government service, as well as those who wished to teach the subject.

The department had three eminent teachers, Herbert Baxter Adams,

Richard T. Ely, and Woodrow Hilson. Lectures to graduates and the Seminary 273

of History and Politics met in the library of the department. The department had a library of some 12,000 volumes, 50,000 pamphlets, and several hundred unpublished manuscripts, many original letters of his- tori 1 value. Visits were occasionally made to Washington to consult libraries there#

The cost of graduate instruction (1876) to the student was low.

Tuition was eighty dollars a year. Those taking instruction in a lab­ oratory paid an additional twenty dollars per year, plus the cost of materials used. In 1884 the tuition fee was increased to one hundred dollars per year. In 1887 laboratory fees were increased to thirty-six dollars per year, and the annual tuition fee increased to one hundred and twenty-five dollars. In 1895 tuition was #150 a year. The labor­ atory fee was thirty-six dollars plus cost of materials used; tuition continued to be the same to the close of this period, 1900.

There were several societies of a scientific and literary character comprised of instructors and advanced students, which were an extension of classroom instruction. These societies met for the presentation of literary and scientific papers. Abstracts of some of the more important papers were published in the University circulars and journals. The following table will give a list of the societies which were non-credit and only a little more informal than the seminars. In some departments the seminary was considered to have two branches. The evening

"society," or "journal club" as it was sometimes called, was but a branch of the seminary. Although non-credit, they met weekly, bi­ weekly or monthly, and participation in them vas presumed*

In 1876 when the University opened for instruction, there were three 274

TABLE XXXIV

DEPARTMENTAL SOCIETIES AMD READING CLUBS FOR GRADUATES AT JOinsTS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900

1880 1890 1900 Scientific Association Scientific Association Scien. Association (Mathemati c s) (Mathemati c s) ( f'athemat i c s ) Philological Philological Philological Historical Historical Historical Metaphysical Metaphysi cal Metaphys ical Modern Languages Modern Languages Modern Languages Societies which met we ekly Societies which Societies which met in laboratories met weekly in weekly in the labs• Physics laboratories Physics Natural Sciences Physics Natural Sciences History and Political Natural Sciences History and Political Sc ience History and Political Science Biology Science Biology Chemistry 3 iology Chemistry Chemistry Iviat hema t ical Mathemat i c al Naturalist’s Field Naturalist’s Field Club Club English Germanic Society Geology Zoological Journal Club Botanical Journal Club Physiology Journal Club Pathology Historical Club Pathology Journal Club 275

large, -well-equipped laboratories ready for use. The chemistry labora­

tory was set up to give room for forty workers at one tirae.^ Separate

rooms vrer© arranged for the different branches of chemistfcy. There was

also a large chemistry library in connection with the laboratory.

The physics laboratory was equipped, it was stated, with apparatus

from the best makers in Europe and United States. The apparatus was

selected chiefly in respect to researches in electricity, heat, and magnetism. The biological laboratory included a general laboratory and

several private workrooms, a lecture room, and a biology cabinet. To

give some idea of the excellence of these laboratories, the scientific apparatus for the biology laboratory alone had cost $36,000.

It is of interest to observe other research facilities outside of the University, which vrere available to advanced students and teachers.

These included the private laboratory of Alexander Agassiz at Newport,

Rhode Island, for a study of marine zoology; the United States Fish

Commissioners *, Vfood*s Holl Laboratory and the Chesapeake Zoological

Laboratory. These were, in 1881, the only facilities for the study of morphology and marine zoology which had yet been established upon the thousands of miles of the eastern seacoast of the United States. As the

University laboratory facilities increased, there was maintained in connection with each laboratory a departmental library. The classes of the department met in the laboratories and libraries, not in recitation halls.

The University also made arrangements for its advanced students to have access to the chief scientific facilities in Washington. Among them

Yjore s-® 276

TABLE XXXV

A COMPARISON OP THE LABORATORIES AND OTHER RESEARCH FACILITIES AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1876 AND 1900

1876 1900 Chemistry Chemistry Physios Physics Biology Biology Geology Palaeontology Mineralogy Petrography Zoology Botany; Herbarium Physiology Anatomy Pathology

Looated at University Maryland Geological Economic Survey Maryland State Weather Service

W a s h i n g t o n Geological Society of Washington National Geographic Society Scientific Collections of U.S. Geo­ logical Survey

Atlantic Sea Coast Marine Station test, by Univ. at various points) Alexander Agassiz's Private Lab. U. S. Fish Commission Chesapeake Zoological Laboratory

Smithsonian Institution and National Museum Army Medical and Surgical Museum and Library Library of Congress U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey U. S. Geological Survey U. S. Naval Observatory U. S. Signal Service U. S. Agricultural Bureau U. S. Census Office U. S. Bureau of Education Libraries of the Departments Corcoran Art Gallery Washington was one hour from Baltimore and the University had arranged

for special transportation rates*

As soon as the University staff oarae together in 1878, provisions began to be made for the publication of scientific and literary papers.

Professor Sylvester, mathematics, asked his colleagues to transfer the

publication of the London Journal of Ifethematics to Baltimore. This was brought about and the American Journal of Mathematics began publica- fn tion from Baltimore in 1878. It was ^convenient to continue sending to

Germany for chemical papers, so in 1879 the American Chemical Journal began publication in Baltimore. In 1880 the American Journal of

Philology, Studies from the Biological laboratory, and Studies in

Historical and Political Sciences began publication.

Those carrying on researches at Hopkins had access to a wide range of foreign publications in their fields. Under List of Foreign Corres­ pondents, the journals of Europe, Asia, and South America were listed with which the University publications carried on regular "foreign exchange." With Germany and , the number of journals exchanged was twenty-four; France and Switzerland, eighteen; Belgium and Holland, eight; Italy, Spain, Portugal, eleven; Great Britain and Ireland, eleven

Denmark, Norway, Russia, Finland, six; Greece, one; British India, one;

Japan, one; Australia, one; iViexico, one; Brazil, one. From 1880 on to

1900 the number of journals on the "foreign exchange" list increased greatly*

As has been seen the word instruction as used at Hopkins was a com­ prehensive tern. It included five different mediums1 the seminary, the research problem, the lecture course, the society or journal club, and 278

TABLE XXXVI

COMPARISON OF TEE NUMBER OF UNIVERSITY RESEARCH PUBLICATIONS AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1880, 1890 AND 1900

1880 1890 1900 Am. Journal of Math* Am. Journal of Nath. Am. Journal of -■-ath. Am. Chemical Journal Ams Chemical Journal Am. Chemical Journal Am. Journal of Philology Am. Jour, of Philology Am. Jour, of Philology Studi'3-® from the Bio­ Studies from the Bio- Studies from the Biolog- logical Lab. logical Lab, ical Lab, Journal of Physiology Journal of Physiology Journal of Physiology Studies in Historical Studies in historical Studies in historical and Political Science and Political Science and Political Science Contributions to Logic Contributions to Logic Contributions to L0gic Contributions to Assyr- Contributions to Assyri- iology iology Comparative Semitic Comparative Semitic Philology Philology Modem ^eng. Lotes Modern Lang. Lotos Memoirs from the Biolog­ ical Laboratory Johns Popkins Univ. Circulars Jour, of Experi. Medicine Terrestial ^gnetism and Atmosphere Electricity Reports of the Maryland Geological Survey Reports of the Maryland '.leather Service

the departmental publication. Furthermore, the facilities to execute this instruction were not limited to the University, but included certain services in the city o f ViTashington, services of the state of Maryland, and even of the Atlantic sea coast. Hopkins was an excellent example of the University profiting by the scientific facilities within a reasonable radius and coordinating what they had to offer with the univer­ sity need, thus actually expanding instruction beyond Baltimore* 279

2. Requirements for the Ph.D. degree T 7 J-n 1876 the requirements for the degree were:

Baccalaureate degree

Not 1 ess than two years of University study in a special department of learning

Thesis, result of original investigation in the main subject of examination. Subject of thesis must be submitted, not less than six months before degree conferred.

Examination in one main and one or more subsidiary subject. Examination may be oral or written.

fiSust be enrolled as candidate for the degree at least one year before taking final examination.

In 1878 the bachelor of arts degree at Hopkins could be taken in ttr* years or less.®

Students who desire a collegiate training are expected to pass on entering, or soon afterwards, the matricula­ tion examinations, and then to follow one of several pro­ posed plans of study which lead to the degree of Bachelor of Arts. This degree may be taken in three years after passing the matriculation examinations. Students who come up with higher attainments than are requisite for matriculation, may, upon examination, receive credit for the same, be admitted to advanced classes, and so graduate in less time than three years.

Thus in the early years the doctor of philosophy could be taken in five years or less, since the candidate was required to ’’devote not less than two years to University study," dyring the doctorate study period.

President Oilman, in his annual report in 1882 gives some indica­ tion that the final examination of the candidates for the Ph.U. must have been unusually thorough. He says that candidates for the second degree (doctor of philosophy) had since 1876 in all cases been examined by the entire staff of professors, and often by some of the associates, 280

and quit© frequently by scholars of distinction holding chairs in other

universities. H© stated that at times the University brought in out­

side examiners, that is, scholars or specialists in the field of the

candidate's principal study.

In 1880 the degree of "Master of Arts and Doctor of Philosophy1' 9 ■was conferred in conformity with the following regulations:

Bachelor's degree

Three years must elapse between the baccalaureate examination and graduation for the doctor of phil­ osophy degree.

The student must be accepted ha a candidate by the Academic Council one year before final examination

H© must file with the President of the University before accepted as a candidate, statement of principal. and subordinate subjects in which he desires to be exam­ ined. At the same time he must present subject of thesis to President.

Completed thesis must be presented to Academic Council three months before time candidate proposed to take final examination. If thesis accepted, arrangements made for further, oral or written examination.

By special permission, non-resident students could be examined for the degree. Such candidates had to be accepted two years before their final examination, must pursue their studies under such arrangements and conditions as president and professors indicate.

In 1883 the examinations in one principal and two subsidiary sub­ jects were both oral and written. The object of these examinations was

to ascertain whether a candidate after receiving the baccalaureate

degree had made such attainments in some special lines of scientific work to entitle him to receive the highest degree. Don-resident

scholars were often invited to help examine candidates. In 1884, one

copy of the dissertation must be deposited at the University library. 281

In 1886 no candidate would be admitted to the degree unless he could

translate at sight ordinary French and German into English. Those who

were looking forward to the degree were advised to acquire this knowt

edge as early as possible so as to make use of it in their advanced work.

In 1886 the final copy of the thesis had to be submitted four -reeks

before the final examination. A biographical sketch of the author was

to be appended to the thesis. ^>ne hundred and fifty copies were to be

presented to the University. A candidate was not admitted to the final

written examinations in his subjects of specialization until the thesis

was accepted. The examination in the principal subject was for six

hours, for each of the two subsidiary subjects there was a three-hour

examination. Thus the written examination was a twelve-hour examina­

tion. The oral examination did not exceed one and one-haif hours.

In 1888 it was stated that as an encouragement to the systematic

. prosecution of university studies, the degree was offered under the

following conditions:^

A board of University Examiners is constituted for the purpose of guiding the studies of those who may become candidates for this degree. The time of study is a period of at least three years of distinctive university work in the philosophical department. It is desirable that the student accepted as a candidate should reside here con­ tinuously until his final examinations are passed, and he ^-s required to spend the last year before he is graduated in definite courses of study in this University.

A student wishing to become a candidate for the degree was required to

make application to be so enrolled at least one academic year in ad­

vance of the time he expected to take the final examination. The grad­

uating fee was ten dollars. 282

In applying to become a candidate the student needed to name his

principal subject and the two subordinate subjects. The subordinate

subjects were to be of two grades, "First Subordinate and Second Sub­

ordinate.” Each of the subordinates had to be followed by the candidate

during a portion of his working time at least one year, but not more

than one-third of the total working time of one year should be spent on

the second subordinate. The written examination in the subordinates

could be taken at the end of whatever year the work in these subjects was completed. It was only the written examination in the principal

subject which could be taken after the thesis was aocepted*

In 1890 the candidate was required to spend the last year before he m s graduated, "in definite courses of study at this University.”

Before he would be accepted as a candidate he must show a reading knowledge of French and German. The time of study was "at least three years of distinctive university work in the philosophical department."

In 1899 the candidate had to stand examination in the two foreign languages •

It is of interest to observe that although the Johns Hopkins opened as a full-fledged University, and had the opportunity to profit from the practices in the German universities and in certain earlier

American universities, it did not have set up at the time of its opening the requirements for the Ph.D. degree which it wished to continue*

There was about as much change in the requirements for the degree throughout the period 1876 to 1900 at Hopkins as there was in certain other institutions which began their existence as colleges, and started to confer the doctorate later in their existence* 283

In 1900 -fche requirements were:

Baccalaureate degree

Hot less than three years university study, last year to he spent at the University in courses of study

One principal, two subordinate subjects. Examination in both the first and second subordinate could be taken upon conclusion of that study

Examinations in principal and both subordinates written, no session to exceed five hours

Examination in principal and first subordinate, oral, one hour

Stated examinations in French and German held twice a year, at which time candidate must take examination in foreign languages

Dissertation submitted four weeks before proposed date of graduation. Board of Studies designated two referees to read and make written report to Board.

150 copies presented to library

Examination in principal subject could only be taken after thesis accepted. Examination written not to exceed twelve hours,

Graduation fee was ten dollars.

Because "no uniform length of residence is prescribed as necessary to the attainment of the bachelor’s degree," students could be graduated in three years or less. However some might require four years. The Ph.D. degree could thus be a degree of from less than six years in time to a seven- year degree* *

3. The University

The Johns Hopkins was In 1876 unique among universities. In offer­ ing instruction it was able to put its instruction for the doctor of philosophy, first*^ 2 84

The Johns Ilopkins University offers instruction to students in the following classes: 1. College graduates and other advanced scholars, who may proceed to the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, in literature or science, or remain for longer or shorter periods in such of the various seminaries and labora­ tories as they may choose. 2. Undergraduate students looking forward to the degree of Bachelor of Arts and following any one of the seven parallel groups of study.

It was able to maintain its instruction of university character, its

chief organ of instruction for advanced students was, in the languages,

the seminaryj in the sciences the laboratory.

Lecture courses were subordinate, being ranked in importance after, first, the seminary, second, the research problem. Thus Johns

Hopkins was a true University, its seminaries and laboratories remanding first, with the results of the creative work produced there, continu­ ously going out into the field through voluminous publication. It was the only University to have its College about one-fourth the size of its Faculty of Philosophy* Beside the journals appearing monthly, or quarterly, the University Press issued regularly a list of the new books available authored by its instructors. Johns Hopkins was the most complete form of a university American education had yet seen.

4. Enrollments and degrees conferred

Johns Hopkins began its career in 1876 with fifty-four graduate 12 students. In 1880 it had over one hundred. It was the first

American institution to reach the one hundred mark. Next, in order, to reach the one hundred mark were Harvard, Cornell, and Yale. In Germany, graduate enrollment included the students in the professional schools •

^n the United States it did not. Johns Hopkins during its early years 285

did not offer professional instruction in law, medicine, theology, nor

in the applied sciences, such as engineering, architecture, etc. The

entire forces of the University were given over to those liberal arts

and sciences which belong to the Faculty of Philosophy (and the under­

graduate college)#

A distinction was made between the University students and the col­

legiate students. The University students were, of course, called

graduates. The collegiate students were called matriculates. Hopkins

was the first American institution to make graduate work more important

than collegiate work. From 1878 to 1882 there were tvro to four times

as many candidates for the Ph.D. as there were for the B.A. (These were

the only degrees given.) The following table shows the proportion of

collegiate matriculates in relation to the graduates enrolled. From

1893 on the graduate enrollment figures include also the candidates for the H.D.

Johns Hopkins attracted students who had already taken one or more

degrees from some of the leading colleges and universities of that time.

Many students who had already taken higher degrees at Harvard, Yale, and in some cases even from certain European universities enrolled in

Hopkins to study under certain eminent scholars. The table on page 28 7 will show the ten leading institutions from which graduates came to do further study at Hopkins#

Table XXXlX giving the ten leading departments in number of students enrolled includes the enrollment of both graduate and under­ graduate students. That is, these were the ten leading departments in the University# However, since the graduate enrollment was consistently 286

TABLE XXXVII

UNIVERSITY AND COLLEGIATE ENROLLMENTS AND NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY FROM 1876 TO 1900

Collegiate Ph.D.'s Year Graduates Matriculates conferred 1876 54 12 0 1877 58 24 4 1878 63 25 6 1879 79 32 5 1880 102 37 9

1881 99 45 9 1882 110 49 6 1883 159 53 15 1884 174 69 13 1885 184 96 17

1886 228 108 20 . 1887 231 127 27 1888 216 129 20 1889 229 130 33 1890 276 141 28

1891 337 140 37 1892 347 133 28 1893 344 123 33 1894 412 126 48 1895 406 149 47

1896 376 144 35 1897 489 152 42 1898 486 163 36 1899 486 159 42 1900 - 158 30 TABLE x m r n

FIRST TER INSTITUTIONS REPRESENTED BY GRADUATE STUDENTS AT JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY IN 1885, 1890, 1895, AND 1900

1885 1890 . 1895 1900 Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins Johns Hopkins Harvard University of Maryland Yale University Yale University University of Maryland Yale University University of Wisconsin Harvard University Amherst Harvard University University of Maryland University of Maryland University o f Toronto University of Virginia Univ. of Pennsylvania Rando 1 ph-iiacon College Princeton College College of Physicians University of Virginia University of Virginia II. S. Naval Academy and Surgeons (Balti.) Ohio Wesleyan Univ. Norwegian Luther Col. Pennsylvania, Univ. of Randolph-Macon College m liesley College University of Wisconsin Amherst College Hampden-Sidney College ^ale College Colby University Dickinson College University of Wisconsin 287 TABLE XXXIX

TEH LEADING DEPARTMENTS IN EHHQLLMBNT OF GRADUATE STUDENTS AT JOHNS HOPKINS DIVERSITY

1878______1880______1890______1895______1900______German German History and Pol. German English and Anglo- Greek Chemistry Science English and Anglo- Saxon Chemistry Latin Chemistry Saxon Biology Mathematics History, etc* German Physics Forensics and Physics French and Spanish Drawing Mathematics Elocution Latin Mathematics Physi cs Chemistry History and Political Biology Greek Mathematics History ahd Pol. Science History, etc* English Romance Languages Science German French and Spanish Biology English and Anglo- Biology Chemistry Philosophy, etc. Philosophy, etc* Saxon Romance Languages Romance Languages Philosophy Drawing Latin Latin Latin Mathematics and Astronomy Drawing

Note: The above table shows the ten leading departments as chosen by students enrolled. Since graduate enrollment from 1876 to 1900 averaged two to four times collegiate enrollments these choices may give some indication of graduate interest. This list, however, includes both collegiate and graduates, and for 1895 and 1900, medical students. Ho separate lists were available fbr graduates only, or Ph.D.'s only. 289 as has been stated before, from two to four times larger than the undergraduate, these figures are given as an indication of choices.

Statements of the leading departments of graduates only -were not available.

In 1900, the first president of the University and three of the original faculty were still working at Hopkins to promote university education. In addition to his duties as president of the University,

Gilman was also -President of the American Oriental Society (l893-1900i and wrote voluminously for publication. He made contributions to the various journals published by the University, and also wrote sizable books. Each of his original faculty (except Rowland) had been in addition to his teaching duties, editor of a journal in his field pub­ lished at Hopkins. J. J. Sylvester (emeritus 1890) had been editor and major contributor of the American Journal of I^athematics since 1878.

In 1890 when Sylvester left the University the journal was in its thirteenth volume.

Henry N. -Martin ■'who became emeritus in 1892 had been editor and major contributor of Studies from the Biological laboratory since 1879.

In 1892 $t the time ^ r t i n became emeritus the journal was in its fifth volume. The three original faculty members who were still writing and teaching at Hopkins in 1900 were: Gildersleeve, Remsen, and Rowland.

Basil U. Gildersleeve, Professor of Greek, had been editor of the

American Journal of Philology since 1880. His list of writings published in the journal and by the Johns Hopkins University ^ress were phenomonal in number. Furthermore "the graduate instruction in Greek is directed by Professor Gildersleeve." 290

Ira Remsen, professor of chemistry, was editor of the American

Chemical Journal, which in 1900 was in its twenty-fourth volume. Henry

A. Rowland, professor of physics, although he did not maintain a journal published equally as extensively as his colleagues. Bibliographia

Hopkinsiensis1 s Part Iv, Physics, was largely the work of Professor

Rowland. Rowland wrote numerous books on physics, contributed regularly to journals in the field in United States and Europe, was Foreign Corres­ pondent of the French Academy of Sciences, president of the American

Physical Society, and member of the physical societies of Germany,

Sweden, Italy, France, Scotland, and England.

By 1900 Johns Hopkins had had an accumulative total graduate enroll­ ment of 5945 and had conferred a total of 590 Ph.D. degrees. The average number conferred annually was eleven. Graduate instruction centered in the seminary. Graduate courses were allied to the seminary. The research problem of the individual member of the seminary was related to the re­ search of each of the other members of the seminary, and was carried on within the framework of the seminary and the courses.

In 1900 Hopkins only professional school was the ^viedical School.

The enrollment of the entire University, including the College, the

Faculty of Philosophy, and the i'Wical School was less than 700. T h e entire University instruction staff covering these three divisions in­ cluded some 130 jnombers. Practically one-third of its students came from the city of Baltimore. Few more than one-third came from the state of dryland. However, some few graduates came from Canada, Hawaiian Islands,

India, Japan, Ceylon, England, Italy, and Jamaica. In 1900 the leading universities from which graduates came were: Yale, Harvard, University of 291

Maryland*

BEFEREMCES TO CHAPTER XIV

1. The Annual Report of the President of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore5 Printed by John Murphy and Co., 1886. p. 10*

2. The Annual Report of the President of Johns Hppkins University* Baltimore* Printed by'dohn Murphy and Co. , 1882i p* 4*

3. 1885-86 Register of The Johns Hppidns University. Baltimore* Printed by John' Murphy and Co., 1886* p. 101,

4. 1890-91 Register of* the Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore* Printed by John Murphy and Co, p. 69.

5. 1880-81 Register of the Joh n s Hopkins diversity. Baltimore* Printed by John Murphy and7 Co. p. 22.

6.- Ibid., p . 22*

7. 1878-79 Register of the Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore* Printed by John Murphy and Co. p. 30.

8. Ibid., p, 28,

9. 1880-81 Register, op. oit., p. 30.

10. 1888-89 Register of the Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore* Printed by John Murphy and Co, p. 106.

11. 1889-90 Register of the Johns Hopkins University. Baltimore: Printed by John Murphy and Co. p. 99,

12. Pres. Report for 1886-87, op. cit., p. 10. CHAPTER XV

SUMMARY OF PART III

We have found that during the last quarter of the nineteenth century

the five selected universities which showed such variance during the early

years, came to approach a common type in course of study, requirements

for degrees and facilities of instruction. This was true even though

some of the institutions were old, some new, certain ones had developed

from church and certain others from state or from private endowments.

As is to be expected, the institution which was set up primarily to

offer the doctor of philosophy degree, conferred during this period the

most degrees^ and had, of course, the largest graduate enrollment. Of

the five institutions described in this study the Johns Hopkins Hniver„

sity led in these respects. From 1876 to 1900, Hopkins had a total of

5945 graduate students, and conferred a total of 5$0 degrees. The two

privately endowed Hew England universities followed, and the tiro mid-

western state universities had the lowest enrollments and conferred the

fewest degrees.

Table XXXX will show the total graduate enrollments in these five

universities during the last quarter of the nineteenth century. It is

of interest to observe how slow the university in the less populated midwest was in getting graduate work established. The four universities

located in the East had certain advantages; more thickly populated areas

to draw from, and the opportunity to make use of each other*s research

facilities «

- 292 - 293

TABLE XXXJC

COMPARISON OF ACCUMULATIVE TOTAL ENROLLMENT AND ACCUMULATIVE TOTAL NUMBER OF PH.D. DEGREES CONFERRED BETWEEN 1876 AND 1900 IN FIVE SELECTED UNIVERSITIES

Total Total dumber Graduate Ph.D. Degrees Enrollment Conferred Johns Hopkins 5945 590 Yale 2832 283 Harvard 3481 243 Cornell 2094 129 Michigan 1038 62

The figures of graduate enrollment are only general indications.

They do not have exactly the same meaning in all the institutions. In

certain institutions for certain years, they include only candidates for the Ph.D. In certain other years they include all students in graduate

courses. Also in certain years, the figures included non-resident

students, in other years they did not. It is also to be remembered that higher degrees required two or three years of study (sometimes more); thus the figures do not represent an entirely new group each year.

TABLE XXXXI

LEADING AREAS OF CHOICE OF WORK OF CANDIDATES FOR THE BH.D. DEGREE FROM 1876 TO 1900 IN FIVE SELECTED UNIVERSITIES

Area Johns Hopkins History} Physics; Chemistry Yale Classical Philology; Natural and P h y s i c a l Sciences Harvard Classical Philology; Philosophy; History and Pol. Sci. Cornell History and Political Science; Modern and Ancient 4^mgs. Michigan History, Political Science; Philosophy, Ethics, Psychol. 294

Although the last quarter of the nineteenth century saw the natural and physical sciences well established in the curriculum of university studies, the sciences were not the strongest areas of graduate work. The leading areas were those of classical philology in the two older eastern universities, and history and political sciences in the newer and in the state universities.

In the two Eastern institutions Male and Harvard graduate work came to be organized into a Graduate Department and later when enrollment in­ creased and the duties of administrating the Department became complex, an independent Graduate School was established.

Graduate Department Graduate School Yale 1889 1896

Harvard 1878 1890

At the two state universities Cornell and Michigan, enrollments remained low in graduate work, thus the administration apparently did not become too burdensome, no graduate department was organized, and no independent graduate school until well into the twentieth century.

Cornell - University Faoulty supervised work; Independent Graduate School Established 1909

Michigan - Individual Hrofesaor supervised work; 1892 Graduate School under College Dept; 1914 Independent Graduate School

Because Johns Hopkins was established as a ’graduate institution

’.vith emphasis on graduate enrollment, it, of course, did not need to go through the stages of growth from courses of graduate Instruction to an organized graduate department to an independent graduate school. At

Hopkins graduate work was the university and administered by the University* CHAPTER XVI

GENERAL SUMMARY

In order to present fully the Development of the Ph.D. Program in

the United States in the Nineteenth Century, it is necessary first to

review to some extent the background from which the program developed#

The first of the great medieval universities was the University of

Bologna, Italy. Bologna was the earliest degree-granting university and

arose in the latter part of the eleventh century as the Middle Ages were

coining to a close. This ancestor of present-day universities was not

consciously constructed according to a previously thought-out plan, but

gradually evolved through decades and centuries*

The medieval university was in the beginning a foreign scholastic

guild, that is, a guild of foreign students. It was patterned after

the existing trade guilds. The term Universitas which came to be applied to the guilds of students was a Roman legal term practically equivalent to our modem word corporation. Historically the word university had no

connection with the universality of learning. It denoted the totality of a group whether of tradespeople or students.

The earliest scholastic fframe of the Hrisrersity arose from its instruction in the liberal arts. The liberal arts were at this time com­ posed of the trivium and the quadrivium. The trivium included grammar, rhetoric and dialectics. The quadrivium included arithmetic, geometry

(geography), astronomy (physics), and music. In medieval university language the terms dootor, master, professor were synomyous terms. Con­ stitutionally Bologna was a corporation or a plurality of corporations* - 295 - 296

It was an autonomous student university.

Evolving at about the same time as Bologna in Italy, was the

University of Paris in France. The University of Paris arose about the middle of the twelfth century and developed from, the guild of masters teaching at Paris. It will be remembered that Bologna evolved from the guilds of students. This position of the masters distinguishes ^aris from the early Italian system. By the middle of the fourteenth century

Paris was at its peak and it was after Paris that the early English universities of Oxford and Cambridge were modeled.

The university at Oxford in its primitive form may be regarded as an imitation or perhaps as a reproduction of the Parisian society of masters. °xford University was founded early in the thirteenth century by a scholastic migration from the University of Paris. And later the

University of Cambridge was founded by a scholastic migration from the

University of Oxford. Exford Un iversity was a federation of corporate colleges. Each college was a unit of residence as well as of instruc­ tion. Each college had its own administration, endowment, building, instructional staff and course of study. The University held the examinations and conferred all degrees. It was through this function that the University exercised control over the colleges. It is this position of the college within the University which is the distinguishing mark of the English universities. The early American colleges were later founded largely by graduates of the English universities, who transplanted the fora of the English college to American soil.

The German Universities, as well as the English universities just described, stemmed from the same source, the University of Paris, some- 297 times referred to as "the mother of universities." The era and earliest beginning of the modem university in Germany was marked by the establish­ ment of the University of Halle in 1694. The modem movement instituted at Halle envolved the reform of the older German universities (which had existed since the middle of the fourteenth century), and the establish­ ment of new ones embued with the new spirit of scientific investigation.

The reception of the new point of view that the truth remains to be discovered marks the turning points in the German universities, and the opening of the modem era. The University of Berlin founded in 1809 was the first modern university in the present-day sense. V/ith the estab­ lishment of the University of Berlin scientific investigation was placed first in importance. At Berlin, for the first time, the entire university program was built to carry out, foremost, scientific work. Excellently equipped laboratories were provided, instruction was carried on with a view to freedom of teaching and learning.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries many young men of means who desired advanced training left the United States and studied in the universities of Europe. In the early part of the nineteenth century these students were attracted largely to Germany where the first modem university had just developed. Germany became the mecca for young men seeking a complete training in the sciences and a complete university education. "What these young men witnessed so far exceeded anything which they had ever known that they returned to the United States imbued with the idea of putting into practice some of these ideas of German univer­ sity education. 298

Upon returning to the lilted States these young men were most fre­ quently appointed to important positions in the then small American

English-patterned colleges* In attempting to develop and expand their own fields of work they made use of some of the new procedures such as laboratories, the seminar, museum collections for scientific study, and how to conduct research, which they had learned abroad. As it began to be seen what the young Americans trained in Europe could do, it began to be demanded generally that the American colleges provide some of the benefits such as were to be had in Europe.

This superimposing of the elements of the modern German university on the structure of the American liberal arts college created a new institution, the American university. This process took place largely during the first three quarters of the nineteenth century. Yale, Harvard,

Cornell, Michigan, and Johns Hopkins were selected for this study be­ cause it was felt that each represented a different type of leadership in the development of the Ph.D. program in the United States.

Yale is discussed in this study first, because in providing instruc­ tion leading to the Ph.D. degree, Yale led the way. In 1841 Yaie made its first provision for graduate instruction by instituting a few courses in the Semitic languages. In 1843 a further step was taken ’when an entire course of study for graduate students was set up in the de­ partment of Latin and Greek. In 1847 a graduate department was organ­ ized, known as the Department of Philosophy and the Arts. In 1861 this department conferred the first doctor of philosophy degree in the United

States.

At UarTard , as at Yale, interest in advanced work was shown early 2 9 9

in the nineteenth oentury. Since 1642 some graduates of Harvard had

remained in residence after taking the bachelor's degree although no

specially designed instruction for them m s provided. In 1824

Professor George Ticknor, newly appointed to the faculty after several

years study in Germany, recommended a number of changes. These sug­

gested changes Ticknor considered as an opening wedge to graduate work*

Some of these were: introduction of elective system of studies in

entire University curriculum; instituting a new department of mo d e m

languages of French, German, and Spanish*

Had Harvard been ready to accept Ticknor*s proposals the college would have gained time in Its transition from a college into a university*

But it m s not ready to accept. So the groping for ways of bringing up a program which would attract graduate students v/ent on. In 1860 a system of University lectures was instituted to attract graduate stu­ dents. In 1871 these were discontinued as not successfully attracting the desired enrollment* In 1872 the Ph.D. degree was first offered at

Harvard and in 1873 it was first conferred*

The history of Cornell presents a sharp contrast to that of Harvard.

Cornell was a state university designed to give instruction in the mechanical art. The unique contribution of Cornell is that it proved that practical technical training could be offered as a highly creditable university education. Cornell offered graduate work from the beginning

(1868) and to encourage attendance thereon charged no tuition the first twenty-four years. Although the Ph.D. was offered since 1868 it was first oonferred in 1872. Graduate work was slow in getting established at Cornell. From 1872 to 1875, the dose of this part of the study, but 300

three Ph.D. degrees had been conferred.

The University of Michigan was founded in the less populated mid­

west. It was a part of the public educational system of the state. In

1852 Michigan began taking those steps which transformed it into a univer­

sity i n practice as well as name. In this year the elective system of

studies was instituted; it was intended as a means of encouraging resi­

dent graduates. In 1858 courses primarily for graduates were introduced.

In 1871 the historical seminar was instituted. In 1874 the doctor of

philosophy degree was first offered. In 1875 this degree was first con­

ferred at Michigan but as an honorary, and not an earned degree. In 1876

the first earned Ph.D. was conferred at the University of Michigan.

The way in vvhich the Johns Hopkins UniVQrsity, founded in 1867, was

organized was the reason for its leadership and great influence in the nineteenth century in graduate work in the United States. It was be­

lieved by its first president, Daniel Coit Gilman, that a university should place emphasis on graduate work. So Johns Hopkins was founded as primarily a graduate institution. Gilman gathered together the most magnificent faculty the United States had yet seen. The quality of students which were attracted was no less remarkable than the faculty.

When Hopkins opened in 1876 it was as a full-fledged university;it offered but one higher degree, the Ph.D.

The period of 1800 to 1875 was a time of experimentation during which, in certain instances, procedures were tried, proved ineffective and discontinued. By 1875 the period of experimentation was largely over, and well-rounded programs of graduate work had begun to develop* 301 -

The period of from 1876 to 1900 was for Yaie one 0f large unfoldment

on a solid and scholarly basis. In 1887 Yale College was officially re­

named Yai© University. In 1889 "Courses of Graduate Instruction” were

renamed the Graduate Department. In 1892 a Dean was appointed to oversee

the Graduate Department. In 1896 the Graduate Department was renamed

the Graduate School. Throughout this quarter-century the number of grad­

uate students had increased five-fold, from 60 to 304. The number of

graduate course# expanded from approximately 75 to 353. Throughout

this expansion the three main areas of specialization chosen by graduate

students remained the same! political science, natural and physical

sciences, classical philology.

By 1900 Yale had had a total graduate enrollment of 2832 and had

conferred a total of 283 degrees. The degree was considered to be a six-

year degree, that is, two years had to be spent in study beyond the bachelor's degree. The candidate was required to pass an examination in

Latin, French, and Gorman, and a final examination on the two-year course of study. The fee for graduate instruction was the same from 1876 to 1900, one hundred dollars per year. In 1900, the close of this study,

Yale had an independent Graduate School with its own buildings, Dean, and faculty. The School had an annual enrollment of some 300 student#.

Throughout its history Yal© had never conferred the Ph.D. except on a highly creditable basis.

As the nineteenth century came to a close graduate work at Harvard had reached the following high level of development. Harvard had an organized Graduate School with an enrollment of more than 300 students and offered more than 400 courses in some thirty departments. Since 1890 302

Harvard had been conferring an average of about eighteen Ph.D.'s annually.

Candidates for this degree at Harvard largely chose the subject matter

fields of the humanities, and the majority chose classical philology.

Harvard’s graduate students found all their instruction under the elective

system of studies of the University.

From 1876 to 1900 Harvard had a total enrollment of 3481 graduate

students and conferred 243 degrees. Harvard did not mention any language

requirement. It undoubtedly was assumed that one who had completed the

undergraduate curriculum would of necessity have a thorough knowledge of

the languages. The degree was considered to be a six-year degree, that

is, a two-year course of study was required beyond the bachelor's degree.

There was a final examination on the two-year course of study and a

thesis. By 1900 graduate work was thoroughly established at Harvard and

students from most parts of continental United States and from various

foreign countries were enrolled in its Graduate School.

In 1900 graduate work was well established at Cornell and was under the supervision of the University faculty with the Committee on Higher

Degrees handling details . Graduate work at Cornell had attained an

enrollment in 1900 of less than 175, and a total of 129 took the degree between 1876 and 1900. During this period the pattern of graduate work

remained much the same. The leading areas in choice of the students were, history and political science, and the languages both ancient and modern. This is of interest to observe in view of the fact that Cornell placed emphasis on technical education. Graduate work did not seem to

get established so early in the state universities. Only since 1895 had

Cornell charged tuition to graduates and there was as yet no Graduate 303

Department or Graduate School.

From 1876 to 1900 Cornell had a total graduate enrollment of 2094

and conferred 129 degrees. In spite of Cornell's emphasis on technical

education it had an unusually demanding language requirement for the

degree. That is, it required three languages, ^atin, German, and French.

Furthermore Cornell required three years of study beyond the bachelor's degree. This was to include one major subject and two related minor subjects. Both written and oral examinations were taken in the major and the minors. Since Cornell required three years of study beyond the bachelor's degree, the Ph.D. was a seven-yoar degree.

The University of Michigan conferred between 1876 and 1900, sixty-two

Ph.D. degrees. Graduate work was to be found under the elective system of studies of the University. The leading fields of specialization as chosen by doctorate candidates were those of history and political science. In

1900 the annual enrollment of resident graduates had just attained the one hundred mark. The requirements for the degree were high, it was con­ sidered a seven-year degree. Michigan conferred the Ph.D. also as an honorary degree, but discontinued this practice in 1892. Graduate work, in this midwest state university was slow in expanding. There was no

Graduate School as an independent organization until well into the twentieth century.

From 1876 to 1900 Michigan had a total graduate enrollment of 1038.

Since at.Michigan three years of study beyond the bachelor's was required, the student would probably be in residence most of the three years.

Therefore the figure for total enrollment would not moan an entirely new group of students annually. Michigan also maintained the system of one 304

major and two related minors in the three-year course of study, Michigan

had the lowest enrollments in graduate work of any of the five universi­

ties included in this study. Because of these few numbers the organiza­

tion of a graduate department and graduate school was delayed. Neverthe­

less, the requirements for the degree were high, and the earned degree

was conferred on a highly creditable basis,

Johns Hopkins had a magnificant history from 1876 to 1900, By 1900

it had had a total cumulative graduate enrollment of 5945 students and

had conferred a total of 590 Ph.D. degrees. The average number conferred

annually during this period was eleven. At Hopkins the instructional

set up was unique. Graduate instruction centered in the seminar.

Instructional courses were allied to the topic of the seminar. The

research problem of each individual member of the seminar was related to

that of every other member, and was carried on within the framework of

the seminar and courses.

Considering the excellent facilities for carrying on research and

the highly paid faculty, tuition at Hopkins was low. In 1876 it was

but eighty dollars a year. By 1900 it had increased until it was

approximately the same as the other eastern universities included in this

study— one hundred and fifty dollars a year. Although instruction for

the doctorate could be taken in some thirty departments, the areas, most

frequently chosen by the candidates were history, physics, and chemistry.

It was after Hopkins opened in 1876 that other universities observing it,

come to see how graduate instruction could be successfully developed.

So it is to Hopkins that the greatest debt is owed for bringing graduate work to a successful high level of development at the close of the nine- 305 teenth cent Tory.

TABLE XXXXII

A COMPARISON OF INSTRUCTIONAL COSTS OF GRADUATE STUDY PER YEAR IN 1876 AND 1900 IN FIVE INSTITUTIONS

1876 1900 Johns Hopkins $80.00 $150.00 Yale 100.00 100.00 Harvard 150.00 150.00 Cornell No tuition until 1893; 100.00 Michigan $20.00 state; $25.00 non-state; 40.00 state; $40.00 non-state

The state universities were desirous of Building up a graduate enrollment and having this desire Cornell charged no tuition to graduates for the first twenty-five years. The University of Michigan being sub­ sidized entirely by the state kept its fees low. Considering that Johns

Hopkins was considered by many to have the best facilities for graduate work, the cost was lower than might be expected. In all cases when a fee was set for graduate instruction it was set at the same figure as for undergraduate.

Table XJOCXIII will show when the first programs of study leading to the Ph.D. degree were instituted, and when the degrees were first con­ ferred.

It was usually a year or two after the degree was first available that there was a candidate who met the requirements. In instituting a definite program leading to the Ph.D. Yale led the way. Some of the Yale graduates then became members of the teaching staff of the other univer­ sities. Textbooks written by Silliman, VJhitney, and Dana at ^ale were 306 used in graduate instruction in some of the other universities, thus making ^ale a strong and beneficial help in the early years*

TABLE XXXXIII

COMPARISON OF DATE WHEN FIRST PH.D. PROGRAM 7H3RE INSTITUTED IN FIVE INSTITUTIONS AND WHEN FIRST PH.D. WAS CONFERRED

First Ph.D. First Ph.D. Program Conferred Yale 1860 1861 Cornell 1868 1872 Harvard 1872 1873 Michigan 1874 1876 Johns Hopkins 1876 1876

By 1900 the requirements for tho Ph.D. had become pretty much the same. Harvard did not state a language requirement but it was presumed that one who had completed the undergraduate curriculum would of neces­ sity have a thorough knowledge of the languages. In all of these univer­ sities it required two or three years beyond the bachelor’s to complete the degree. Table 3QGCCIV will present a comparison of the requirements as they stood in 1900 in the five institutions.

The writer feels that the development of the Ph.D. program in the

United States from the time elements were first introduced, to the close of the nineteenth oentury constitutes one of the most interesting move­ ments in higher education in our country. It was because so far there is little literature on the early period of graduate education in the

United States that this study was undertaken. The period of this study closed with 1900; By 1900 the form which the Ph.D. was to maintain TABLE XXXXIV

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE PH.D. IN 1900 IN I. FIVE SELECTED UNIVERSITIES

Length of Study Incl. Undergr. Language Requirement Time Examination Thesis

Yale 6 yrs. Latin, German, French 2 yrs. or more Final exam, all subjects 1 copy Harvard 6 yrs. None 2 yrs. Final exam, all subjects 1 copy Cornell 7 yrs. Latin, German, French 3 yrs. 1 major, 2 minors, ■written or oral 50 c opies

Michigan 7 yrs. French, Geiman 3 yrs. 1 major, 2 minors, witten 150 copies

Johns Hopfcins 6 to 7 yrs. French, German 3 yrs. 1 principal, 2 subor­ dinates, witten and oral 150 copies 308 in the first half of the twentieth century was well established and ctandardized. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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For Part II

YALE

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University Publications

Catalogue of Officers and Students in Yale College. New Haven, B, L. Hamlen, Printer, 1851-52 to 1886-87. Tut11e, Morehouse and Taylor Publishers 1887-88 to 1900,

Courses of Graduate Instruction of the Department of Philosophy and the Arts, 1895-96. New Haven, Tuttle, ^orehouse' and Taylor, Printers, 1896. 74 pp. 312

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Law Department of Yale University. No. 5 in the Series, 1824-1899. (Alumni Record)• New -4iven, Conn., Hoggson and Robinson, Printers for the Law Department of Yaie University, 1899, 114 pp.

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HARVARD

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Teller, James David, Louis Agassiz, Scientist and Teacher. Columbus, Ohio, Ohio State t'nivorsity ^ress, 1947. 145 pp.

Walton, Clarence Eldon, An Historical Prospect of H a r v a r d College, 1636- 1956. Boston, Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, 1936. 48 pp.

University Publications

Addresses at the Inauguration of Charles Jilliaia Bliot as President of Harvard College, Cambridge, Sever and Francis, 1869.

Annual Report of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College. Cambridge, John Wilson and Sons. 1870-1880.

Catalogue of Officers and Students of Harvard College. Cambridge, Sever and Francis, 1860 to 1873.

Graduate School Catalogue 189-1898, Harvard University, Cambridge, Published by the 'University, 1898, 101 pp.

Harvard Triennial Catalogue, Catalogus Colie gii Harvaj-dianj^ Cantabriglae, Types Welch, Bigelow et Sociorium, 1866. 170 pp.

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Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of harvard University, 1636-1910, Cambridge, ^ubliWhed by the University, 1910, 757 pp.

Quinquennial Catalogue of the Officers and Graduates of Harvard University, 1656-1925. Cambridge, 1925. 4 vols#

CORNELL

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MICHIGAN

Adams, Herbert B. Study of History in American Colleges and Universities, Bureau of Education, Washington, Government Printing" Office, 1887, 299 pp. .

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Far rand, Elizabeth M. History of the University of Michigan. Ann Arbor, Register Publishing ^ous'e, 1885. 290 pp".

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Monroe, Paul, editor. A Cyclopedia of Education. New York, The MacMillan Co., 1919. 5 vols.

Perry, Charles M., Henry Philip Tappan, Philosopher and University President. Ann Arbor, University of Michigan P r e s s , 1933. 475 pp.

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316

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JOHNS HOPKINS

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Franklin, Fabian. The Life of Daniel Coit Gilman. New Yor^ Dodd Mead & Company, 1910. 446 pp.

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______. The Direction of American University Development, Address at 25th Anniversary of Vanderbilt University, 1900.

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The Johns Hopkins University O f f i c i a l Circular, No. 8, Doctor Disserta­ tions 1876-1926. Published b y the University, 1926. 85 pp.

For P a r t III

YALE

Dexter, Franklin Bowditch, Yale University, Documentary H i s t o r y . New Haven, Yale University Press, 1916, xviii * 382 pp.

Welch, ^ e m s Sheldon and Camp, Walter. Yale, Her Campus, Classrooms and Athletics. Boston, L. C. Page and Co., 1899. 628 pp.

University Publications

Catalogue of the Officers and Students of tale College. New Haven, Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers. 1876-1886 (annually).

Catalogue of tale University, New Haven, Tuttle,Morehouse and Taylor, Publishers, 1887-1900 (annually)•

Courses of Graduate Instruction in the Department of Philosophy and the Arts, ^ale University, 1895-96. New Haven, 1895.

Graduate Sohool Bulletin, 1899-1900.

Graduate School, Doctors of Philosophy of tale University, with Titles of Their Dissertations, 1861-1915. New Haven, Yale University re’ss , 1916, 210 pp.

Yale College in 1876. Some Statements Respecting the Hate Progress and Present Condition of the Various Departments of the UniVersity. New1 Haven, Tuttle, Morehouse and Taylor, Printers, 1876.

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HARVARD

University Publications

Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College. Cambridge, University Press: John 1/Vi Ison "and Son. 1875-1900 (annually)•

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CORHELL

Hewett, Waterman Thomas, Cornell University, A History. The University Publishing Society, Hew York, 1905. Vol. II, Chapt. IX.

Monroe, Paul A. A Cyclopedia of Education. Hew York, MacMillan Co., 1915. Vol. II, "Cornell.11

Register of Cornell University. Ithaca, Hew York, Published by the University, 1876-1900.

Schurman, Uacob Gould. A Generation of Cornell 1868-1898. Address at 30th Annual Commencement of Cornell. Putnam's Sons, we\v York. 1893.

Annual Report of the President of Cornell University. Ithaca, Hew Y0rk, Published by the University, 1876-1900.

IvIICHIGAH

Adams, Herbert B., Study of History in American Colleges and Universities. Bureau of Education Circular, Ho. 2. Washington, B.C., 1887.

Angell, Uames Burrill. The Reminiscences of James Burrill Angell. Longsman, Green and Co.", Hew York, 1912. "

Farrand, Elizabeth It. History of University of Michigan, Register Publishing House, Ann Arbor, 1885,

Hinsdale, Burke A. History of University of Michigan. Published by University, Ann Arbor, 1906.

McLaughlin, A. C. History of Higher Education in Michigan. Bureau of Education, Circular of information," Government Printing 0rfic<£, Washington, B.C., 1891.

Robertson, D. A., editor. American Universities and Colleges. Hew York, Charles Scribner's Sons, 1928# 319

Slosson, E. E. Great American Universities. New York, MacMillan Co*, 1910,

University Publications

Calendar of the University of Michigan, Published by the University, Ann Arbor, 1876 to 1900*

Graduate School Announcement, University of Michigan, UfPublica­ tion, No. 68, Vol. XXXII, 1931.

Quarter-Centennial Celebration of the Presidency of James Burrill Angell, Published by the University, Ann Arbor, 1896i

JOHNS HOPKINS

Annual Report of the President of the Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Printed by John Murphy and Co.,' 1876-1900.

The Johns Hopkins University Circular, No. 4, No. 5, No. 7. Baltimore, Published by the University, 1876, 1877.

The Johns Hopkins University Official Circular, No. 8, Doctor's Disserta- tion 1876-1926. Baltimore, ■Published by the University, 1926. 85 pp.

The Johns Hopkins University Register, Baltimore, Printed by John Murphy and Co., 1876-1900. AUTOBIOGRAPHY

I, Mary Bean, "was born i n Wood County, Yfest Virginia, M a y 30, 1901,

I received m y secondary school education in the public school of

Newcomers town, Ohio. My undergraduate training was obtained at Ohio

University, Athens, Ohio. I received the degree of Bachelor of* Arts in

1923. In 1923 I became Assistant, Department of* Health Education, Ohio

Urdvei-ssiby. In 1926, I was appointed Assistant to the Dean of Women,

Ohio State University. While in this position I took work toward the

Master of Arts degree, and received the degree in 1931. In 1930 I %vas

appointed Assistant Dean of Women, Ohio State University. In 1932 I became

Dean of VVomen, Uilliken University, Decatur, Illinois. Due to ill health

I was given a two-year leave of absence. Upon reoovery in mid-year I did

post-graduate study temporarily. This lei,d to an appointment as an

Assistant in the Department of Education at Ohio State University, and

definite work toward the degree. All work for the degree, except the

dissertation, was completed in 1933. Ill health returned. Writing of

the dissertation was taken up in 1951 and completed in 1953,

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