Examinations of the Effectiveness of Mimetic Phenotypes of Female Great Mormom Butterfly Using Behavioral Experiments

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Examinations of the Effectiveness of Mimetic Phenotypes of Female Great Mormom Butterfly Using Behavioral Experiments 生 國 物 立 科 , 學 中 系 山 研 究 大 所 學 國立中山大學生物科學系 碩 士 論 碩士論文 文 Department of College of Science 以 行 National Sun Yat-sen University 為 學 Master Thesis 方 式 檢 定 以行為學方式檢定雌性大鳳蝶擬態性狀之有效性 雌 性 Examinations of the effectiveness of mimetic phenotypes of 大 鳳 female Great Mormom Butterfly using behavioral experiments 蝶 擬 態 性 狀 之 研究生:陳怡潔 有 效 Yi-Jie Chen 性 指導教授:顏聖紘 博士 研 究 Dr. Shen-Horn Yen 生 : 陳 怡 潔 中華民國 年 月 102 7 101 July 2013 學 年 度 國立中山大學生物科學系 碩士論文 Department of College of Science National Sun Yat-sen University Master Thesis 以行為學方式檢定雌性大鳳蝶擬態性狀之有效性 Examinations of the effectiveness of mimetic phenotypes of female Great Mormom Butterfly using behavioral experiments 研究生:陳怡潔 Yi-Jie Chen 指導教授:顏聖紘 博士 Dr. Shen-Horn Yen 中華民國 102 年 7 月 July 2013 i 致 謝 論文寫完了,但致謝差點就被徹底遺忘,幸好有學校論文格式規定提醒了 我。 這份論文的完成要歸功於眾多生命的參與,包含數以萬計的大鳳蝶,感謝你 們肯聽話地乖乖長大、化蛹、羽化到繁殖下一代,看著你們一隻隻長成大頭寶寶 總讓我無限欣慰;其次是數以百計的白頭翁,雖然你們每位的個性都不同,但感 謝你們讓我順利完成實驗,我也依承諾給你們好吃的水果和還你們自由。 再來要一一點名了:廖士睿,雖然來不及參與實驗內容,但在論文校稿和修 改上給我許多的經驗指導及清除盲點,在論文催生過程中功不可末。吳玟萱(彰 師大應數系),提供多種統計軟體教學及統計學定義諮詢服務。蔡齡瑩,協助行 為實驗設計可行性評估和統計分析討論。韋家軒,協助國外博物館模式標本拍攝 及採集資訊記錄。劉胖丁、石辰唯(臺大昆蟲系)、張小花(臺大昆蟲系)、阿威、 林亦成、小鈺學姊(嘉大昆蟲館)野外標本的收集。 感謝倫敦自然史博物館、巴黎自然史博物館及東京科學博物館提供模式標本, 也感謝國家科學委員會 (NSC)提供經費協助使研究得以進行。 感謝顏聖紘老師從論文最初連題目都不知道是什麼只是養了一堆蟲蟲到多 項實驗的完成,過程中所有的討論、指正與啟發,多虧有您的協助。 感謝徐堉峰及楊恩誠老師南北奔波、認真的閱讀及批改論文稿,並對論文內 容進行客觀且明確的指正,有你們存在論文才能更完整,也謝謝楊恩誠老師研究 室在光譜測量上提供技術指導。 其它沒列到名字的生命們,由於頁數有限在此省略,但你們貢獻依然存在。 謝謝大家。 ii 摘 要 鱗翅目昆蟲的多態型以雌雄二型性且雌性多態型最為常見,其中鳳蝶屬(genus Papilio)的物種皆以貝氏擬態形式存在,並常依照其翅紋功能、用途、元素圖樣等, 分別被提出檢視或討論,甚至以捕食者的觀點進行研究。而大鳳蝶(Papilio memnon) 雌性被認為是參與翅紋擬態中的一員,於演化及基因觀點上也常被提出討論。由 前人研究得知,大鳳蝶雌性具有 17 種表型,多數表型以完美擬態型式存在,且其 觀點已被長期運用於教科書中,但大鳳蝶之擬態對象及完美擬態與否仍有疑慮, 且從未研究者以行為實驗來驗證大鳳蝶翅紋的擬態關係。因此,本研究經由檢視 博物館之大量模式標本進行翅紋及地理分析,探討其翅紋表型分布及相似程度; 以行為可行性實驗得知白頭翁可適用於大鳳蝶擬態關係之捕食者,故以白頭翁測 試大鳳蝶與麝鳳蝶之擬態關係,並確定前人提出之擬態關係對捕食者而言多數是 不存在的;以改變元素的方式,探討若兩者關係為不完美擬態時,捕食者是依何 元素作為辦識依據,結果發現翅形、尾突、及前翅上半部變異單獨調控時,均不 影響捕食者行為;以野外實驗探討改變獵物密度對擬態關係穩定性及擬態對象與 獵物存活率關係,結果顯示擬態者密度增加,則存活率下降,其擬態關係可能消 失,而改變擬態對象結果顯示,擬雄型確實能提高存活率,但經捕食者迴避學習 後,擬態雌性模式才有較好存活率。 關鍵字:不完美擬態(Imperfect mimicry)、貝氏擬態(Batesian mimicry)、翅紋元素 (Wing pattern elements) 、 迴 避 學 習 (Avoidance learning) 、雌性多態型(female polymorphism) iii abstract The Batesian mimicry involving Papilionidae is often sexually dimorphic, female-limited, and polymorphic. According to the case studies based on the mimicry relationships exhibited by several North American, African and Asian Papilio species, it has been realized that the occurrence of mimetic female form correlates with relative abundance of the model. Papilio memnon is a fairly common swallowtail butterfly ranging throughout India, Sundaland and S.E. Palaeartic region. The female is extremely polymorphic with at least 17 forms being recognized and many of them often regarded perfectly mimetic with several troidine butterfly models occurring in the same distribution range. However, neither the occurrence of the so-called mimicry of this species has been questioned nor the effectiveness of the putative aposematic colouration has been tested using modern methods. Here we present a result based on an analysis of geographical correlations between possible mimetic female forms and their possible model(s) from numerous museum specimens and animal behavior experiment. The results show that: (1) There might be no prefect mimicry occurring between female P. memnon and their potential models; (2) the accurate mimicry involving the P. memnon complex may only be presented by P. lampsacus and P. oenomaus and their models; (3) the mimetic colouration (either perfect or imperfect) may have independently evolved for several times; (4) the presence or absence of hindwing tail or some specific maculation does not necessarily contribute in enhancing resemblance between P. memnon and the model(s); and (5) some elements of interactive regulation, it will affect the judgment of predator. Key words: Batesian mimicry, Imperfect mimicry, Wing pattern polymorphism, elements, artificial prey, avoidance learning iv 目 錄 論文審定書 ………………………………………………………………………… i 誌謝 ……………………………………………………….………………………… ii 中文摘要 …………………………………………………….…….……………….. iii 英文摘要 ……………………………………..…………...………………………. iv 第一章 重新檢視大鳳蝶元素變異與量化分析 1.1 摘要 ………………………………………………...……………….…...… 1 1.2 前言 …………………………….………………...………………....…… 2 1.3 材料方法 ………………………….……………...……………...….…… 7 1.4 結果 ……………………………………………...….………...…………… 8 1.5 討論 ……………………………………………...….………….………… 10 第二章 大鳳蝶元素變異與量化 2.1 摘要 ……………………………………………….……………………… 13 2.2 前言 .………………………………………….………………………… 14 2.3 材料方法 .………………………………………….…………………… 18 2.4 結果 …….………………………………………….…………………… 20 2.5 討論 …….…………………………………………….………………… 22 第三章 以行為實驗探討大鳳蝶的擬態關係與擬態對象 3.1 摘要 ….………………………………………….……………………… 25 3.2 前言 …….……………………………………….……………………… 26 3.3 材料方法 .……………………………………….……………………… 30 3.4 結果 ………………………..…………………….……………………… 36 3.5 討論 ……………..………………………………….…………………… 39 第四章 大鳳蝶完美擬態探討與捕食者判定依據 4.1 摘要 …………………………….…………….………………………… 44 4.2 前言 …………………………………………………..………………… 45 4.3 材料方法 …………………………………….…………………………… 47 4.4 結果 ………………………………….……….………………………… 49 4.5 討論 …………………………………….………………………………… 51 參考文獻 ……………………………………………………….………………… 54 附錄 附表 1 大鳳蝶東山族群累代飼養記錄 …………………………………… 100 附表 2 大鳳蝶柴山族群累代飼養記錄 …………………………………… 103 圖 次 圖 1-1 基因及其對應元素示意圖………………………….…………...……… 62 圖 1-2 標本檢視大鳳蝶雌性表型與共域麝鳳蝶模式分布…….………...…… 63 圖 1-3 依前後翅元素排列 17 種大鳳蝶雌性表型………………….………….. 64 圖 1-4 標本檢視大鳳蝶雌性表型依前後翅元素排列………………...………… 65 圖 1-5 標本檢視大鳳蝶雌性表型依前後翅元素及地理區排列……....……… 66 圖 1-6 地理區寒暖流分布及流向…………………...…………………………… 67 圖 2-1 七組大鳳蝶表型與對應擬態模式表型……………………........……… 68 圖 2-2 柴山族群大鳳蝶雌性表型變異…………………………………...……… 69 圖 3-1 野外實驗樣區位置示意圖………………………………...……………… 70 圖 3-2 獵物種類對存活率差異………………………………………...………… 71 圖 3-3 獵物色彩差異對存活率影響……………………………………...……… 72 圖 3-4 白頭翁味覺辨識力…………………………………………...…………… 73 圖 3-5 白頭翁對獵物色彩及味覺信號關聯能力……………………...………… 74 圖 3-6 白頭翁迴避學習效率……………………………………………...……… 75 圖 3-7 以白頭翁檢測 Clarkeet al. (1968)提出之七組大鳳蝶完美擬態關係.…… 76 圖 3-8 麝鳳蝶與大鳳蝶擬態表型於野外存活曲線圖………………………...… 77 圖 3-9 野外實驗相同獵物密度下獵物存活率…………………...……………… 78 圖 3-10 野外試驗不同獵物密度下獵物存活曲線圖………………….………… 79 圖 3-11 依時間比較不同獵物密度下獵物存活率…………………………..…… 80 圖 3-12 適口性獵物密度遠高於不適口性獵物密度下獵物存活率差異….…… 81 圖 4-1 改變雌性獵物元素示意圖…………………...…………………………… 82 圖 4-2 改變雄性獵物元素示意圖……………...………………………………… 83 圖 4-3 改變雌性獵物元素於存活率影響結果……………...…………………… 84 圖 4-4 改變雄性獵物元素於存活率影響結果……………………...…………… 85 表 次 表 1-1 大鳳蝶模式種命名演變及分布………………………………………… 86 表 1-2 不同區域大鳳蝶可能擬態關係…………………………………...……… 89 表 1-3 大鳳蝶各亞種表型……………………………………………………… 90 表 2-1 大鳳蝶雌性翅紋元素量化比較…………………...……………………… 91 表 2-2 依元素差異量化分析七組大鳳蝶擬態表型…………...………………… 92 表 2-3 七組擬態表型之前翅白化及前翅基部色斑分析……...………………… 93 表 3-1 平均數分析人工獵物與對應標本依元素光譜分析………………….… 94 表 3-2 平均數分析人工獵物與非對應擬態關係之標本依元素光譜分析…...… 95 表 3-3 白頭翁色彩辨識力分析………………………………………………...… 96 表 3-4 白頭翁信號關聯能力分析………………………………………….......… 97 表 3-5 大鳳蝶表型基因型列表……………………...…………………………… 98 表 4-1 元素交叉調控比較…………………………...…………………………… 99 第一章 重新檢視大鳳蝶亞種與表型關係 1.1 摘要 具有貝氏擬態物種多為雌雄二型性(sexual dimorphism),並以雌性有限型 (female-limited mimicry)或雌性多態型(female polymorphism)的形式存在。根據前人 研究北美、非洲及亞洲鳳蝶物種翅紋擬態關係,顯示至少有 3 組超基因可調控斑 紋表現。大鳳蝶為一種相當常見的鳳蝶,分布範圍遍及東方區(Oriental region)及舊 北區東部(S.E. Palaeartic region),其雌性多態型已被提出 17 種表型,其中有 14 種 被認為以完美擬態形式存在,分別擬態相同分布範圍中不同種的麝鳳蝶,然而, 本研究認為不論是擬態形式或擬態對象均有疑慮。因此,研究中重新檢視多個博 物館模式標本,結果顯示:(1)大鳳蝶的擬態關係可能為不完美擬態;(2)大鳳蝶完 美擬態可能只存在於擬態 Papilio lampsacus 和 Papilio oenomaus 的表型個體;(3) 後翅尾突存在與否並無法加強特定斑紋與模式種的相似性;(4)大鳳蝶翅紋具高度 變異可能受到東南亞一帶柑橘類植物大量種植影響,導致大鳳蝶分布改變,並造 成前人提出之模式物種與擬態表型有不共域或不存在的情況;(5)亞種的界定應納 入表型差異。 關鍵字:雌雄二型性、雌性多態型、共域、完美擬態 1 1.2 前言 擬態與鳳蝶屬研究 防禦性擬態是指擬態者(mimic)藉由模仿被擬態者(model)警戒訊號,使其牽涉 被擬態者之外部形態、行為、化學訊號等,因而達到欺騙捕食者並從中獲益。擬 態的定義依擬態者與被擬態者間的關係,傳統上區分為兩種觀點,分別為:貝氏 擬態是指可食(palatable)物種模仿不可食(unpalatable)物種,藉以降低被捕食率以增 加自身適存度(Bates 1862);穆氏擬態則是藉著不可食(unpalatable)物種間互相模仿, 增強其警戒訊號,藉以降低被捕食風險(Müller 1879)。 於過去研究,擬態關係在鳳蝶屬(genus Papilio)成蟲中均被發現是以貝氏擬態 形式存在,如下列物種:Papilio glaucus Linnaeus 1758 (北美洲)(Clarke & Sheppard 1959) 、Papilio polyxenes Fabricius 1775 (新北區)(Robert et al. 1996)、Papilio dardanus Brown 1776 (非洲區)(Trimen 1869)與 Papilio polytes Linnaeus 1758 (東方 區 )(Clarke & Sheppard 1972) 。這些牽涉擬 態的物種皆為雌雄二態型(sexual dimorphism),其中雄性皆為單型性(monomophism)、雌性為多態型(polymorphism) 且為雌性有限性擬態(female-limited mimicry) ,然而造成此現象的原因有以下假說: 對雌性被攻擊率較高(Ohsaki 1995);雄性交配選擇偏好(Kreb & West 1988);雄性間 競爭(Lederhouse & Scriber 1996)等。 大鳳蝶(Papilio memnon)廣泛分佈於東方區(Oriental region)與舊北區東部(S.E. Palaeartic region),其幼蟲主要取食芸香科柑橘屬(genus Citrus, Rutaceae)植物,成 蟲則具有雌雄二態型、雌性多態型與雌性限性擬態現象以及參與貝氏擬態,與上 述所提及到的鳳蝶科的擬態現象相似。擁有雌性多態型的大鳳蝶被認為擬態同樣 2 廣佈於東方區與舊北區東部裳鳳蝶族中成員最多的麝鳳蝶屬(genus Atrophaneura), 除了大鳳蝶外,大鳳蝶種群(group)成員也被推測與當地麝鳳蝶有侷限區域的擬態 關係。 大鳳蝶命名及記錄 大鳳蝶(P. memnon)自 1758 年由 Linnaeus 命名描述後,由於體型大且普及性高, 因此引起多位學者注意,在歷史上有關鳳蝶科研究的文章中,共有 155 篇文章於 文中提及大鳳蝶具有擬態關係,其中也有 48 篇文章引用 Clarke (1968,1971)認為 大鳳蝶為貝氏擬態中的一員,但仍有學者持不同看法認為大鳳蝶為穆氏擬態 (Berenbaum 1995)。 自 1758 年起至 1903 年,大鳳蝶至少已被正式記錄有 14 種表型與 17 個採集 地,其可能擬態的模式種 Atrophaneura nox、Atrophaneura sycorax、Troides amphrysus、 Atrophaneura varuna、Atrophaneura coon 也分別具有多筆命名及分布記錄,但以命 名時間來看仍以大鳳蝶最早,其次為 T. amphrysus,表型變異也以大鳳蝶最多,T. amphrysus 次之(表 1-1)。 大鳳蝶相關研究 於大鳳蝶相關研究中,Wallace (1889)是首次提及大鳳蝶與麝鳳蝶間擬態關係 的研究者,自此之後,其兩物種間的擬態關係即為演化學與擬態生物學中經典的 例子之一,並成為研究擬態現象的重要物種。 例如:鳳蝶屬中曾經被提及牽涉擬態的鳳蝶多態表型,被認為是由超基因所 控制,其研究即以大鳳蝶為材料(Clark & Sheppard 1960,1968,1971),近年藉由 3 P. dardanus 與南美洲的毒蝶屬(genus Heliconius)的全基因體定序結果中,找到至少 有 3 組超基因控制斑紋的表現(Joron et al. 2006;Clark et al. 2008)。其後,Tsao & Yeh (2008)也以生命條碼(barcord)基因片段探討大鳳蝶的蘇門達臘亞種(P. memnon anceus Cramer 1779),中國、泰國、越南亞種(P. m. agenor Linnaeus 1768)及台灣亞 種(P. m. heronus Fruhstorfer 1902)親緣關係,發現大鳳蝶亞種間並非單系群。 Clarke 於 1959 開始以鳳蝶屬內物種為材料,進行鱗翅目翅紋多態型與基因關 係的探討,而北美黃鳳蝶(P. glaucus Linnaeus 1758)則是 Clarke 最早利用的材料, 在他 1959 年的研究討論中,認為北美黃鳳蝶黑色型翅紋並非由單一基因、性染色 體或顯性基因所調控,並於隔年(1960)提出大鳳蝶為鳳蝶屬中具有擬態現象的物種; 於 1962 年時提出北美黃鳳蝶的黑色型是位於 Y 染色體上的隱性基因所造成;1968 年時,Clarke 與其共同研究者收集 10 個地區 11 種表型的大鳳蝶以及其認定擬態模 式種,研究中 Clarke 將它們的分布範圍標定於地圖上,也以文字代稱超基因所調 控的翅紋及腹部元素(圖 1-1),並讓不同表型大鳳蝶雜交、採卵、飼養。在觀察這 些雜交子代後,Clarke 認為大鳳蝶至少存在 17 種由超基因控制的表型,且前後翅 及腹部元素變異為獨立基因所調控,再藉由斑紋比對,Clarke
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  • Volume 2. Animals
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  • Barua Swallowtail Butterflies.Pmd
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  • Of Dibang Valley, Mishmi Hills, Arunachal Pradesh, India
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  • Summary Output
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