Articles 60- 1 2 1 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1963

Short Papers in Geology and Hydrology Articles 60- 1 2 1 GEOLOGICAL SURVEY RESEARCH 1963

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY PROFESSIONAL PAPER 475-C

Scientific notes and summaries of investigations prepared by members of the Conservation, Geologic, and Water Resozlrces Divisions

UNITED STATES GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON : 1963 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR STEWART L. UDALL, Secretary

GEOLOGICAL SURVEY Thomas B. Nolan, Director

-- - For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Washington, D.C., 20402 FOREWORD This collection of 62 articles is the second of a series to be released in 1963 as chapters of Professional Paper 475. The articles report on scientific and economic results of current work by members of the Geologic, Water Resources, and Conservation Divisions of the United States Geological Suivey. Some of the papers present the results of completed pants of continuing investigations; others announce new discoveries or preliminary results of investigations that will be discussed in greater detail in reports to be published in the future. Still others are scientific notes of limited scope, and short papers on methods and techniques. Chapter A of this seriefj will be published later in the year, and will present st synopsis of work of the Geological Survey during the present fiscal year. CONTENTS Page i11

GEOLOGIC STUDIES Stnrctural geology 60. Structure of Precambrian crystalline rocks in the northern part of Grand Teton National Park, Wyo., by J. C. Reed, Jr------61. Plutonic rocks of northern Zacatecas and adjacent areas, Mexico, by C. L. Rogers, Roger van Vloten, J. 0. Rivera, E. T. Amezcua, and Zoltan de Cserna......

Stratigraphy 62. The Ordovician-Silurian contact in Dubuque County, Iowa, by J. W. Whitlow and C. E. Brown ------63. Spirorbal limestone in the Souris River(?) Formation of Late Devonian age at Cottonwood Canyon, Bighorn Moun- tains, Wyo., by C. A. Sandberg ...... 64. Dark shale unit of Devonian and Mississippian age in northern Wyoming and southern Montana, by C. A. Sandberg-- 65. Nomenclature for lithologic subdivisions of the Mississippian Redwall Limestone, Arizona, by E. D. McKee------66. Mississippian rocks in the Laramie Range, Wyo., and adjacent areas, by E. K. Maughan ...... 67. Triassic uplift along the west flank of the Defiance positive element, Arizona, by E. D. McKee ------68. Revised stratigraphic nomenclature and age of the Tuxedni Group in the Cook Inlet region, Alaska, by R. L. Detter- man------69. Redefinition and correlation of the Ohio Creek Formation (Paleocene) in west-central Colorado, by D. L. Gaskill and L. H. Godwin------70. Tertiary volcanic stratigraphy in the western San Juan Mountains, Colo., by R. G. Luedke and W. S. Burbank-- 71. Fenton Pass Formation (Pleistocene?), Bighorn Basin, Wyo., by W. L. Rohrer and E. B. Leopold ------72. Nussbaum Alluvium of Pleistocene(?) age at Pueblo, Colo., by G. R. Scott......

Paleontology 73. Age of the Murray Shale and Hesse Quartzite on Chilhowee Mountain, Blount County, Tenn., by R. A. Laurence and A. R. Palmer ...... 74. Conodonts from the Flynn Creek cryptoexplosive structure, Tennessee, by J. W. Huddle ...... 75. Middle Triassic marine ostracodes in Israel, by I. G. Sohn...... 76. Occurrence of the late Cretaceous ammonite Hoplitoplacentieeras in Wyoming, by W. A. Cobban ------77. Paleotemperature inferences from Late Miocene mollusks in the San Luis Obispo-Bakersfield area, California, by W. 0. Addicott and J. G. Vedder- - - ...... 78. Late Pleistocene diatoms from the Arica area, Chile, by R. J. Dingman and K. E. Lohman...... 79. Possible Pleistocene-Recent boundary in the Gulf of Alaska, based on benthonic Foraminifera, by P. B. Smith- - - - Geochemistry, petrology, and mineralogy 80. Petrology of rhyolite and basalt, northwestern Yellowstone Plateau, by Wmen Hamilton ------81. The Canyon Mountain Complex, Oregon, and the Alpine mafic magma stem, by T. P. Thayer ------82. Modal composition of the Idaho batholith, by C. P. Ross- ...... 83. Solution breccias of the Minnelusa Formation in the Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming, by C. G. Bowles and W. A. Braddock ...... ------84. Calcitization of dolomite by calcium sulfate solutions in the Minnelusa Formation, Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming, by W. A. Braddock and C. G. Bowles ...... -- 85. Apatitized wood and leucophosphite in nodules in the Moreno Formation, California, by R. A. Gulbrandsen, D. L. Jones, K. M. Tagg, and D. W. Reeser ------86. Variation in element content of American elm tissue with a pronounced change in the chemical nature of the soil, by H. T. Shacklette ------

87. Ordovician age for some rocks of the Carolina slate belt in North Carolina, by A. M. White, A. A. Stromquist, T. W. Stern, and Harold Westley ------......

88. Gravity survey in the Rampart Range area, Colorado, by C. H. Miller ------89. Gravity survey of the island of Hawaii, by W. T. Kinoshita, H. L. Krivoy, D. R. Mabey, and R. R. MacDonald- 90. Evaluation of magnetic anomalies by electromagnetic measurements, by F. C. Frischknecht and E. B. Ekren----- v VI CONTENTS

Sedimentation Page 91. Glaciolacustrine diamicton deposits in the Copper River Basin, Alaska, by 0. J. Ferrians, Jr ...... C121 92. Competence of transport on alluvial fans, by L. K. Lustig ------..----126 93. Distribution of granules in a bolson environment, by L. K. Lustig ...... 130 Marine geology 94. Sediments on the continental margin off eastern United States, by Elazar Uchupi--

Geomorphology 95. Possible wind-erosion origin of linear scarps on the Sage Plain, southwestern Colorado, by D. R. Shawe------96. Glacial lakes near Concord, Mass., by Carl Koteff ...... 97. Channel changes on Sandstone Creek near Cheyenne, Okla., by D. L. Bergman and C. W. Sullivan------98. Origin and geologic significance of buttress roots of Bristlecone pines, White Mountains, Calif., by V. C. LaMarche,

Economic geology 99. Bauxitization of terra rossa in the southern Appalachian region, by M. M. Knechtel------100. An ore-bearing cylindrical collapse structure in the Ambrosia Lake uranium district, New Mexico, by H. C. Granger and E. S. Santos------Engineering geology 101. Formation of ridges through differential subsidence of peatlands of the Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta, California, by G.H. Davis------Analytical techniques 102. Chemical preparation of samples for lead isotope analysis, by J. C. Antweiler ...... 103. Percent-constituent printing accessory and flow-through cell for a spectrophotometer, by Leonard Bhapiro and E. L. Curtis------

HYDROLOGIC STUDIES Engineering hydrology 104. Dissipation of heat from a thermally loaded stream, by Harry Messinger ...... ------105. Movement of waterborne cadmium and hexavalent chromium wastes in South Farmingdale, Nassau County, Long Island, N.Y., by N. M. Perlmutter, Maxim Lieber, and H. L. Frauenthal ...... 106. Effect of urbanization on storm discharge and ground-water recharge in Nassau County, N.Y., by R. M. Sawyer---

Ground water 107. Mapping transmissibility of alluvium in the lower Arkansas River valley, Arkansas, by M. S. Bedinger and L. F.

Surface water 108. Snowmelt hydrology of the North Yuba River basin, California, by S. E. Rantx------_------109. Field verification of computation of peak discharge through culverts, by C. T. Jenkins ...... 110. Use of low-flow measurements to estimate flow-duration curves, by 0. P. Hunt-- ...... Analytical hydrology 111. Graphical multiple-regression analysis of aquifer tests, by C. T. Jenkins ...... 112. Nomograph for computing effective shear on streambed sediment, by B. R. Colby ...... 113. Distribution of shear in rectangular channels, by Jacob Davidian and D. I. Cabal------

Geochemistry of water 114. Sulfate and nitrate content of precipitation over parts of North Carolina and Virginia, by A. W. Gambell------115. Differences between field and laboratory determinations of pH, alkalinity, and specific conductance of natural water, by C. E. Roberson, J. H. Feth, P. R. Seaber, and Peter Anderson ...... 116. Increased oxidation rate of manganese ions in contact with feldspar grains, by J. D. Hem- ...... 117. Solution of manganese dioxide by tannic acid, by Jack Rawson-...... 118. Effectiveness of common aquatic organisms in removal of dissolved lead from tap water, by E. T. Oborn------

Experimental hydrology 119. Adsorption of the surfactant ABS35 on illite, by C. H. Wayman, H. G. Page, and J. B. Robertson ------__----- 120. Biodegradation of surfactants in synthetic detergents under aerobic and anaerobic conditions at lo0 C, by C. H. Wayman and J. B. Robertson------..------121. Direct measurement of shear in open-channel flow, by Jacob Davidian and D. I. Cahal------

INDEXES Subject---- ...... ------Article 68

RNISED STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE AND AGE OF THE TUXEDNI GROUP IN THE COOK INLET REGION, ALASKA

By ROBERT L. DETTERMAN, Menlo Park, Calif.

Abstract.-The Tuxedni Formation is raised to group rank in side, 4lh miles S. 62" E. of Iliamna Volcano, and the the Cook Inlet region. Names are given to three formerly lower 1,230 feet is on the north side of the glacier, 6% unnamed members, and these and three other members are miles N. 86" E. of Iliarnna Volcano. The Red Glacier raised to formation rank. In ascending order they are designated the Red Glacier Formation, Gaikema Sandstone, Fib Formation is 1,980 feet thick at Tuxedni Bay, 18 miles Creek Siltstone, Cynthia Falls Sandstone, Twist Creek Siltstone, northeast of Red Glacier, and abut 6,500 feet thick in and Bowser Formation. the subsurface under Iniskin Peninsula., 18 miles south- west of Red Glacier. The Tuxedni Formation was defined as the Tuxedni The Red Glacier Formation consists mainly o'f Sandstone by Martin and Katz (1912, p. 59-64) to in- arkosic sandstone and shale with minor amounts af sub- clude all the marine sandstone and shale of Middle gray wacke-type sandstone, conglomerate, and limestone Jurassic age expoeed on the south shore of Tuxedni in the lower part, and sandy siltstone in the upper part. Bay, Alaska. The formation was subdivided as the At the type locality the lower 200 feet is light-brown result of mapping by oil company and Geological Sur- arkosic sandstone. This is overlain by 200 feet of black vey geologists during and immediately after World silty sh~le,200 feet of arkosic sandstone, 1,000+ feet War I1 (fig. 68.1). of soft black silty shale in which a small fault cuts out Recent mapping in the Csok Inlet region and south- part of the section, 720 feet of light-brown arkosic sand- ern Alaska has shown that the formation should be stone, 1,060 feet of interbedded sandstone and &Itstone, considered a group. Therefore, in this article the and at the top by 1,160 feet of sandy siltstone. The Tuxedni Formation is raised to the rank of group and base of the formation rests unwnformrvbly on the its former members to the rank of formation, except Tdkeetna Formation of Early Jurassic age. The up- for the former Bowser Member, which is subdivided per contact is gradational into the overlying Gaikema and raised to two formations. In ascending order, the Sandstone. formations are the Red Glacier Formation, Gaikema The Gaikema Sandstone Member, named by Kirsch- Sandstone, Fitz Creek Siltstone, Cynthia Palls Sand- ner and Minard (1948) after Gaikema Creek on Iniskin stone, Twist Creek Siltstone, and Bowser Formation. Peninsula, is herein designated the Gaikema Sandstone. The marine rocks of the Tuxedni Group are abundantly The type locality is designated as the left bank of the creek, starting 5,000 feet from the mouth and continu- fossiliferous. Ammonites studied and described by R.. W. Imlay (1961, 1962a, 1962b, and report in prepara- ing for 1,800 feet upstream. The section at the type locality is 850 feet thick and consists of resistant cliff- tion) indicate that the Tuxedni Group is of Middle and forming sandstone, in part conglomeratic. Siltstone, Late Jurassic age. . shale, and cobble-boulder conglomerate are subordinate The name Red Glacier Formation is here introduced constituents. to replace the term lower member of the former Tuxedni Measured sections of the Gaikema Sandstone range Formation in the older reports. The formation is in thickness from 500 to 870 feet. At the type locality named after Red Glacier, and the type section is desig- the lower 180 feet is medium-bedded olive-gray to nated as exposures along both sides of the glacier (fig. yellowish-green sandstone containing beds of silty shale, 68.2). The upper 3,310 feet is exposed along the south siltstone, and conglomerate. This is overlain by 220

030 ART. 68 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPEB 4754. PAGES C3O-CS4. 1963. Bedded sandstone

Massive sandstone

oooos Conglomerate FSl Siltstone F-q Sandy siltstone

Shale

Tuff and lava flows

Limestone concretions r2000 FEET

FIGUBE68.1-Revision of stratigraphic nomenclature of the Tuxedni Group in Cook Inlet region, Alaska. C32 STRATIGRAPHY

FIQU~E68.2.-Index map showing type localities of formations in the Tuvedni Group, Cook Inlet region, Alaska. 1, Red Glacier Formation. 2, Gailiema Sandstone. 3. Fite Creek Siltstone. 4, Cynthia Falls Sandstone. 5, Twist Creek Silt- stone. 6, Bowser Formation. DETTERMAN c33 feet of medium-bedded greenish-gray sandstone, 110 The Twist Creek Siltstone is herein named for the feet of cobble-boulder conglomerate and coarse-grained sequence of rocks included by Imlay (196213) as the arkosic sandstone, 220 feet of thin- to medium-bedded lower part of the former Bowser Member of the olive-green sandstone, and at the top by 120 feet of Tuxedni Formation. The formation is named after medium-bedded medium-grained dark-olive-green sand- Twist Creek on Iniskin Peninsula, and the type sec- stone containing a few beds of cobble-boulder conglom- tion is on Tonnie Creek, starting 5,000 feet S. 47' E. of erate. The lower contact is gradational into the Red Tonnie Peak and continuing upstream for 500 feet. Glacier Formation, and the upper contact with the The Twist Creek Siltstone is uniformly soft, poorly Fitz Creek Siltstone is conformable and sharp. consolidated siltstone and shale with a few thin gray- The Fitz Creek Siltstone is here named to replace wacke-type sandstone interbeds. The siltstone is thin the term siltstone member of the former Tuxedni For- bedded to massive, arenaceous, dark gray, and weathers mation of older reports. The formation is named after rusty dark brown. Many thin beds of volcanic ash Fitz Creek, the principal stream on Iniskin Peninsula. are intercalated with the siltstone, and small discoidal The type locality is on Tonnie Creek, a tributary of limestone concretions occur abundantly throughout. Fitz Creek, starting 7,000 feet S. 55" E. of Tonnie Peak The formation is 240 feet thick at the type locality and continuing upstream for 1,400 feet. The forma- and has a maximum thickness of about 410 feet near tion is 1,090 feet thick at the type locality. Red Glacier. The formation is composed mainly of massive bluish- A major unconformity exists between the Twist gray arenaceous siltstone that commonly weathers rusty Creek Siltstone and the overlying Bowser Formation. brown and contains many small ovoid fossiliferous As a result of this unconformity the Twist Creek is limestone concretions. Interbedded with the siltstone missing in the southwestern part of Iniskin Peninsula. are fine-grained sandstone and, locally, conglomerate. The Bowser Member of the Tuxedni Formation, Measured sections range from about 650 to 1,280 feet named by Kirschner and Minard (1948), is here re- in thickness. The lower 80 feet of the type section is stricted to the upper part of the member and raised in a massive bluish-gray siltstone, with a 70-foot covered rank to the Bowser Formation of the Tuxedni Group. interval above the siltstone. The covered interval is The formation is named after Bowser Creek. The for- overlain by 340 feet of siltstone, 70 feet of very fine mation is exposed at many localities along the creek, but grained silty sandstone, and at the top by 530 feet of the type locality is on Tonnie Creek, starting 4,500 feet massive bluish-gray arenaceous siltstone. The upper S. 47" E. of Tonnie Peak and continuing upstream for and lower contacts are conformable. 1,500 feet. Formational status is given the former Cynthia Falls Rocks assigned to the Bowser Formation include Sandstone Member of Kellum (1945). The formation massive units of cliff-forming graywacke-type sand- was named after Cynthia Falls, a prominent waterfall stone, pebble-cobble conglomerate, thin-bedded shale, on Hardy Creek, Iniskin Peninsula. The type section and massive siltstone. Measured sections of the forma- is on Tonnie Creek, starting 5,600 feet S. 50" E. of tion range in thickness from about 1,250 feet to as much Tonnie Peak and continuing upstream for 600 feet. as 1,850 feet. The type &ion is 1,830 feet thick and Massive- to thick-bedded coarse-grained greenish-gray consists of 70 feet of thin-bedded sandstone overlain by graywacke-type sandstone is the main constituent. 280 feet of massive siltstone, 70 feet of cobble conglomer- Interbedded with the sandstone are thin layers of ate, 260 feet of gray siltstone, 250 feet of sandstone with pebble-cobble conglomerate and arenaceous siltstone. pebble-conglomerate layers, 130 feet of dark-gray silt- Much of the sandstone is mottled green and white. The stone, 170 feet of thin-bedded light-gray sandstone, 170 white spots are formed by the abundant zeolite minerals feet of cobble conglomerate, 250 feet of massive olive- in the sandstone. gray siltstone, and at the top by 180 feet of massive The Cynthia Falls Sandstone is 600 to 700 feet thick coarse-grained dark-gray sandstone. The contact with the overlying Chinitna Formation, of Late Jurassic age, in the Cook Inlet region. The type section is 600 feet is locally unconformable. thick; it consists of 270 feet of massive coarse-grained Ammonites from the lower part of the Bowser For- greenish-gray-mottled sandstone at the base, overlain mation have been identified by Imlay (1962a) as of by 50 feet of brownish-gray arenaceous siltstone and Bathonian (Middle Jurassic) or Callovian (Late Juras- 280 feet of massive sandstone containing a few layers of sic) age, and from the upper part as of definite Callo- pebbles. The contacts with the underlying and over- vian age. Therefore the age of the Bowser Formation lying formations are conformable. is herein considered to be Middle ( ? ) and Late Jurassic. REFERENCES Imlay, R. W., 1962b, Late Bajocian ammonites from Cook Inlet Hartsock, J. K., 1954, Geologic map and structure sections of the region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 418-8, 15 p. Iniskin Peninsula and adjacent area, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Kellum, L. B., 1945, Jurassic stratigraphy of Alaska and petro- Survey open-file report, 1 map, cross section. leum exploration in northwest America: New Pork Acad. Imlay, R. W., 1952, Correlation of the Jurassic formations of Sci. Trans., ser. 2, r. 7, p. 201-209. North America exclusive of Canad,a: Geol. Soc. America Kirschner, C. E., .and Minard, D. L., 1948, Geology of the Iniskin Bull., V. 63, p. 953-992. Peninsula, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Oil and Gas Inr. 1961, New genera and subgenera of Jurassic (Bajocian) Prelim. Map 95, scale 1 inch to 4,000 feet [1949]. ammonites from Alaska: Jour. Paleontology v. 35, p. 467- Martin, G. C., and Katz, F. J., 1912, A geologic reconnaissance of 474. the Ilkamna region, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 485, 1962a, Jurassic (Bathonian or early Callovian) ammo- 138 p. nites from Alaska and Montana; U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. MofEt, F. H., 19!27, The Iniskin-Chinitna Peninsula and the Snug Paper 374-C,32 p. Harbor District, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey Bull. 789, 71 p. Article 79

POSSIBLE PLEISTOCENE-RECENT BOUNDARY IN THE GULF OF ALASKA, BASED ON BENTHONIC FORAMINIFERA

By PATSY B. SMITH, Menlo Park, Calif.

Abstract.--Of 10 cores from sediments in the Gulf of Alaska, 7 conbained boreal faunas throughout, similar to those living in t2Jm area today, and 3 contasned boreal foraminifera1 faunas at the top and Arctic faunas In the lower pa It is inferred from the cores that the change in faunas marks a possible Pleistacene-Recent boundary in the sediments.

In the spring of 1961,lO cores were taken by scientists on the U.8. Coast and Geodetic Survey ship Pioneer from sediments in the Gulf of Alaska, west and south- west of Kodiak Island (fig.79.1). The coring was done under the direction of Lt. Comdr. H. P. Nygren, ocean- ographer of bhe Piomer, and the samples were examined by O. W. Moore, U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, Calif. Eight cores were obtained with a Phleger coring tube rand two with a modified Ewing piston coring tube. Five of the cores are from the Con- tinental Shelf (at depths of 76 to 240 meters) and five are from the north scarp of the Aleutian Trench (at depths of 810 to 5,540 meters) (table 79.1). The top centimeter of each core was preserved in ethanol so that living Foraminifera could be recognized

TABLE79.1.-Looation and length 01 m~esand description of the top centimeter of sediment

I I I Core Core Colm 1 0 50 I00 MILES I I I

BIGVRE79.1.-Map of part of the Gulf of Alaska, showing station

1 ------1 57018' 1 155O20' 1 230 1 66 I Clayey- - silt------1 Dark ereenlsh~p.- locations. Depth contours in metem. my: 3 --! 151024' 2,070 6 -----do ------Olive gray. 4 --31 166016' 122 Medium sand .------Grayish olive. 5 ------55'17' 155°09f 1.9~0 33 Clayey silt ------Do. 6-W52 1M02Y 54 Clayey very 5ne Grayish olive by a stain test for protein. GeneraUy, 1-centimeter 1 1 1 1 sand. 1 mu. 7'- -.---.1 56'25# 1 155O36' 1 76 1 11 I Very Bne sand-. -.--1 Dark areenish samples were taken at 10-centimeter intervals from the Kr8< 8 --.----65O36' 168°2ap 146 101 Sandy silt -.------.--Olive gray. remainder of each core. From these samples, distribu- 9------M065' 157*59t I17 72 Pebbly medium Dark greenish sand. nay. tion of successively older faunas was determined and 10 ------54'51' 155°24' 4.170 13 Clayey silt ------Do. 1 --5427 116°231 5.W 43 -----do ------Olive gray. the age and depositional environmt of the cored sedi-

1 Color of the wet sediment follows the convantion of Goddard and others (1948) ments were interpreted.

ART. 18 IN U.S. GEOL SUXVEY PROF. PAPER 4754. PAGES CIS-C77. 19a. Living and dead faunas (table 79.2) from the tops las, BuZimhZZu eZegan,tis&m, Usigerina howkk;, of a11 the cores are similar to those from the boreal VirguZina pa&culata, and EpbtomSneZla pacif;Ca waters of the Continental Shelf and Slope off Washing- (generally a bathyal species off California). ton, Oregon, and California. A few species chamter- The iresent bathyal faunas in the Gulf of Alaska istic of arctic wakrs are present in the samples from (cores 6,5,3) (810-2,070 meters) have a wider distribu- the Continental Shelf and Slope in the Gulf of Alaska, tion than the shallow faunas; many of the species occur but most forms characteristic of Arctic water are not at similar depths not only off Washington, Oregon, and present (Phleger, 1952 ; Loeblich and Tappan, 1953 ; California, but also off the coast of Central America Green, 1960). (Smith, 1963). Included in these faunas are BoGvim The shallow (76-240 meters) benthonic faunas of the argentea, B. spi-ssa, BzcZim,i.na margimepinata, B. &a- shelf samples ( wres 9,8,7,4,1) are similar to those of the Continental Shelf off Washington, Oregon, and cumtimta, and most commonly, Uvigerina peregrim. northern California (Enbysk * ; Bandy, 1953). Char- The present abyssal faunas (cores 10,ll) (4,170 and acteristic species are most of the Nonions and Nonionel- 5,540 meters) are composed almost entirely of arenaceous species, very similar to faunas found in deep north I lnbysP* B. J, 1060, Distribution of Foraminifera in the northern Pacific: Univ. Washington. Ph. D. thesis. Pacific waters from the Aleutian Trench to Hawaii.

TABLE79.2.-Foraminifera in the top centimeter of each core [Abundancegiven as percentage of dead fa-. Number of living specimensshown in parenthem]

Shelf BathJral Abyssal

Depth (m) 76

Adercotremu glomaratum (Brady)------1 2.5 <1(4)------Alvwphragmium nitidum (Goes) ------4.5 1 <1 1 ------15 A.ringens (Brady)------A. subglobosum (G. 0.Sars) ------10 A. coeianen' (Parr)------Amnobaeulites agglutinans (dJOrbigny)------A. cf. A.americanus (d'Orbigny)------A. agglvtinuns jiliformis Earland------Ammoglobigen'na globigeriniformia (Parker and Jones)------<1 10 Ammomurginulina foliacea (Brady) ------5 Bigenerina minutissimu (Earland)------<1 ------Cornuspira involvens (Reuss)------2 ------Cyclammina cancellda Brady------...... ------C. trullissata (Bredy)------<1 ------5 Cysiamminagalcata (Brady)------5 EggereUa bradyi (Cushman)------7 10 30 Eggerella propinqua (Brady) ------1 ------E. scabra (Williamson)------1 ------2(1) 2 7 ------1.5 ------Gavdryina sp ...... ------<1 ------Glomospira gotdidis (Jones and Parker) ------Haplophragmoides canan'ensis (dlOrbigny)------1 ...... ------.------Hyperamminu and Astrorhiza spp------Frag. A Involutina tenuis (Brady)------. 2 Jacuieh aevta Brady- ...... ------. <1 KawerieUa apietclcrris (Cushman)------. <1 NodeUum metnbranauum (Brady)------Plaeopsrlina bradyi Cushman and McCulloch------. <: Psammosphuera fusca Schulze------. 6 Reophoz baciUaris Brady, ------1 ------<1 ...... ------R. diflugiformia Brady ------<1 2 ------10 R. distans Brady ------R. nodulosus Brady ------R. scorpiurwr Montfort------1 ...... ------R. scotti Chaster ------5.5 ------Spiropledammina bijermis (Parker and Jones)------1.5 <1 1 1 ------5 Teztularia torquata Parker------1 ------<1 <1 ------Trochammina grisea ~eron-menand Earland- A ------7'. of. I. injlata (Montagu)------..------<1

Angulogeri~a&a (Wemeon)------,- - -- - ( 1) - -,------5(4) 2 ------5.5 -----_---_,-_- Astrononion galloua~Loebhch and Tappan-- ,------1 - - - - ,- - - <1(1) 1 2 ------..------_-,-_- Bdivitwr urgentea Cushman------<1 ------...... B. decusadcr Brady ------10 (3) 2 <1(1) 9(4) 25 ------<1 ------_-----_ B. panfim Cushman and McCulloch ------1 (3) l(2) <1 <1 1 ------<1(2)-,------,--- B. paeudobeyrichi Cushman------.------<1 <1 ...... B.spiasaCuehman ---,------17(11) ------<1 ------,--- BucceUafrdgida (Cuahman)------,------3.5 <1 <1 --,----,------,------,--- ~uliminacf. B. au+c~l& Baile --,------,-----[3------.------....--.-..---.. 2 .---.-.-.-.-.------B. murginoepinata Cushman an8parker ..--.--.-.-. -.--.- .------. ...-.-.. .--...-- 1(2) 5.5 -----.------.--- B. subacuminda Cushrnan ------,------,------13(5)------,------Buliminellu eleguntiusima (d'orbigny) ------1 ------

PLnLtonk

GMgm'na Uoidcs d'Orbigny ------16 ------4.5 4 9 <1 ------G. pachydezma Ehrenberg------,-----,------_- 11 <: 11 9 10 ------GZobigerinita uYulcr (Ehrenberg)------__-3 ------< 1 2 ------

Faunas from below the top of the cores were also and in core 9, within the first 2 centimeters. All three examined. Cores 1, 5, 6, and 7 contained faunas over cores contain similar faunas, and except for the depth the length of the core similar to those at the top. Cores of the faunal break the three cores are similar. The 4,8, and 9 contained boreal faunas at the top but arctic upper layer, characterized by a Recent fauna, generally benthonic faunas in the lower part. In core 4 (table thins toward the edge of the shelf. The bathyal and 79.3) the change in faun- occurs between 26 and 29 abyssal faunas in wres 3, 5,10, and 11 show no si@- centimeters ; in core 8, between 80 and 90 centimeters; cant change from top to bobtom. STRATIGRAPHY

TABLE79.3.-Distribution of Foraminifera Cn core 4 [Abundanceglven as percentage of dead faunas. Number of living specimens in top 2 om is shown in parentheses]

Recent Pleistocene(?) \+lTl \+lTl 264 1 XI-32 4142 51-62 1 6l-62 1 71-72 1 81-82 1 91-92 1 101-10!2

Adcrcotrema gbmpatum (Brady)------<1(4: Alveophragmium nitidum (Goes)------< 1 A. ringens (Brady ------. Eggerella bradyi ( (4 ushman)------E. scabra (Williamson)------. 7(5) Gaudryina sp------<1 Hapbphragmoides s p ------RarrerieUa bradyi (8~hm~)-.------.--. Reophax bacillaris Brady ------< 1 R. diflugiformis Brady ------Spiroplectammina biformis (Parker and Jones)------<1 Tmtularia torquata Parker------<1 Trochammina cf. T. injlata (Montagu)- - < 1 T. kellettae Thalmann ------1

Angulogm'na angubsa (Williamson)--- - - 5(4) 23 30 8 5 <1 ------<1 <1 <1 <1 <1 Astaeolwsp------<1 ------Astrononion gallowayi Loeblich and Tappan------<1(1) 1 2 ------.

TABLE79.3.-Diatribution of Foraminifera in owe 4--Continued [Abmdanca given as petcentage of dead f~nn~s.Number of UV~U~s~€&UB~S ia COP 2 2 is shown in parenthe&]

Age Pleistocene(?) 26-29 ( !&32 / 4l42 1 51-62 1 6l-62 I 7l-72 / 8142 1 91-92 / 101-l(0

PIanMonic

Globigerina bdloidea dJOrbigny------1 <1 5 9 4 6 6 3 7 11 12 G. pachyderms Ehrenberg ------<: 7 6.5 9 6 4 6 8 5 3. 5 5. 5 Globigerinita uvula (Ehrenberg) ------2 ------1 <1 ------, Total population in 10 cc of sediment------1,200 1,280 250 900 1,000 500 350 325 190 700 440 460

The distribution of species in core 4 is tabulated in Arctic to boreal. The most prahble explanation for table 79.3. The faunas of the upper 26 centimeters of this change is that the lower sedimant conkaining the this core wntain a high percentage of Aqpdogerina abundant Ardic species was deposited when glaciers and angulosa, EpistOrnjwUa pacifica, and l7v.igerin.a hol- pack ice were nearby ,and that the upper sediment was l&. The faunas 'below 29 centimeters are character- depueited when conditions resembled ;those of today. ized by CassMina isla.nCEica and subsp. nlmungi, El- Thus, the faunal bdin the cores marks a possible phidim cf. E. bwtletti, E. clmatruan, and EZphidbUa Pleis-e-Recent *boundary in the sedimenk in the groedandica. These species are characteristic of Recent Gulf of &&a. faunas of the Point Barrow region (Loeblich and Tap- REFERENCES pan, 1953) and the Canadian and Greenland Arctic 1952). The species characterizing the upper Bandy, 0.L., 1953, Ecology and paleoecology of some California (Phlegm, Foraminifera, pt. I, The frequency distribution of Recent part of the core, wikh a few exceptions, form only a Forarn~inifewoff California : JOUT.Pal8ontology, v. 27, no. 2, very small pemtage of the hunas from the lower p. 161-182, pl. 21-25,4 figs. Part- Goddard, E. N., and &hers, 1948, Rockcolor chart : Waehington, In core 4, woody material is common below the faunal Natl. Research Council, 11 p. bmk and ntre 8;bove. Chloriste is the predominank clay Green, K. E., 1960, Ekology of meAxtic Foraminifera : Micro- mineral below and montmorillonite above. W. Moore paleontology, v. 6, no. 1, p 57-78,l pl., 9 text figs., 6 tables. G. Loeblich, A. R., Jr., and Tappan, Helen, 1953, Skudies of Arctic (knitten communication, 1961) considers the chlorite Foraminifem : Smithsonitin Misc. Coll., v. 121, no. 7, 142 p., to have been derived from the erosion of rocks on Rod- 24 pl. iak Island by former glaciers. Perhaps the wdyma- Phleger, F. B., 1952, &raminifem distribution in some sediment terial was also delivered to bhe marine environmant by samples from the Canadian and Greenland Arctic: Cush- Chme glaciers. man Found. Foram. Research, Contr., v. 3, p. 80-88, pl. 13, 14,l ta,ble,I text flg. The evidence suggeets that while the sediment Sam- Smith, P. B., 1963, Foraminifera off Central America. pld by cores 4,8, and 9 was being diposited, the water Ecology of ~benthonicspecies: U.S. GeoL Smey PIwP. Paper temperature land characteristics abruptly changed from 429-B. [In press] Article 91

GLACIOLACUSTRINE DlAMlCTON DEPOSITS IN THE COPPER RIVER BASIN, ALASKA

By OSCAR J. FERRIANS, JR., Washington, D.C.

~b,?traot.-The character, stratigraphic relations, and distri- The lake that existed during the last major glaciation bution of n~~~edand poorly sod aiamimn dwitsl in- covered more than 2,000 square miles of the basin floor, terbedded with stratitled beustrine sedhenb, indicate mat and numerous glaciers and sediment-laden glacial many diamitton units were deposited in a lacustrine environment, and that turbidity currents and subaqueous mudflows St*ams debouched into it' At Gakona, in the no*h- were important as agenb deposition. c-only, aediamic eastern part of the basin, the age of the sediments that ton is fill like in character. were deposited in this lake is bracketed between a maximum radiocarbon date of greater than 38,000 years B.P. (before present) and a minimum date of 9,4004300 Numerous diamicton units interbedded with strati- B.P. (xubin and ~l~~~~d~~,1960, p. 170 and fied lacustrine sediments occur within the unconsoli- 171, samples W-531 and W-714). ~h~~~f~~,the last dated deposits of Pleistocene age in the Copper River major glaciation in the Copper River Basin is cornpar- as in, ~laska. The term "diamicton," proposed by able in age to the lsst major glaciation (Wiw0nsin) of Flint and others (1960a, b) for "nonsorted or poorly central ~~~thberica. sorted terrigenous sediment that consists of sand and/ ~h,conc~usions presented in this article are based Or larger particles in a muddy matrix," is especially primarily on observations of the diamicton and asso- applicabh to both the nonsorted, till-like units not ciated materials deposited in the northeastern part of deposited dimtly by glaciers, and to ~oorl~sorted the Copper River Bssin during the la& major glacis- units of similar origin. tion. The diamicton units were examined in detail %t The Copper River Basin, in south-central Alaska, is Gakona, where river bluffs 250 feet high provide nearly approximately 5,500 square miles in areal extent and is ,ontinuous exposure of these deposits for more than a surrounded by high mountains with numerous glaciers. mile. The Wrangell Mountains lie to the east, the Chugach ~h,dia~c,on unitsrange in thiChess from less than Mountains to the south, the Talkeetna Mountains to the 1 inch to as much as 150 feet. someof the nonso*ed, west, and the Alaska Range to the north. till-like diamicton deposits have only a few phenoclasts, The distribution of glacial emtics and till around some are intermediate in ,,haracter, and others consist the margin of the and on top of bedrock predominantly of phenoclasts. The poorly sorted within the basin indicates that the entire basin floor diamicton deposits are relatively fine grained, with the was covered with ice One or more times during coarser fraction generally limited to sizes smaller than Pleistocene time. IILaddition, in the northeastern part eobblm. hally, these poo,.ly sorted deposits show of the Copper River Basin there is stratigraphic evi- well-developd bedding. dence of three younger, major glaciations during which ice did not completely cover the basin floor. TYPES OF DIAMICTON AND ASSOCIATED DEPOSITS During each major glaciation, glaciers advancing in Nonromd diamicton the mountains surrounding the Copper River Basin Numerous units of nonsorted, till-like diamicton dammed the drainage of the basin, thus impounding an alternate vertically with bedded lacustrine sediments extensive proglacial lake (Nichols, 1956, p. 4; Ferrians and with poorly sorted diamicton (fig. 91.1). Locally and Schmoll, 1957; Nichols and Yehle, 1961, p. 1066). these alternations may repeat several times within a

AIW. 91 IN U.S. GEOL. SURVEY PROF. PAPER 47M. PAGES ClDO-Cl25. 1068. m!21 c122 SEDIMENTATION

FIQUBE91.1.-Section of lacustrine deposits near Gakona consisting of (A) nonsorted till-like diamicton, (B) interbedded poorly sorted diamicton and well-stratified sediment, and (C) poorly sorted diamicton (sand and granules in a clayey- silt matrix). FIGURE91.2.-Section of lacustrine deposits near Gakona consisting of (A) well-stratified sediment interbedded with poorly sorted diamicton units at base-lower part deformed, (B) stratigraphic thickness of a few feet. Generally, the gravel unit which has the form of a channel filling (man contacts between these units are extremely sharp ; the standing on unit), and (G) thick unit of nonsorted diamicton beds immediately underlying the diamicton units gen- with numerous thin zones of bedded silt, sand, and gravel, erally are not deformed, even though deformation is which give an overall bedded appearance to the unit. common within the rest of the lacustrine sequence. Many nonsorted diamicton deposits of this type occur Menard and Ludvick (1951, p. 12) suggest that several as thick units consisting of a series of superimposed superimposed currents depositing simultaneously also diamicton beds. The character of these beds makes could cause deposition of material that would not show them difEcult to differentiate. These thick units gen- graded bedding. erally include numerous thin, discontinuous deposits of Some nonsorted diamicton units occurring within the horizontally bedded silt, sand, and gravel, which give lacustrine sequence contain rock types from a single them an overall bedded appearance (fig. 91.2). The source area and have phenoclasts that are angular to variety of rock types, from various source areas, subangular, whereas stratigraphic units immediately occurring in these diamicton deposits indicates that below contain mixed rock types and have phenoclasts considerable mixing has occurred. that are subrounded to rounded. The character of this The stratigraphic relations, character, and distribu- type of diamicton is similar to that of a subaerial vol- tion of these deposits indicate that they were deposited canic mudflom deposit that occurs in the Copper River mainly by dense turbidity currents and (or) subaqueous Basin (Ferrians and others, 1958). A subaqueous mud- mudflows. The intimate stratigraphic relation between flow is the most logical agent that could have trans- the diamicton deposits and the bedded lacustrine sedi- ported these angular to subangular rock fragments ments, plus the general lack of deformation of beds several miles out onto the lake floor without abrading immediately underlying the deposits, precludes the pos- them, and without eroding the underlying sediments. sibility that they were deposited directly by glaciers. Because large accumulations of glacial and fluvial Kuenen and Migliorini (1950, p. 105) have shown ex- phenoclastic material with mixed rock types could have perimentally that very dense turbidity currents could been the source of other subaqueous mudflows, it seems deposit materials that do not show graded bedding, and likely that some nonsorted diamicton units not having distinct mudflow characteristics also were deposited by subaqueous mudflows. Other nonsorted diamicton units grade almost imper- ceptibly, both horizontally and vertically, into well- stratified fine-grained sediment. Many of these units occur as large lenses within bedded sediment and, consequently, are isolated from potential ice sources. De- posits of this type typically have a be-grained matrix and relatively few pebble- and cobble-sized phenoclasts. The character of the pebbles and cobbles is quite similar to that of the ice-rafted pebbles and cobbles found in the associated laminated sediment. The isolation of these units from potential ice sources, the gradational contacts with laminated sediment, and the character of these deposits indicate that this type of nonsorted diamicton was formed by rapid, uniform deposition of he-grained sediment, with the concurrent deposition of ice-rafted stones, and that it was not deposited directly by glaciers. The stratigraphic data suggest that the fine-grained fraction of this type of diamicton was transported to deep parts of the lake by turbidity currents generated by sediment-laden glacier-fed streams entering the lake. FIQURE91.3.-Several fine-grained diamicton units, each of which grades upward from sand and granules in a clayey-silt mat- Other, less important, depositional agents of non- rix to massive fine sand, silt, and clay. The fine-grained sorted diamicton were glaciers and icebergs, which diamicton units are overlain by a coarse-grained till-like locally dumped phenoclastic material into the lake. De- diamicton unit which is graded also, to the extent that the posits of material dumped by glaciers characteristically cobble-sized phenoclasts are concentrated at the base. Slope- have a chaotic stratigraphic relation with associated wash occurs in the lower right corner. See figure 91.4 for bedded sediment, because of subaqueous slumping and closeup view of one of the fine-grained diamicton units. sliding. Material forming small pods of nonsorted diamicton is present locally within the bedded lacus- currents can be distinguished by the presence or absence trine sediments and probably was dumped into the lake of well-developed graded bedding, by the character by overturning icebergs which held large quantities of of the included phenoclasts, and by the degree of mix- 1 ablation debris in depressions on their upper surfaces. ing. However, it is very difEcult to distinguish between the two types of deposits in the intermediats range. Poorly sorted dlamicton Bedded sand and gravel Poorly sorted diamicton units occur interbedded with nonsorted diamicton and bedded lacustrine sediments Numerous relatively thin discontinuous deposits of (fig. 91.1) Generally, contacts are sharp between bedded sand and gravel, ranging in thickness from less t,hese units and dissimilar materials lying below and than 1 inch to several feet, are interbedded with the nbove them; bedded materials immediately underlying diamicton, especially within many of the thick units t,he diamicton units are not deformed. The variety of (fig. 91.2). Generally these deposits are relatively rock types occurring in these diamicton units indicates uniform in thickness, but locally they occur as what that considerable mixing has occurred. Some of these appear to be channel fillings (fig. 91.2). Commonly units display well-developed graded bedding (figs. 91.3 the included phenoclasts are not so well rounded as ~nd91.4) and, consequently, provide good evidence of normal stream-deposited phenoclasts, indicating that deposition by turbidity currents. Many of these units the material mas not transported far by water currents. that do not display well-developed graded bedding have The character of these bedded sand and gravel deposits stratigraphic relations and a lithologic composition and their association with lacustrine diamicton units, jimilar to those that do; therefore, they also are con- plus the lack of any evidence suggesting that deposition jidered to have been deposited by turbidity currents. in the lake was interrupted by subaerial conditions, The end members of the continuum represented by indicate that these deposits were laid down by turbidity lypical deposits of subaqueous mudflows and turbidity currents with a velocity high enough, in relation to C12e SEDIMENTATION density, to remove the he-grained material and to with suspended sediment. For example, the Copper deposit sand-, pebble-, and cobble-sized material. River near Chitina, in the southeastern part of the basin, discharged 71,395,000 tons of suspended sediment during theperiod June 17 to September 6,1957 (U.S. Geo- logical Survey, 1960, p. 40), an average of 870,670 tons a day. Stratigraphic analysis of the lacustrine sediments indicates that much of the fine-grained bedded sediment, as well as the relatively fine-grained diamicton, was transported by turbidity currents generated by sediment-laden glacial streams entering the lake. Nurner- ous thin sand beds interbedded with the varve-like clayey silt attest to the presence of currents, even in the relatively quiescent lacustrine environment. An apparent secondary preferred orientation of the A-axis of ice-rafted phenoclasts in these varve-like sediments may have been caused by currents, according to Schrnoll (1961, p. (3195). Kuenen (1951a, b) has postulated that even "glacial varves" can be deposited by turbidity currents formed by sediment-laden melt water entering lakes. The rapid accumulation of deltaic material where major streams entered the lake, and of ice-deposited material where glaciers bordered the lake, created un- stable slope conditions which resulted in slumping. FIGURE91.4.-Closeup view of a fine-grained, poorly sorted i31umping- of this type probably generated the sub- diamicton unit which grades upward from sand and granules aqueous mudflows and dense turbidity currents that in a clayey-silt matrix to massive fine sand, silt, and clay. Base of overlying diamicton unit is at top of picture. This deposited. many of the coarse-grained diamicton units. unit is one of several shown in figure 91.3. In summary, the character, distribution, and stratigraphic relations of the various types of lacustrine

DEFORMATION OF LACUSTRINE BEDS diamicton conspicuous in the Copper River Rasin indicate four agents of deposition, the first two of which Deformation of beds is common ~ithinthe stratified were most important: (1) Turbidity currents; (2) sub- lacustrine deposits; however, the bedded sediments that aqueous mudflows: (3) glaciers, which dumped underlie the diamicton units deposited by turbidity cur- phenoclastic material into the lake; and (4) icebergs, rents and subaqueous mudflows generally are not de- which dumped phenoclastic material into the lake. formed. Most of the deformation probably was caused by subaqueous slumping and sliding. Nichols (1960) REFERENCES has described two types of deformation of lacustrine Ferrians, 0. J., Jr., Nichols, D. R., 'and Schmoll, H. R., 1958, Pleistocene volcanic mudflow in the Gopper River Ba~b, beds in the southeastern part of the Copper River Basin, Alaska [abs.] : Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 69, no. 12, p. 1563. and has postulated that the deformation was caused by Ferrians, 0. J., Jr., and Schmoll H. R., 1957, Extensive pru>- slumping, triggered by earthquakes. glacial lake of Wisconsin age in the Oopper River Rasin, Alaska [abs.] : Geol. Soc. funerica Bull., v. 68, no. 12, p. 1726. CONCLUSIONS Flint, R. F., Sanders, J. E., and Rodgers, John, 1960a, Swmic- tite: a name for nonsorted terrigenous sedimentary rocks Gould (1951) discusses turbidity currents formed by that contain a wide range of particle sizes: Geol. Soc. the sediment-laden Colorado and Virgin Rivers enter- America Bull., v. 71, p. 507-510. ing Lake Mead in the western United States. The 1%Ob, Diamictite, a substitute term for symmictite: Geol. Soc. America Bull., v. 71, p. 1809. glacier-fed sediment-laden streams debouching into the Gould, H. R., 1951, Some quantitative aspects of Lake Mead proglacial lake that existed in the Copper River Basin turbidity currents, in. Society of Economic Paleontologists also must have created turbidity currents because of and Mineralogists, Turbidity currents and the transportation of coarse sediments to deep water-a symposium : Soc. the heavy load of suspended sediment. Even today, Econ. Paleontologists and Mineralogists Spec. Pub. 2, p. the glacier-fed streams in the basin are heavily laden 3652. Kuenen, Ph. H., 1951a, Mechanics of varve formation and the Nichols, D. R., 1960, Slump structures in Pleistocene lake sedi- action of turbidity currents: Geol. fiien. Stockholm Forh., ments, Copper River basin, Alaska: Art. 162 in U.S. Geol. v. 73, p. 69-84. Survey Prof. Paper 40CB. p. B35SB354. 195lb, Turbidity currents as the cause of glacial varves: Nichols, D. R., and Yehle, L. A., 1961, Mud volcanoes in the Jour. Geology, v. 59, no. 5, p. 507-508. Copper River basin, Alaska, in Geology of the Arctic: Kuenen. Ph. H., and Migliorini, C. I., 1950, Turbidity currents Toronto, Univ. of Toronto Press, p. 1063-1087. as a cam of graded bedding: Jour. Geology, v. 58, no. 2, p. 91-127. Rubin, Meyer, and Alexander, Corri,nne, 1960, U.S. Geological Menard, H. W.,and Ludwick, J. C., 1951, Applications of hydrau- Survey radiocarbon dates V : Am. Jour. Sci. Radiocarbon lics to the study of marine turbidity current% in Society of Supp., v. 2, p. 129-185. Economic PaleontolOgists and Mineralogists, Turbidity Schmoll, H. R., 1961, Orientation of phenoclasts in laminated currents and the transportation of coarse sediments to deep glaciolacustrine deposits, Copper River Basin, Alaska: Art. : water-a symposium Soc. Econ. Paleontologists and Min- 218 in U.S. Geol. Survey Prof. Paper 4244, p. Cl92-C195. eralogists Spec. Pub. 2, p. 2-13. Nichols, D. R., 1956, Permafrost and ground-water conditions in U.S. Geological Survey, 1960, Quantity and quality of surface the Glennallan &ma, Alaska: U.S. Geol. Survey open-flle waters of Alaska, 1957: U.S. Geol. Survey Water-Supply report, 18 P. Paper 1500.100 p.