k Handbook of Major Palm Pests k k www.ebook3000.com k k Handbook of Major Palm Pests Biology and Management Edited by Victoria Soroker k The Volcani Center, Israel k Stefano Colazza University of Palermo, Italy k k This edition first published 2017 © 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd Registered office: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK Editorial offices: 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford, OX4 2DQ, UK The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, UK 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030-5774, USA For details of our global editorial offices, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com/wiley-blackwell. The right of Victoria Soroker and Stefano Colazza to be identified as the authors of the editorial work has been asserted in accordance with the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, k except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the k publisher. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentionedinthisbook. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author(s) have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services and neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Applied for: 9781119057451 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Cover image: Victoria Soroker and Pompeo Suma Set in 10/12pt WarnockPro by SPi Global, Chennai, India 1 2017 www.ebook3000.com k k v Contents Contributors xiii Nomenclature xvii Introduction xxi 1 Some Representative Palm Pests: Ecological and Practical Data 1 Laurence Beaudoin-Ollivier, Nunzio Isidoro, Josep A. Jaques, Paola Riolo, Mohamed Kamal and Didier Rochat 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 General Features About Palms and their Pests 2 1.2.1 Palm Features are Suited to Arthropod Herbivores 2 k 1.2.2 Main Arthropod Pests on Palms 3 k 1.2.3 Damage and Pest Management 4 1.3 Crown and Stem Borers 5 1.3.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management 5 1.3.2 Oryctes rhinoceros Linnaeus 1758 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 5 1.3.3 Scapanes australis Boisduval 1832 (Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) 6 1.3.4 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Olivier 1790 (Coleoptera: Dryophthoridae) 7 1.3.5 Castnia daedalus Cramer 1775 (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) 9 1.3.6 Paysandisia archon Burmeister 1880 (Lepidoptera: Castniidae) 10 1.4 Defoliators of Fronds (= Leaves) 11 1.4.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management 11 1.4.2 Pistosia dactyliferae Maulik 1919 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 12 1.4.3 Brontispa longissima Gestro 1885 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 12 1.4.4 Coelaenomenodera lameensis Berti 1999 (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 14 1.4.5 Setora nitens Walker 1855 (Lepidoptera: Limacodidae) 15 1.4.6 Sesamia nonagrioides Lefèbvre 1827 and Sesamia cretica Lederer 1857 (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) 15 1.5 Sap and Frond (= Leaves) Feeders? 17 1.5.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management 17 1.5.2 Ommatissus binotatus Fieber 1876 (Hemiptera: Tropiduchidae) 17 1.5.3 Aspidiotus destructor Signoret 1869 (Hemiptera: Diaspididae) 18 1.5.4 Parlatoria blanchardi Targioni, 1868 (Homoptera, Diaspididae) 19 1.5.5 Aleurotrachelus atratus Hempel 1922 (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) 19 1.6 Inflorescence and Fruit Borers 20 1.6.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management 20 1.6.2 Batrachedra amydraula Meyrick 1916 (Lepidoptera: Batrachedridae) 21 k k vi Contents 1.6.3 Tirathaba rufivena Walker 1864 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 21 1.6.4 Ectomyelois ceratoniae Zeller 1839 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 22 1.6.5 Cadra cautella Walker 1863 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 23 1.6.6 Aphomia sabella Hampson 1901 (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) 23 1.6.7 Virachola livia Klug 1834 (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) 24 1.6.8 Coccotrypes dactyliperda Fabricius 1801 (Coleoptera: Scolytidae) 25 1.6.9 Carpophilus hemipterus L. 1758 and Carpophilus mutilatus Erichson 1843 (Coleoptera: Nitidulidae) 26 1.7 Roots 27 1.7.1 Pest Ecology, Damage, and Management 27 1.7.2 Sufetula sunidesalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) 27 1.8 Conclusion 28 References 29 2 Morphology and Physiology of Palm Trees as Related to Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon Infestation and Management 39 Yuval Cohen 2.1 Introduction 39 2.2 Palms in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin 39 2.2.1 Palms and their Global Distribution 39 2.2.2 Palms in Horticulture 40 k 2.2.3 Palms in Gardening and Landscaping 40 k 2.3 Palm Morphology and Anatomy 41 2.4 The Palm Crown 42 2.4.1 Leaf Development, Structure, and Phyllotaxis 42 2.4.2 Palm Inflorescences 42 2.4.3 The Single Apical Meristem and “Palm Heart” Organization 43 2.4.4 Implication of Crown Structure for RPW/PBM Symptom Development 44 2.4.4.1 Visible Pest Symptoms 44 2.4.4.2 The Importance of an Active Apical Meristem to the Palm’s Survival 44 2.4.5 Implication of Crown Structure for Chemical and Biological Treatments 45 2.4.6 Implication of Crown Structure for Sanitation and Crown Dissection to Rescue Infected Palms 45 2.5 The Structure of the Palm Stem 46 2.5.1 Organization of the Stem through Cross- and Longitudinal Sections 47 2.5.2 The Palm Vasculature 47 2.5.3 Offshoots 48 2.5.4 Implications of Trunk and Vasculature Organization for RPW Symptom Development 49 2.5.5 Implication of Stem and Vasculature Organization for Chemical Treatments and their Application 49 2.5.6 Palms Roots: Adventitious Root System and its Possible Role in Recovery after RPW Infection 50 2.6 Conclusion 51 References 51 www.ebook3000.com k k Contents vii 3 Economic and Social Impacts of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus and Paysandisia archon on Palms 54 Alan MacLeod and Mohamud Hussein 3.1 Introduction 54 3.2 Ecosystem Services Provided by Palms 55 3.2.1 Provisioning Services 57 3.2.2 Cultural Services 58 3.2.2.1 Urban Palms 58 3.2.2.2 Heritage Palm Groves 58 3.2.2.3 Botanical Gardens 59 3.2.3 Regulating Services 60 3.3 Impacts and Costs of Mitigation 61 3.4 Conclusion 63 References 64 4 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus: Taxonomy, Distribution, Biology, and Life Cycle 69 Didier Rochat, Oscar Dembilio, Josep A. Jaques, Pompeo Suma, Alessandra La Pergola, Rachid Hamidi, Dimitris Kontodimas and Victoria Soroker 4.1 Introduction 69 4.2 Taxonomy and Distribution 70 4.2.1 Systematic Position and Morphology 70 k 4.2.2 Past and Present Distribution 72 k 4.3 Biology and Host Plants 73 4.3.1 A Borer Species that Lives only on Palms 73 4.3.1.1 What is a Host Plant? Field Surveys versus Experimental Results 73 4.3.1.2 RPW: A Borer that knows to Locate Palms Where it Exclusively Lives 74 4.3.2 Critical Review of the Host Plants 79 4.3.2.1 Damage and Susceptibility: Quantitative Ranking is Very Difficult 79 4.3.2.2 Relative Abundance and Diversity of Palm Species in the Mediterranean and the EU 80 4.3.2.3 Host Palms with Obvious Susceptibility 81 4.3.2.4 Date Palm and Canary Islands Date Palm: Differences of Susceptibility within Varieties, Sexes, and Hybrids 81 4.3.2.5 Less Susceptible Host Palms with Obvious Resistance 82 4.3.2.6 Susceptible Host Palms with Insufficient Information 83 4.3.2.7 Other potential hosts 84 4.3.2.8 Potential Non-host Palm Species 84 4.4 Life Cycle and Adaptation to the Temperate and Desert Areas 85 4.4.1 Main Traits of the Life Cycle 85 4.4.2 Development Thermal Parameters 86 4.4.3 Estimating the Buffer Effect of Living in Palm Tissue 91 4.4.3.1 Healthy Palms 91 4.4.3.2 Infested Palms 92 4.4.3.3 Global Impact on RPW Development 92 k k viii Contents 4.4.4 Thermal and Hygrometric Thresholds and Optima for the Adult (Table 4.2) 93 4.4.4.1 Mating and Reproduction 93 4.4.4.2 Feeding and Survival in Extreme Conditions 93 4.4.4.3 Motion and Flight 94 4.4.5 Refined Development Modelling and Flight Predicting for Temperate Areas 94 4.5 Conclusion 96 4.5.1 Relation to the Host Palm in the Invasion Area 96 4.5.2 Development and Adaptation to Temperate Climate 96 References 97 5 Rhynchophorus ferrugineus: Behavior, Ecology, and Communication 105 Ezio Peri, Didier Rochat, Gregor Belušic,ˇ Marko Ilic,´ Victoria Soroker, Shay Barkan, Salvatore Guarino, Paolo Lo Bue and Stefano Colazza 5.1 Introduction 105 5.2 Main Behaviors Involved in Species Dynamics 106 5.2.1 Aggregation and Mating Behaviors 106 5.2.2 Flight and Dispersal Capability (Role of Age, Sex, and Mating Status) 108 5.3 Chemical Cues 111 5.3.1 Pheromones 111 k 5.3.2 Plant Volatile Chemicals 113 k 5.4 Vision and Visual Cues 119 5.4.1 Visual System 119 5.4.2 Color Vision 120 5.4.3 Tuning of Color Vision to Visual Cues 122 5.5 Conclusion 124 References 125 6 Paysandisia archon: Taxonomy, Distribution, Biology, and Life Cycle 131 Nunzio Isidoro, Paola Riolo, Elisa Verdolini, Ezio Peri and Laurence Beaudoin-Ollivier 6.1 Introduction 131 6.2 Taxonomy of the Castniidae 131 6.3 Distribution of P.