DOCSLIB.ORG

The Story of the First Dutch Embassy to the Emperor of China

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text

Load more

The story of the first Dutch embassy to the emperor of China An analysis of the different influences on the representation of China in Het Gezantschap (1665) Master Thesis ‘Historical and Comparative Studies of the Sciences and Humanities’ Iris van der Knaap (3244539) 12th of August 2014 Utrecht University Dr. Remco Raben Prof. Floris Cohen Figure 1. The route of the Dutch embassy (1655-1657) as given in the map in Het Gezantschap. 1 Table of contents Introduction ....................................................................................................................................... 3 Book history and Orientalism ................................................................................................................. 5 Orientalism: the orientalist and the oriental ...................................................................................................................... 5 The debate about the primary sources of Het Gezantschap ..................................................................................... 10 The contemporary study of proto-sinology ................................................................................... 12 Chapter one: The Gateway(s) into China ............................................................................... 15 Tribute in Chinese history..................................................................................................................... 15 The Portuguese and the Jesuits’entry into the Middle Kingdom ........................................... 17 The long journey of the Dutch to the emperor of China ............................................................ 22 Reading China’s modes of conducts..................................................................................................................................... 23 A new dynasty, a new possibility? ........................................................................................................................................ 24 The first Dutch embassy to the Qing-emperor................................................................................................................ 26 Chapter two: the previous writings about China ................................................................ 31 Mission, trade and publishers ............................................................................................................. 31 Travel stories ............................................................................................................................................. 33 A new category: intellectual and descriptive travel stories ..................................................... 34 Chapter three: the analysis of the different influences on Het Gezantschap ............ 40 Johan’s report to the Gentlemen Seventeen and Hendrik’s publication ............................. 40 China’s influence ....................................................................................................................................... 43 A thematic analysis of the intertwinement of the different influences on the representation of China in Het Gezantschap .................................................................................. 44 Chinese crafts and practices .................................................................................................................................................... 46 Religious practices in China .................................................................................................................................................... 48 The inhabitants of China ........................................................................................................................................................... 52 The Manchus and the Manchu-conquest ........................................................................................................................... 55 Chinese cities and prominent buildings............................................................................................................................. 62 China’s overarching influence on different themes and different topoi ............................. 71 Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................ 76 List of illustrations ........................................................................................................................ 80 Bibliography .................................................................................................................................... 81 Archival sources ........................................................................................................................................ 84 2 Introduction We were looking out for the emperor, and awaited with great desire to witness this great Ruler personally and in his all his greatness ; however he was so vastly surrounded by his subordinates, that we could not get the slightest vision of him.1 These are the words of Johan Nieuhof (1618-1672), steward of the first embassy of the Dutch East India Company (VOC) regarding his visit to the court of the Qing emperor Shunzi (1638-1661) in Beijing, quoted from the book Het Gezantschap. These words are exemplary for the seventeenth-century Dutch-Chinese relations. For the Chinese, the Dutch were of no importance, people from a country far away that was of no interest to them, while the Dutch marveled about the great Chinese empire and all its riches and wanted to establish a lasting trade relationship with it. In July 1655, after decades of trying to set up trade contracts with China, the first Dutch embassy left Batavia, capital city to the VOC in Asia, with the objective of getting permission from the Qing court for free trade. In Beijing the ambassadors were granted an audience with the Shunzi emperor, who eventually refused their request for free trade. The envoys left Beijing again in October 1656 to return to Batavia in March of 1657, having travelled for almost two years. The embassy failed to achieve their main goals, but Johan Nieuhof, on the other hand, managed to complete his mission. He had been appointed by the VOC to make re- alistic drawings of China and to document the journey correctly and extensively.2 When he returned to the Dutch Republic in 1658 he was commissioned by the board of the VOC to write a report about his experiences. He based this report on the notes and draw- ings that he had made during his journey and handed it in on August third 1658 during a plenary board meeting.3 After three months Johan left the Republic again, but not before he had asked his brother Hendrik Nieuhof4 to publish his writings on China.5 This resulted in the publication of the book Het Gezantschap. It became one of the crucial Western texts on China in the early modern period. It was reprinted fourteen times and translated into four languages: German, French, English and Latin. 6 The book was lavishly illustrated, containing 149 prints from copper engravings, which were claimed to be based on Nieuhof’s own drawings, and described the Chinese empire in 1 ‘Wy zagen vast om en om na den Keizer, en wachtten met groot verlangen om deze grooten Vorst eens perzoonlijk in zijne grootste staat t’aanschouwen ; maar hy was zoodanigh met zijn Volk omringt en be- stuuwt, datwe het minste niet van hem te zien konden krijgen.’ Johan Nieuhof, Het Gezandtschap der Neêr- landtsche Oost-Indische Compagnie, aan den grooten Tartarischen Cham, den tegenwoordigen Keizer van China: Waarin de gedenkwaerdigste Geschiedenissen, die onder het reizen door de Sineesche landtschappen, Quantung, Kiangsi, Nanking, Xantung en Beijing, en aan het Keizerlijke Hof te Beijing, sedert den jaren 1655 tot 1657 zijn voorgevallen, op het bondigste verhandelt worden. Beneffens een Naukeurige Beschrijvinge der Sineesche Steden, Dorpen, Regeering, Weetenschappen, Hantwerken, Zeden, Godsdiensten, Gebouwen, Drach- ten, Schepen, Bergen, Gewassen, Dieren, et cetera en oorlogen tegen de Tarters (Franeker 1991) 175. 2 Leonard Blussé and Floris-Jan van Luyn, China en de Nederlanders: Geschiedenis van de Nederlands- Chinese betrekkingen 1600-2008 (Zutphen 2008) 89. 3 Jing Sun, The Illusion of verisimilitude : Johan Nieuhof’s images of China (Dissertation Leiden 2013) 81- 84. 4 I use the first names of the brothers to refer to them, because the use of their surnames would only lead to confusion. 5 Blussé and Van Luyn, China en de Nederlanders, 15. 6 Dawn Odell, ‘The Soul of transactions, Illustrations and Johan Nieuhof’s Travels in China’, Zeventiende eeuw 17 (2001) 225-242, 226. 3 great detail.7 The images in the book greatly influenced the eighteenth-century view on China and the Chinoiserie movement.8 The book was divided in two large sections: one section covered the journey of the embassy, while the other was a nineteen chapters long encyclopedic description of China. The second part was based on other works, while the travel story was presented as an authentic eyewitness account, claiming to represent the real China in word and image.9 This thesis researches the different influences on the portrayal of China in the first section - the travel story - of Het Gezantschap. The research ques- tion of this thesis is: Which dif- ferent factors influenced the representation of China in Het Gezantschap and how were the- se factors intertwined, connect- ed and overlapping with one another? To answer
Recommended publications
  • Shang Dynasty

    Shang Dynasty

    misterfengshui.com 風水先生 History of China ANCIENT 3 Sovereigns and 5 Emperors Xia Dynasty 2100–1600 BC Shang Dynasty 1600–1046 BC Zhou Dynasty 1122–256 BC Western Zhou Eastern Zhou Spring and Autumn Period Warring States Period IMPERIAL Qin Dynasty 221 BC–206 BC Han Dynasty 206 BC–220 AD Western Han Xin Dynasty Eastern Han Three Kingdoms 220–280 Wei, Shu & Wu Jin Dynasty 265–420 Western Jin 16 Kingdoms Eastern Jin 304–439 Southern & Northern Dynasties 420–589 Sui Dynasty 581–618 Tang Dynasty 618–907 ( Second Zhou 690–705 ) 5 Dynasties & 10 Kingdoms 907–960 Liao Dynasty 907–1125 Song Dynasty 960–1279 Northern Song Xi Xia Southern Song Jin Yuan Dynasty 1271–1368 Ming Dynasty 1368–1644 Qing Dynasty 1644–1911 MODERN Republic of China 1912–1949 People's Republic of China (Mainland China) 1949–present Republic of China (Taiwan) 1945-present from Wilkipedia [email protected] Fax: 852-2873-6859 misterfengshui.com 風水先生 Timeline of Chinese History The recorded history of China began in the 15th century BC when the Shang Dynasty started to use markings that evolved into the present Chinese characters. Turtle shells with markings reminiscent of ancient Chinese writing from the Shang Dynasty have been carbon dated to as early as 1500 BC.[1] Chinese civilization originated with city-states in the Yellow River (Huang He) valley. 221 BC is commonly accepted to be the year in which China became unified under a large kingdom or empire. In that year, Qin Shi Huang first united China. Successive dynasties in Chinese history developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the Emperor of China to control increasingly larger territory that reached maximum under the Mongolian Yuan Dynasty and Manchurian Qing Dynasty.
  • Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory Pictures in a Time of Defeat: Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901

    Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory Pictures in a Time of Defeat: Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901

    Hwang, Yin (2014) Victory pictures in a time of defeat: depicting war in the print and visual culture of late Qing China 1884 ‐ 1901. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/18449 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. VICTORY PICTURES IN A TIME OF DEFEAT Depicting War in the Print and Visual Culture of Late Qing China 1884-1901 Yin Hwang Thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the History of Art 2014 Department of the History of Art and Archaeology School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London 2 Declaration for PhD thesis I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the School of Oriental and African Studies concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part, by any other person.
  • The Dutch Spainfighters

    The Dutch Spainfighters

    The Dutch Spainfighters: ‘People who did not think solely on a national level, but also internationally’ The role of national sentiments in a transnational environment Romée Beaufort S1236024 Thesis ResMA PCNI Universiteit Leiden Supervisor: dr. Eric Storm 15752 words 13-12-2018 Image from IISG, CNDIBSBO, stuk 49, manuscript from Jacob Heshof. Quote from IISG, CNDIBSBO, stuk 40, interview with Willem de Jong: ‘mensen die niet louter nationaal, maar ook internationaal dachten’ Table of content Introduction - p. 2 Chapter 1: Why Spain?: ‘Hitting Hitler in Spain signifies the defense of our fatherland’ - p. 10 Chapter 2: In Spain: the old dream of ‘workers of the world, unite!’ turned into reality? - p. 23 Chapter 3: After Spain: ‘Look there is the steamboat from far-away Spain again’ - p. 34 Conclusion - p. 41 Bibliography - p. 44 1 ‘Janus Leijnse, Syria-goer avant la lettre’1 In recent years, Dutch newspapers have been filled with headlines covering the stories of Syria- goers, Dutch citizens and residents travelling to Syria to join the ranks of jihadist groups. In 2015, which may have been the peak of Islamic State’s power, the number of Dutch Syria- goers, including women, was estimated at 220.2 The media reports and contemplates on their motivation, radicalization, recruitment and the danger these fighters possibly constitute when they return to the Netherlands.3 Politicians participate in heated debates on the status of the nationality and passports of Dutch Syria-goers. 4 The exact nature of the motives of these fighters and their actual actions, organizations and roles in Syria remain within the domain of speculation.
  • Giuseppe Maria Abbate the Italian-American Celestial Messenger

    Giuseppe Maria Abbate the Italian-American Celestial Messenger

    Magnus Lundberg & James W. Craig Jim W Giuseppe Maria Abbate The Italian-American Celestial Messenger Uppsala Studies in Church History 7 1 About the Series Uppsala Studies in Church History is a series that is published in the Department of Theology, Uppsala University. It includes works in both English and Swedish. The volumes are available open-access and only published in digital form, see www.diva-portal.org. For information on the individual titles, see the last page of this book. About the authors Magnus Lundberg is Professor of Church and Mission Studies and Acting Professor of Church History at Uppsala University. He specializes in early modern and modern church and mission history with a focus on colonial Latin America, Western Europe and on contemporary traditionalist and fringe Catholicism. This is his third monograph in the Uppsala Studies in Church History Series. In 2017, he published A Pope of Their Own: Palmar de Troya and the Palmarian Church and Tomás Ruiz: Utbildning, karriär och konflikter i den sena kolonialtidens Centralamerika. The Rev. Father James W. Craig is a priest living in the Chicagoland area. He has a degree in History from Northeastern Illinois University and is a member of Phi Alpha Theta the national honor society for historians. He was ordained to the priesthood of the North American Old Roman Catholic Church in 1994 by the late Archbishop Theodore Rematt. From the time he first started hearing stories of the Celestial Father he became fascinated with the life and legacy of Giuseppe Maria Abbate. He is also actively involved with the website Find a Grave, to date having posted over 31,000 photos to the site and creating over 12,000 memorials to commemorate the departed.
  • Asian Literary Voices

    Asian Literary Voices

    Publications Series AsianEdited Literary Volumes 12 Asian Literary Asian Literary Voices Philip F. Williams has published nine books in East Asian studies, including The Great Wall of Confinement (UCal, 2004), and has been ProfessorVoices of Chinese at Voices Massey University and Arizona State University. Asian Literary Voices Williams (ed.) Asian Literary Voices: From Marginal to Mainstream brings From Marginal to Mainstream together some of the most exciting recent scholarship on literature and culture in Japan, Korea, China, and India. The contributors combine original findings of interest to specialists with a clear and accessible style of writing; Edited by their unifying aim has been to give voice to a wide range Philip F. Williams of literary and scholarly figures who were important in their time and remain relevant to our epoch, and yet whose significance has been poorly understood. “The ten inquisitive and energetic authors explore a variety of topics from ‘bad-girl’ writers in contemporary China to Sanskrit poetesses in medieval India, from urban migration to avant-garde theater, and from genre paintings to writing systems.” Victor H. Mair, Professor of Chinese Language and Literature, University of Pennsylvania “This excellent book of essays represents the best of the conference volume genre. It includes concepts of the ideal lover, historical fiction and elite women’s reading in Chôson Korea and Meiji Japan, and how Europeans invented ‘Sinology’.” Michael S. Duke, Professor Emeritus of Chinese and Comparative Literature, University of British Columbia “This engaging volume deepens our understanding of how Asian civilizations have evolved not only through their contact with the West, but with one another as well.” Timothy R.
  • Anglo-Dutch Relations, a Political and Diplomatic Analysis of the Years

    Anglo-Dutch Relations, a Political and Diplomatic Analysis of the Years

    1 ANGLO-DUTCH RELATIONS A Political and Diplomatic Analysis of the years 1625-1642 ’’Nations have no permanent friends or allies, they only have permanent interests’’ Lord Palmerston Britain’s Prime Minister 1855 and 1859-65 Anton Poot, M.A. Royal Holloway University of London March 2013 Supervised by Professor Pauline Croft, MA (Oxon) DPhil. FSA FRHistS, to be submitted in fulfilment of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Declaration: I hereby declare that the work presented in this thesis, ANGLO-DUTCH RELATIONS A Political and Diplomatic Analysis of the years 1625-1642 is my own. Signed: Name: Anton Poot Date: 2013 For my wife Jesmond 2 ABSTRACT The aim of this thesis is to analyse Anglo-Dutch relations in this highly volatile period, as perceived and interpreted by both sides, and it also closes the gap between the notable theses of Grayson1 and Groenveld2. On 23 August 1625 Charles I and the Dutch Republic concluded a partnership agreement for joint warfare at sea and a month later a treaty for war against Spain. In December 1625 England, Denmark and the Republic signed treaties to establish the nucleus of an alliance against the Austrian Habsburgs. Charles wanted an active role in continental politics. Also to compel Spain to support his aim to restore his exiled sister Elizabeth and husband Count Elector Frederick V to their Palatinate estates and Frederick to his Electoral dignities in the Empire. The Dutch wanted England as an active partner in their war with Spain. It was a partnership of convenience, with different objectives but with the intention that success would serve the interests of both.
  • Making the Palace Machine Work Palace Machine the Making

    Making the Palace Machine Work Palace Machine the Making

    11 ASIAN HISTORY Siebert, (eds) & Ko Chen Making the Machine Palace Work Edited by Martina Siebert, Kai Jun Chen, and Dorothy Ko Making the Palace Machine Work Mobilizing People, Objects, and Nature in the Qing Empire Making the Palace Machine Work Asian History The aim of the series is to offer a forum for writers of monographs and occasionally anthologies on Asian history. The series focuses on cultural and historical studies of politics and intellectual ideas and crosscuts the disciplines of history, political science, sociology and cultural studies. Series Editor Hans Hågerdal, Linnaeus University, Sweden Editorial Board Roger Greatrex, Lund University David Henley, Leiden University Ariel Lopez, University of the Philippines Angela Schottenhammer, University of Salzburg Deborah Sutton, Lancaster University Making the Palace Machine Work Mobilizing People, Objects, and Nature in the Qing Empire Edited by Martina Siebert, Kai Jun Chen, and Dorothy Ko Amsterdam University Press Cover illustration: Artful adaptation of a section of the 1750 Complete Map of Beijing of the Qianlong Era (Qianlong Beijing quantu 乾隆北京全圖) showing the Imperial Household Department by Martina Siebert based on the digital copy from the Digital Silk Road project (http://dsr.nii.ac.jp/toyobunko/II-11-D-802, vol. 8, leaf 7) Cover design: Coördesign, Leiden Lay-out: Crius Group, Hulshout isbn 978 94 6372 035 9 e-isbn 978 90 4855 322 8 (pdf) doi 10.5117/9789463720359 nur 692 Creative Commons License CC BY NC ND (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0) The authors / Amsterdam University Press B.V., Amsterdam 2021 Some rights reserved. Without limiting the rights under copyright reserved above, any part of this book may be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means (electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise).
  • Interpreting Zheng Chenggong: the Politics of Dramatizing

    Interpreting Zheng Chenggong: the Politics of Dramatizing

    , - 'I ., . UN1VERSIlY OF HAWAII UBRARY 3~31 INTERPRETING ZHENG CHENGGONG: THE POLITICS OF DRAMATIZING A HISTORICAL FIGURE IN JAPAN, CHINA, AND TAIWAN (1700-1963) A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE GRADUATE DIVISION OF THE UNIVERSITY OF HAW AI'I IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN THEATRE AUGUST 2007 By Chong Wang Thesis Committee: Julie A. Iezzi, Chairperson Lurana D. O'Malley Elizabeth Wichmann-Walczak · - ii .' --, L-' ~ J HAWN CB5 \ .H3 \ no. YI,\ © Copyright 2007 By Chong Wang We certity that we have read this thesis and that, in our opinion, it is satisfactory in scope and quality as a thesis for the degree of Master of Arts in Theatre. TIIESIS COMMITTEE Chairperson iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I want to give my wannest thanks to my family for their strong support. I also want to give my since're thanks to Dr. Julie Iezzi for her careful guidance and tremendous patience during each stage of the writing process. Finally, I want to thank my proofreaders, Takenouchi Kaori and Vance McCoy, without whom this thesis could not have been completed. - . iv ABSTRACT Zheng Chenggong (1624 - 1662) was sired by Chinese merchant-pirate in Hirado, Nagasaki Prefecture, Japan. A general at the end of the Chinese Ming Dynasty, he was a prominent leader of the movement opposing the Manchu Qing Dynasty, and in recovering Taiwan from Dutch colonial occupation in 1661. Honored as a hero in Japan, China, and Taiwan, he has been dramatized in many plays in various theatre forms in Japan (since about 1700), China (since 1906), and Taiwan (since the 1920s).
  • The First Emperor of China

    The First Emperor of China

    INTERACTIVE STUDENT NOTEBOOK The First Emperor of China Was the Emperor of Qin an effective leader? PREVIEW Place an X in the column that indicates whether you think each of the actions described below is evidence that a leader is effective or ineffective. Leader Effective Ineffective A leader who has absolute control over his people A leader who unifies the government A leader who makes laws for everyone to follow A leader who protects his people from invaders A leader who has his opponents killed A leader whose legacy lasts years beyond his death Which one of the actions makes a leader the most effective? Which one of the actions makes a leader the least effective? Explain your choices. © Teachers’ Curriculum Institute The First Emperor of China 1 INTERACTIVE STUDENT NOTEBOOK READING NOTES Social Studies Vocabulary As you complete the Reading Notes, use these terms in your answers. Qin Shi Huangdi Great Wall immortal standardize censor Section 1 Step 1: In the image at right, circle and label three interesting details. Then, in the space below, explain what you think these details reveal about the Emperor of Qin. You may also look at this image in Section 1 of the Student Text. Step 2: Read Section 1. Answer the questions below in complete sentences. 1. Did Qin Shi Huangdi’s control of China help or hurt the country? Explain. 2. How did Qin Shi Huangdi end feudalism? Why did he do this? Step 3: Did the Emperor of Qin’s efforts to control China make him an effective ruler? Mark your answer with an X on the spectrum below.
  • A Case Study of Taiwan, China and the United States

    A Case Study of Taiwan, China and the United States

    HOW DO NATIONAL ELECTION OUTCOMES AFFECT INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS? A CASE STUDY OF TAIWAN, CHINA AND THE UNITED STATES An Undergraduate Research Scholars Thesis by JACK WANG Submitted to the Undergraduate Research Scholars program at Texas A&M University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the designation as an UNDERGRADUATE RESEARCH SCHOLAR Approved by Research Advisor: Dr. Alexander Pacek May 2020 Major: International Studies, Politics and Diplomacy Track TABLE OF CONTENTS Page ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... 1 Literature Review.................................................................................................... 1 Thesis Statement ..................................................................................................... 1 Theoretical Framework ........................................................................................... 2 Project Description.................................................................................................. 2 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .............................................................................................................. 3 KEY WORDS ................................................................................................................................. 4 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................................................... 5 CHAPTER I. TAIWAN: HISTORY AND 2020
  • The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: “My

    The Diary of a Manchu Soldier in Seventeenth-Century China: “My

    THE DIARY OF A MANCHU SOLDIER IN SEVENTEENTH-CENTURY CHINA The Manchu conquest of China inaugurated one of the most successful and long-living dynasties in Chinese history: the Qing (1644–1911). The wars fought by the Manchus to invade China and consolidate the power of the Qing imperial house spanned over many decades through most of the seventeenth century. This book provides the first Western translation of the diary of Dzengmeo, a young Manchu officer, and recounts the events of the War of the Three Feudatories (1673–1682), fought mostly in southwestern China and widely regarded as the most serious internal military challenge faced by the Manchus before the Taiping rebellion (1851–1864). The author’s participation in the campaign provides the close-up, emotional perspective on what it meant to be in combat, while also providing a rare window into the overall organization of the Qing army, and new data in key areas of military history such as combat, armament, logistics, rank relations, and military culture. The diary represents a fine and rare example of Manchu personal writing, and shows how critical the development of Manchu studies can be for our knowledge of China’s early modern history. Nicola Di Cosmo joined the Institute for Advanced Study, School of Historical Studies, in 2003 as the Luce Foundation Professor in East Asian Studies. He is the author of Ancient China and Its Enemies (Cambridge University Press, 2002) and his research interests are in Mongol and Manchu studies and Sino-Inner Asian relations. ROUTLEDGE STUDIES
  • Imperialism and Scientism in the Travelogues of Johan Nieuhof, Lord George Macartney, and AE

    Imperialism and Scientism in the Travelogues of Johan Nieuhof, Lord George Macartney, and AE

    The Sceptre and the Sextant: Imperialism and Scientism in the Travelogues of Johan Nieuhof, Lord George Macartney, and A.E. van Braam Houckgeest Submitted by Russell Sanchez to the University of Exeter as a thesis for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Modern Languages In October 2018 This thesis is available for Library use on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. I certify that all material in this thesis which is not my own work has been identified and that no material has previously been submitted and approved for the award of a degree by this or any other University. Signature: ………………………………………………………….. 1 Abstract In this paper, I discuss the interrelation between scientism and imperialism, as it plays out in three milestone travelogues written on China in the 17th and 18th centuries; namely, the travelogues of Johan Nieuhof (1669), Lord George Macartney (1797), and Andreas Everard van braam Houckgeest (1798). Understanding the lasting significance of these texts, I argue, requires placing them – and by extension the embassies which originated them – in context of the burgeoning scientific ideology of their era. To do this, I will first introduce my key texts, and argue for why I believe they can be considered sites of inquiry into the impact of scientific ideology upon Western European conceptions of China. Then I will discuss in more detail my theoretical framework, its derivation, my exegetical methodology, and my justifications for making such an analysis of Nieuhof, Macartney, and Houckgeest. Then, to set the stage for the close readings to come, I will consider the comparative levels of scientific and technological sophistication in Western Europe and China during the long 18th century, as well as the current state of this academic discourse itself, by reviewing various essential works on the subject.