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THE THESIS: 'Lesbian Buddhism Rylance, Valerie J. (2011) Lesbian Buddhism?. Mphil Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/18468 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. 1 'LESBIAN BUDDHISM?' VALERIE J RYLANCE SCHOOL OF ORIENTAL AND AFRICAN STUDIES LONDON UNIVERSITY MASTER OF PHILOSOPHY 2 DECLARATION I have read and understood regulation 17.9 of the Regulations for students of the School of Oriental and African Studies concerning plagiarism. I undertake that all the material presented for examination is my own work and has not been written for me, in whole or in part by any other person. I also undertake that any quotation or paraphrase from the published or unpublished work of another person has been duly acknowledged in the work that I present for examination. V J Rylance 3 ABSTRACT The thesis 'Lesbian Buddhism?' argues that lesbian sexual identity is a necessary category of analysis in Western Buddhism and lesbian Buddhists' current lack of recognition indicates a hiatus in knowledge and the exclusive nature of Buddhist Studies. Arguments are presented in three sections that outline the problem, describe its context and propose a political solution. Sexual identity is an indigenous aspect of western culture where invisibility is a recognised mark of lesbians' oppression. In Buddhist studies, the interests of gay men are represented, while lesbians' interests remain invisible. Western lesbian Buddhists must negotiate religio-cultural contexts that have been influenced by Christian morality, and to explicate their anomalous and problematic circumstances, the thesis juxtapositions a report of Christian lesbians and gays with an account of Buddhist doctrines. Historically, Buddhist traditions have colluded with disparaging attitudes towards women, and many Buddhist women are applying feminist theological methods to revise androcentric understandings and practices. The thesis calls upon the western convention of naming Buddhist understandings according to their cultural influences, together with the feminist theological method whereby women in minorities whose religious interests have been overlooked have exercised the 'power to name' their views and experiences. Because lesbian Buddhists have been reluctant to identify themselves, the specificity of their experiences remains unacknowledged. The convention of defining 'lesbian' solely in sexual terms might be responsible and is supplanted here by a focus upon lesbian culture, the source of lesbians' shared values and understandings. This shift also allows the recognition that lesbians' adaptations of Buddhism might be culturally consistent. It is argued that the distinctive cultural aspects of lesbians' lives and the convention of naming Buddhism according to cultural influences, together with the lack of recognition given to lesbian Buddhists and feminists' reclamation of the 'power to name', support the name 'Lesbian Buddhism'. 4 Table of Contents Abstract .. .. .. .. .. .. 3 Contents .. .. .. .. .. .. 4 Introductory Chapter .. .. .. .. 7 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A. Methodology and Literature Review .. .. 9 i. Religion – Mainstream Buddhist Studies 13 ii. Culture – Lesbian (Cultural) Studies .. 18 iii. Politics – Feminist & Lesbian Theologies 28 a. Feminist Theologies .. .. .. 28 b. Lesbian and Gay Theologies .. .. 35 B. Overview .. .. .. .. .. .. 47 Prequel .. .. .. .. .. .. 50 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A. Attitudes in the Buddhist World .. .. 51 i. The Vinaya and Precepts .. .. 51 ii. Theravada/Southern Buddhism .. 52 iii. Indo-Tibetan/Northern Buddhism .. 52 iv. Eastern Buddhism .. .. .. 53 v. Western Buddhism .. .. .. 55 vi. Two Reviews .. .. .. .. 58 B. Modern Prejudice .. .. .. .. 60 i. Homophobia in Thailand .. .. 61 ii. Sexual Misconduct in Tibet .. .. 62 C. Academic Attitudes .. .. .. .. 65 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 69 PART 1: THE PROBLEM Chapter 1: Sexual Identity and Western Culture 71 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A. Who or What is a Lesbian? .. .. .. 72 B. The Sciences of Sex: 'Lesbian' as Personal Identity 78 i. Sexology .. .. .. .. 79 ii. Psychoanalytical Theory .. .. .. 83 iii. The Influence of Jacques Lacan (1901—81) 85 iv. Social Construction: Politicising Sexuality 86 C. Lesbians' History: The View From the Margins 89 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 98 Chapter 2: Lesbian Invisibility .. .. .. 101 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A. Compulsory Heterosexuality & Lesbian Existence 102 B. Lesbians' Invisibility .. .. .. .. 107 C. Lesbians' Disappearance .. .. .. 113 D. Queer .. .. .. .. .. .. 118 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 125 5 Chapter 3: Lesbians in Buddhist Studies .. 126 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. A. Lesbian Buddhists as Homosexuals .. .. 127 i. Philology .. .. .. .. .. 128 ii. Gender Confusion .. .. .. .. 133 iii. Re-reading Jataka Tales .. .. .. 136 B. Lesbian Buddhists .. .. .. .. 140 i. Outside Western Buddhism .. .. 140 a. The Ming Plays.. .. .. .. 140 b. Marriage Resistance .. .. .. 141 ii. Inside Western Buddhism .. .. 146 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. 151 PART 2: THE CONTEXTS Chapter 4: The Christian Religious Milieu .. 155 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A. Historical Overview .. .. .. .. 156 B. Texts of Terror and Christian Attitudes .. 158 C. Lesbian and Gay Theologies .. .. .. 163 i. Gay is Good .. .. .. .. 164 ii. Liberationist .. .. .. .. 167 a. Gay Men's Theologies .. .. .. 167 b. Lesbian Theologies .. .. 168 iii. Stalemate .. .. .. .. .. 170 iv. Queer .. .. .. .. .. 171 D. Lesbian, Gay and Queer .. .. .. 173 E. Ordination .. .. .. .. .. 175 F. Observations .. .. .. .. .. 177 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 179 Chapter 5: Buddhist Doctrine .. .. .. 181 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A. Theravada and Mahayana .. .. .. 183 B. Arahant and Bodhisattva .. .. .. 186 C. Eightfold Path and Precepts .. .. .. 190 D. No-self and Dependent Origination .. .. 192 i. Anatta .. .. .. .. .. 193 ii. Paticcasamuppada.. .. .. .. 194 E. Emptiness.. .. .. .. .. .. 197 F. Skilful and Skilful-means .. .. .. 200 i. Kusala .. .. .. .. .. .. 200 ii. Upaya-kusala .. .. .. .. 203 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 206 Chapter 6: Buddhism and Women .. .. 210 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A Women in Early and Theravada Buddhism .. 212 i. The Garu-dhamma.. .. .. .. 214 ii. Women's Ordination .. .. .. 221 B. Women in Mahayana Buddhism .. .. 225 i. The Taiwanese Exception? .. .. 225 ii. Sutras .. .. .. .. .. 226 6 iii. Essentialist Motifs .. .. .. .. 229 a. Menstruation Taboos .. .. .. 230 b. The Three Dependencies .. .. 230 c. The Five Hindrances .. .. .. 231 d. The Seven Vices .. .. .. 231 C. Tibetan Buddhism's Songyum .. .. .. 234 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 236 PART 3: A POLITICAL SOLUTION Chapter 7: Western Women's Buddhism .. 239 Introduction .. .. .. .. .. .. A Women and Authority .. .. .. .. 240 i. Awareness of the Need to Adapt .. 240 ii. Authorising Adaptations .. .. 243 B Women's Middle Way .. .. .. .. 246 i. Challenging the Lay/Monastic Dichotomy 246 ii. Women's Innovations .. .. .. 248 C Naming .. .. .. .. .. .. 252 i. Feminist Naming .. .. .. .. 252 a. Womanist .. .. .. .. 254 b. Mujerista .. .. .. .. 257 ii. Naming Buddhism .. .. .. 259 a. Women's Buddhism .. .. .. 264 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 265 Chapter 8: Lesbian Buddhism .. .. .. 267 Introduction A. Lesbian Buddhism: More Than a Name .. 267 B. A Lesbian Buddhist View .. .. .. 270 i. Self and Identity Politics .. .. .. 270 ii. Celibate, Heterosexual or Pandaka .. 274 iii. Circumstantial Ignorance .. .. 275 C. Lesbian Buddhist Theology .. .. .. 275 i. Androgyny is a Heterocentric Illusion .. 278 Conclusion .. .. .. .. .. .. 283 Chapter 9: Summary & Conclusion .. .. 285 A. Summary .. .. .. .. .. .. 285 B. Concluding Remarks .. .. .. .. 290 i. Religion .. .. .. .. 290 ii. Culture .. .. .. .. 292 iii. Politics .. .. .. .. 293 C. The Need for Clarity.. .. .. .. .. 294 Bibliography .. .. .. .. .. 298 Glossary .. .. .. .. .. .. 327 A. English .. .. .. .. .. .. 327 B. Non-English .. .. .. .. .. 330 7 Be lamps for yourselves; use the dhamma as a lamp; do not turn for a lamp to others.1 Introductory Chapter Introduction I am a lesbian Buddhist feminist, and because lesbianism has always felt instinctive and natural to me, my thesis is based on the premise that sexual preference is beyond conscious volition and social coercion. The various cultural significances attached to 'lesbianism' have influenced my experiences and worldview profoundly, and a non-normative sexual orientation has rarely ensured an unqualified welcome in religious contexts. Buddhist sources often remain silent about sexual orientation, frequently assuming a heterosexual norm that at best ensures my discomfort and at worst excludes me. Where silence results in assumptions of heterosexuality it colludes with and reinforces the oppression of alternatives. Furthermore, religious institutions' silence about social opprobrium colludes with its negativity, and
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