From the Masculine to the Feminine Eunuch Images in Hong Kong Wuxia Films from the 1960s to the early 2010s Shanshan Song A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Chinese The University of Canterbury 2016 Abstract The eunuch characters, representing a classic type of villain, usually feature strongly in Chinese audiences’ memories about Hong Kong cinema, especially the wuxia genre during its glorious days in the twentieth century. They were created and stereotyped in Hong Kong cinema, developing with every rise and fall of Hong Kong wuxia genre, and varying at every crucial moment of the modern history of Hong Kong. In the light of not only western gender and culture theories in regard to the concepts of masculine and feminine, but also Chinese philosophies in terms of yin and yang in particular, this thesis sets out to explore the evolution of the gender and cultural presentation of eunuch images in Hong Kong wuxia films from the 1960s to the early 2010s. With the aid of Jean Baudrillard and Judith Butler’s theories, the two terms masculine and feminine will be argued as being not simply effective in gender representation, but also valid in outlining the logical mechanism which governs the organisation of the cultural phenomena. Meantime, Michel Foucault and Laura Mulvey’s findings about the relationship between power and gaze will be employed to anatomise the specific case of culture construction. The exploration of eunuch images will be intertwined with the examination of the Hong Kong cultural identity not only in the interactive triangle relationship between Hong Kong, Britain and China before 1997, but also in an interdependent Hong Kong-mainland connection in the post-colonial situation. Hong Kong filmmakers, in different circumstances with different cultural identities, proceeded to project I different social expectations onto their cultural construction in Hong Kong cinema. The construction of the eunuch images, which includes the portrayal of their gender characteristics, power and social status, will be argued as deriving from these social expectations. By these means, this thesis aims at providing an insight into the shift in the cultural pattern of Hong Kong cinema between the pursuit of a dualistic certainty and the advocacy of a pluralistic uncertainty. Based on a review of eunuch images in the history of Hong Kong films, this study represents a nostalgic account of the past glory of Hong Kong cinema, while also conveying an aspiration for a better tomorrow. II Acknowledgements I would like to first thank my senior supervisor Associate Professor Adam Lam, who offers me the opportunity to be in an overseas academic environment for the first time in my life to continue my study. As a Chinese student who had studied Chinese language and literature in China for many years, I used to be very confused and lost in western academic thoughts and disciplines when I began my study in New Zealand. It is my senior supervisor who not only guides me all the way from the topic selection to the final revision of this thesis, but also supports me with enormous patience during my adaptation stage and on my way to complete the research. I really appreciate this patience in helping me point out and solve every problem, whether they are as big as structural adjustments, or as small as grammatical mistakes. I would like to thank my co-supervisor, Dr. Mary Wiles, who has, from time to time, inspired me with exciting ideas which can always drive me looking further in my studies. Moreover, her guidance in cinematic analysis is always very valuable and greatly helping me in my case studies. Dr. Kelly Chen Yunxiang is not a member of my supervisory team, but I have to particularly give my sincere thanks and gratitude. Just like my supervisor, Kelly has followed the whole process of my thesis writing, helped me sort out my thoughts when I lost my focus, figure out my problems when I was confused, proofread for me every time when I drafted a chapter or a section. I have to say, without Kelly’s enduring guidance and steady supports in various aspects, it would be very hard for me to make today’s progress. III I would like to thank Dr. Judith Lutge Coullie, my “fairy godmother” in English academic writing, who has tutored me uninterruptedly for two years in not only writing in English, but also thinking in English, which I believe could be beneficial throughout my life. I also have to give my earnest gratitude to Dr. Peter Low, who helped me proofread the final version of my thesis at my most critical juncture. Finally, for all my study fellows, friends and beloved family members, you are always the source of my power! Kia ora koutou! Thank you! IV Contents Abstract .......................................................................................................................... I Acknowledgement ...................................................................................................... III Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 1 1.1 Preamble 1.2 Theoretical Frameworks 1.2.1 Sexual and gender implications of the masculine and the feminine 1.2.2 A struggle of expectation: the problematic division of masculinity and femininity 1.2.3 A barometer of masculine society or feminine society: social expectations for men and women in different power structures 1.2.4 Social expectations in biological masculinities and femininities 1.2.5 The masculine and the feminine: two logics rather than two descriptive gender items 1.3 Methodology and Outlines 1.4 Terminology 1.4.1 Hong Kong films V 1.4.2 Wuxia genre 1.4.3 Chinese eunuchs 1.4.4 Personal pronouns of eunuchs 1.4.5 Spelling style of Chinese names Chapter 2 Yin-yang Matrix and Chinese Eunuchs.................................................................... 49 2.1 Yin and Yang 2.1.1 Difference Origins: Yin-yang System ≠ Feminine-masculine System 2.1.2 Complementary vs Opposing 2.1.3 Common Ground Between the Yin-yang and Feminine-masculine Systems 2.2 Chinese Eunuch and Their Roles in the Yin-yang Matrix 2.2.1 The Eunuchs’ Political Role in Ancient China 2.2.2 Eunuchs’ Gendered Roles in Chinese Culture 2.3 Summary Chapter 3 Looking Tough Eunuch Images, the Turbulent Sixties, and the Booming Seventies ........................ 83 VI 3.1Introduction 3.2 Film synopses 3.3 Are Dragon Inn and Ninja Wolves Hong Kong films or Taiwan films? 3.4 The masculinised eunuch prototype 3.4.1 Is the eunuch Cao a masculine role or a feminine role with a masculine appearance? 3.4.2 The motivation of creating Cao 3.4.3 The masculine ideal 3.4.4 Being an intellectual 3.5 Identifying with the eunuch or not? 3.6 The eunuch images on the male-centred screen 3.7 Conclusion Chapter 4 Looking Like Women Eunuch Images in the Golden Age of Hong Kong Cinema .................................. 133 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Film synopses VII 4.3 Feminising eunuchs 4.3.1 Who shall I look at? The “action babe heroine” or the eunuch? 4.3.2 From invisible wirepuller to visual object 4.3.3 The disappear of a eunuch’s angle of view 4.4 Identifying with the inferior 4.4.1 A forced leave and “a forced return” 4.4.2 The rebellious consciousness of the inferior 4.5 The powerful eunuchs with seemingly admirable characteristics 4.5.1 Grey heroine and bright villain 4.5.2 Eroticising the image of the eunuch 4.5.3 An admiration for the eunuch 4.6 Conclusion Chapter 5 Indefinite Gender Characteristics Eunuch Images in Co-productions in the Early Twenty-first Century .............. 180 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Film Synopses VIII 5.3 The beautiful representation of the eunuch 5.3.1 Serving the woman 5.3.2 Seduction beyond the dualistic gaze pattern 5.4 A passive lover pursuer 5.4.1 Lost in the sexual encounter 5.4.2 Falling in love with a woman 5.5 Eunuch images in the endless dance of yin and yang 5.6 Conclusion Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 222 Filmography ............................................................................................................. 226 Bibliography ............................................................................................................. 233 IX Chapter 1 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Preamble A highly-developed and modernised place, which has nevertheless been stigmatised as a hybrid of eastern and western achievements of civilisation, Hong Kong has always been a city under different spotlights. Over the past half century, Hong Kong culture, particularly its popular culture, has frequently set fashions or trends for the cultures of East and Southeast Asia. In other words, the development of Hong Kong’s popular culture has long been and will continue to be a barometer which could display a general trend and direction of cultural transformation in a fast- changing world. With the aim of exploring the transformation of popular culture in modern society, this thesis will research the development of Hong Kong’s popular culture in the past half century as an epitome of cultural transformation. In order to elucidate such a transformation, the concepts of masculine and feminine will be applied to the discursive power structure and the momentum behind Hong Kong’s popular culture in different periods. Hong Kong films are undoubtedly one of the most striking ingredients of Hong Kong’s popular culture and have even had an influence on Hollywood films. This thesis will focus on Hong Kong’s wuxia genre, which is an indispensible part of Hong Kong films and has exerted a significant impact on the prosperity of Hong Kong 1 Chapter 1 films.1 More specifically, eunuch images constructed in Hong Kong’s wuxia films, made from the 1960s to the early 2010s, will be the subjects of the research. To choose these eunuch figures as the objects of this study, there are two main reasons.