www.publicspeakingproject.org
speaking to a global audience Public Speaking: The Virtual Text chapter 14
By Ganga Dhanesh, Ph.D. National University of Singapore, SIngapore
introduction On the first day of class, the lecturer, chapter objectives: chapter outline: who was new to the job, walked into After studying this module, you should be able to: Introduction the lecture theatre, looked up at the Reasons to Adopt a Global class that was like a “mini United 1. Identify four reasons for Perspective Nations” of first- and second-year learning to speak to global o The Economic Imperative undergraduates, took a deep breath to audiences. o The Technological Imperative calm the butterflies in her stomach and 2. Explain three barriers to o The Demographic Imperative said, “Good morning class! Welcome speaking effectively to o The Peace Imperative to the class on intercultural diverse audiences. Sensitivity and Respect communication! It’s wonderful to see 3. Utilize the concepts of high- o Stereotypes o Prejudices so many of you from diverse nations and low-context cultures and polychronic and o Ethnocentrism and cultures. I am sure we will have a monochronic time to tailor Understanding a Diverse great time sharing our experiences of your speech to diverse Audience intercultural communication and audiences. o High- and Low-Context learning from each other. By the way, 4. Explain how Hofstede’s Cultures you may call me anything you are most cultural dimensions can o Power Distance comfortable with — Ms. Megan, Dr. influence the preparation of o Uncertainty Avoidance Megan, Dr. Tan, Prof., Ma’am, or just speeches for diverse o Individualism-Collectivism Megan.” audiences. o Masculinity-Femininity 5. Elaborate on ways to make o Time Orientation Megan Tan was off to a great start! supporting materials Selecting Supporting Materials She understood the importance of being culturally appropriate. o Stories audience centered, especially when the 6. Compare and contrast linear o Facts and Statistics audience is drawn from diverse and holistic patterns of o Testimony nationalities, as her class was. She had organizing speeches. Speech Organization been extremely nervous the night 7. Describe three holistic o Linear Pattern before her class, but she had prepared patterns of speech o Holistic Pattern Appropriate Verbal Expression well. She had studied the student organization. o Triangle of Meaning profiles on the class website, had 8. Discuss how verbal expression can influence o Denotative and Connotative carefully selected topics that would be audiences. Meaning appropriate for the audience and had 9. Explain how a speaker’s o Communication Style chosen examples with an eye on nonverbal behavior can Effective Nonverbal Expression keeping them inclusive. She structured impact audiences. o Kinesics her delivery in a way that balanced 10. Discuss how visual aids can o Paralanguage textual content with visual material and be culturally appropriate. o Physical Appearance deliberately used language that was Triangle of Meaning non-judgmental. The students were Constructing Visual Aids delighted that they could address her Public speaking has often been rated Conclusion the number number-one stress inducer Review Questions and Activities according to the norms of their own Glossary cultures. in people. When a diverse, global audience is added, public speaking can References We inhabit a universe that is become a minefield that has to be characterized by diversity. navigated with care and sensitivity. ~ Desmond Tutu
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-No Derivative Works 3.0 United States License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc- nd/3.0/us/ or send a letter to Creative Commons, 171 Second Street, Suite 300, San Francisco, California, 94105, USA. PDF documents prepared by Donna Painter Graphics.
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
Speaking effectively to a global audience requires both knowledge of snapshot from real life speaking principles and an awareness of intercultural differences. To this end, British Petroleum [BP] appointed a new American CEO, Robert Dudley, this chapter will begin by examining who replaced Tony Hayward, a British national who had been in charge the need to speak to a global audience of BP in 2010 when the Deepwater Horizon disaster occurred in the Gulf and then the strategies that can be used of Mexico. In addition to the obvious issue of being responsible for one to manage the process effectively. In of the world’s worst ecological disasters, one of the key reasons for the addition to stressing the need for change could be the role that culture played. Hayward was unable to sensitivity and respect that underlies strike the right emotional chord with the American public. the basic principles of speaking to global audiences, the chapter will offer Americans are used to seeing politicians and leaders display emotion specific strategies that can be employed in situations that call for it. In such a context, Hayward’s British tendency at each stage of the speech process, to crack a joke to defuse the tension made him look as though he was from speech planning, preparation and not taking the situation seriously enough. In contrast to Hayward’s organization, to delivery. notorious comment, “I’d like my life back” the new American CEO Dudley, when asked whether he felt guilty, replied, “I just feel sad. I’ve been working in the oil and gas business my whole career. It provides a reasons to adopt a global product that people need, it’s energy, and all of us can’t believe this perspective has happened.” Martin and Nakayama (2010) argued that key reasons to adopt a global If Hayward had taken cultural differences into account, he could have perspective in communication include adapted his crisis communication to his audience, and his comments economic, technological, demographic might have been more positively received (Crooks & Edgecliffe- and peace imperatives. These motives Johnson, 2010). can be extended to the realm of public speaking too. services and manufacturing. The top diversity of audiences who could be the economic imperative 500 multinational corporations account dispersed around the world but can be Globalization was perhaps one of the for nearly 70 percent of worldwide reached instantly over the Internet’s most distinctive phenomena of the 20th trade (www.gatt.org). These global social networks. century, resulting in feverish exchanges flows of resources have highlighted the of people, ideas, goods and money need for organizations, whether profit, the demographic across national boundaries. Friedman non-profit or governmental, to address imperative (2005) contended that the world has diverse audiences. Moreover, local Even though the history of the “become flat” with India, China and neighborhoods from Seattle to human race has been characterized by other countries becoming an integral Singapore are becoming increasingly continual migration and socialization, part of the global supply chain for diverse. As a result, people who speak one of the most extensive waves of on behalf of organizations need to be migration and cultural mixing occurred sensitive to audience diversity while during the 20th century. First- making speeches in public. generation immigrants often carried with them a strong sense of cultural and the technological ethnic identities that made issues of imperative integration and assimilation hot-button Due to the rapid proliferation of issues in countries from the United information and communication States to Germany in Western Europe technologies and the advent of modern and to Singapore in Southeast Asia. transportation systems, the world has Any attempt at public speaking that is simultaneously shrunk and expanded. not sensitive to the plurality of the Shrunk because ,in a Twitter moment, audience in such an increasingly one can communicate with millions of diverse and multicultural world is people, and expanded because almost certainly bound to fail. technologies and transportation systems have enabled access to diverse cultures and societies across the world. This situation makes it vital for public speakers to be conscious of the
16-2
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
people, harboring prejudices against snapshot from real life people and being ethnocentric. stereotypes President Barack Obama’s speech at Cairo University has been highly A stereotype is a standardized commended for the respect and sensitivity he accorded to the host conception or image of a group of audience. Here is an excerpt from his speech that demonstrates not people. Stereotypes are akin to a only respect towards the hosts, but also sensitivity towards the host mental cookie cutter, forcing a simple culture by using a common salutation among Muslims, “assalaamu pattern upon a complex mass of people alaykum.” During his speech, President Obama (2009)said: and assigning a limited number of characteristics to all members of a “I am honored to be in the timeless city of Cairo, and to be hosted group. Stereotypes are simple, by two remarkable institutions. For over a thousand years, al-Azhar acquired, often erroneous and resistant has stood as a beacon of Islamic learning, and for over a century, to change. People usually acquire Cairo University has been a source of Egypt's advancement. stereotypes through the process of Together, you represent the harmony between tradition and socialization and through the mass progress. I am grateful for your hospitality, and the hospitality of the media, such as cultural stereotypes people of Egypt. I am also proud to carry with me the goodwill of portrayed in advertising. Stereotypes the American people, and a greeting of peace from Muslim become problematic when they reduce communities in my country: assalaamu alaykum.” the wide range of differences among people to simplistic categories and transform these categories into the peace imperative of 100 days in 1994. imagined realities, fueling attitudes of us versus them (Gudykunst & Kim, Worse still, intolerance reflected and These compelling reasons for public 1997). It is important for public magnified in public speeches can breed speakers to adopt a global perspective speakers to be aware of the stereotypes feelings of hatred and violence. require an examination of the basics of they might harbor so that they can steer Noreiga and Iribarren’s (2009) study on speaking effectively to a global clear of using stereotypes that might hate speech and its relation to hate audience. offend diverse audience members and crimes in conservative talk radio in Los harm the speaker’s credibility. Angeles found extensive evidence of hate speech against vulnerable groups sensitivity and respect such as foreign nationals and racial and Perhaps the most important advice in snapshot from real life ethnic minorities. Further, speaking to a global audience would be Yanagizawa-Drott (2012) found that to cultivate a sense of sensitivity and Rush Limbaugh, the conser- around 10% of genocidal violence in respect — a keen awareness of and vative radio talk show host, has Rwanda could be attributed to sensitivity to differences among people often been lambasted for using propagandist broadcasts on a radio from diverse cultures and respect for sexist and racist stereotypes in his station that had called for the others who are unlike the speaker. broadcasts. In an article on the extermination of the Tutsi minority When speaking to a global audience, it CNN website, Jane Fonda, Robin during the Rwandan genocide in which is imperative for public speakers to Morgan and Gloria Steinem around 800,000 people died over a span suspend ethnocentric judgments and (2012) of the Women’s Media engage audiences in an open, tolerant, Center argued that the Federal sensitive and respectful manner. Communications Commission According to Chen & Starosta (2005), should ban Limbaugh from the the basic components of intercultural airwaves. Some instances of communication competence include stereotypes of women he intercultural sensitivity, awareness and employed included referring to effectiveness. Intercultural sensitivity female cabinet members as “sex- requires speakers to know and control retaries”. On another occasion, themselves. Intercultural awareness he used a racial stereotype, requires speakers to know and respect telling an African-American others. Intercultural effectiveness female caller he could not requires speakers to manage their understand to “take that bone behavior. Potential roadblocks to out of your nose and call me achieving intercultural communication back.” competence include stereotyping
16-3
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org prejudices Similarly, prejudices are negative snapshot from real life attitudes toward a cultural group, often based on little or no experience. An American professor was in Prejudices may arise from multiple Singapore to talk about his sources, such as tensions between research on environmental groups, unfavourable past encounters, sustainability. He was an status differences and perceived threats. authority in the field and the The causes of prejudices could include audience, comprising mostly societal sources, an innate need to Singaporeans, was looking maintain social identity, and forward to the talk. However, scapegoating. Expressions of prejudice he alienated the audience right can range from subtle non-verbal acts to outright hostility. Public speakers from the start of the speech. He can best avoid or overcome prejudices said that after travelling all over by increasing personal contact with the world, he had decided not groups with whom they do not to reside in Singapore because regularly interact or through education of pollution and that he would (Cooper, Calloway-Thomas & continue to reside in his home Simonds, 2007). Similar to country, which was far cleaner. stereotypes, prejudices must be handled While he continued to speak carefully. Public speakers should eloquently on the topic of his ethnocentrism speech, he had remarkably question themselves and identify Ethnocentrism refers to the notion potential prejudices they might have reduced the audience’s that one’s own culture is superior to enthusiasm by displaying an toward certain groups, steer clear of any other. It perpetuates the idea that these negative attitudes, withhold ethnocentric attitude. To make other cultures ought to be judged by the matters worse, he singled out judgment and deliver speeches free of extent to which they measure up to baseless prejudices. the Formula One night race one’s own cultural standards. While Singapore was then embarking ethnocentrism is universal and snapshot from real life on (and the audience was contributes to cultural identity, if left justifiably proud of) and the unchecked, it can stand in the way of resultant pollution it would achieving intercultural communication A recent example of cause as a key reason affecting competence (Samovar, Porter & prejudice vocalized by a his decision. McDaniel, 2010). In the quest for prominent person was the case of John Galliano. The intercultural communication French fashion house Christian competence, speakers can aim for competence are undoubtedly sound Dior dismissed its chief ethnorelativism, the acquired ability to advice. There are specific ways to designer, John Galliano, after see multiple values and behaviors as prepare and deliver speeches to global the broadcast of a video that cultural rather than universal. This audiences, and the next section explains showed his anti-Semitic notion assumes that no one culture is the techniques that can be adopted at outbursts at a Paris bar in central to describing and evaluating each step of the speechmaking process. March 2011. The video reality. Moving from realms of appeared to show Mr. ethnocentrism to ethnorelativism helps public speakers move from egocentric Galliano declaring that ‘‘I love Ethnic stereotypes are boring Hitler’’ and that ‘‘people like to empathetic attitudes while preparing you would be dead,’’ and speeches for a diverse audience. and stressful and sometimes ‘‘your mothers, your Samovar et al. (2010) proposed some criminal. It's just not a good forefathers’’ would all be guidelines to intercultural ethics, such way to think. It's non- ‘‘gassed.’’ While Galliano has as respecting differences, seeking his defenders and the content commonalities, recognizing the validity thinking. It's stupid and of the video has been of differences, looking past the destructive. contested, observers said that superficial, withholding judgment and ~ Tommy Lee Jones the company might have taking responsibility for one’s own acted swiftly in order to actions. Suspending ethnocentrism and deflect mounting public choosing the path to ethnorelativism criticism (Saltmarsh, 2011). and intercultural communication
16-4
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
understanding a diverse audiences that use low-context audience messages, public speakers will need to focus on their verbal expressions, using The previous section brought out the clear, specific and precise words that importance of addressing diverse convey exact meaning. On the other audiences and highlighted the need to hand, while preparing speeches for suspend ethnocentric judgments in audiences that use high-context favor of ethnorelativism. This section messages, speakers should focus more will examine how a speaker can be on non-verbal expressions and the sensitive to diversity in the audience specifics of the context. during the speech planning process. Hofstede (2001), in his study of
more than 100,000 employees of IBM Diversity in the world is a in more than 70 countries, identified four cultural value dimensions that basic characteristic of human high- and low-context would differentiate diverse cultures. society, and also the key These dimensions were power distance, cultures condition for a lively and uncertainty avoidance, individualism- Hall proposed that communication collectivism and masculinity- dynamic world as we see patterns are organized by the “amount femininity. today. of information implied by the setting or the context of the communication itself, power distance ~ Hu Jintao regardless of the specific words The dimension of power distance spoken” (Lustig & Koester, 2010, refers to “the degree to which the Cultural patterns refer to common p.109). Low-context cultures prefer culture believes that institutional and themes through which different cultures to use low-context messages, where the organizational power should be can be understood. They consist of message is encoded in the words used, distributed unequally and the decisions beliefs, values and norms shared among or in the verbal expression, and not in of the power holders should be members of a group and which remain the context. However, high-context challenged or accepted” (Lustig & stable over time. They make most cultures prefer to use high-context Koester, 2010, p.114). Cultures that members of a culture respond or messages, where the meaning is have low-power distances tend to behave in more or less similar ways in implied by the physical setting or is minimize social inequalities and similar situations. Of course, not all presumed to be part of the culture’s challenge authority figures, and they people in a cultural group behave in shared beliefs, values and norms. prefer reduced hierarchical exactly the same way. Behavior will People from high- and low-context organizational structures. On the other vary depending on personality cultures differ in their preferences for hand, cultures that have high-power orientations, individual values and self- types of messages. People from low- distances tend to ascribe a rightful construals, or the way people think context cultures tend to use more overt place for each person in the order, to about themselves (Lustig & Koester, messages where the meaning is made not question or challenge authority and 2010). very explicit. Low-context messages to have hierarchical organization structures. Public speakers must keep Scholars have proposed different are intended to convey exact meaning through clear, precise and specific in mind that audiences from high- cultural patterns to explain cultural power distance cultures are discouraged differences among people. Among the words. Verbal expression is of paramount importance, while the from asking questions because it is seen most widely accepted patterns are as questioning the speaker’s authority. Hall’s (1976) categories of high- and context of the speech is relatively unimportant. On the other hand, people On the other hand, listeners from low- low-context cultures and Hofstede’s power distance cultures might be more (2001) cultural value dimensions. from high-context cultures tend to use more covert messages where the used to questioning authority and to Public speakers need to stay critical and challenge the assertions of the speaker. examine how their culture fits into meaning is implicit in the context in these patterns and how the speaker as which the words are spoken. Don't walk behind me; I may an individual fits or does not fit into Nonverbal expressions take on more these patterns. This awareness helps importance than verbal. not lead. Don't walk in front speakers stay conscious of their cultural Communication is intended to promote of me; I may not follow. Just background while avoiding notions of and sustain harmony and not walk beside me and be my ethnocentrism as they prepare speeches necessarily to convey exact, precise for diverse audiences. meaning. friend. When preparing speeches for ~ Albert Camus
16-5
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
demand loyalty to the group. They public speakers can emphasize ideas believe that an individual’s primary such as cooperation and solidarity. obligations lie with the group, and they stress the dependence of individuals on time orientation organizations. On the other hand, in People from different cultural cultures that rank high on indivi- backgrounds can vary in their dualism, the autonomy of the individual perceptions of time, irrespective of is paramount and people are expected what the clock shows. Hall monochronic to take care of themselves. Audience distinguished between a , members from individualistic cultures or linear, time orientation and a polychronic are responsive to ideas that emphasize , or cyclical, time personal achievement and highlight orientation (Samovar et al., 2010). To individual achievement. On the people in monochronic cultures, linear contrary, audience members from more time is tangible and can be ‘saved, collectivistic cultures might prefer spent, lost, wasted,’ etc. People from uncertainty avoidance recognition of group or team monochronic cultures tend to focus on The uncertainty avoidance achievement to recognition of one thing at a time. Schedules and dimension refers to “the extent to individual accomplishment. deadlines are sacrosanct and which the culture feels threatened by punctuality is highly regarded. On the ambiguous, uncertain situations and America's strength is not our other hand, to people in polychronic tries to avoid them by establishing diversity; our strength is our cultures, cyclical time is less tangible more structure” (Lustig & Koester, and is seldom considered “wasted.” 2010, p.116). In other words, cultures ability to unite people of People from polychronic cultures can with low uncertainty avoidance will different backgrounds around often be involved in multiple activities have high tolerance for ambiguity and common principles. A at the same time, with no strict division uncertainty, encourage dissent, tolerate among the different activities. They social deviance and generally take common language is usually stress involvement with people more risks and experiment with new necessary to reach that goal. and cultivating relationships more than things. However, cultures with high ~ Ernest Istook schedules and deadlines, so punctuality uncertainty avoidance prefer to avoid is not highly regarded. uncertainty. They try to ensure security and certainty through an extensive set masculinity-femininity of rules and regulations. They do not The dimension of masculinity- tolerate dissent or social deviance and femininity refers to “the degree to have a low-risk appetite. Therefore, which a culture values ‘masculine’ when public speakers are preparing to behaviors, such as assertiveness and the speak to audiences from high acquisition of wealth, or ‘feminine’ uncertainty avoidance cultures, they behaviors, such as caring for others and must keep in mind that there are likely the quality of life” (Lustig & Koester, to be more and stricter rules and 2010, p.118). Cultures that rank low on protocols governing speeches. On the the masculinity index tend to believe in other hand, speeches prepared for low life choices that improve aspects of uncertainty avoidance groups might be quality of life, such as service to others more creative or improvised. and sympathy for the less fortunate. Audiences ranked low in uncertainty They prefer nurturing roles for both avoidance, or greater tolerance for men and women, and have fewer ambiguity, can consider abstract ideas prescriptive behaviors based on gender. without many specifics. On the other hand, cultures that rank individualism-collectivism high on the masculinity index stress ambition and achievement. When The dimension of individualism- preparing speeches for audiences from collectivism refers to “the degree to predominantly masculine cultures, which a culture relies on and has public speakers can emphasize, for allegiance to the self or the group” Understanding an audience’s time example, performance and (Lustig & Koester, 2010, p.117). orientation can enhance the achievement. On the other hand, when Cultures that rank low on individualism effectiveness of a speech to a global preparing speeches for audiences from are highly collectivistic in nature and audience. For example, an audience predominantly feminine cultures, from a predominantly monochronic
16-6
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
Table 14.1 or buttress their arguments. However, Countries/Cultures that Vary on Cultural Patterns “facts” do not enjoy currency in all cultures. In cultures that value stories Cultural Patterns Examples of Countries/Cultures and parables, facts and statistics are not Low-context, explicit as well received. communication style Germany, Sweden, England High-context, implicit testimonies communication style Japanese, African American, Mexican, Latino The acceptance of expert testimonies High Power Distance Guatemala, Malaysia, Philippines, Arab also varies from culture to culture. In countries some African cultures, no one is Low Power Distance Austria, Denmark, New Zealand regarded as being objective. For Individualistic Austria, Belgium, Netherlands, United States instance, the testimony of a witness Collectivistic Guatemala, Indonesia, Pakistan, West Africa would have low credibility, because High Uncertainty when someone speaks up about Avoidance Greece, Portugal, Guatemala, Uruguay something, that person is expected to Low Uncertainty have a personal agenda in mind Avoidance Denmark, Jamaica, Ireland, Singapore (Chang, 2004). On the contrary, in the Masculine Cultures Austria, Italy, Mexico, Japan United States, testimonies of witnesses Feminine Cultures Sweden, Thailand, Chile, Portugal are vital pieces of evidence. These Monochronic Time differences in relative credibility Orientation Germany, Austria, Switzerland, Unites States accorded to testimonies by different cultures can affect the effectiveness of Polychronic Time Arab, African, Indian, Latin American, South a public speech. Employing a mix of Orientation Asian Countries supporting materials might enhance Sources: Lustig & Koester, (2010); Samovar et al. (2010) credibility with a diverse audience. culture might expect the speech to start and end on time. However, an stories audience from a predominantly In many cultures, anecdotes, stories polychronic culture might not expect a or parables enjoy high credibility as strict adherence to a schedule. Further, supporting materials. For instance, in in the two different contexts, you Kenya the success of persuasive would also have to deal very differently messages will often depend on the with latecomers. An understanding of effective use of personal stories and cultural time orientation will help you anecdotes (Miller, 2002). Similarly, in these situations. East and South East Asian cultures influenced by Confucianism also tend I am not struck so much by to rely on analogies, metaphors and the diversity of testimony as parables to convey the main message of the speech (Xiao, 1996). An effective by the many-sidedness of strategy for public speakers would be to truth. choose stories and anecdotes to support ~ Stanley Baldwin their main arguments when addressing audiences predominantly from cultures
that value such supporting materials. selecting supporting facts and statistics materials European American cultures often speech organization The credibility of the materials value facts and statistics as the most Members of different cultural groups chosen to support a speech’s main idea credible form of supporting materials have varying preferences for different is culturally dependent. This rule (Lustig & Koester, 2010). Most public organizational patterns such as linear applies to the choice of stories, facts speaking textbooks include a section and holistic. and statistics and testimonies, the that emphasizes the importance of materials most often used to support a strengthening main points with facts linear pattern speech. and statistics. And, most public Speakers from low-context cultures speeches made by politicians, activists often use linear patterns, such as cause- or corporate CEOs are often peppered and-effect, problem-solution, with statistics that appear to highlight chronological and spatial. In these
16-7
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org patterns the speaker develops the main crest-trough wave pattern in which they idea step by step, relying on facts and use examples and stories to slowly data to support the main argument. The build up to the main point at the crest main points and sub-points are of the wave. The speaker then winds connected via transitions, internal down and repeats the pattern, previews and summaries. The speaker reiterating main points or introducing relies more on facts and data, rather new points at the peaks. Speeches that than on stories and emotional appeals, follow the wave pattern usually end and contextual understanding is not dramatically, at the crest. Ceremonial emphasized. However, other speakers, speakers often employ this pattern, mostly from high-context cultures, use using repetitive phrases to build up to holistic and configural organizational the crest. patterns that are more indirect than the spiral pattern linear patterns (Lieberman, 1994). A speaker employing the spiral We have no hope of solving pattern builds up dramatic intensity by moving from smaller and less-intense our problems without scenarios to bigger and more-intense harnessing the diversity, the scenarios, in an upward spiral. A energy, and the creativity of speech about disciplining a child might use a spiral pattern. First, the speaker all our people. could say that for a small transgression a child might be given a time-out. The ~ Roger Wilkins appropriate verbal next scenario could describe a larger transgression and a bigger punishment expression such as being grounded for a day. “That’s not what I meant!” Most Subsequent scenarios could build people have made a statement like that further in intensity. at least once, if not many times. Oral star pattern communication between people can often result in misunderstanding, A variation of the more linear topical frustration and, if you are lucky, lots of pattern, the star pattern presents a set of laughter. Why does this happen? Words main points connected by an can hold different meanings for underlying common theme. For different people, because meaning different audiences, speakers will start inheres in people’s minds and not in the with different main points, but all main word itself. Public speakers are points will be united by one theme. For increasingly being challenged to reach instance, while delivering a speech on beyond the comfort zone of speaking to “save the dolphins” to primary school audiences predominantly from their students, the speaker might start with a own culture, where their holistic pattern main point that appeals to children, communicative ability is fairly high such as the “born to be free” argument, In holistic patterns, instead of and to study and adapt to diverse and then cover the other main points. directly and explicitly presenting key audiences, where their intercultural However, when addressing marine ideas, the speaker uses examples and communication competency will be biologists, the speaker might start with stories to convey the main idea and challenged. This section explains how the main point that keeping dolphins in leaves it to the audience to interpret the language and culture influence each captivity is harmful to their health. message encoded in the examples and other and what public speakers can do Then the speaker would cover the stories told. The main points and sub- to use words effectively with multi- remaining points, all tied to the theme points are connected through cultural audiences. implication rather than by clear bridges of saving dolphins. and transitions. Cheryl Jorgensen Earp All patterns, whether linear or What we have to do... is to (1993; as cited in Jaffe, 2004) has holistic, require careful and skillful find a way to celebrate our identified three distinct types of holistic planning and organization. When organizational patterns: wave, spiral addressing a diverse audience, public diversity and debate our and star. speakers should make an effort to differences without fracturing wave pattern adjust their organizational patterns to our communities. reflect their audiences’ preference. In the wave pattern, speakers adopt a ~ Hillary Clinton
16-8
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org most powerful tool. Appropriate word “beating about the bush.” In such a the required amount of information — choice refers to choosing words that are style, non-verbal cues are not as nothing more, nothing less. Speakers inclusive and avoiding sexist, racist and important as the verbal message. from Northern Europe and the United ageist language. For instance, in Speakers from low-context cultures States tend to prefer an exacting style certain cultures elders are highly valued most often use this communication of communication. and given a lot of respect. While style. Faced with a diverse audience, talking to a diverse audience, speakers In an indirect style, speakers place competent speakers will first identify must avoid language that demeans the emphasis on the context of the speech their own communication style and the elderly, or any other segment of the rather than the words spoken. In the preferred communication styles of their audience for that matter. Some indirect style, meaning inheres in the audience. They then adjust and adapt examples of the types of words to avoid context or is internalized with the their communication style so that the are given in Table 14.2. people who are communicating. A audience will welcome the message. competent speaker or listener in such a situation would be one who understands the context: where the words are spoken, who is speaking and to whom. People from high-context cultures usually employ the indirect style. Often people from high-context cultures might find people from low- context cultures too abrupt, straightforward and insensitive, while people from low-context cultures might not understand why people from high- context cultures never seem to “get to the point.” Sometimes one creates a effective non-verbal dynamic impression by expression saying something, and While interculturally competent communication style sometimes one creates a speakers watch their words and verbal The interculturally competent public expression, they are also aware of their speaker strives to learn the preferences significant an impression by non-verbal expression. Linguist in communication styles that a diverse remaining silent. Deborah Tannen estimated that as audience may have. For example, much as 90% of all human ~ Dalai Lama communication is non-verbal (cited in Asians often prefer an implicit, subtle style of communication, while North Neuliep, 2006). What’s more, when Americans prefer more explicit, direct elaborate versus succinct verbal and non-verbal messages styles. Gudykunst and Ting-Toomey These styles range on a continuum, conflict with each other, receivers tend (1988) have identified two classes of with elaborate and succinct styles at the to believe the non-verbal cues more communication styles that have a direct extremes and an exacting style at the than the verbal. This insight takes on bearing on speech delivery: the direct- mid-point. In an elaborate style, added significance in the context of versus-indirect styles and the elaborate- speakers use fairly rich language filled speaking to a global audience, because versus-succinct styles. with proverbs, idioms, quotations and scholars maintain that even though a substantial portion of our non-verbal direct versus indirect metaphors. For example, speakers from Arab countries and Mexico tend behavior, including the expression of Whether speech is direct or indirect to use this style. On the other end of emotion, is innate and hardly varies is determined by the extent to which the spectrum, speakers employing a across cultures, much of non-verbal speakers place emphasis on the succinct style use a lot of silences, communication is learned and varies explicitness of verbal communication. pauses, indirectness, circumlocution significantly across cultures. This In a direct style, speakers place and understatement to convey their section examines several different emphasis on the words spoken. Words main ideas. The Japanese and people categories of non-verbal are chosen for clarity and precision. from a number of other Asian countries communication, how they differ across The intention of the direct-style speaker tend to use this style. In the middle of cultures, and how public speakers can is to convey as clearly and logically the the continuum lies the exacting style use this knowledge for diverse main idea of the speech, without wherein the speaker will give precisely audiences.
16-10
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org kinesics regulators Kinesic behavior, or body Regulators are the actions and movement, includes gestures, hand, behaviors that manage the flow of arm and leg movements, facial conversation. These include eye expressions, eye contact and stance or contact, head movements, and posture. Ekman and Friesen (1969) communicator distance. One of the classified kinesic behavior into four most important regulators in public broad categories: (1) emblems, (2) speaking is eye contact. Determining illustrators, (3) affect displays, and (4) an appropriate amount of eye contact regulators. between the speaker and audiences varies across cultures. Public speakers are encouraged to establish direct eye contact with audiences in North America, but this is often not the case in other cultures. For instance, Japanese communicators use less eye contact, as prolonged eye contact is considered rude in Japan. Eye contact is expected from receivers in Arab cultures as a mark of interest in the speaker’s words. In France, eye contact is not only frequent but often intense, Why do people always and this might be intimidating to some (Cooper et al., 2007). gesture with their hands when they talk on the phone? emblems and illustrators ~ Jonathan Carroll Emblems refer to hand gestures that translate directly into words. For instance, putting index finger to lips affect displays indicates a “shhh…” requesting silence. Scholars contend that human beings Illustrators, on the other hand, are hand tend to adopt universal facial and arm movements that accent or expressions to convey basic emotions complement the words being used, such such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, as pounding a fist on the lectern to distrust and surprise. However, when, emphasize a verbal message. where and to whom these emotions are displayed depends on the cultural Both emblems and illustrators differ context (Ekman & Friesen, 1969). For widely across cultures. For instance, in instance, in many Mediterranean the United States, making a circle with cultures, people tend to emphasize the thumb and index finger while signs of grief or sadness. Conversely, paralanguage extending the other fingers indicates the Japanese, Chinese and Koreans tend Paralanguage refers to the vocal “okay.” However, in Japan and Korea to play down public expressions of cues, such as volume, rate and pitch it indicates money. African-Americans sorrow, as well as anger, confusion and that accompany spoken language. and people from Mediterranean disgust. Further, while a smile can be a These cues contribute to the meanings countries, the Middle East, and South sign of happiness, it can convey people associate with the words America tend to be animated speakers multiple meanings in some cultures. spoken. Some paralinguistic devices, and use hand gestures liberally, while For instance, in Japan, a smile can be such as volume, are learned and vary in many Asian countries, such as Japan used to mask another emotion or to across cultures. For instance, Latinos and China, excessive use of gestures is avoid answering a question, as well as a and Arabs tend to speak more loudly not encouraged. Speakers from these sign of happiness (Samovar et al., than people from other cultures cultures tend to use fewer gestures and 2010). An understanding of these (Gamble & Gamble, 1998). To Arab speak in a more restrained and subdued cultural differences can help public listeners a higher volume indicates manner (Gamble & Gamble, 1998). speakers to gauge an audience’s strength and sincerity, while speaking emotional response or lack thereof. too softly implies that the speaker lacks Speakers can also tailor their emotional confidence or is timid. On the other display to the cultural context. hand, speaking softly is much
16-11
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org appreciated by Asians. South Koreans age and cultural background based on Wearing the correct dress for avoid talking loudly in any situation, as physical appearance (Ruben, 1992). it is seen as rude and unbecoming since These inferences in turn affect whether any occasion is a matter of it tends to draw attention to one’s self listeners are positively or negatively good manners. (Cooper et al., 2007). predisposed to the speaker. ~ Loretta Young A related and important In public speaking, the two main paralinguistic device is silence. categories of physical appearance that Hasegawa and Gudykunst (1998) found could affect audience perceptions are In terms of formality, the United that culture influences the use of beauty and clothing, both of which can States has an informal culture where silence. They found that in the United feed ethnocentrism. For instance, in professors on campuses and States silence is used to mark a pause the United States, the cultural ideal of organizations in Silicon Valley often or break in verbal communication. beauty tends to value the appearance of adopt casual dress codes. Some other When meeting strangers, Americans tall, slender women and men with cultures such as in Japan and Germany tend to be conscious of and muscular bodies. However, in many are more formal. Among corporate uncomfortable with silence. On the parts of Africa, plumpness is valued as employees in Japan and in many Asian other hand, for the Japanese, silence a sign of beauty (Gardiner & countries, there is a general proclivity during verbal communication holds Kosmitzki, 2002). Interculturally for conservative dress styles that immense meaning. Since the Japanese competent speakers guard against emphasize conforming to society’s place a lot of importance on culturally ingrained notions that could collectivistic nature (Samovar, Porter & maintaining harmony and encourage impede communication. In addition, McDaniel, 2010). While addressing indirectness and ambiguity to maintain competent speakers adapt their clothing audiences that place high importance harmony, silence is often used to avoid for diverse audiences. on formal attires, competent speakers directly saying “no” to a request. dress appropriately. Yet another paralinguistic device, As emphasized throughout this pitch refers to the highness or lowness chapter, the most important thing that of a voice on a tonal scale. Varying interculturally competent public pitch adds expressiveness to messages speakers must keep in mind is to be and reveals information such as sensitive to differences among cultures whether the speaker is asking a and to respect diversity. Successful question or expressing concern. Many public speakers will research their Asian languages such as Mandarin, audience and adapt as far as they can. Thai and Vietnamese are tonal At the very least, public speakers must languages in which the same syllable show respect for audience diversity can take on different meanings while preparing and delivering depending on the tone used to deliver speeches. This section has offered a the sound. For instance, the meaning few examples of how non-verbal of the word “Ma” could vary from Two of the most important cultural communication can vary across “mother” to “horse” to “grass” or “to issues regarding clothing are modesty cultures. Public speakers who need to scold,” depending on the tone used and formality. Culturally acceptable address a diverse audience must be (Neuliep, 2006). Understanding these levels of modesty vary from culture to keenly aware of these variations among paralinguistic devices and how they culture. For example, in Muslim cultures and employ culturally apply to public speaking situations can communities, women are often appropriate kinesic behavior, enhance the effectiveness of speeches. expected to wear loose fitting, flowing paralinguistic devices and dress garments that do not reveal the appropriately. Nothing strengthens authority contours of the body or expose parts of so much as silence. it (Samovar, Porter & McDaniel, 2010), and a woman may be expected to cover constructing visual aids ~ Leonardo da Vinci her head with a scarf or a hijab. While The more varied the listeners’ delivering speeches to a diverse cultural backgrounds, the more important it is for speakers to use visual physical appearance audience, competent speakers consider culturally based sartorial preferences. materials to illustrate their ideas. Well- The physical appearance of the chosen visual aids are especially useful speaker can also affect speechmaking For instance, Hillary Clinton’s wearing of a headscarf while on a trip to Cairo to help address language differences to a diverse audience. This is because (Gamble & Gamble, 1998; Jaffe, 2004). people often draw inferences about a was particularly appreciated in Cairo (Huffington Post, 2009). However, interculturally competent person’s socio-economic status, gender, public speakers are sensitive to the
16-12
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
review questions and activities review questions 1. List four reasons for learning how to speak to a global audience.
2. Identify three barriers to achieving intercultural communication competence and give examples of each from your own or others’ experience.
3. Explain Hall’s concept of high- and low-context cultures and Hofstede’s cultural dimensions. Drawing on examples from your experience, explain how these cultural patterns can help you tailor your speech to a diverse audience.
4. Distinguish between monochronic and polychronic time orientations and discuss how these might affect a speech to an audience that is predominantly from a culture that follows polychronic time.
5. Discuss ways in which you can make the supporting materials for your speech inclusive and culturally appropriate.
6. Name and explain, with examples, any two holistic patterns of speech organization.
7. What is the triangle of meaning? How does an understanding of this notion help you prepare to speak to a global audience?
8. What is the difference between denotative and connotative meaning, and how does it affect speaking to a global audience?
9. Explain two communication style preferences and discuss how these preferences would affect speaking to a global audience.
10. What are the different aspects of body language that might affect speech delivery in a multi-cultural context? Explain, with examples. activities 1. As you prepare your speech for a multicultural audience, it is important to stay conscious of cultural patterns, yours as well as those of your audience. This will help you to become more aware of yourself and avoid notions of ethnocentrism while preparing your speech. Imagine you are giving a sales presentation to three groups, each consisting of Arabs, Japanese and British. How would you tailor your speech to each audience? 2. The transcript of Martin Luther King’s speech “I have a dream” can be accessed at http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/americas/3170387.stm. Analyze the organization pattern that has been used to structure the speech and discuss your findings in class.
3. Watch a TED talk at http://www.ted.com/ in a language that you don’t understand. Analyze the nonverbal communication of the speaker and identify aspects of kinesics and paralanguage that the speaker uses to effectively add to the verbal message.
16-14
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
glossary
Connotative Meaning Kinesics Prejudice A connotative meaning is the The study of body movement Prejudice refers to a negative meaning you attach to a word including gestures, hand, arm attitude toward a cultural based on your personal and leg movements, facial group, often based on little or experiences and associations. expressions, eye contact and no experience. Cultural Patterns stance or posture. Polychronic Time Cultural patterns refer to Low-context Message Polychronic time refers to common themes through A low-context message is one cyclical time. Time is less which different cultures can where the message is tangible and is seldom be understood. They consist encoded in the words used or considered “wasted”. People of beliefs, values and norms in the verbal expression and from polychronic cultures shared among a group of not as much in the context. can often be involved in people and remain stable over Masculinity-Femininity multiple activities at the same long periods of time. The dimension of time, with no strict division Denotative Meaning masculinity-femininity refers among the different activities. A denotative meaning is the to the degree to which a Spiral Pattern socially agreed conventional culture values such behaviors A type of holistic pattern in meaning found in a dictionary. as assertiveness and the which the speaker builds up Ethnocentrism acquisition of wealth or dramatic intensity by moving Ethnocentrism is the notion caring for others and the from smaller and less intense that one’s own culture is quality of others. scenarios to bigger and more superior to any other. Monochronic Time intense scenarios, in an High-context Message Monochronic time refers to upward spiral. The meaning of the message linear time; is tangible and Star Pattern is implied by the physical can be “saved, spent, lost A type of holistic pattern, the setting or is presumed to be wasted,” etc. People from star pattern presents a set of part of the culture’s shared monochronic cultures tend to main points connected by an beliefs, values and norms. focus on one thing at a time. underlying common theme. Holistic Pattern Schedules and deadlines are For different audiences, Holistic patterns, instead of sacrosanct, and punctuality is speakers will start with directly and explicitly highly regarded. different main points. presenting key ideas, use Paralanguage However, all main points will examples and stories to Paralanguage refers to the be united by one theme. convey the main idea and vocal cues that accompany Stereotype leave it to the audience to spoken language such as A standardized conception or interpret the message volume, rate and pitch. image of a group of people, a encoded in the examples and Power Distance stereotype forces a simple stories told. Power distance refers to the pattern upon a complex mass Individualism-Collectivism degree to which the culture and assigns a limited number The dimension of indivi- believes that institutional and of characteristics to all dualism-collectivism refers to organizational power should members of a group. the degree to which a culture be distributed unequally and Stereotypes are simple, relies on and has allegiance the decisions of the power acquired, often erroneous and to the self or the group. holders should be challenged resistant to change. or accepted.
16-15
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
Triangle of Meaning Uncertainty Avoidance Wave Pattern Refers to the symbolic, Uncertainty avoidance index A type of holistic pattern that arbitrary nature of language refers to the extent to which follows a crest-trough wave wherein the word spoken or the culture feels threatened pattern where speakers use the symbol of the actual by ambiguous, uncertain examples and stories to object in nature (the referent), situations and tries to avoid slowly build up to the main has no actual connection to them by establishing more point at the crest of the wave. the object it represents. The structure. symbol and the referent are connected only by the thought in one’s mind.
references
Chang, Y. (2004). Courtroom questioning as a Gudykunst, W.B., & Kim, Y.Y. (1997). culturally situated persuasive genre of talk. Communicating with strangers: An approach to Discourse & Society, 15, 705-722. intercultural communication (3rd ed.). New York, Chen, G-M., & Starosta, W.J. (2005). Foundations of NY: McGraw-Hill. intercultural communication. Lanham, MA: Gudykunst, W.B., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1988). University Press of America. Culture and interpersonal communication. Cooper, P.J., Calloway-Thomas, C., & Simonds, C.J. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications. (2007). Intercultural communication: A text with Hall, E. T. (1976). Beyond culture. Garden City, NY: readings. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Anchor Press Crooks, E. & Edgecliffe-Johnson, A. (2010, June 8) Hasegawa, T., and Gudykunst, W.B. (1998). Silence Cultural failings leave BP engulfed. Financial in Japan and the United States. Journal of Cross- Times. Retrieved from cultural Psychology, 29, 668-684. http://www.ft.com/intl/cms/s/0/dea66a94-7327- Hofstede, G. H. (2001). Culture's consequences: 11df-ae73-00144feabdc0.html#axzz20qch8Ucf Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and Ekman, P., & Friesen, W.V. (1969). The repertoire of organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: nonverbal behavior: Categories, origins, usage, Sage Publications. Semiotica, 1 and coding. , 49-98. Huffington Post (2009). Retrieved from Fonda, J., Morgan, R., & Steinem, G. (2012, March http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2009/06/04/obam 12). FCC should clear Limbaugh from airwaves. a-arab-world-speech-e_n_211565.html CNN . Retrieved from Jaffe, C. (2004). Public speaking: Concepts and skills http://edition.cnn.com/2012/03/10/opinion/fonda- for a diverse society (4th ed.). Canada: Thomson- morgan-steinem-limbaugh/index.html Wadsworth. The world is flat: A brief Friedman, T.L. (2005). Lieberman, D.A. (1994). Public speaking in the history of the twenty-first century . New York: multicultural environment. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Farrar, Straus & Giroux. Prentice-Hall. Gamble, T.K. & Gamble, M.W. (1998). Public nd Lustig, M.W. & Koester, J. (2010). Intercultural speaking in the age of diversity (2 ed.). competence: Interpersonal communication across Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. cultures (6th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. Gardiner, H.W. & Kosmitzki, C. (2002). Lives across nd Martin, J.N., & Nakayama, T.K. (2010). Intercultural cultures: Cross-cultural human development th (2 communication in contexts (5 ed.). New York, ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. NY: McGraw-Hill.
16-16
Chapter 14 Speaking to a Global Audience www.publicspeakingproject.org
Miller, A.N. (2002). An exploration of Kenyan public Samovar, L.A., Porter, R.E., & McDaniel, E.R. speaking patterns with implications for the (2010). Communication between cultures (7th ed.). American introductory public speaking course. Boston, MA: Wadsworth. Communication Education, 51 , 168-182. Usunier, J-C., & Roulin, N. (2010). The influence of Neuliep, J.W. (2006). Intercultural communication: A high- and low-context communication styles on contextual approach (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, the design, content, and language of business-to- CA: Sage Publications. business web sites. Journal of Business Communication, 47 Noreiga, C.A. & Iribarren, F.J. (2009). Hate speech (2), 189-227. on commercial talk radio: Retrieved from Wurtz, E. (2005). Intercultural communication on http://www.chicano.ucla.edu/press/briefs/docume websites: A cross-cultural analysis of websites nts/PB22_000.pdf from high-context cultures and low-context Journal of Computer-Mediated Obama, B. (2009, June 4). Barack Obama’s Cairo cultures. Communication 11 speech. The Guardian. Retrieved from , (1), 274-299. http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/jun/04/bar Xiao, X. (1996). From the hierarchical Ren to ack-obama-keynote-speech-egypt/print egalitarianism: A case of cross-cultural rhetorical Quarterly Journal of Speech, 82 Ruben, B.D. (1992). Communication and human mediation. , 38- behavior (3rd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice 54. Hall. Yanagizawa-Drott, D. (2012). Propaganda and Ruch, W.V. (1989). International handbook of conflict: Evidence from the Rwandan genocide. corporate communication. Jefferson, NC: Retrieved from McFarland. http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/dyanagi/Research/ RwandaDYD.pdf Saltmarsh, M. (2011, March 1) Dior fires John Galliano after bigotry complaints. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com/2011/03/02/fashion/02di or.html?pagewanted=all
photo credits p. 3 President Obama speaks at Cairo University http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Barack_Obama_speaks_in_Cairo,_Egypt_06-04-09.jpg By Chuck Kennedy (Official White House Photo)
p. 5 USAID 50th anniversary event in Mali http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/36/Audience_at_50th_event_%286401825863%29.jpg By USAID Africa Bureau p. 8 Audience at a book launch hosted by the African Gender Institute http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Audience.jpg http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Audience.jpg By African Gender Institute
p. 8 Dialogue on Diversity Public Forum http://www.everystockphoto.com/photo.php?imageId=2232561&searchId=488e81758eb12a809a21e316d0f1ab 1b&npos=96 By Congressman Honda
16-17