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The Third-Phase of the Yungang Cave Complex—Its Architectural Structure, Subject Matter, Composition and Style

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The Third-Phase of the Yungang Cave Complex—Its Architectural Structure, Subject Matter, Composition and Style The Third-phase of the Yungang Cave Complex—Its Architectural Structure, Subject Matter, Composition and Style Volume One by Lidu Yi A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto © Copyright 2010 by Lidu Yi The Third-phase of the Yungang Cave Complex—Its Architectural Structure, Subject Matter, Composition and Style Lidu Yi, Ph.D. 2010 Graduate Department of East Asian Studies University of Toronto Abstract The Yungang Cave Complex in Shanxi province is one of the largest Buddhist sculpture repositories produced during the Northern and Southern Dynasties. This thesis argues that the iconographic evolution of the Yungang caves underwent three developing phases which can be summarized as the five Tan Yao Caves phase, the transitional period, and the sinicized third-phase under the reigns of five Northern Wei (386-534) emperors Wencheng (452-465), Xianwen (466-471), Xiaowen (471-499), Xuanwu (500-515) and Xiaoming (516-528). This dissertation studies the Yungang third-phase caves, namely those caves executed after the capital was moved from Pingcheng to Luoyang in the year 494. It focuses primarily on what we call the western-end caves, which are composed of all the caves from cave 21 to cave 45, and as cave 5-10 and cave 5-11 are typical representations of the third-phase and even today are well preserved, they are also included in this study. ii Using typology method, as well as primary literary sources, this study places the western-end caves in their historical, social and religious context while focusing on four perspectives: architectural lay-out, iconographic composition, subject matter and style of representation. It deals with such questions as: what these images represent, what is their connection with Buddhist literature, what is the origin of the style of the western-end caves, what is the relationship between sculpture and painting, what is the relationship between the monastic life and Buddhist art, what was the status of Yungang after the transfer of the capital to the south, and who were the patrons. This study sheds new light on the changes in the iconographic motifs over the time from the first-phase to the third- phase and constructs a timeline for the sequence of construction of the western-end caves. The study also investigates the iconographical inter-relationship between the Yungang third-phase caves and those in the Longmen and to a lesser extent, the Gongxian complexes, as well as some relatively small caves in Shanxi province in order to trace the spread of the “Yungang Style.” This will map out the evolution in Buddhist iconographical style throughout the Central Plain of China. iii Acknowledgments My heartfelt thanks first go to my committee members: Dr. Klaas Ruitenkeek, Dr. Richard Guisso and Dr. Richard Lynn. It is their faith in me and unconditional support and encouragement over the years that made this project possible. My deepest gratitude goes equally to my friends Dr. Li Yuqun from the China Academy of Social Sciences, Dr. Li Chongfeng from Beijing University and Dr. Wei Wenbin, Director of the Maijishan Grotto Research Institute for their field research with me each year when I was in China. Over the years, we covered together many of the caves in China, some of them several times. I am deeply grateful for their willingness to do field research with me whether it was 40 degrees or whether it was snowing, and for spending the time to patiently teach me how to draw images and touch up some of the drawings. Without their company for my many field trips and for their constant support, this project would not have been possible. My deep appreciation also goes to my friend Liu Jianjun, curator of the Yungang Grotto Research Institute and Zhang Zhuo, Director of the Yungang Grotto Research Institute for their kind help whenever I was in Yungang, whether it was for three days or three weeks. I also want to thank Jiao Jianhui and his colleagues from the Longmen Grotto Research Institute for their kind support whenever I was doing field research there. iv I would also like to thank my dear friends, Dr. John Stowe, Dr. Ihor Pidhainy, Dr. George Zhao, Dr. Adam Bohnet and Zhou Yan for their moral support over the years and for many wonderful academic conversations. I also want to thank the David Chu Scholarship Fund for its financial support of my field research. My thanks also go to many people from various grotto research institutes for their support whenever I was there for field research. There are too many to name, but they know who they are. Finally a special thanks for my family and my husband for being always there for me over the years. v Contents Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………….....iv List of illustrations……………………………………………………………................viii Conventions……………………………………………………………………………..xix CHAPTER ONE Introduction………………………………………………………………………………..1 I. Yungang II. The State of the Field III. Methodology and Organization of This Study CHAPTER TWO The Yungang Caves—an Overview……………………………………………………..28 I. Historical, Social and Religious Background II. Tan Yao and the Inception of Yungang III. The Five Tan Yao Caves and Their Influence IV. The Yungang Second-phase Caves V. Conclusion CHAPTER THREE The Third-phase Caves: Imagery and Dating…………………………………………....61 I. Architectural Structure II. Composition III. Subject Matter and Visual Representations IV. Style V. Dating and Chronological Sequence VI. Conclusion CHAPTER FOUR The Origin and Development of the Third-phase Caves.................................................121 I. Comparative Analysis of the Architectural Structure of the Third-phase Caves and the Caves of the First Two Phases II. Subject Matter and Visual Representations III. Stylistic Evolution of the Third-phase Caves vi IV. Conclusion CHAPTER FIVE Yungang Third-phase and Its Relation to Longmen……………………………………178 I. Longmen II. Highlights of Longmen III. Yungang and Longmen IV. The Sinicization of Buddhist Imagery Re-considered V. Conclusion CHAPTER SIX Unexplored Caves in Shanxi and the Third-phase Caves of Yungang…………………245 I. Introduction II. Highlights of Shanxi Caves—Reading the Imagery III. Fushan Cave—a Case Study IV. General Features of the Shanxi Caves V. Dating and Stylistic Origins of the Shanxi Caves VI. Conclusion CHAPTER SEVEN Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...305 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………308 vii List of Illustrations 1.1 Location of the Yungang Cave Complex, Shanxi Province, China 1.2 Yungang Cave Complex 1.3 Western-end Caves 1.4 Forgotten Yungang 2.1 Cave plan of the five Tan Yao Caves 2.2 Standing Buddha, north wall, Cave 16 2.3 Standing Buddha, north wall, Cave 18 2.4 Seated Buddha, north wall, Cave 20 2.5 Cave 19 2.6 Seated Buddha, north wall, Cave 19 2.7 Seated Buddha, dedicated by Zhang Yong 2.8 Seated Buddha, dedicated by Song Dexing 2.9 Standing Gupta Buddha, Mathura, dated to 440-455 2.10 Standing Buddha, south wall, Cave 19 2.11 Standing Buddha, east wall, Cave 18 2.12 Seated Buddha, Peshawar 2.13 Seated Buddha, Peshawar 2.14 Seated Buddha, Peshawar 2.15 Standing Buddha, dedicated by Wan Shen, dated to 443 2.16 Second-phase cave plan 2.17 Twin caves of the second-phase 2.18 Passage behind the main Buddha, Cave 9 2.19 East wall, Cave 8 2.20 Vaulted ceiling, Cave 14, Kyzil Cave Complex 2.21 Standing Buddha, upper storey, west niche, south wall, Cave 6 2.22 Small caves between cave 11 and cave 13 2.23 Seated Buddha, Cave 11-10 2.24 Seated Buddha, lower niche, west wall, Cave 29 2.25 Cave 12 2.26 Cave 11 2.27 Cross-ankled Bodhisattva, Cave 13 2.28 West wall, Cave 12 2.29 Ceiling, Cave 13 2.30 East wall, Cave 11 2.31 Inscription, east wall, Cave 11, dated to 483 2.32 Seated Buddha, Luyeyuan Cave 3.1 Drawing of Cave 25 3.2 Drawing of Cave 26 3.3 Drawing of Cave 24-1 3.4 Drawing of Cave 38 viii 3.5 Drawing of Cave 27 3.6 Drawing of Cave 29 3.7 Drawing of Cave 30 3.8 Standing Buddha, Musée Guimet 3.9 Drawing of Cave 31 3.10 Drawing of Cave 32-9 3.11 Drawing of Cave 36 3.12 Drawing of Cave 23 3.13 Seated Buddha, north wall, Cave 25-2 3.14 Attendant Bodhisattva and Kasyapa, Cave 25-2 3.15 Drawing of Cave 28-2 3.16 Drawing of Cave 5-10 3.17 Drawing of Cave 5-11 3.18 Cave 36-2 3.19 Donors, East wall, Cave 36-2 3.20 Seven Buddhas, north wall, Cave 36-2 3.21 West wall, Cave 34 3.22 West wall, Cave 25 3.23 Conversion of the three K āś yapas, east niche, south wall, Cave 35 3.24 Assault by Mara, west niche, south wall, Cave 35 3.25 Trabeated niche, east wall, Cave 21 3.26 “Folding screens” trabeated front, east wall, Cave 5-11 3.27 Dotted trabeated niche front, west wall, Cave 23-1 3.28 Trabeated front, west wall, Cave 24-1 3.29 Lower Storey niches, west wall, Cave 27 3.30 Lower Storey niches, west wall, Cave 29 3.31 Ceiling, anteroom, Cave 12 3.32 Ceiling, Cave 29 3.33 Ceiling, Cave 24 3.34 Ceiling, Cave 33-1 3.35 Ceiling, Cave 12 3.36 Ceiling, Cave 39 3.37 Seated Buddha, north wall, Cave 23-1 3.38 Cross-ankled Buddha, west wall, Cave 33 3.39 West wall, Cave 30 3.40 Cross-ankled Bodhisattva, east wall, Cave 5-11 3.41 Great Departure, west wall, Cave 28 3.42 Great Departure, west niche, south wall, Cave 5-11 3.43 Prince Riding an Elephant, east niche, south wall, Cave 5-11 3.44 Assault by Mara, west niche, south wall, Cave 35.
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