The Environmental Policy-Making Process In

THE ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY-MAKING PROCESS IN THE CRUISE SHIP INDUSTRY: A COMPARATIVE CASE STUDY ANALYSIS by Suzanne Dobson B.A., Wilfrid Laurier University, 1998 M.A., Dalhousie University, 2000 DISSERTATION SUBNJITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Department of Geography © Suzanne Dobson 2008 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Fall 2008 All rights reserved. This work may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without permission of the author. APPROVAL Name: Suzanne Dobson Degree: Doctor of Philosophy Title ofThesis: The Environmental Policy-Making Process in the Cruise Ship Industry: A Comparative Case Study Analysis Examining Committee: Chair: Paul Kingsbury Assistant Professor, Department of Geography Alison Gill Senior Supervisor Professor, Department of Geography Roger Hayter Supervisor Professor, Department of Geography Warren Gill Supervisor Associate Member, Department of Geography Wolfgang Haider lnternal/External Examiner Associate Professor, Department of Resource and Environmental Management Philip Dearden External Examiner Professor, Department of Geography University of Victoria Date Defended/Approved: d. QO? II SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Declaration of Partial Copyright Licence The author, whose copyright is declared on the title page of this work, has granted to Simon Fraser University the right to lend this thesis, project or extended essay to users of the Simon Fraser University Library, and to make partial or single copies only for such users or in response to a request from the library of any other university, or other educational institution, on its own behalf or for one of its users. The author has further granted permission to Simon Fraser University to keep or make a digital copy for use in its circulating collection (currently available to the public at the "Institutional Repository" link of the SFU Library website <www.lib.sfu.ca> at: <http://ir.lib.sfu.ca/handle/1892/112>) and, without changing the content, to translate the thesis/project or extended essays, if technically possible, to any medium or format for the purpose of preservation of the digital work. The author has further agreed that permission for multiple copying of this work for scholarly purposes may be granted by either the author or the Dean of Graduate Studies. It is understood that copying or publication of this work for financial gain shall not be allowed without the author's written permission. Permission for public performance, or limited permission for private scholarly use, of any multimedia materials forming part of this work, may have been granted by the author. This information may be found on the separately catalogued multimedia material and in the signed Partial Copyright Licence. While licensing SFU to permit the above uses, the author retains copyright in the thesis, project or extended essays, including the right to change the work for subsequent purposes, including editing and publishing the work in whole or in part, and licensing other parties, as the author may desire. The original Partial Copyright Licence attesting to these terms, and signed by this author, may be found in the original bound copy of this work, retained in the Simon Fraser University Archive. Simon Fraser University Library Burnaby, BC, Canada Revised: Fall 2007 SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY THINKING OF THE WORLD STATEMENT OF ETHICS APPROVAL The author, whose name appears on the title page of this work, has obtained, for the research described in this work, either: (a) Human research ethics approval from the Simon Fraser University Office of Research Ethics, or (b) Advance approval of the animal care protocol from the University Animal Care Committee of Simon Fraser University; or has conducted the research (c) as a co-investigator, in a research project approved in advance, or (d) as a member of a course approved in advance for minimal risk human research, by the Office of Research Ethics. A copy of the approval letter has been filed at the Theses Office of the University Library at the time of submission of this thesis or project. The original application for approval and letter of approval are filed with the relevant offices. Inquiries may be directed to those authorities. Bennett Library Simon Fraser University BurnabY,BC,Canada Last revision: Summer 2007 ABSTRACT The challenge of allowing for human use of the earth's resources while protecting them from over-exploitation or depletion is evident at all scales, from the local to the global. The challenge for environmental policy-makers is to account for a globally integrated ecosystem while operating within borders and geographic contexts which are often arbitrarily defined. This is particularly evident in the environmental policy-making process for oceans and ocean uses, which requires policies to be integrated across institutional boundaries. This dissertation serves to strengthen the role of geographical analysis in environmental policy research by increasing the understanding of how local institutions and events affect the environmental policy-making process. Comparative case studies from Australia, Canada and the United States are used to examine how policy communities influence the environmental policy-making process at the local to global level. Specifically, the influence that local institutions and focusing events have on the environmental policy-making process is examined with a focus on the ways in which government, corporate and non-governmental institutions respond to the cruise ship industry and its sewage and graywater emissions. The results of the research undertaken for this dissertation demonstrate that each location's policy community is unique in the make-up of its institutions as well as the local and wider influences it experiences. At the local level, this distinctiveness shapes the policy responses that occur. In order to account for the international nature of the cruise ship corporations involved, elements of scale emerged in the analysis. This dissertation contributes to a stronger understanding of the environmental policy-making process, which is critical to structuring policy responses that provide effective solutions for sustainability. iii DEDICATION I dedicate this dissertation to my Saint, Kate, Tony, and Adele and John and their families. Throughout the stages ofmy life you have shown me many different ways to not only love and support, but to be loved and supported. I love you. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I offer my gratitude to the faculty, staff and my fellow students at the SFU Department of Geography, who have provided an excellent learning and working environment. I would especially like to thank Dr. A.M. Gill and Dr. R. Hayter for their continued support and encouragement throughout my PhD process. You have pushed and stretched my intellectual abilities far beyond what I thought capable. You always believed in me. Thank you to Dr. Warren Gill for your support and enthusiasm. Your kind words and genuine interest kept me grounded and focused. I would also like to acknowledge Dr. Phil Dearden and Dr. Wolfgang Haider for their roles as excellent and thorough external examiners. I thank my fellow co-workers in the Corporate Policy and Strategy Directorate at the National Research Council Canada for encouraging and enabling me to complete my schooling. A special thank you is owed to my family who have all taken this journey with me. Kate, Tony, Adele and Saint have committed a large part of themselves to assist in the quality of my work. You have shown me the meaning of family and togetherness. To my friends for their support - Chris, Kim, Steve, losee, Matt, lana, Dave, Louise, Pam and Isabelle. v TABLE OF CONTENTS APPROVAL ii ABSTRACT iii DEDICATION iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS v LIST OF FIGURES x LIST OF TABLES xi LIST OF ACRONYMS xiii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 Research Question 3 1.2 The Comparative Case Study Component 8 1.2.1 Basis for Comparative Analysis 10 1.2.2 Secondary Data Collection 12 1.2.3 Primary Data Collection 14 1.3 Dissertation Outline 19 CHAPTER 2: ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY-MAKING AND INSTITUTIONAL RESPONSES 21 2.1 Policy Communities 23 2.2 Focusing Events and Policy Communities 25 2.3 The Rise of Environmentalism 28 2.3.1 The Evolution of Government and Corporate Decision-Making 29 2.3.2 The Rising Influence of Supranational Organizations and ENGOs 34 2.4 Government, Corporate and ENGO Decision-Making Processes 36 2.4.1 Government Decision-Making Processes and Selective Responses .........37 vi 2.4.2 Corporate Decision-Making Processes and Corporate Environmentalism 39 2.4.3 ENGO Decision-Making Processes and a Spectrum of Extremes of ENGOs 45 2.5 The Importance of Geographical Differentiation in the Environmental Policy-Making Process 47 CHAPTER 3: THE CRUISE SHIP INDUSTRY: SCALE, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT AND POLICY-MAKING 51 3.1 The Cruise Ship Industry as a Case Study 51 3.2 Industry Scale and Scope 54 3.3 Policy Communities in the Cruise Ship Industry 58 3.4 Environmental Policy-making in the Cruise Ship Industry 60 3.4.1 Cruise Ship Discharges 61 3.4.2 Environmental Effects of Sewage 62 3.4.3 Environmental Effects of Graywater 65 3.5 The Debate on the Environmental Effects of Discharges 69 3.5.1 Scientific Data and Technological Know-how 76 3.6 Conclusion 81 CHAPTER 4: REGULATIONS GOVERNING WASTEWATER DISCHARGES FROM CR1TISE SHIPS 82 4.1 International Regulation of Sewage and Graywater Discharges 82 4.2 Voluntary Regulation by Cruise Ships and Membership Alliances 86 4.3 The

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