Challenges of Party- Building in Latin America

Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-14594-8 — Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America Edited by Steven Levitsky , James Loxton , Brandon Van Dyck , Jorge I. Domínguez Frontmatter More Information

Nearly four decades since the onset of the third wave, political parties remain weak in Latin America: parties have collapsed in much of the region, and most new party-building efforts have failed. Why do some new parties succeed while most fail? This book challenges the widespread belief that democracy and elections naturally give rise to strong parties and argues that successful party-building is more likely to occur under conditions of intense conlict than under routine democracy. Periods of revolution, civil war, populist mobilization, or authoritarian repression crystallize partisan attachments, create incentives for organization-building, and generate a “higher cause” that attracts committed activists. Empirically rich chapters cover diverse cases from across Latin America, including both successful and failed cases.

STEVEN LEVITSKY is David Rockefeller Professor of Latin American Studies and Professor of Government at Harvard University.

JAMES LOXTON is a Lecturer in Comparative Politics in the Department of Government and International Relations at the University of Sydney.

BRANDON VAN DYCK is Assistant Professor of Government and Law at Lafayette College.

JORGE I. DOMÍNGUEZ is Antonio Madero Professor for the Study of Mexico and Professor of Government at Harvard University.

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-14594-8 — Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America Edited by Steven Levitsky , James Loxton , Brandon Van Dyck , Jorge I. Domínguez Frontmatter More Information

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Challenges of Party- Building in Latin America

Edited by STEVEN LEVITSKY Harvard University

JAMES LOXTON University of Sydney

BRANDON VAN DYCK Lafayette College

JORGE I. DOMÍNGUEZ Harvard University

32 Avenue of the Americas, New York NY 10013

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/ 9781107145948 © Cambridge University Press 2016 This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements, no reproduction of any part may take place without the written permission of Cambridge University Press. First published 2016 A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Levitsky, Steven, editor. Title: Challenges of party-building in Latin America / edited by Steven Levitsky, Harvard University; James Loxton, University of Sydney; Brandon Van Dyck, Lafayette College; Jorge I. Dominguez, Harvard University. Description: New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2016. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identiiers: LCCN 2016026214 | ISBN 9781107145948 (hardback) Subjects: LCSH: Political parties–Latin America. | Party afiliation–Latin America. | Latin America–Politics and government–21st century. Classiication: LCC JL969.A45 C46 2016 | DDC 324.2/1098–dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016026214 ISBN 978-1-107-14594-8 Hardback Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URLs for external or third-party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate. Publication of this book has been supported in part through the generosity of the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies and the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs at Harvard University.

Contents

List of Figures page vii List of Tables viii List of Contributors x Acknowledgments xv List of Abbreviations xvi

1 Introduction: Challenges of Party-Building in Latin America 1 Steven Levitsky, James Loxton, and Brandon Van Dyck

Part I Party– Voter Linkages and Challenges of Brand- Building 2 Historical Timing, Political Cleavages, and Party- Building in Latin America 51 Kenneth M. Roberts 3 Building Party Brands in Argentina and Brazil 76 Noam Lupu 4 Segmented Party– Voter Linkages: The Success of Chile’s Independent Democratic Union and Uruguay’s Broad Front 100 Juan Pablo Luna

Part II Challenges of Organization-Building 5 The Paradox of Adversity: New Left Party Survival and Collapse in Brazil, Mexico, and Argentina 133 Brandon Van Dyck

vi Contents

6 The Niche Party: Authoritarian Regime Legacies and Party- Building in New Democracies 159 Kenneth F. Greene 7 Patronage, Subnational Linkages, and Party- Building: The Cases of Colombia and Peru 187 Paula Muñoz and Eduardo Dargent 8 Money for Nothing? Public Financing and Party-Building in Latin America 217 Kathleen Bruhn

Part III Organizational Inheritance: Alternative Platforms for Party- Building 9 Authoritarian Successor Parties and the New Right in Latin America 245 James Loxton 10 Insurgent Successor Parties: Scaling Down to Build a Party after War 273 Alisha C. Holland 11 Obstacles to Ethnic Parties in Latin America 305 Raúl L. Madrid 12 Party- Building in Brazil: The Rise of the PT in Perspective 331 David Samuels and Cesar Zucco Jr. 13 The Organizational Foundations of Corporation- Based Parties 356 William T. Barndt

Part IV Failed Cases (and a Future One) 14 Challenges of Party- Building in the Bolivian East 383 Kent Eaton 15 Why No Party-Building in Peru? 412 Steven Levitsky and Mauricio Zavaleta 16 Past the Poof Moment: Cuba’s Future Political Parties 440 Jorge I. Domínguez 17 Conclusions: Latin American Parties, Past and Present 457 Jorge I. Domínguez

Bibliography 487 Index 531

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Figures

1.1 Party- building outcomes in eighteen Latin American countries, 1978– 2005 page 7 1.2 Types of unsuccessful party, 1978–2005 7 2.1 Average electoral volatility in Latin America, 1980– 2010 53 2.2 Electoral volatility in presidential elections, 1983– 2010 (Pedersen Index of Volatility) 71 2.3 Percentage of legislative seats held by parties formed after 1990 73 3.1 FREPASO partisanship in Argentina, 1994–2003 84 3.2 PT partisanship in Brazil, 1989– 2011 91 3.3 Perceived polarization and PT partisanship in Brazil 94 3.4 Perceived polarization and PT partisanship in Brazil, panel survey 96 4.1 Electoral evolution of the UDI across social strata (lower chamber elections, 1997 is Base 100 for the index) 116 4.2 Electoral growth of the FA across socioeconomic and geographic segments 120 5.1 Conditions for organizational strength 137 5.2 PT vote share in lower house of Congress 144 5.3 PRD vote share in lower house of Congress 149 5.4 FREPASO seat share in lower house of Congress 155 6.1 Economic policy preferences of activists, leaders, and congressional candidates in Mexico’s PAN and PRD 173 6.2 Party- building preferences of activists, leaders, and candidates in Mexico’s PAN and PRD 177 8.1 Public inancing and party system institutionalization 230 12.1 Party identiication in Brazil, 1989– 2011 332

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Tables

1.1 Cases of successful party-building in Latin America since 1978 page 6 1.2 Cases of successful party-building: birth environment and organizational inheritance 24 1.3 Polarization and conlict and party- building outcomes in Latin America, 1978– 2005 25 4.1 Lower chamber (1989– 2009) and municipal election (2008) results per electoral pact and mainstream parties 111 4.2 Electoral results 1971– 2004 (percentages) 112 4.3 Socioeconomic linkage segmentation in the electoral strategy of the UDI 117 4.4 Socioeconomic linkage segmentation in the electoral strategy of the FA 122 4.5 A comparative analysis of the UDI and FA in terms of their brand, territorial organization, and sources of elite cohesion 124 4.6 Electoral segmentation in Chile and Uruguay: the UDI and FA in comparison to other parties in each party system 127 8.1 Public inancing for political parties in Latin America (presidential elections) 223 8.2 Institutionalization and public subsidies 224 8.3 Party system institutionalization in Latin America 229 8.4 Party identiication in Latin America 232 10.1 Election results in El Salvador, 1994– 2014 292 10.2 Subnational electoral victory and presidential vote share 294 10.3 Election results in Colombia, 1990– 1998 301

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List of Tables ix

11.1 The performance of ethnic parties in presidential elections in Latin America, 1979– 2011 309 12.1 Organizational structure of Brazil’s major parties 338 12.2 Type of organizational presence, 2012 345 13.1 Three corporation- based parties 362 14.1 Partisan fragmentation in Bolivia’s Media Luna 391 15.1 Provincial and regional governments won by national parties and regional movements, 2002– 2010 416

Contributors

Editors Steven Levitsky is David Rockefeller Professor of Latin American Studies and Professor of Government at Harvard University. He is the author of Transforming Labor- Based Parties in Latin America: Argentine Peronism in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge University Press, 2003), co- author of Competitive Authoritarianism: Hybrid Regimes after the Cold War (Cambridge University Press, 2010), and co-editor of Argentine Democracy: The Politics of Institutional Weakness (2005), Informal Institutions and Democracy: Lessons from Latin America (2006), and The Resurgence of the Latin American Left (2011). He is currently writing a book on the durability of revolutionary regimes. James Loxton is a Lecturer in Comparative Politics in the Department of Government and International Relations at the University of Sydney. He received his PhD from Harvard University in 2014. He is currently writing a book on conservative party-building in Latin America and co- editing the volume Life after Dictatorship: Authoritarian Successor Parties Worldwide. Brandon Van Dyck is Assistant Professor of Government and Law at Lafayette College. He received his PhD from Harvard University in 2014. He is currently writing a book on the divergent trajectories of Latin America’s new left parties. His research has appeared in Comparative Politics, Latin American Politics and Society, Latin American Research Review, and Foreign Affairs Latinoamérica.

Contributors xi

Jorge I. Domínguez is the Antonio Madero Professor for the Study of Mexico and was Vice Provost for International Affairs at Harvard University, 2006–2015. He is the author of Democratic Politics in Latin America and the Caribbean (1998), Cuba: Order and Revolution (1978), Cuba hoy: Analizando su pasado, imaginando su futuro (2006). He is also author and co-editor of Cuban Economic and Social Development: Policy Reforms and Challenges in the 21st Century (2012). He is a past editor of the journal Cuban Studies and a past president of the Latin American Studies Association.

Chapter Authors William T. Barndt is Assistant Professor of Political Studies at Pitzer College in Claremont, California. He received his PhD in Politics from Princeton University. His book manuscript, Democracy for Sale: Corporation-Based Parties and the New Conservative Politics in the Americas, demonstrates that particular business conglomerates are constructing their own parties and party factions throughout much of the Western hemisphere. He has published his research in World Politics, Latin American Politics and Society, Journal of Politics in Latin America, and in edited volumes. Kathleen Bruhn is Professor of Political Science at the University of California, Santa Barbara. Her recent publications include “Electing Extremists? Party Primaries and Legislative Candidates in Mexico” (Comparative Politics 45 (4), 2013); “ ‘To Hell with Your Corrupt Insti- tutions!’: AMLO and Populism in Mexico,” in Populism in Europe and the Americas: Threat or Corrective to Democracy? (Cambridge University Press, 2012); and “Too Much Democracy? Primaries and Candidate Success in Mexico’s 2006 National Elections” (Latin American Politics and Society 52 (4), 2010). She is the author of Taking on Goliath: The Emergence of a New Left Party and the Struggle for Democracy in Mexico (2004) and Urban Protest in Mexico and Brazil (Cambridge University Press, 2008), and co-author of Mexico: The Struggle for Democratic Development (2001 and 2006). Eduardo Dargent is Associate Professor of Political Science at the Pontiicia Universidad Católica del Perú. He earned his PhD in Government from the University of Texas at Austin. He is the author of Technocracy and Democracy in Latin America: The Experts Running Government

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(Cambridge University Press, 2015) and Demócratas precarios: Élites y debilidad democrática en América Latina (2009). His research focuses on comparative public policy, democratization, and the state in the develop- ing world. Kent Eaton is Professor of Politics at the University of California, Santa Cruz. Focusing on territorial politics in Latin America, his research exam- ines the causes and consequences of reforms that redistribute authority between national and subnational governments. His co- authored and co- edited works on decentralization include Making Decentralization Work: Democracy, Development and Security (2010), The Democratic Decentralization Programming Handbook (2009), and The Political Economy of Decentralization Reforms: Implications for Aid Effectiveness (2010). His recent articles have appeared in Comparative Politics, Comparative Political Studies, and the Journal of Latin American Studies. Kenneth F. Greene is Associate Professor of Government at the University of Texas at Austin. His irst book, Why Dominant Parties Lose: Mexico’s Democratization in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge University Press, 2007), won the 2008 Best Book Award from the Comparative Democratization Section of the American Political Science Association. In addition to work on authoritarian regimes and democratization, he was principal investigator on the Mexico 2012 Panel Study, a multiwave public opinion project. His current work focuses on vote- buying in authoritarian and democratic contexts and on party systems in new democracies emerging from authoritarian rule. Alisha C. Holland is Assistant Professor of Politics at Princeton University. She received her PhD from Harvard University in 2014. Currently, she is inishing a book on the politics of why governments choose not to enforce laws that the poor tend to violate. Her research has appeared in American Journal of Political Science, American Political Science Review, Comparative Political Studies, and Latin American Research Review. Juan Pablo Luna is Associate Professor in the Instituto de Ciencia Política at the Pontiicia Universidad Católica de Chile. His research focuses on political parties and democratic representation, the political effects of inequality, and the nature of state institutions. He is the author of Segmented Representation: Political Party Strategies in Unequal Democracies (2014) and co- author of Latin American Party Systems (Cambridge University Press, 2010). His dissertation was awarded the 2008 Juan Linz Best Dissertation Award by the Comparative Democratization Section of

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Contributors xiii

the American Political Science Association. His work has appeared in Comparative Political Studies, Política y Gobierno, Revista de Ciencia Política, Latin American Politics and Society, International Political Science Review, Third World Quarterly, Journal of Latin American Studies, Journal of Democracy, Periles Latinoamericanos, and Democratization. He has held visiting positions at Princeton University (2008), Brown University (2011), and Harvard University (2013). Noam Lupu is Assistant Professor of Political Science and Trice Faculty Scholar at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. His book, Party Brands in Crisis (Cambridge University Press, 2016), explores how the dilution of party brands eroded partisan attachments in Latin America and facil- itated the collapse of established parties. His ongoing projects examine the effects of inequality, violence, and corruption on mass attitudes and behavior, as well as the descriptive representation of the working class. Lupu’s research has appeared in American Journal of Political Science, American Political Science Review, Comparative Political Studies, Journal of Politics, and World Politics, among others. Raúl L. Madrid is Professor in the Department of Government at the University of Texas at Austin. He is the author of The Rise of Ethnic Politics in Latin America (Cambridge University Press, 2012) and Retiring the State: The Politics of Pension Privatization in Latin America and Beyond (2003), and is a co- editor of Leftist Governments in Latin America: Successes and Shortcomings (Cambridge University Press, 2010). His articles have appeared in Comparative Politics, Electoral Studies, Journal of Latin American Studies, Latin American Politics and Society, Latin American Research Review, Political Science Quarterly, and World Politics. Paula Muñoz is Associate Professor of Social and Political Science at the Universidad del Pacíico. She earned her PhD in Government from the University of Texas at Austin. Her dissertation explores the use of electoral clientelism in Peru, a country with weak political parties. Her research focuses on political parties, electoral campaigns, subnational politics, and public policy. Kenneth M. Roberts is Professor of Government at Cornell University, with a specialization in Latin American political economy and the politics of inequality. He is the author of Changing Course: Party Systems in Latin America’s Neoliberal Era (Cambridge University Press, 2014) and Deepening Democracy? The Modern Left and Social Movements

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xiv Contributors

in Chile and Peru (1998), and the co-editor of The Resurgence of the Latin American Left (2011) and The Diffusion of Social Movements (Cambridge University Press, 2010). His current research explores the relationships among parties, populism, and social movements in contexts of economic crisis. David Samuels is Distinguished McKnight University Professor of Political Science at the University of Minnesota. His most recent book (with Matthew Shugart) is Presidents, Parties, and Prime Ministers: How the Separation of Powers Affects Party Organization and Behavior (Cambridge University Press, 2010). He is also the author of the intro- ductory textbook Comparative Politics (2012) and serves as the co- editor of Comparative Political Studies. Mauricio Zavaleta holds an undergraduate degree in political science from the Pontiicia Universidad Católica del Perú. He is the author of Coaliciones de independientes: Las reglas no escritas de la política electoral en el Perú (2014). He has published articles on subnational politics, political parties, and social conlict around mining activities in Peru. Cesar Zucco Jr. is an assistant professor at the Fundação Getúlio Vargas’ Brazilian School of Public and Business Administration. He was previously an assistant professor in the Political Science Department at Rutgers and has held visiting positions and postdoctoral fellowships at Princeton and Yale. He has published articles and chapters on electoral politics, political parties, executive– legislative relations, ideology, and social policy, and his work has appeared in the American Journal of Political Science, Journal of Politics, and Legislative Studies Quarterly.

Acknowledgments

We have incurred numerous debts in the development of this project. We are especially grateful to the Weatherhead Center for International Affairs (WCFIA) and the David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies (DRCLAS), both at Harvard University, which generously co- sponsored the Harvard conference out of which this book emerged. We are grateful to all who presented papers at that conference, for their substantive work and their collegial spirit. We thank Marina Ivanova of the WCFIA for her extraordinary work in organizing the conference. We would also like to thank the numerous scholars who provided feedback on parts or all of the volume, particularly Candelaria Garay, Frances Hagopian, Henry Hale, Adrienne LeBas, Scott Mainwaring, Omar Sánchez, Hillel Soifer, Martín Tanaka, and Alberto Vergara. Finally, we are grateful to Manuel Meléndez, a former Harvard undergraduate and budding political scientist, who provided invaluable research and editorial assistance at various stages of the project.

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Abbreviations

Abbreviation Original term English term AD M-19 Alianza Democrática 19th of April Movement Movimiento 19 de Abril Democratic Alliance ADN Acción Democrática Nationalist Democratic Nacionalista Action AMLO Andrés Manuel López Obrador ANAPO Alianza Nacional Popular National Popular Alliance ANSESAL Agencia Nacional de Salvadoran National Security Seguridad Salvadoreña Agency AP Acción Popular Popular Action APB Autonomía para Bolivia Autonomy for Bolivia APP Alianza para el Progreso Alliance for Progress APRA Alianza Popular American Popular Revolucionaria Americana Revolutionary Alliance ARENA (Brazil) Aliança Renovadora National Renewal Alliance Nacional ARENA Alianza Republicana Nationalist Republican (El Salvador) Nacionalista Alliance AS Alianza Social Social Alliance ASI Alianza Social Indígena/ Indigenous Social Alliance / Alianza Social Independent Social Alliance Independiente ASP Asamblea por la Soberanía Assembly for the Sovereignty de los Pueblos of Peoples BEPS Brazilian Election Panel Study CBN Cervecería Boliviana National Bolivian Brewery Nacional

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xvii

Abbreviations xvii

Abbreviation Original term English term CC Convergencia Ciudadana Citizen Convergence CD (Panama) Cambio Democrático Democratic Change CD (El Salvador) Convergencia Democrática Democratic Convergence CNOC Coordinadora Nacional National Coordinator of de Organizaciones Peasant Organizations Campesinas CONAIE Confederación de Confederation of Indigenous Nacionalidades Indígenas Nationalities of Ecuador del Ecuador CONALDE Consejo Nacional National Democratic Council Democrático CONDEPA Conciencia de Patria Conscience of the Fatherland COPEI Comité de Organización Independent Electoral Política Electoral Political Organization Independiente Committee CPC Chim Pum Callao CPSC Comité Pro-Santa Cruz Pro- Santa Cruz Committee CR (Colombia) Cambio Radical Radical Change CR (Peru) Cambio Radical Radical Change CSUTCB Confederación Sindical Unitary Syndical Única de Trabajadores Confederation of Bolivian Campesinos de Bolivia Peasant Workers CTC Central de Trabajadores de Cuban Labor Confederation Cuba DEM Democratas Democrats DM Diretório municipal Municipal ofice DP-UDC Democracia Popular – Unión Popular Democracy – Demócrata Cristiana Christian Democratic Union DPP Democratic Progressive Party EG Encuentro por Guatemala Gathering for Guatemala EJE Eje Pachakuti Axis of Pachakuti ERP Ejército Revolucionario del People’s Revolutionary Army Pueblo ESEB Estudo Eleitoral Brasileiro Brazilian Electoral Study FA Frente Amplio Broad Front FARC Fuerzas Armadas Revolutionary Armed Forces Revolucionarias de of Colombia Colombia FDNG Frente Democrático Nueva New Guatemala Democratic Guatemala Front FDR Frente Democrático Democratic Revolutionary Revolucionario Front FES Función Económica y Social Economic and Social Function (continued)

xviii

xviii Abbreviations

Abbreviation Original term English term FG Frente Grande Big Front FIM Frente Independiente Independent Moralizing Moralizador Front FMLN Frente Farabundo Martí Farabundo Martí National para la Liberación Liberation Front Nacional FREDEMO Frente Democrático Democratic Front FREPASO Frente País Solidario Front for a Country in Solidarity FRG Frente Republicano Guatemalan Republican Guatemalteco Front FS Fuerza Social Social Force FSLN Frente Sandinista de Sandinista National Liberación Nacional Liberation Front FULKA Frente Unido de Liberación United Front of Katarista Katarista Liberation GANA (El Gran Alianza por la Unidad Grand Alliance for National Salvador) Nacional Unity GANA Gran Alianza Nacional Grand National Alliance (Guatemala) ID Izquierda Democrática Democratic Left INRA Instituto Nacional de National Agrarian Reform Reforma Agraria Institute IPSP Instrumento Político por la Political Instrument for the Soberanía de los Pueblos Sovereignty of the Peoples ISI Import substitution industrialization IU (Peru) Izquierda Unida United Left IU (Bolivia) Izquierda Unida United Left LAPOP Latin American Public Opinion Project LCR La Causa Radical Radical Cause LLV Levitsky, Loxton, and Van Dyck MAS (Bolivia) Movimiento al Socialismo Movement toward Socialism MAS (Venezuela) Movimiento al Socialismo Movement toward Socialism MDB Movimento Democrático Brazilian Democratic Brasileiro Movement MDS Movimiento Demócrata Social Democratic Movement Social MIAJ Movimiento Independiente Amauta Jatari Independent Amauta Jatari Movement MIP Movimiento Indígena Pachakuti Indigenous Pachakuti Movement MIR Movimiento de la Izquierda Movement of the Revolucionaria Revolutionary Left

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Abbreviations xix

Abbreviation Original term English term MITKA Movimiento Indio Tupak Tupak Katari Indian Katari Movement MITKA-1 Movimiento Indio Tupak Tupak Katari Indian Katari-1 Movement-1 MKN Movimiento Katarista National Katarista Nacional Movement MNI Movimiento Nueva New Left Movement Izquierda MNR Movimiento Nacional Revolutionary Nationalist Revolucionario Movement MODIN Movimiento por la Dignidad Movement for Dignity and y la Independencia Independence MORENA Movimiento Regeneración National Regeneration (Mexico) Nacional Movement MORENA Movimiento de Renovación National Renewal Movement (Panama) Nacional MOVADEF Movimiento por Amnistía Movement for Amnesty and y Derechos Fundamentales Fundamental Rights MR-8 Movimento Revolucionário October 8th Revolutionary 8 de Outubro Movement MRTK Movimiento Revolucionario Tupak Katari Revolutionary Tupak Katari Movement MRTKL Movimiento Revolucionario Tupak Katari Revolutionary Tupak Katari de Liberation Movement Liberación MUD Mesa de la Unidad Democratic Unity Democrática Roundtable MUPP-NP Movimiento Unidad Pachakutik Plurinational Plurinacional Unity Movement – New Pachakutik – Nuevo País Country MVR Movimiento V República Fifth Republic Movement NPC Nuevo Poder Ciudadano New Citizen Power ORDEN Organización Democrática Nationalist Democratic Nacionalista Organization PAC Partido Acción Ciudadana Citizens’ Action Party PAIS Política Abierta para la Open Politics for Social Integridad Social Integrity PAN (Guatemala) Partido de Avanzada National Advancement Party Nacional PAN (Mexico) Partido Acción Nacional National Action Party PCdoB Partido Comunista do Brasil Communist Party of Brazil PCB Partido Comunista Brasileiro Brazilian Communist Party PCC Partido Comunista de Cuba Communist Party of Cuba PCN Partido de Conciliación Party of National Nacional Conciliation (continued)

xx Abbreviations

Abbreviation Original term English term PD Partido Demócrata Democratic Party PDC Partido Demócrata Cristiano Christian Democratic Party PDS Partido Democrático Social Democratic Social Party PDT Partido Democrático Labor Democratic Party Trabalhista PED Processo de Eleições Diretas Process of Direct Elections PEN Partido Encuentro Nacional National Encounter Party PFL Partido da Frente Liberal Liberal Front Party PH Partido Humanista Humanist Party PIN Partido de Integración National Integration Party Nacional PJ Partido Justicialista Peronist Party PL Partido Liberal Liberal Party PLD Partido de la Liberación Dominican Liberation Party Dominicana PLN Partido Liberación Nacional National Liberation Party PMDB Partido do Movimento Brazilian Democratic Democrático Brasileiro Movement Party PMS Partido Mexicano Socialista Socialist Mexican Party PNP Partido Nacionalista Peruano Peruvian Nationalist Party PNS Party Nationalization Score PODEMOS Poder Democrático Social Social Democratic Power PP (Brazil) Partido Progressista Progressive Party PP (Guatemala) Partido Patriota Patriotic Party PP (Peru) Perú Posible Possible Peru PPB-NC Plan Progeso para Bolivia – Plan for Bolivia – New Nueva Convergencia Convergence PPC Partido Popular Cristiano Popular Christian Party PPD Partido por la Democracia Party for Democracy PPK Peruanos por el Kambio Peruvians for Change PR Proportional representation PRD (Mexico) Partido de la Revolución Party of the Democratic Democrática Revolution PRD (Panama) Partido Revolucionario Democratic Revolutionary Democrático Party PRD (Dominican Partido Revolucionario Dominican Revolutionary Republic) Dominicano Party PRE Partido Roldosista Ecuadorian Roldosista Party Ecuatoriano PRI Partido Revolucionario Institutional Revolutionary Institucional Party PRIAN Partido Renovador Institutional Renewal Party Institucional Acción of National Action Nacional PRO Propuesta Republicana Republican Proposal

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Abbreviations xxi

Abbreviation Original term English term PRSD (Chile) Partido Radical Social Democratic Radical Socialdemócrata Party PRUD Partido Revolucionario de Revolutionary Party of Uniicación Democrática Democratic Uniication PS (Chile) Partido Socialista Socialist Party PS (Peru) Partido Socialista Socialist Party PSB Partido Socialista Brasileiro Brazilian Socialist Party PSC Partido Social Cristiano Social Christian Party PSDB Partido da Social Brazilian Social Democracy Democracia Brasileira Party PSN Partido Solidaridad National Solidarity Party Nacional PSP (Cuba) Partido Socialista Popular Popular Socialist Party PSP (Ecuador) Partido Sociedad Patriótica Patriotic Society Party PSUM Partido Socialista Uniicado United Socialist Party of de México Mexico PSUN Partido Social de Unidad Social Party of National Nacional / Partido de la U Unity / Party of the U PSUV Partido Socialista Unido de United Socialist Party of Venezuela Venezuela PT Partido dos Trabalhadores Workers’ Party PTB Partido Trabalhista Brazilian Labor Party Brasileiro PUSC Partido Unidad Social Social Christian Unity Party Cristiana PV Partido Verde Green Party PVEM Partido Verde Ecológico de Ecologist Green Party of México Mexico RAICES Reforma Regional Andina Social and Economic Integración Participación Participation Integration Económica y Social Andean Regional Reform RMF Ricardo Martinelli Foundation RN (Chile) Renovación Nacional National Renewal RN (El Salvador) Resistencia Nacional National Resistance RN (Peru) Restauración Nacional National Restoration SCST Santa Cruz Somos Todos We’re All Santa Cruz SP Somos Perú We Are Peru UCC Unión de Centro Centro Union of the Centrist Center UCEDE Unión del Centro Union of the Democratic Democrático Center UCR Unión Cívica Radical Radical Civic Union UCS Unidad Cívica Solidaridad Civic Solidarity Unity UDC Unión Demócrata Cristiana Christian Democratic Union (continued)

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xxii Abbreviations

Abbreviation Original term English term UDI Unión Demócrata Independent Democratic Independiente Union UNE Unidad Nacional de National Unity of Hope Esperanza UNO Unión Nacional Odriísta Odriísta National Union UPP Unión por el Perú Union for Peru URNG Unidad Revolucionaria Guatemalan National Nacional Guatemalteca Revolutionary Unity VERDES Verdad y Democracia Social Truth and Social Democracy VES Villa El Salvador VV Vamos Vecino Let’s Go Neighbor