CEU eTD Collection Sailing the Waves of Assimilation: Identity of the Anchors In partial fulfillment of for Infulfillment the of the requirements partial degree Master of Arts Department of Sociology and Social Social and ofDepartment Sociology Anthropology Central European University European Central Professor Professor Dafinger Moldavian Csango Professor Vlad Naumescu Professor Vlad Andrea Ordaz-Németh Andrea , Budapest, Submitted Submitted to Supervisors: 2011 By

CEU eTD Collection Hegyeli Attila for helping me coordinate the logistics of my fieldwork. I am also grateful also am I fieldwork. my of logistics the coordinate me helping to for Attila Hegyeli particular in , in Csango of Association the to thanks Special my than occasion. one in used data Hungarian and research. Romanian translate me helping for respectively, say to like would I to wish I which thank them. for encouragement, and comments constructive of deal great a with me provided Centre Writing CEU Academic the Timarfrom Eszter and Rooney Thomas that process the throughout advice and patience this in thesis. culminated Andreas guidance, and Naumescu their Vlad Professors for supervisors, Dafinger, my to grateful deeply am I A . I my conducted fieldwork. while home their to me welcoming warmly so for Iancu Bibi and Denes to you Thank study. this for time their with me gifted generously so in who people Arini/Magyarfalu, the all to CKNOWLEDGEMENTS Gracias to my parents for also helping me translate Hungarian texts on more on texts Hungarian translate me helping also for parents my to mulţumesc n and köszönöm This thesis is dedicated with love and gratitude gratitude and love with This thesis is dedicated to Camelia Badea and Kata Varsányi Kata and Badea Camelia to to Ibolya, my and parents, Enrique and toand my sister Isabel.

CEU eTD Collection by their Roman Catholic faith and their Csango dialect. This process is observable in observable is process This dialect. Csango their and faith Catholic Roman their by anchored is which identity-construction, collective their in malleability displaying by but resistance, by not assimilation linguistic and ethnic of waves past survived Csango the the before Moldavia of region state emerged. Romanian modern Romanian eastern the of in form lived archaic has an and speaks Hungarian, that minority Catholic Roman a is this that consensus widespread is there date, this to uncertain remain demography and origins, I, War their World of much history.Although of their on sources legitimate aftermath for search the the complicating in authors Romanian and Hungarian nationalistic A the previous one, by rethinking how they categorize themselves in relation to others.relation in themselves they how categorize one, by the rethinking previous with links identity the maintaining while context, political and social local their of stage different a to adapt socially to managed has generation Csango Each out. carried was the of generations research this where of village site the Moldavian Arini/Magyarfalu, Csango southeastern three in awareness metalinguistic and ethnic of differences the BSTRACT In this thesis I draw from Brubaker’s cognitive approach to ethnicity to argue that argue to ethnicity to approach cognitive Brubaker’s from draw I thesis this In by discourses public passionate sparked minority Csango Moldavian The

CEU eTD Collection Chapter 3Language and Religion: the Tangled Anchors Chapter 2Methodology Chapter 1Literature Review Introduction Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents References Appendix B Appendix A Conclusion 2.4 Identity Negotiation 2.3 Methodology 2.2 Introduction to Arini/Magyarfalu 2.1 Introduction to land Csango 1.7 Theoretical Framework 1.6 Statistic (In)visibility 1.5 International Perspective 1.4 Csango Assimilation –Romanian Perspectives Origins–Romanian1.3 Csango Perspectives 1.2 Csango Assimilation –Hungarian Perspectives Origins–Hungarian1.1 Csango Perspectives 3.3 Identity Construction in the Youngest Generation 3.2 Identity Construction in the Middle Generation 3.1 Identity Construction in the Eldest Generation ...... 57 52 51 50 47 44 42 40 38 36 33 30 30 26 22 19 18 16 11 9 8 5 3 2 CEU eTD Collection cultural and linguistic diversity. Appeals for the preservation and enforcement of legal of enforcement and preservation the for Appeals diversity. linguistic and cultural their of aspects vital less other of identity.ethnolinguistic categorization their in flexibility while identity, assuming of anchors their to links strong retained that those were changes the the withstood successfully that survive minorities the that believe to I assimilation. of waves struggled recurring which of many enclaves, ethnic of identities collective the to challenge a became stance nationalistic the mechanism, defense a as meant Chiefly entities. mono-lingual mono-ethnic, into populations diverse richly their compressing in invested increasingly became countries affected the redrawn, itself found map political I their ethnic and linguistic consciousness has been retained at individual and collective and individual at retained been has consciousness linguistic and ethnic their of habitants as minority: detail; in documented been has extrinsic history elaborate center, their cultural former Hungary’s an of study case ideal an embody they many angles, From . of Hungarians the on focused is minorities ’s on discourse Treaty political andthe peracademic of Trianon,of majority overwhelming the as Romania to Transylvania of territory the lost country the when 1921, from hangover minorities. of European the in discussion integrated national itself nineteen found has to Romania lineage, and host religion history, language, As in varying minorities media. social to conferences, academic to forums, national from stage, conceivable every on constant a become have minorities of rights NTRODUCTION In recent decades there has been a worldwide surge in the appraisal of ethnic, of appraisal the in surge worldwide a been has there decades recent In the as I: War World of aftermath the in Europe in life to came truly u n get pr o Hungary’s to part great in Due

CEU eTD Collection ihu h mrla o ntttos t rtc n rmt hi utrl heritage. cultural their promote and protect to institutions of umbrella the without recently, very until and roots, their of knowledge definitive without assimilation cultural and of waves overt linguistic recurring through identity their collective they retained have identity.history and spheres, as social and the in academic case is relevant The Csango their on claims Romanian and Hungarian of tug-of-war a undergone have they level, macro- a on Hungarians; by Hungarians archaic as and , by Hungarians Hungary, to bondstheiroriginal memoryof been identified as they have a micro-level on social no have Csango today’s Although borders. Hungary’s beyond lived always have to transfer legal Transylvania’s of settled the in Moldavia. eastern region already had minority the Csango Romania, before centuries Romania: in descent Hungarian of minority only the not are Transylvania a of Hungarians as popular the However, minority. interests collective their of vocal remain communities local the and wing, right neighbor’s the by challenged frequently still is Transylvania’s to territory right the levels; in three chapters. The first is a literature review that aims to present and integrate the integrate and present to aims that review literature a is first The chapters. three in 225). character (Pozsonyi in rural remained have villages Csango by that after even untouched and 1962; of virtually collectivization the were until industrialization settlements Csango The archaisms. linguistic their preserving noted and majority, Romanian the into assimilation their slowing cocoon, a as them served has urbanization delayed and Carpathians secluded eastern Their the variables. in location social other by degrees varying to peasant and their model, of economy account by group cohesive a remained have Csango the Instead, This thesis addresses the issue of ethnic and linguistic awareness of the minority the of awareness linguistic and ethnic of issue the addresses thesis This they as scattered, and slim are Csango the of records historical available The

CEU eTD Collection ifrne f ter ehi n igitc aaees i oai’ hnig social changing the Romania’s in landscape. contextualizing awareness linguistic village, and the ethnic their identity in of Csango differences living of generations evolution three an across construction demonstrates chapter third The identity construction. Csango in agency greatest with institutions and actors local the introducing Arini/Magyarfalu in out carried I study the of methodology the delineates chapter second self-identity.The Csango of trends changing the for structure provides which framework theoretical cognitive-based a proposes then It publications. Romanian and Hungarian influential most the from Csango the of history the on views multiple name” format the throughout thesis 1  With the purpose neutrality, of maintaining I refer geographical all to places a in “Romanian name/Hungarian 1 in April 2011, April in

CEU eTD Collection the Csango were assimilated by the other at different points in history (they are treated are (they history in points different at other the by assimilated were Csango the claiming side each origins, their of matter unsolved the on centered mostly ideological, is Csango highly was scholarship the on debate academic The 2007:362). their (Turda conservative” socially and nationalistic fact in although scholarship, impartial objective, of ethos an proclaimed anthropologists Romanian and “Hungarian fact: this of awareness shown have scholars recently More alike. authors Făcăoaru) Râmneanţu, (Mărtinaş, Romanian and Pozsony) Tanczos, (Vincze, Hungarian by forward pushed to susceptible is sphere academic the identity theon Csango as in arguments can be seen contradictory agendas, nationalistic that recognize to need the by shadowed is literature the of legitimacy the assessing of task The demography. ethnicity,and history, linguistics their on information reliable for search the complicating , C rtcl ln f te sucs eto s ddctd t urn sno statistics, Csango current to dedicated is section A sources. the of lens critical a provide to backgrounds political and historical their in contextualized are arguments these of influential most The organizations. international by and authors, Romanian and Hungarian by taken positions the identifying minority, Csango the on publications construction. their self-identity for point parting a as it useand theory one believe to pressed often are they as Csango, it but origins, day of present the of construction identity the in publications these effect of the recognizes theory any of falsifiability the determining with concerned directly not is thesis This It Romanians). “Magyarized” as or Hungarians “Romanized” as either HAPTER hs catr sre s a crnlgcl oeve f te ms influential most the of overview chronological a as serves chapter This Moldavian the of aspect studied every almost on sprouted have Disagreements 1 L 1 ITERATURE R EVIEW

CEU eTD Collection hois oelp o hi an peie, te rne i ulctos i u to due to important is It migration. said triggered is that causes the of speculation and migration, publications in range the their of timeline premises, the ancestors, Hungarian their of identity the concerning disagreements main their on overlap theories Hungarian all Although 1997). Baker 1997, (Tanczos lands Hungarian-speaking from away migrations Csango at hinting away”, drift “to or roam” “to meaning “elcsangal”, verb Hungarian the to linked been has which name, their of the in rooted is 1.1 Csango Origins – Hungarian Perspectives of themy throughout be used analysis study. will that concepts linguistic and anthropological the of definitions operational the clarify will ethnicity, and to approach linguistic and cognitive a on based framework theoretical a provide will chapter the of and section final social The problem. a the such of implications and political population, Csango the estimating in obstacles the discussing Instead, most theories estimate the Csango’s date of arrival to Moldavia range between range Moldavia to arrival of date Csango’s the estimate theories most Instead, 661). (Baker research archaeological by discarded soon were claims these however, celebrations; Millennium 1896 Hungary’s of onset the in Magyars “pure” of vestiges find to desire the by ignited were efforts these that ninth believed is the It 661). in (Baker tribes century Magyar the by basin Carpathian the of conquest the as back far identity.history and their on beliefs Csango’s the on influence apparent an hold still rejected formally been have that claims those even as theories, origin these among variations the examine In the early twentieth century, Hungarians made attempts to trace the Csango as Csango the trace to attempts century, made twentieth Hungarians early the In origins Csango on claim Hungarian the for argument accepted widely most The

CEU eTD Collection of Hungarian history: the Mongol invasion of 1241. While most authors agree it is highly is it agree authors most While 1241. of invasion Mongol the history: Hungarian of 2005). (Domokos language and culture ofof Csango documentation manner alternative an as folksongs Csango collected of and 2007) (Davis strain Magyars “pure” a are Csango the that view the supported He origins. Csango on authority 663). (Baker territories Hungarian from Dom expelled been had knights Teutonic the after 1225 in waves migratory gradual in region the to arrived Csango the that claims Domokos while 1225, 1211 and between Moldavia to Csango the escorted had Knights Teutonic the that argues Auner theories: two into out branching century, thirteenth the in originated Csangos the that suggested studies Later 660). (Baker century fifteenth early the in Hungary of Kingdom the from migrated and Szeklers, of descendants direct were Csango the that proposed Zöld, Peter named century nineteenth late the from priest a origins, Csango on authors first the of century.One fifteenth and thirteenth the survival abilities of the Csango in the face of an invasion undermine the hypothesis (Baker 1997). the undermine invasion an of face the the in of Csango the skepticism of abilities with survival paired invasion Mongolian the before presence Hungarian of evidence substantial of lack the However, 1997). Baker, (in century thirteenth the in settlements in starting Hungarian stream continuous a in arriving by invasion small Mongolian the survived Moldavia that argue National to Hungarian evidence the toponymic cites of Museum, director former Fodor, Istvan publications. Hungarian in found be also can stance this from support period, the of destruction have the would survived Moldavia in living Csango the of ancestors Hungarian any that unlikely okos, a Transylvanian ethnographer and musicologist and ethnographer Transylvanian a okos, Another cluster of Csango migration theories is centered on a later pivotal event pivotal later a on centered is theories migration Csango of cluster Another , is popularly considered an considered popularly is

CEU eTD Collection 1.2 Csango Assimilation – Hungarian Perspectives the that from migrated west to Csangos east at the in some point Middle Ages (Tanczosbelieved 2008). is it Instead, 2008). Tanczos in 1934 Veress and 1902 (Munkacsi the of descendants are Csangos the that is 2008) Tanczos in 1988 Gunda of ancestors today’s to east migrate Csangos of the Carpathians. Moldavian the for incentives added were 1348 in plague a of spread regional the with conjunction Baker in taxes, imposed 1997). over 1343 of (Baker unrest Transylvanian the that prospects believes economic better of search the in go to and border, Hungarian the of east the to vacuum power a be to considered Church Catholic Roman the and Lajos King what defend to order in eastward migrated Csangos the retreated, Moldavian Csangos as victims of Romanian assimilation is the historian Gabor Vincze, Gabor historian the is assimilation Romanian of victims as Csangos Moldavian anecdotal by evidence. for thethe case make the mostto Arguably influentialHungarian supported always not are claims whose authors, Hungarian by exaggerated been tohave likely is enforced were policies their which with aggressiveness the documented, began. policies nationalistic which during Romania, young in assimilation ethnic of period critical first the as 1918 and 1860 between period the identifies (2007) Barszczewska population. Csango the assimilate ethnically and linguisticallyto government Romanian overteffortsthe of the to identity own their regard lhuh te asmlto fot f te Rmna oenet ae widely are government Romanian the of efforts assimilation the Although Csango the which with attitude ambiguous the attributes literature Hungarian The 1931, (Domokos scholars by rejected been has which theory popular Another Mongols the after that own: his of origins of theory Csango a proposes Baker

CEU eTD Collection hog eiiu evcs h rdcto f te Hnain lnug through language Hungarian the of toponymy Hungarian of replacement the and education, Romanian-imparted exclusively eradication the services, religious through nationalism of spread the waves: assimilation three of traditions oral and documentation Conservative for (“ Research History Foundation National the found to able been have not would Hungarian likely of direction the defining in power,he in been not party Fidesz conservative the had that politics acknowledging academia, of role the highlights he addition, (“ Trianon of Treaty the of injustice perceived his citing events, historical Hungarian about neutral remaining “ portal Transylvanian online [ Research Magazin] Történelmi in editor current un-stratified– Csango communities (Pozsony 2008), the authority of priests was –and was priests of authority the 2008), (Pozsony communities Csango un-stratified– –virtually rural the the In levels. villages: local at secluded Church Catholic Romanian the the of in ‘Romanization’ nationalism Romanian spread to strategy a devised this, on based and minority, Catholic the to Church the of importance policy-makers the recognized Romanian practices. assimilatory of target principal the became that latter the was it and dialect, Csango their and faith Catholic Roman their are majority (2002). one ofa identity with Romanian the Csango the Hungarian replacing of finality the had policies these that believes He institutions. official through The two attributes that have always distinguished the Csango from the the Csango Romanian The two attributes distinguished that always have the on built is Csango the of Romanization aggressive the for case His Nemzeti chief of the Great Hungary History magazine [ magazine History Hungary Great the of chief

Nemzeti optika – interjú Vincze – optika interjú Nemzeti Gabor történésszel Konzervatív , and founder of the National Foundation for Conservative History Conservative for Foundation National the of founder and , ezt pia – itrú Vnz ao történésszel Gabor Vincze interjú – optika Nemzeti Erdélyi

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CEU eTD Collection the community’s church: in tolanguage resistance a ofban the Hungarian to responded priest local a when Luizi-Calugara/Lujzikalagor, of case the of narration his in illustrated is process (2002). This nationality Romanian unarguable their on based language Hungarian of identities to Romanian assume their followers encourage and their congregation, among use the challenge would who priests foreign or Romanian bringing in invested was government Romanian the that argues TanczosVincze 2008). 2008, Pozsony 2008, (Barszczewska process assimilation the of a component was crucial discourse nationalistic propagating in participation their and revered, is– still villages. This approach to identity may be an explanation for the difficulties in estimating difficulties in the for explanation an be may identity to approach villages. This Csango in resonates still that government Romanian the by encouraged identity,view a country”” their of language the know not do they that ashamed be should are they then are, they If Romanian? they truly are they as Romanian, are they if but […], Hungary to go them let Hungarian, or Hungarian, they are […] Calugara Lujzi- of residents the ask I country. own Now his in Hungarian, like language, foreign a speak to want would citizen Romanian a if shameful be would it […] nation, own its against injustice of act an be would It else. anything be cannot and Romanian is people the of language the Romania in “[…] congregation: Hungarian the to following the declared 1915 May in chauvinism, Romanian of service descentsuccumbedhadto but the of Italian whohead was “The priest, h rets sodn s rfetv f te ble ht ntoaiy i eiie in decisive is nationality that belief the of reflective is scolding priest’s The (Vincze, 2002:55)

CEU eTD Collection children. Vincze states that the Romanian government established elementary schools elementary established government Romanian the that states Vincze children. sphere. the in public of dialect the the in Csango and oppression Catholic sentiment nationalistic of spreading the both Romanian on assimilation of tool a as served the Church Therefore, ensure (2002). would mission who nationalistic priests”, the of Romanian propagation “fanatic as children the reforming of goal the with identities, Romanian cultivated and language Romanian the enforced priests argues, he where, episcopate, Hungarian- Iasi/Jaszvasar the young in seminary of a to enrollment children speaking the process: another a through minority Csango identity.over ethnic take precedence almost always will that results indicate nationality ethnically being census the situations, these In exclusive. mutually areRomanian nationallythat and Csango assuming not?”, or Romanian, you “Are mean to question the interpret many you?” are “What question the with faced when population: Csango the approximate of 60% of illiteracy in Csango villages during the (2002). period interwar the during villages Csango in illiteracy of 60% of approximate an in resulting school, to children their send to parents of reluctance the to contributed this that and Csango speaking for punished physically were children the that reports 1995). Vincze for Romania’sin (Livezeanu their work salaries regions higher multilingual them offering incentives, financial with villages remote these to teachers send to able was state Romanian The 2008). (Barszczewskia Csango- classroom the the in among students speaking “Hungarian” of use the prohibited and perspective Romanian a from history taught who teachers Romanian Orthodox employed it so, Todo (2002). students its in identity Romanian a enforcing of goal the with villages Csango all the in lmnay shos wr nte esl fr te Rmna siiain of assimilation Romanian the for vessel another were schools Elementary the assimilating in complicity Church’s Catholic Roman the at points Vincze

CEU eTD Collection rtn codn o Rmna hnlg r b elcn hm atgte for altogether them replacing by or phonology Romanian to according writing re- by names family Csango of Romanization the included which administration, public proximity.in living Romanians the with contact level low retaining have while traditions would oral it of as importance the period, reinforced interwar the during peasants Csango the of illiteracy the to due partially be may identity Csango of preservation the that suggested Barszczewska has (2008) However, of. critical and aware sorely so are inhabitants their which villages, Csango of poverty of state the in observable are levels literacy and schooling low of effects negative long-term prolonged The 2008). negotiated, (Barszczewska children their previously of absence the for fine a paying by teachers Romanian with confrontations sidestep to able were families wealthier the Moreover, reality. in were for punishments the of than they moreseem brutal much has makethem distortedto beenspeakingHungarian severity the research, ethnographic own my to According led eoe pocie i hs apc, wrig wt h Ascain o Csango- of Association the with working aspect, this in has proactive become Arini/Magyarfalu already of community full Csango avoiding The in culture. difficulty Romanian have to will assimilation Csango the Moldavia, in institutions cultural of my fieldwork. during names Romanian encountered exclusively almost names I as out, faded have to family seems names two having of true practice The 2002). (Vincze their as name Csango their retaining while purposes, official for specifically them using names, Romanian their accepted were and policy a such by Csango unfazed the that believes Vincze 2002). (Vincze names Romanian-sounding” Some authors (Szepe 1999) have speculated that without the structural support structural the without that speculated have 1999) (Szepe authors Some official of practice the in was assimilation Romanian for vessel main third The

CEU eTD Collection author; instead, he challenges the interpretation of such evidence. For example, he example, For evidence. such of interpretation the challenges he instead, author; Hungarian by forward put evidence the combat not does (1999) Mărtinaş Csangos”, work, “The ofIn Origins mostthe his ofRomanian. influential was true the origin Csango the that convinced was who literature, and language Romanian of professor Csango the establishing thus theories, Hungarian the than identity. on the on Csango debate beginnings time later a at came origins Csango on perspective Their 2007). (Turda identity national discussing the in of discipline role the recognized scholars when 1918, in Romania Greater of creation the 1.3 Csango Origins – Romanian Perspectives language. Hungarian the of instruction the to dedicated school a build to Moldavia in Hungarians arguing that Csango is not a language or dialect of its own, but a mispronunciation of mispronunciation a but own, its of dialect or language a not is Csango that arguing stance, a such for evidence as data linguistic cites He 1999). (Mărtinaş Hungarians by assimilated forcibly were who unknown origin peopleof a are Csango the that stating simply descent, Hungarian of being minority the of possibility any denies defiantly he nationality, Hungarian of be to Csango the perceive alike Hungarians and Romanians that accepts he 1999:63). Although (Mărtinaş Hungarians to outsiders unwelcome were they that affirming thereby degenerate”, and impure “mixed, means it language that in that argues but origin, Hungarian of is Csango the of name the that acknowledges The Romanian approach to the Csango issue is led by Dumitru Mărtinaş, a Mărtinaş, Dumitru by led is issue Csango the to approach Romanian The after interests nationalistic by ignited was Romania in discourse Anthropological

CEU eTD Collection approach would surpass any misleading information, or evidence from other ethnic other from evidence or information, misleading the biological any surpass a all would that approach believed Despite Râmneanţu origins, 2007). and (Turda history Csango population of uncertainties Csango the a on was methods serological Romanians as themselves perform categorize to out set he and origins, biological true their of consciousness of manifestation ethnically to the tendency that argued Csango Râmneanţu Petru anthropologist racial and eugenicist Romanian invasion. Mongol in the survived have would settlements the that unlikely is it as rejected, formally been has Hungarians with mixed they that view However,this 1997). (Baker century fourteenth the of arguing end the before Transylvania Csango, the of descent Cuman of 1999). (Mărtinaş origin their of nature non-Hungarian the establishing therefore Hungarian, extreme, although the work found supporters from believers of the Cuman descent theory origins. of Csango Cuman the of believers from supporters found work the although extreme, been have to study Râmneanţu’s believes too (1997) Baker (2007). Romanians racially be to affirmed were Râmneanţu’s Csangos the while Romanians, Magyarized be of to concluded were Szeklers results origins: minority of the than nationalism his that of reflective more believes are investigation Turda 2007:370). Turda in (Râmneanţu 1935:40 time” of vicissitudes the by untouched remained which source unique, the perhaps real, the is “blood stating: customs), religion, culture, (language, factors n te 13s ad 14s uig te bo f rca-ae nhoooy the anthropology, racial-based of boom the during 1940s, and 1930s the In ( authors Romanian Some Brătinau, Iorga) Brătinau, coincide with Hungarians in the theory the in Hungarians with coincide

CEU eTD Collection uhrte. Mria 19) atiue h oa ahlc fih o h Moldavian the of faith Catholic Roman the Transylvanian attributes by (1999) enforced Mărtinaş assimilation authorities. religion and linguistic previous a of claim the is character Hungarian minority’s the for explanation viable only their Csango, the of origin Romanian the establishing After own. their of accusations assimilation with them matched authors Romanian assimilation, Romanian of claims raise to began authors Hungarians when on, Later issue. Hungarian a was perceived they what to indifferent been had authorities Romanian the then until that and debates, nationalistic entered 1.4 Cs of policies assimilation the justifying falsely that underwent. period the Csango Romanization and ideologically-motivated be to theory their accusing Romanian, originally were Csango the that stance Romanian the (Mărtinaş 1999:175). In this theory, the ‘’ process of the Csango by the by Csango the of process ‘Magyarization’ the theory, this In 1999:175). duties (Mărtinaş religious their with than consciousness Hungarian cultivating of task the with “in occupied more being of involvement them accusing de-nationalization”, of priests’ policy sad the spreading Hungarian the their to of language dominance Csango) the (meaning attributes Hungarian then He (1999). faith Orthodox their from them deprived that policies the by caused pain” and “trouble the experienced having after resistance without assimilation religiously meet to decided that agency, lacking group a as Csango the to alludes Mărtinaş work, his In Empire. Austrian-Hungarian the of goals denationalizing fulfill to meant state Transylvanian the by to Csango ango Assimilation – Romanian Perspectives Mărtinaş (1999) argues that it was only after the First World War that the Csango the WarWorld that First the after only was it that argues (1999) Mărtinaş with disagree 2002) Vincze 2008, (Tanczos authors Hungarian Unsurprisingly,

CEU eTD Collection internal affairs, resulting in heightened tensions between Romania and Hungary (Davis Hungary Romania’sand Romania between tensions of heightened in resulting affairs, intrusion internal as and propaganda’ ‘irredentist of spread a as situation the describes 1942 in service secret Romanian the 2007). A from (Davis report Moldavia in villages Csango remote most the reaching consciousness, Hungarian of cultivators and instruments became priests Hungarian known, became it as agenda, ‘Hazatelepites’ the In 2007). (Davis Csango Moldavian the and of Szekelys the to then handing and country the of south the in land foreign-owned expropriating ethnic by principles, along Hungary reconstruct to 1940s the in government Bardossy Hungarian values those 1999). (Mărtinaş to accordingly behave to own their on decided and Romanian awareness ethnic or “de-Magyarization” Romanian a their retained Csango the that been states simply he minority; the has of assimilation there since and that Moldavia, denied to Mărtinaş migration their by disrupted was authorities Austrian-Hungarian to the state of the minority. In 2001 the Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Council the of Assembly Parliamentary the 2001 In minority. the of state the to attention brought spotlight international the has recently only and authorship, Romanian 1.5 International Perspective ethnographer 2007) tothe re-settlement (Davis Domokos plan schemes the hire to government Hungarian Kalman the encouraged priest, had same who the Nemeth, was it villages; Csango in ‘hazatelepites’ of propaganda the with involved was who priest Hungarian a arrested Eventually, Romania 2007:170). h ieaue o sno tpc a en dmntd b ugra and Hungarian by dominated been has topics Csango on literature The the of attempts the of evidence hold do authorities Romanian the However,

CEU eTD Collection Memorandum of the Recommendation expands on the historical background of the of background historical the on expands Recommendation the of Memorandum Explanatory the However, debate. origin the sidestepping and group the basic to a definition give to preferring ages”, Middle the from relic “a non- as them characterizes “a and as Csango the defines document Hungarian, of form early an speak who people” Catholic Roman of group homogeneous The minority. the on data better for statistical need the addresses and speakers, Csango 70,000 to 60,000 of estimate as unexplained an provides Europe of Council such the addition, In radio. local and publications media local through example for identity, their express the allow actively will to that minority channels to dedicated be to funds all for of and recognition associations, official Csango the Csango, in education of Csango, in services of religious introduction the for appealed it the accordingly for and , advocate minority an of is protection Europe of Council The villages. the in investment financial as well as minority, the on research linguistic and ethnographic promote in to culture Romania” and minority “Csango the on 1521 Recommendation its released Europe none n esn i AiiMgafl h eivs ta h oa congregation local the that believes who Arini/Magyarfalu in person one encounter not did I fieldwork my During proposes. it changes the welcome would Csango the that my I– research. a view came across during frequently isolation and poverty withareassociated values Csangothat notion preventing the of importance the highlighting minority, the of revival and preservation the on is Europe of Council the of focus the case, any In respectively. context, their in non-Romanians as behave to choosing Romanians of unlikelihood the and invasion, Mongolian the of destruction the of basis on origins Romanian and ancestry Cuman of theories the rejecting Csango, Politically correct as the Recommendation 1521 may be, it cannot be assumed be cannot it be, may 1521 Recommendation the as correct Politically

CEU eTD Collection Although the Vatican’s public stance is neutral, in the past it collaborated with the with their in discourse nationalistic collaborated echoing by policies assimilation it government’s Romanian past the in neutral, is stance public Vatican’s the Although Csango. in services religious to right the emphasize that sections including Europe, of Council the by Recommendation the from quotes of selection a is website official their on information Currently, Church. available Catholic only Roman the the is minority older the leaving behind. generation and work of for migrating population generation younger the its sees For continuously school. elementary Romanian village the priority, as urgent much a is revival economic that seems the it Arini/Magyarfalu, in children their of performance the hinder would efforts those believing education, Csango or Hungarian a of supportive are parents all not that village the in knowledge common is Similarly,it context. religious the in everyone to accessible more is language Romanian the that was consensus general the dialect; Csango the in services religious from benefit would to speak Romanian to what they believed was their already bilingual congregation bilingual already 2008). (Barszczewska their was believed they what to Romanian speak to itmoreconvenient already found priestswhothe region, toJesuits werePolish and sent Franciscans Italian Thus, 2008:66). (Barszczewska Romania” in Church Catholic the of position the weakened have would politics Romanian the into fit have not the would which of wishes the with move “any country: the in presence their maintain complied to effort an in government Romanian Vatican the that region. argues Moldavian (2008) the Barszczewska from away priests Hungarian relocating and churches local nte xenl isiuin woe vie cris ee epr i h Csango the in deeper even carries voice whose institution external Another

CEU eTD Collection 1,370 as Csango (0.006%), and 13,653 as being of “other” ethnicity (0.1%). In this In (0.1%). ethnicity “other” of being as 13,653 and (0.006%), Csango as 1,370 (6.6%); Hungarian ethnically as 1,434,377 (89.5%); Romanian ethnically themselves declared 19,409,400 Romanians, 21,698,181 of total a of out 2002, In ‘undeclared’. in difficulty the census population. the estimating Csango illustrates the religion, of and three tongue in mother data structure, the ethnic of current categories, A levels 2002. local in and national published both recently at most comparison and 1859 to back dating years, ten every produced census the for responsible is (INSSE) Statistica de National Institutul The statistics. official country’s the in minorities ethnolinguistic on stance government’s 1.6 Statistic (In)visibility the former. There may also be a perceived negative connotation to the term “ethnicity”, term the to connotation negative perceived a be also may former.There the to membership contradicted latter the to membership though as Csango, as thereafter only and citizens, Romanian as firstly themselves establish to quick were informants many ethnicity: be and nationality may between overlap category natural the this on confusion of of reflective data The Csangos. 1,500 approximate an houses village alone their believe who Arini/Magyarfalu, of habitants the by challenged also were Hungary’s as category same category ethnicity Csango the for the results the fieldwork my However, during Hungarians. under belong of eyes, Hungarians their the in and who, themselves Transylvania, between distinction a drew informants my as categories, Csango and Hungarian the between overlap an consider not will category,I The ethnic category of the census is composed of 26 ethnicities, plus ‘other’ and ‘other’ plus ethnicities, 26 of composed is census the of category ethnic The Romanian the with together merged is awareness ethnic Csango of issue The

CEU eTD Collection the study’s informants believed that the Csango dialect is not “real Hungarian” and Hungarian” “real not is dialect Csango the that believed informants study’s the Transylvania. of in Additionally,majority are the speakers Hungarian Romania’s of most as numbers, these from Csangos of number the estimate to impossible nearly be would It (0.001%). tongue mother their declare to not chose 5,345 and (0.1%), tongue mother ‘other’ having declared 11,348 (6.7%); Hungarian declared 1,447,544 (91%); tongue mother their be to Romanian declared 19,741,346 Here, ‘undeclared’. and ‘other’ plus languages, 25 of composed is category, which language native the in recognized not is the to ‘Romanian’ with respond of question ethnicity. instinctively would is Csangos it many ethnicity, that and plausible nationality between differences conceptual the explain to from were different just are We census us. the for data collecting person not the Unless language”. and religion but in Romanians ethnicity, an are Gypsies the like people ethnicity… an not and “Romanian are they that highlighted informants my of some as speech between the Csango of Arini/Magyarfalu, they all agree that they all have the have all they that agree all they Arini/Magyarfalu, of Csango the between speech of differences marked are there Although Csango. of form official standardized, no is education: primary begin there since varied they as fluency their assess they until children, as Csango learn they it although learn not do they if even ‘other’, tongue than mother rather their as Romanian declare to reasons compelling have generations Csango younger The census. last the in speakers Hungarian as themselves identified they that confirmed and “Hungarian” as language their to referred consistently study the of informants eldest the Only “Hungarian-Csango”. or “Csango” it call to preferred The census provides an ethnic category foran ethnic however, Csango; The provides census dialect the Csango

CEU eTD Collection Hungarian (0.1%), 5 declared themselves Csango (0.1%), and none were recorded as recorded were none and (0.1%), Csango themselves declared 5 (0.1%), Hungarian ethnically themselves declared 4 (99.5%), Romanian ethnically themselves declared 3,057 inhabitants, commune 3,070 of total a From Arini/Magyarfalu. of village Csango the and Gaiceana– and Popesti –Hutu, villages Romanian three for tier administrative faith as the differentiatormain other and Romanians. themselves between in reside declare Catholic the identified in Arini would to talked I person every Catholics Csangos as Catholics, Roman themselves all Roman that expected these also is of it towns, majority and cities the Transylvanian that expected is it Although (4.7%). Catholics Roman 1,028,401 by followed (86.7%); faith Orthodox an declaring majority,18,806,428 by with country Orthodox an is Romania ‘undeclared’. and ‘atheist’ understand. can fully are sure everyone they language the is Romanian that affirm and Romanian, of knowledge working same ra hrfr, i em luil o etmt h ouain o sno in Csangos of population the estimate to plausible seems it Therefore, area. the in village Catholic Roman only the as Arini/Magyarfalu distinguishes further which Orthodox, strongly are these that stated informants my however, villages; Romanian 1,410 and (53.9%) commune’sthree the visit not did I (45.9%). faith Catholic Roman the following declared faith Orthodox the following declared 1,657 which in category, religion the ethnic on statistics the the by backed is argument reflect This commune. the not of composition does it nationality, of terms in accurate be could for Romanians figure the although Hungarian again, the Once Arini/Magyarfalu. represent in Hungarians residing teachers ethnic language four the that likely is It ‘undeclared’. h essas ulse saitc pcfct h acaa omn, the commune, Gaiceana the to specific statistics published also census The religion’, ‘no ‘other’, plus religions, 16 of composed is category religion The

CEU eTD Collection extreme unlikelihood of 250,000 Csango. of Csango. 250,000 extreme unlikelihood the reached have figures previous that mentioning Csango, 70,000 and 60,000 between figure expected an published Europe of Council to the 2001, 80,000 In 1997). from (Baker ranging 100,000 population a calculated Benda while Csangos; Moldavian 16,000 than less are there that concluded and data census same the interpreted Baker are Orthodox. Romanians and Catholic are Csango the that emphasis with repeating idea, the dismissed quickly she country, the in Romanians non-Csango Catholic, other of complication the about asked When indicator. an as sufficient is Church Catholic Roman the to membership as category, Csango a have to unnecessary it considered she said informant year-old village. the 85- in An supported well is category religious the on based statistics Csango on interpretation country. The the of whole already the in 1,370 of alone count census’ the surpasses village the for that figure a 1,410, approximating as Arini/Magyarfalu or otherwise) for cultural preservation. In its Recommendation 1521 (2001), the Council the (2001), 1521 Recommendation its In preservation. cultural for otherwise) or (financial aid for appeals make cannot community a it, without and power, political and social of acquisition the for tool a is visibility Statistic identity. of mechanisms as serve turn in which religion, and language ethnicity, recognized of records official as serve (Vinczethe population 2002). in feelings nationalistic cultivate and assimilation Romanian their promote to strategy a as Csangos the eliminate” “statistically to attempt Romania’s of claims Hungarian The issue of available statistical information is critical to all minorities, as they as minorities, all to critical is information statistical available of issue The of center the at been have population Csango the determining in difficulties The Robin 1997 in remain: population Csango the estimating in complications The

CEU eTD Collection steady anchor of public identity. As a result, many believe it to be ‘easier’ to assume to ‘easier’ be to it believe many result, a identity.As public of anchor steady as the only citizenship leaving thusblurred, ethnicity and become concepts of nationality The Csango. as categorized be to beneficial is it not or whether and is, Csango a what articulating in difficulty have Csangos many obligations, and rights clear with identity transparent a represents ‘Romanian’ label the while Csangos: ethnic as forward coming officially in entailed meaning the about confusion wide is there addition, In ‘Hungarian’. as dialect, their even or themselves, describe to reluctant are who Csangos younger the and Hungary to bond linguistic and ethnic stronger a in believe who Csangos older the between gap generational noticeable a of be struggles to the seems by There self-identity. shared Csango also is blame the census, previous the of examination the by demonstrated as however, preservation; their for research in advances delayed at correctly registered the next official census. wouldbe the Csango that amendmentsensure to calledformake Romania to Europe of ulig te Hnain ad Rmna ainlsi gna. Rc was Race agendas. nationalistic Romanian that so divisions, territorial even and and religious “social, transcend to “instrumentalized” Hungarian the fuelling and diglossia, cognition, as ethnicity awareness. metalinguistic identity: Csango of analysis linguistic and 1.7 Theoretical Framework tothe order in same rights. enjoy Csango establishthe themselvesinofficialattempt Romanianidentities as to rathersphere, than As demonstrated so far, the racial approach to ethnicity has been convenient in convenient been has ethnicity to approach racial the far, so demonstrated As ethnic my to relevant most concepts and theories the establishes section This have may figures blurred the Csango, the of case the in that plausible is It

CEU eTD Collection factors are crucial to their identity construction. The flexibility of their own categorization own their of flexibility The construction. identity their to crucial are factors what reveals that others of and themselves of categorization linguistic and ethnic own their their is it outside but alike), levels micro and macro from at Romanians, and Hungarians (by them villages onto imposed categorizations these of The aware “host”. are current Csango their and nation” “mother past their between identity assigned previously an choose to discourse public of expectations the by pressed predicament: same the in found often are they states, across spread minority powerless politically a an to refers which (2001:65), not minority” “trapped termed has Rabinowitz technically what of example are Csango the Although time. across identity ethnic molding in or Hungarian either ‘feel’ context Csango social of influence the aside pushing origins, debated the their on based Romanian that assumed far so has minority. discourse Csango the Public of construction identity of evolution and complexity the to grasp failed has approach racial the simplicity the However, 2007:161). (Davis rank” or class particular a than nation ethnic entire the for problems became problems national perspective on the world (Brubaker et. al 2004:32). This definition liberates the Csango the liberates definition This 2004:32). al et. (Brubaker world the on perspective a but world, the in thing a not fundamentally which is “ethnicity that premise 2004, the on functions in Stamatov Peter and Loveman Mara Brubaker, put Rogers cognition by as authored ethnicity of theory the from draws self-identity Csango of analysis My 2004). (Brubaker nationality –race, aspects objectivist promoted previously the over processes— self-identification –perceptions, aspects subjectivist its on focus increased changes. landscape as their social discourse public nationalistic and assimilation of waves through identity their negotiate to them allowed has process With the emergence of constructivist approaches to ethnicity, there has been an been has ethnicity,there to approaches constructivist of emergence the With

CEU eTD Collection aeoiain poess ta nlec dniy frain is, te official the micro-level a at people ordinary by activities first, categorization daily the second, and level; macro- formation: a at institutions powerful other identity any and state the by influence imposed categorizations that two processes to applicable is categorization ethnicity to and approach cognitive classification The 2004:32). al. of et (Brubaker “practices shared the on others by) (and of classification the and self-classification both including categorization, but culture, and traits shared on founded solely not is ethnicity that argues who anthropologist Norwegian a Barth, not and as Romanian. Csango, self-identify ethnically to able unquestionably are they ethnicity, to approach this Under majority. Romanian the of that from different are which history and surroundings social their on perspectives own their developed have also they language, and to differentreligion having addition in that, accept in readily difficulties Csango the their status: ethnic of current their and articulating anthropology, racial-based of constraints rigid the from mn h aeois o ugras ugras o rnyvna oain and Romanians Transylvania, of Hungarians Hungarians, distinctions of clear categories draw the they among as core, the at distinct remained has situations social categorizing of way their identity,but collective Csango the influence did churches and heavy schools the by Romanians classification imposed despite The assimilation. ethnic majority, their at attempts Romanian the of that from separate identity own their maintain to Csango the allowed has what is level micro a at categorization of practice However,formation. identity everyday determines the it that and one, legitimate only the is authors– external by –decided level macro a at Csango the of categorization the that assuming former, the on focused has discourse public far, So 2004). al., et (Brubaker The take on ethnicity from a cognitive angle is based on the work of Fredrik of work the on based is angle cognitive a from ethnicity on take The

CEU eTD Collection is used in the public sphere, while the ‘low’ language remains in use in the private the in use in remains language ‘low’ the while sphere, public the in used is was which of latter the – education, and religion in ‘high’used ais diglossia, which language, In Romania’shope. replacement speech language a or within merging formed without is co-existence community linguistic of a concept such the how 1967, in explains Fishman diglossia by developed and 1959 in Ferguson Originally by villages. coined the in dialect Csango and language Romanian the of existence co- the in resulted have policies assimilation linguistic Romanian the of aftermath the conjunction with in Csango ofstandardized, formation. identity writtenform a of Thelack their of study the to relevant concept another diglossia, of practice their on reflected nature of (2004). ethnicity the changing in variable important an as context historical and social incorporates ethnicity,which to approach circumstantialist the of revitalizing and supportive is perspective cognitive this that believe al. et Brubaker levels. political and cultural linguistic, ethnic, on themselves minority; consequently, metalinguistic awareness has been a critical factor in identity in factor critical a been has awareness metalinguistic consequently, minority; ethnolinguistic an are Csango The 2010). (Kerper language that of knowledge her or of consciousness explicit the hisof tostate estimate the and a process, it as speakerview to allows the languagethat to referring concept a awareness, metalinguistic of minority, as is the Csango. case of the Moldavian a of self-esteem’ ‘collective the over influence great hold may which prestige, linguistic of matters to associated closely very is Diglossia 1967). (Fishman home the of sphere The Csango practice of diglossia and code-switching has developed their sense their developed has code-switching and diglossia of practice Csango The well is level micro a at events linguistic and social of categorization Csango The

CEU eTD Collection of Bacău, Botoşani, Iasi, Neamţ, Vaslui and Vrancea, starting in the Middle Ages and Ages Middle the in starting Vrancea, and Vaslui Neamţ, Iasi, Botoşani, Bacău, of counties Romanian eastern the by comprised province a Moldavia, The in arrived Csangos location. and patterns migration historical traditions, and customs dialect, their 2.1 Introduction to Csango land C produced particular turn in the context. the in social exchanges mutual through are which in people, rooted a of is practices categorization that and process perspectives a as construction ethnicity, identity to approach emphasizing cognitive its in minority Csango the on studies ethnographic the on expectations identity. a Csango to is necessary develop which fluency of degree Csango different minimum have to seem minority the of members as formation, who did between the 17 the between did who those and Middle Ages, the in counties the Moldavian southern the in settled between who Csangos distinction a make also suggest, to argued is name their of etymology the as away’, ‘roamed who Szeklers of descendants are Csangos the that position the defend who researchers those division, this to addition today’s In (Tanczos 2008). Bacău/Bako yielding policies, of assimilation south the and Roman/Romanvasar, of north the and in villages Csango of concentration wars by overtime that disrupted villages of became continuum a into settled group non-homogeneous linguistically the 18 late the in wave emigration an in peaking HAPTER The Csangos differ from the Hungarians of Transylvania, including the Szeklers, in Szeklers, the including Transylvania, of Hungarians the from differ Csangos The h hoeia rmwr f ti hss hn ifr rm ta f previous of that from differs then, thesis, this of framework theoretical The 2 M 2 ETHODOLOGY th and 19 and th centuries, dividing the latter into three geographical three into latter the dividing centuries, th century (Tanczos 2008). It is thought that thought is (Tanczos It century 2008).

CEU eTD Collection Csango villages in total in (Tanczos villages Csango 2008). category, 85 same and the within grouped also villages additional twenty-three are here river. Siret/Szeret Currently the along settled Csangos Székelyised southern, the of part the and river, Tazlau/Tazlo the Trotus/Tatros (Tanczosriver river, 2008). Siret/Szeret the along settled those groups: Under this categorization of the Csango, my fieldsite, consideredfieldsite, my is Arini/Magyarfalu,Csango, the of categorization this Under Figure 1: Religious-Linguistic Map of Csango Land in 1997 in Land Map of Csango 1:Figure Religious-Linguistic

CEU eTD Collection speech communities from North to South, each with slightly different phonological and phonological different slightly with each South, to North from communities speech My informants in Arini/Magyarfalu believe that the Csango villages form a chain of chain a form villages Csango the that believe Arini/Magyarfalu in informants My red] Source: http://www.csangok.ro/hartaceangai%20nagy.jpg [Arini/Magyarfalu in [Arini/Magyarfalu

CEU eTD Collection naiat s Hnain. Te nm a eotdy ecagd fr te official the for exchanged currently that believe informants The regime. the of fall reportedly the after ‘Arini’ name Romanian its was categorized name ethnically The they Hungarians. because as “Ungur” inhabitants as it to referred simply villages surrounding the in living Romanians the period, Communist the during and before that report but Magyarfalu, be to name original the believe informants My Arini/Magyarfalu. 2.2 Introduction to Arini/Magyarfalu other). or (Hungarian spoken red. in is emphasized land, the ofin corner southeastern Csango Arini/Magyarfalu, language and other) or village, (Catholic size religion on dominant information visual provides and villages, Csango these of location remote the illustrates 1 Figure in map The borrowings. Romanian their increasing be to seem these as second, close a as dialects Csango the and villages, these between link important most single the as religion Catholic the identify They variations. lexical agricultural work. Every family in the village owns a parcel of land, where they usually they where land, of parcel a owns village the in family Every work. agricultural to dedicated are genders, both and ages all including inhabitants, its of majority the being to the north. Vladnic/Labnik village Csango closest the villages, Romanian by surrounded geographically is It heard. widely be still can form language Hungarian a where Hungary from place easternmost the and village, Csango easternmost the is Arini/Magyarfalu that andproudly repeatedly mentioned was it interviews my of several During non-Csango. with conversing not are they as long as Magyarfalu, as place the to refer residents village all y aayi s rsrce o te suhr, Séeysd Cag ilg of village Csango Székelyised southern, the to restricted is analysis My Arini/Magyarfalu is a rural, small-sized village (see section on statistics above), and above), statistics on section (see village small-sized rural, a is Arini/Magyarfalu

CEU eTD Collection epniiiy fr te sagtr o h am aias n h ee-nig ts of task never-ending the and animals, farm the take of land, slaughter the on the work for men responsibility the Arini, to return their Upon earnings. their of most home send they foreign where from northern , or Europe central and to western in countries work for migrate temporarily they trend, recent a in and cities, Romanian nearby in work find usually Men meals. family the prepare and hens, household’s the spring from eggs the collect leafs, green and mushrooms, in berries, pick to forest grapes the enter months, they so sticks to vines grape the tie women field, the in crops the on working and family the raising of addition in roles: gender of lines rigid— –not fine be to seem there and activities, agricultural in involved are family a of members All convenience. to work hard prefer and self-sufficiency to dedicated remain to had have families therefore, ; of city Romanian southern the in The is months. center shopping winter closest the in pork and fall the in beef summer; the in lamb spring; the in consumed is poultry rotation: seasonal in are dishes available of types The food. and work for animals farm own families most addition, in corn; and grapes, trees, fruit grow houses folkloric events and celebrations), and the Hungarian school (financed by the by (financed school Hungarian the and celebrations), and events folkloric houses (which House Hungarian the school, elementary Romanian the are village the of sites significant Other church. to housethe modernannexed arelativelyinlarge, village, lives tallest –the the inhabiting Romanians Church few the of one priest, Catholic The located. is village— the local in building the where village, the of center the is branches of the thathills landscape. branches delineate outward in ofThe point meeting these vehicles. and their homes repairing As one of my informants described, construction in Arini/Magyarfalu has developed has Arini/Magyarfalu in construction described, informants my of one As

CEU eTD Collection interest in the Csango dialect or in learning Hungarian words, and as such, people are people such, as and words, Hungarian learning in or dialect Csango the in no interest shown has He activities. Church of outside regularly them with interact not does and villagers the from distance his keep to said is he however, months; summer the in days” “village held occasionalmassduringHungarianinthe the give priesttoHungarian a for allows who man tolerant a as him describe informants of My authority. figure and power a as priest the for respect deep have they therefore, populations; Csango all unites that link the and feature identity Csango important most the as faith Catholic inbeen living recent has years. Arini/Magyarfalutwo for identifiedtheir my Allinformants mostthe whom priests,Romanianof ofrotation a by priest, filled a role the village is first The village. the of affairs the in influence strong having as actors certain regard widely to seem Arini/Magyarfalu of people the Moldavia, in Csango-Hungarians of Association a in is station attention clinic. as is the closest medical village, Romanian neighboring police closest The Moldavia). in Csango-Hungarians of Association opinions on Csango identity and history are reproductions of knowledge produced by produced knowledge of reproductions are history and identity Csango on personal opinions and anecdotes Her technique. interview I snowballing whenever the informants use my to by attempted her to referred frequently was Csango I on identity; knowledge and accurate history most the with village the in elder the as regarded at my wince counts Hungarian. briefly in expression his noticed I and event, communion first a after children young with him photographing while rule unspoken this forgot I presence. his in Hungarian speaking by him annoy to not mindful n adto o ofca oain isiuin n raiain uh a the as such organizations and institutions Romanian official to addition In nte nleta hrce n te vlae i 3 ya l ua h s widely is who Luca, old year 73 is village the in character influential Another

CEU eTD Collection local contact for the Association of Csango-Hungarians in Moldavia, and manages the manages and Moldavia, in Csango-Hungarians of Association the for contact local main the also is He population. Csango Moldavian the including Romania, in minorities ethnic Hungarian the representingbody political a Hungarian], in Szövetség, Demokrata the for works village, Hungary, in contact an remains son events. Csango on folkloric resources online organizing Her periphery. the from has and involved school Hungarian remained the of curriculum the of critical strongly is she teaches, longer no she newspaper. Romanian Although a by 2003 in endeavors educational her the for criticized was she teachers; Hungarian bring support and house a buy to funds with initiative to able was Moldavia in Csango-Hungarians of Association the before young-adult the of generation Csango Arini/Magyarfalu by conclusive considered are but discourse, nationalist Hungarian local attitudes and self-reflections of the Csango issue, as well as observations on observations as well as issue, Csango the of self-reflections and attitudes local both address to methodology the in other each supplemented observation participant and interviews The observation. participant and groups, focus interviews, structured 2.3 Methodology collective major all in involved is and decisions. village, the in figures authority the of one as regarded widely is he age, young his Despite group. singing folkloric the of activities Peter, the youngest resident to have great influence in everyday-activities in the in everyday-activities in influence great have to resident youngest the Peter, home her in classes Hungarian teaching began first who woman the is Annetta I collected the relevant data for this study through the use of exploratory and semi- and exploratory of use the through study this for data relevant the collected I Democratic Alliance of [ Romania in Hungarians of Democratic Alliance Romániai Magyar Romániai

CEU eTD Collection 41), while a second was made with two females (ages 33 and 38) and a male (age 38). (age male a and 38) and 33 (ages females two with made was second a while 41), and 35 24, 20, (ages interviewees males with only made male was group focus One nine 65. to 8 from the ranged of ages and 85, to 19 from female age twelve in The ranged population. interviewees the of representative as treated be not should they imbalance, gender slight and number short their to due however, Arini/Magyarfalu; in events. other performances, and daily folkloric for rehearsals funeral, a clips: short and photographs in also events I documented A). Appendix (see interviews exploratory six and groups focus hour-long two to addition in length, in hour an averaging interviews, individual 14 videotaped 16 I days, of course the Over village. the in maintenance to and regard construction in identity Csango knowledge collective and attitudes the explore to sought and religion, and language nationality, ethnicity, of terms in self-awareness of themes the around revolved interviews these during asked questions The customs. local and use language ilg n sno iett. I diin e w f m nomns b randomly by informants my of two met I addition, In identity. Csango and village the of history the on ‘experts’ the as regard widely to seemed villagers who elders with interviews secure me helped also She acquaintances. and friends her of homes the to visits her in along me invited who hostess, my of aid the with informants my of majority the to access received I homes. their to visits during and school language Hungarian degrees). varying to Hungarian and the at both observation, participant through them with interaction However, regular had I Csango understand to seem they although exclusively, almost Romanian speak children (young issues language and accessibility to due interviews from boy,excluded were 8-year-old an of exception the with Children, The sample of the study covers both genders and three generations of Csangos of generations three and genders both covers study the of sample The

CEU eTD Collection partners would display frustration and embarrassment whenever I failed to understand to failed I whenever embarrassment and frustration display would partners conversation efforts: ethnographic my the to problematic However, proved categorization Hungarian Hungary. in Hungarians and of Transylvania, in categorization Hungarians Csangos, their of reflective between distinctions make they how is on reflection a also is logic and groups, ethnolinguistic This Hungarian. as me identifying therefore correct”, “grammatically and “real” “proper”, as dialect Hungarian my classified ethnicity, and nationality by Mexican locals as myself introducing Despite fieldsite. the in arrival my uponidentity purposeand my thenegotiationof immediatelyreflectedin were 2.4 Identity Negotiation disruptions. minimal ensure to informants’ homes the in place took part most the for and Hungarian, in conducted were interviews the mass. of All evening after church in them approaching hi peh oe friig o y msnesadns n lo see to seemed usually was there interview each of end the at reciprocated: also was curiosity My practices. cultural and and self-identity their misunderstandings, about questions my my themselves to justify of automatically forgiving more speech, their about relaxed more became informants My consent. for request formal my with along session, interview each before had be to conversation a was This goals. (not journalistic) academic by driven is study my that and language, native my not is Hungarian suspicion expressed people you sent by (“were here reporters?). the in my village purpose regarding few a and language—, his in speak” to “ashamed felt he because interviewed be to declined politely informant potential –one colloquialisms The sensitivities surrounding the labeling and categorization of the Csango dialect Csango the of categorization and labeling the surrounding sensitivities The These concerns came to rest after insisting that I identify myself as Mexican, that Mexican, as myself identify I that insisting after rest to came concerns These

CEU eTD Collection situation. Ultimately, I had to accept that it is nearly impossible to assume a neutral fieldwork. research during identity a assume to impossible nearly is it that accept to had I Ultimately, situation. economic my question to as far as went some and year?”), the of time this at they harvest do crops “What farm?” they do animals of kind (“What self-sufficiency of terms in poverty is there to compare theirs in those villages if how villages, Mexican in is like life Mexico, what daily know to which wanted They operas, luxury. of soap place a Mexican as Mexico televised showcase of images the with comparisons drawing village, the of poverty the at embarrassment express to began partners conversation and informants my of few A drawback. unexpected an had it however, of communication; channels the opened Mexican as myself positioning Neutrally roles. in reversal a

CEU eTD Collection h ugra esetvs o hi dniy h nleta sno characters Csango influential The identity. their of perspectives Hungarian the of echoes blur, and a being history their about answers vague received mostly I origins, their about directly asked When descriptions. their into “Romanian” and “Hungarian” words the incorporate to way best the about doubtful seemed informants my of majority The traditions. and history of mention of absence noticeable a with “language”, and “religion” words the on emphasis included lines, gender and age across answer, every C Csango identity and historical knowledge: the most influential characters of the village the of characters influential most the knowledge: historical and identity Csango of diffusion and production the is first The awareness. ethnolinguistic and construction through identity Csango identity in homogeneity prevent sustain that patterns social two that are there periods, assimilation anchors two the are language and religion direct a by-word. is village the word- in matched virtually sometimes Csango, the disperse on theories Hungarian of reproduction they that knowledge the However, Csango. the about truth the be to believe they what on view clear a demonstrating resolute and attitude a with differently, answered above section ‘Methodology’ the in mentioned HAPTER Orthodox people speak Romanian only –they don’t know any Csango” any Csango” –they know don’t only Romanian speak Orthodox people and Orthodox, are speak they you because means Romanians are that Romanians and Csango; Csango, are you then Catholic are you if Csango: speak and Catholic are they because Csango are Csango “The Although it is evident from the available literature and ethnographic studies that studies ethnographic and literature available the from evident is it Although and Csango?”, the are “who question: the with began session fieldwork Each 3 L 3 ANGUAGE

AND R ELIGION : : THE T ANGLED A NCHORS Luca, Luca, 73

CEU eTD Collection n uvvn hm mitiig Cag dniy dmns aatblt n the in adaptability demands identity Csango of what it tomeans be Csango. conceptualization maintaining them surviving and different, been have generation each by faced waves assimilatory The context. social its of dependent is construction identity infactor a considered be may that else anything but identities, malleable these in unchanged remain language and religion of threads common The generation. previous the by faced one the from different is that landscape social changing a in identity collective its renegotiate to had has generation Csango Every Romanians). and other Hungarians ethnic (including non-Csango and the Csango of categorization of trends the in as well as Csango, the of status minority the towards attitudes changing the in reflected awareness, linguistic and ethnic in variation based generation- the is second The knowledge”. “common as theories such of acceptance the in resulting from, came originally ideas the where remembers nobody until over, and over reproduced orally are theories These residents. fellow their of beliefs the mark that theories legitimate as them reproduce and matter, the on theories different learn elc h tiue oad sno iett rm tre gnrtos ah section Each generations. three from identity Csango towards attitudes the reflect economy. to the thrive in Romanian opportunities less having and speaker), Csango a being (including identity Csango a having between associations make to begun have and Csango, the of status socioeconomic low the with the concerned of more speak generations more are generations younger culture, and language older Csango preserving of importance the where identity Csango: collective and the individual of the consciousness in emerged has trend noticeable a minority, The results of the ethnography are here analyzed in three separate sections that sections separate three in analyzed here are ethnography the of results The the of aspects gray other several the to addition in patterns, these of result a As

CEU eTD Collection language as Hungarian, but also made note that interchangeability between the terms own the between interchangeability their that note to made also but and Hungarian, as language Hungarian, being as village the to Hungarians, as themselves to referred consistently 85, to 63 from age in ranging informants, four discourse. All public Hungarian in cemented firmly is origins Csango on take their and traditions, and history Csango on experts local the as regarded widely are category this fit who informants four the of Two ones. recent most the from different strikingly is that identity Csango 3.1 Identity Construction in the Eldest Generation each to relevant context identity economic on and generation. opinions historical a awareness, provides metalinguistic and of construction, issues to reference makes Romanian consciousness from local priests. Ticska narrates: “Our priest used to be to used priest “Our narrates: Ticska priests. local from consciousness Romanian for appeals the first-hand at experienced that generations Csango the of one is that fact state the as the despite is view Romania This worked. and owned always regarding have they that land the simply managing loyalty, Romanian of questions of clear steer to self-identity their allowed has categorization black-and-white this that possible of Transylvania. isHungarians the It and Csango Moldavian the between distinction real no saw who Romanians, with experiences their of reflective is Csango-Hungarian) or ‘Hungarian’ ‘Catholic’and to referring their minority.when acceptable is entirely “Anywhere we went, the Romanians would point us point out to us forwould scold speaking went, we the Romanians “Anywhere Their ethnic categorization of themselves as Hungarian (as opposed to Csango to opposed (as Hungarian as themselves of categorization ethnic Their on perspective a provides Arini/Magyarfalu of residents of generation eldest The Hungarian. They were always yelling “Unguri, Unguri, Unguri!”” Unguri, “Unguri, yelling They always were Hungarian. Ticska, 85

CEU eTD Collection hi xeine ih Rmna siiain plce ifrnl hn Hungarian than of agents as teachers and priests differently identify all they While expected. have would theories policies assimilation Romanian with experiences their bilingual a of advantages the staysyouth, as place. thein so Csango long current ofpractice diglossia perceive and Romanian the in of fluent context are economic They and country. political the with evolved has that process natural a as assimilation accepts also but school), language Hungarian the of efforts educational the supports thus (and maintained be village the of identity ethnolinguistic collective like didn’t They saying?”. you are “What part only of spoke”. what we understanding ask repeatedly and conversations our interrupt would they because police, the “Unguri… as bad himself as to wasn’t he grumble least At Unguri…”. and around turn to used he Hungarian speaking us saw he When Hungarians. ourselves call not should we that us tell and us, at annoyed hn h eal h odr ih Hnay big oe gi fe h al of fall the after again open being Hungary with borders the recalls he when smiles He deficiencies. of state permanent a in linger to seemed village the residents, the of work hard the despite how and time, the of poverty the of stories narrates Pavel a language. speak uniform citizens thatinsist Romanian all eventually they would that natural only was it that and most issue, Csango the that on stances neutral believe had Romanians they Rather, state. Romanian the by coordinated or character in oppressive were actions their that believe not do they assimilation, linguistic and ethnic The Ceausescu period is remembered differently by the Arini/Magyarfalu elders. Arini/Magyarfalu the by differently remembered is period Ceausescu The internalized have elders four the discourse, Hungarian of support their Despite the that important is it that believes Arini/Magyarfalu of generation elder The

CEU eTD Collection the awareness of they the who are. awareness a as society and roots, Romanian their lose not will they process the in that to hope only They survival. of method adapt to generations Csango following the of need the comprehend elders the Therefore, eats”. everyone not but made be to money is there days these eat; to enough was there but money no had we then “Back concluded: who Kata, by echoed are sentiments These life”. fair a was it that know also I but then, back time rough a was It enough. pay not does agriculture and workplace, a have not do people nowadays, babies; two day,with every even forest the and fields the to out went I even lands, their to dedicated were people then Back them. paid he worked, person that if had: they descendants what or spoke, person a languages what in interested since. improved significantly has village the in Csango the of lifestyle the that notes and , sno (r atraiey Cag-ugras n ugras n cnrs o their to contrast In Hungarians. and Csango-Hungarians) alternatively (or Csango the between distinction us/them an draws that generation a is This folklore. Csango of hobby,purposesaofthe for entertainmentHungarianthe offans mostlyfor and perform it practice they but folklore, Csango of performers are They practices. religious Catholic their preserving by and spheres private the in language Csango of use the through one 3.2 Identity Construction in the Middle Generation The middle generation of generation previous middle the The with links identity Arini/Magyarfaluretained not was He just. was He fair. was “Ceausescu declared: Luca Contrastingly, “Our language is neither Hungarian nor Romanian… just like us” just like nor Romanian… Hungarian is neither “Our language Florin, Florin, 41

CEU eTD Collection dniis esl a h ine fHnain agaecassi h ilg. She village. the in classes language Hungarian of pioneer the as herself identifies restructuration of Romania. the was nationwide categorization which socialized, were adults these which in context through the of consequence a as practices evolved simply has it disappeared; not has identity Csango generation. adult the this in changed, stable remained has has others of ethnicity and self of the of importance categorization the of evaluation the while that shows ethnicity to approach cognitive the identity, collective Csango in decay of indicator an as interpreted be can incongruences these that fact the Despite assimilation. Romanian past of effects the counter to efforts make to harmful, even undesirable, is it feels that third a and Csango, be to entails it what about language ambiguous feels that Hungarian second a school; the of efforts the supports and culture, and language Csango of recognition the for advocates popular which one camps: rather, three into split ethnicity; be to seems opinion on claim uniform a have not do they generation, parents’ want our children to first learn the ”, while the latter was of the of was latter the while language”, Romanian the learn first to children our want we but against, hall. or pro village neither are the We announced. to been and have authorities station Competent police the to issue the addressed the “we to stated newspaper: former The Beta. Petru priest, school village’s newspaper the elementary and Romanian local Gatu, Traian the director, a of in views opposing criticized the heavily gathered which efforts ‘Desteptarea’, her found she 2003 April In past. the of policies assimilation language Romanian the with effect balancing a have would language Hungarian the children Csango teaching that and customs, and identity Csango of survival the ensure to strategy effective most the is education that believes The perspective of the first camp is best represented by representedby best is camp first woman who the the Annetta,of perspective The

CEU eTD Collection currently work with Romanians. Therefore, they prefer to claim having ‘neutral’ stance ‘neutral’ having claim to prefer they Therefore, Romanians. with work currently them of most and Romanians, by educated were they hand, other the on them; to down handed been have that traditions oral the of faith, Catholic their of proud there. areThey or here either nor being not Hungarian as terms, similar neither in themselves not: define to is like and Romanian, it what of terms in language their characterize they section, this of quote the in articulated As population. Romanian surrounding the from Csango the distinguish that aspects linguistic and cultural the and formation, identity in nationality and citizenship of role the of arguments between forth and back roll answers identity, Csango their about directly asked When village. the of generation middle the to classes. Hungarian after-school take weekly children village the of all- not –but majority the today and opposition, the despite efforts her continued 2003). Annetta (Desteptarea too” Romanian know who those for found be can Hungary in jobs “as speak, to language advantageous more a overall is Romanian that opinion hc rbkr age o b h an dtriat o tnct. Ter raos for reasons Their ethnicity. of determinant main the be to argues Brubaker which perspective, world of terms in Csango the of rest the withparallel undeniable in are they themselves, of spite in perhaps and so, Even stance. “anti-Csango” an described be it,do not and hide They they but know are Csango they do not what to know make of it. generation. same the from Csango other do as concept the on grasp same Hungarian the hold and they Romanian identity, Csango of the articulations ambiguous their vis-à-vis beyond that reveal themselves populations position they which in way ethnicity,identity. of their questions on aside setting the of However, claims their despite The third camp on Csango identity on the surface claims to take on what could what on take to claims surface the on identity Csango on camp third The belong informantswho my of majority the of accommodating is camp second The

CEU eTD Collection as parents they worry that teaching the Csango dialect to their children will hinder their hinder will children their to dialect Csango the teaching that worry they parents as census. it: As summarized “IBalint can’t officially thatprove I anyway”. am Csango, official the in Romanian as themselves identify they why minority, national and a of part being to advantageous more is Romanian being that believe they why school, language Hungarian the to children their send to refuse village the in parents the of many why is This logical. seems label Csango the rejecting of Csango reaction the prestige, low between and identity correlation the of belief this internalizes camp the As recognition. less opportunities, less money, less having and minority) a of member a just even (or Csango being between associations drawquickly they Csango villages, poverty-stricken the to return their Upon groups. other of levels socioeconomic the attentionto paid have and lifestyles other to exposed been have They borders. Romania’s outside even and is informants my of camp Arini/Magyarfalu,of outside worked and This travelled have who adults young logic. by comprised without not are label Csango the repelling 3.3 Identity Construction in the Youngest Generation start Romanian. with head a them give to important more is it and dialect, Csango the with up catch soon will children the that believe parents the but dialect, Csango the eliminating entirely of potential the has practice This adults. among only spoken is Csango and children, their of practice the ofpresence asthe in aswell public places is spokenthatRomanian in now diglossia,so modified have they such, As school. Romanian the in performance “My friends know about the but it’s“My know Csango, Ifriends because just them tell I’m Romanian In addition, this generation has already gone through a Romanian education, andeducation, Romanian a through gone already has generation this addition, In simpler. It’s not are Romanian” thatthe Csango important because

CEU eTD Collection Hungarian elementary school thinking in an effort to teach him the language, but later a but language, to the him teach him to effort an sent in thinking parents school elementary Hungarian whose university in classmates Csango her of one of story recalledthe Monica school. inbetter doto them allowed has it becauseRomanian know they that better is it that decide then but dialect, Csango the of more them taught had parents their wish speaking they sometimes that comfortable me in confided more Monica Tatiana and Romanian. being also to admit teenagers other the their and during playtime, Romanian speak to prefer children the “true” consequence, of a version As run-down Hungarian. a is dialect Csango the that assuming vocabulary, and apologetictheir grammarof “improper” bothbut are Csango, andRomanian speak They generations. all throughout steady remained has ethnicity Csango of categorization the that proving identity, their of elements crucial the as dialect Csango and faith Catholic their identify awareness. They metalinguistic of issues and struggles identity their reveal o qeto h enn f a Cag dniy ad hw i eae o Romanian to relates it how and identity Csango a of meaning the question to toeveryone”. need constantly remind the feel really don’t I so Arini, from I’m know they and Csango am I that know already I because but embarrassed, I’m because not it… do won’t I friends Romanian my with speak I’ll Csango, another or I’m if But Magyarfalu. as village this to refer and Csango, as myself to refer and Csango you to talking am I “if affirmed: Liviu context. social their to according flexibly themselves categorizing of advantage the discovered have 20s their in are who informants my of Those school. Romanian a in greatly suffered As their socialization with Romanian youth increases, the Csango youth begins youth Csango the increases, youth Romanian with socialization their As The youngest of my informants, ranging in age from 8 to 24, are fast to fast are 24, to 8 from age in ranging informants, my of youngest The Monika, 19 Monika,

CEU eTD Collection supportive of this progression in ethnic identity development. development. identity ethnic in of supportive this progression be to seems in Arini/Magyarfalu youth Csango the of evidence anecdotal the otherwise, an negative); or positive being as (either culture andlanguage Csango toward parents their pass of truly attitudes the on never early from children internalize they as Csango period, identity” that ethnic “unexamined arguable is It 2006). Aber and identity (Allen ethnic achieved and are: exploration, stages identity The ethnic youth. identity, Csango ethnic of unexamined formation identity ethnic the to relevant is that to remains be seen. identity Romanian the with Csango affect will minority the contact of openness newfound the which majority.to degree The minimal had and secluded entirely almost lived which generations, previous the to unknown was assimilation internal of type This citizenship. Alipuria Phinney proposed a model of ethnic identity development of three stages three ofdevelopment identity ethnic of model a proposed Phinney Alipuria

CEU eTD Collection approach to ethnicity, which conceptualizes ethnicity as a common perspective on the on perspective common a as ethnicity conceptualizes which ethnicity, to approach rigid imposing considerations, biological and ethnicity.of concept the on cognitivedefinitionsHowever, the supports case Csango the racial on based been has Europe common as origins their on theories knowledge. these of many reproduced and absorbed These academic. have who minority, Csango as the to itself available made been presents have discourses that nationalistic material of availability wide the information, despite reliable consistent, of lack the on remarked has Europe of Council The Romanians. and Hungarians both of agendas nationalistic the for arena an as minority C Csango show thatshow identity,Csango construct.a fluid remains language, and ethnicity just like Moldavian The future. the in survival to their to malleable key the is remain and contexts, to social changing minority the allowed has stance this by provided cohesion group The groups. ethnic Hungarian other and Romanians from different intrinsically have generations all Csango, as themselves being categorizing world, the on perspective common a maintained collectively of meaning the towards attitudes changing despite and language, and religion their by identity their in anchored remained have they Csango; the on imposed been have changes social region, Moldavian the swept have assimilation of waves others. As and self the of categorization the on based world ONCLUSION Previous scholarship on the Moldavian Csango and other minorities in Eastern in minorities other and Csango Moldavian the on scholarship Previous Csango Moldavian the on literature the on overview an provided has thesis This

CEU eTD Collection Annetta Gina Florin Abel Anetta Bibi Balint Narciza Iedu Liliana Lily Peter Tatiana Valentin Liviu Monica Ronny changed: been have names – informants of List A Ticska Luca Pavel Mari Aniko PPENDIX Name A 85 73 65 63 57 55 50 41 40 40 39 38 36 35 34 33 26 24 24 20 19 8 Age F F M F F F F M M F F M F M F F M F M M F M Gender Catholic nun Catholic performer Folkloric representative Political “Csango expert” “Csango expert” “Csango schoolteacher language Hungarian performer Folkloric Additional information

Semi-structured Focus 1 group Semi-structured Focus 2 group Informal Informal Focus 1 group Focus 1 group Walking Informal Semi-structured Semi-structured Semi-structured Semi-structured Semi-structured Semi-structured Informal Informal; focus 2 group Informal Semi-structured Informal; focus 2 group Focus 2 group Interview Type CEU eTD Collection Generation-based photographs ofthe Csango A PPENDIX (A) The oldest generation: Ticska reminiscing about traditions Csango in her youth [pictured left in the book] B CEU eTD Collection Mari: “We are because Csango are we Catholic” CEU eTD Collection (B) The middle generation: The middle Annetta narrating the tumultuous start of the classes the Annetta starttumultuous narrating language of the Hungarian Csango nuns working in in working nuns Csango CEU eTD Collection (C) The youngest The generation: youngest School-aged children playing in the Hungarian school after their language class after school their language the in Hungarian playing children School-aged Csango identity changes, but changes, identity it not does fade Csango CEU eTD Collection In addition to their studies, children participate in agricultural activities agricultural in participate to In their studies, children addition CEU eTD Collection Studies. Studies. 1999, Iasi, Romania maghiară” the (and WWII during Consequences)”. Unintended Schemes “Hazatelepítés” Hungary’s behind Motives Strategic Cognition”. Budapest – Foundation, Pro Minoritate MoldaviaFoundation Laszlo in Csangos Hungarian In: Centuries. Lifeworlds. Csango Transnational and Local Society, Ethnographical Janos In: Cluj-Napoca Factors. Political and Social 680 R Ethnie’? 1996”. 1-10 During Adolescence”. Identity Ethnic of Development Without and Bilingualism”. %E2%80%93_interju_vincze_gabor_tortenesszel http://www.erdely.ma/kultura.php?id=76119&cim=nemzeti_optika_ Budapest Foundation, Research. its of EFERENCES Gyorgy Szepe. 1999. “The Position of Hungarians in Romania and Slovakia in Slovakia and Romania in Hungarians of Position “The 1999. Szepe. Gyorgy “The Lawrence Aber.2006. and Allen, LaRue Seidman, Edward Sabine, French, With Diglossia Diglossia; Without and With “Bilingualism Joshua. A. Fishman, “ 2010. Ma. Erdely 2002. Maria. Domokos, 1999. Martinas. Dumitru limba in copii dăscăleşte Ungariei al cetăţean “Un 22. 04, 2003, Desteptarea. and Ideological Homeland: Ethnic the “Restocking 2007. Chris. R. Davis, as “Ethnicity 2004. Stamatov. Peter and Loveman Mara Rogers, Brubaker, 2002. Kalman. Benda, 2008. Agnieszka. Barszczewska, Csangos”. Moldavian the of Origin the “On Baker,1997. Robin. aao .Jms 96 1996. James. A. Kapalo, Nationalities Papers Nationalities Danubiana European Network for Danubian Studies and Cultural Cultural and Studies for Network Danubian European Danubiana Actions Theory and Theory Society and Translated by Pokoly, Judit. Teleki Laszlo Foundation – Pro Minoritate Pro – Foundation Teleki Laszlo Judit. Pokoly, by Translated Journal of Social Issues of Social Journal 27(1): 69-92 ezt pia – itrú Vnz ao történésszel” Gabor Vincze interjú – optika Nemzeti Regio , 33: 31-64 The Character of the Csango Folk Song and the History the and Song Folk Csango the of Character The The Hungarians of Moldavian Csangos in the 16 the in Csangos Moldavian of Hungarians The The Origins of the Changos the of Origins The The Moldavian Csangos: ‘National Minority’ or ‘Local or Minority’ ‘National Csangos: Moldavian The 10:155-174 The Moldavian Csango Identity (1860-1916): Identity Csango Moldavian The . Translated by Dudich, Endre. Teleki Endre. Dudich, by Translated . (Accessed: 5/06/2011) 23(2): 29-38 Developmental Psychology Developmental . The Center for Romanian for Center The . SEER 75(4):658- 42(1): Kiriza th -17 th

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