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Table of Contents

Introduction from the Chairs 2 Topic A: The Rights of Women and Girls in Cities 3 Introduction to Topic A 5 History of Topic 4 Discussion of Topic 7 Bloc Positions 9 Points a Resolution Should Address 12 Further Reading 12 Bibliography 13

Topic B: Tackling homelessness and slum upgrading in cities 14 Introduction to Topic B 14 Understanding the topic 15 Discussion of Topic 17 Bloc Positions 24 Points a Resolution Should Address 28 Further Reading 29 Bibliography 29

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Introduction from the Chairs

Dear delegates,

Welcome to UN-Habitat at YorkMUN 2019. As the UK’s first Human Rights City, York is the perfect place to be simulating UN-Habitat, a committee which focuses on ensuring human rights and sustainability in urban areas!

UN-Habitat is a committee which takes a very specific look at urban human rights and sustainability. As chairs we hope to provide you with a unique committee experience and unusual topics. The two topics we’ve picked are both very pertinent and, hopefully, will stimulate interesting debate!

Topic A explores the intersection between the urbanisation and feminisation of poverty, which shows how urban living can impact human rights. Topic B explores the issue of homelessness and slum upgrading in cities. The two issues are interlinked and both explore very pertinent urban rights issues.

We hope you enjoy discussing these issues at YorkMUN and we look forward to a weekend of debating, discussions and fun socials!

Anna, Ashvini and Shama

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Introduction to the Committee

UN-Habitat is the United Nations programme working towards a better urban future. Its mission is to promote socially and environmentally sustainable human settlements development and the achievement of adequate shelter for all.

In October 2016, at the UN Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development – Habitat III – member states signed the New Urban Agenda. This is an action-oriented document which sets global standards of achievement in sustainable urban development, rethinking the way we build, manage, and live in cities. Through drawing together cooperation with committed partners, relevant stakeholders, and urban actors, including at all levels of government as well as the private sector, UN-Habitat is applying its technical expertise, normative work and capacity development to implement the New Urban Agenda and Sustainable Development Goal 11 – to make cities inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable.

Mandated by the UN General Assembly in 1978 to address the issues of urban growth, it is a knowledgeable institution on urban development processes, and understands the aspirations of cities and their residents. For forty years, UN-Habitat has been working in human settlements throughout the world, focusing on building a brighter future for villages, towns, and cities of all sizes. Because of these four decades of extensive experience, from the highest levels of policy to a range of specific technical issues, UN-Habitat has gained a unique and a universally acknowledged expertise in all things urban.

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Topic A: The Rights of Women and Girls in Cities

Introduction to Topic A

Urbanisation provides women and girls both with new opportunities and new problems. While women can certainly benefit from increased and, potentially, easier access to healthcare, to public spaces and to community and public leadership roles, there are also several key issues they face, as outlined by UN-Habitat.

These issues include the intersection between the feminisation and urbanisation of poverty and the effects of poverty on women living in cities. Another key issue is the safety of women and girls in cities, which can be threatened by things like sexual harassment and violence against women and girls. This topic guide will explore these issues and consider how the benefits of cities for women and girls can be reconciled with the problems urbanisation can pose. It will take an intersectional approach and consider issues of gender together with issues surrounding urbanisation as well as other factors women might be affected by, like socioeconomic status, age etc.

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History of Topic

● 1979, Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women -- often considered as the basis for the UN’s commitment to women’s rights, CEDAW set an important precedent in terms of clearly laying out the rights women should have. While it doesn’t specifically address the issue of urbanisation, it is relevant in any discussion of international women’s rights. ● 1985, Nairobi Conference -- for the first time since its creation in 1978, the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements recognised the need to importance of gender as a factor when considering the human settlements agenda, thus setting an important precedent for the rights of women and girls in cities. ● 1995, Beijing Platform -- another key precedent in terms of international women’s rights, the Beijing Platform established a set of goals for women’s rights and development. The issues addressed include violence against women and girls and the feminisation of poverty, both of which are key issues faced by women living in cities. ● 2000, the Millenium Development Goals -- the eight goals set out by the UN to improve human rights and to end poverty by 2015. Goal 1 specifically addressed global poverty, while Goal 3 focused on ensuring gender equality. ● 2010, Safe Cities and Safe Public Spaces -- the UN launched an anti-violence against women and girls in cities campaign. The initiative now works in over 20 cities and has led to action, such as Egypt considering gender more carefully within their urban planning and Quito (capital of Ecuador) strengthening local laws to prevent sexual harassment in public spaces. ● 2014-2019, UN-Habitat’s Strategic Plan -- UN-Habitat identifies gender as a key factor when considering urban issues and aims to take a gender-sensitive approach throughout its work. This includes consulting with women living in cities when considering new policies as well as running gender equality programmes. ● 2015, the Sustainable Development Goals -- similar to the Millennium Development Goals, the Sustainable Development Goals are a set of 17 goals. These include Goal 1, which is No Poverty, Goal 5, which focuses on Gender Equality and Goal 11, which is to ensure Sustainable Cities and Communities. The inclusion of Goal 11 is a testament to the increasing rate (and, thus, importance) of urbanisation and also addresses the need for inclusivity in cities, which includes factors like gender.

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Discussion of Topic

Violence and Harassment

Women are at the intersection of urban violence and crime and gender-based violence, meaning they experience issues like violence and crime in a different way to others, say living in more rural areas or to men. It is thought that rapid urbanisation, when combined with preconceived ideas of gender identity can fuel gender-based violence. As ActionAid (2011) acknowledges, “[w]omen fear and experience violence that falls in two main dimensions: violence against women and violence arising from urban insecurities.”1

These two factors can be interlinked -- for example, a woman may experience violence or harassment then struggle to access appropriate healthcare due to poverty. The need for intersectionality in this example comes from the fact that this very specific combination of factors is something that a man living in urban areas or a woman living in rural areas might not experience in the same way. Exploring the specific ways in which urban women might experience violence, therefore, highlights the need for specific solutions to the problems they face.

It has been found that violence severely limits women’s mobility, which can have effects on how they travel, where they go and, ultimately, how they interact with the cities they live in. Instances of harassment or abuse on, say, public transport or one routes home can have this impact. According to World Bank statistics, a staggering 80% of women worry about harassment occurring in public spaces, hence their assertion that “transport is not gender- neutral”.

Female-only carriages, which could be one potential solution, are currently employed in transport systems, such as the Tokyo Metro (right), the Rio de Janeiro Metro and the Cairo Metro. According to 2014 data, 70% of women from a variety of countries said they’d feel safer travelling in female-only carriages.2

1Actionaid.org. (2011). Women and the City. [Online] Available at: http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/actionaid_2011_women_and_the_city.pdf. 2 Reuters. (2014). Does single-sex public transport help or hinder women?. [Online] Available at:https://www.reuters.com/article/women-poll-carriages/exclusive-poll-does-single-sex-public-transport-help- or-hinder-women-idUKL6N0S42MD20141029.

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However, there is very little data to support the idea that this would actually lead to greater safety for female passengers. This is for several reasons -- the main one being that it is hard to measure rates of female safety and also to show a causal link between the two. It is also thought that introducing these can be seen as a “quick fix” and can prove counterproductive. According to one report, it “does not address the underlying issue [and confirms] that women should not be allowed to travel freely”.3

The Feminisation and Urbanisation of Poverty

Due to what has been termed the “feminisation” of poverty, women in cities experience poverty in a fairly specific way. As Habitat for Humanity explains, “women are often more than just the bread- winners for these urban poor families. They find themselves playing an indispensable role in running their own household, holding their families together, raising children besides their work-roles outside their homes.4 This idea of “time poverty” -- that women are often expected to perform unpaid labour, such as childcare, shows the way in which entrenched gender roles and poverty and urbanisation can all be seen as intertwined.

There is also a gendered aspect to the issue of slums and housing settlements (which will be discussed in more depth in Topic B). Issues such as the lack of sanitation, access to secure food and health care, affect those living in slums. However, it is thought that women are affected more than men are, due to the expectation that women should stay at home and perform domestic tasks.

Women living in slums are also more affected by these issues than women living in more secure accommodation. According to UN-Habitat, for example, women living in urban slums are more likely to contract HIV/AIDS than women living in rural areas. Similarly, studies show that women in urban areas of Bengal, Indian have a disproportionately low level of access to healthcare.5 While we often consider poverty as an issue of human rights,

3 Fiafoundation.org. (2016). Safe and Sound: International Research on Women's Personal Safety on Public Transport. [Online] Available at: https://www.fiafoundation.org/media/224027/safe-and-sound-report.pdf. 4 Habitat for Humanity GB. (2018). Gender Discrimination: Women's Rights & Lives in Slums. [Online] Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/09/women-poverty-slums/.

5 ARCHIVE Global. (2018). Women, Slums and Health - ARCHIVE Global. [Online] Available at: http://archiveglobal.org/women-slums-and-health/.

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considering it as an issue of women’s rights can help us to take a more gender sensitive approach and acknowledge the gender-specific issues women in cities might face.

Possible Solutions

There are, of course, several solutions to this complex issue. ActionAid (2011) provides an excellent summary of such solutions and groups them into the following categories6:

Raising Awareness Through Advocacy This solution recommends empowering girls and women to become active citizens and to speak out about issues they face, as well as strengthening advocacy networks. There are currently initiatives in place to do this. Plan International, for instance, has worked with UN- Habitat to create the Safer Cities for Girls initiative, which helps empower girls to have their voices heard. One of their success stories is that of Faridah, an 18 year old living in Kampala (capital of Uganda), who leads a group of young women dedicated to raising awareness of the issues they face.7

Similarly, women in favelas (slums) in Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) are using technology to help flag up safety risks they face (such as badly lit roads).8 Initiatives like these ones show the importance of involving women in efforts to make cities safer, as well as the importance of acknowledging the differing struggles that women in different places might have.

Increasing Governments’ Commitments to Urban Women’s Rights Government commitment is an important aspect to improving women’s rights in cities. This can include legislation, better policing for women’s safety and improving women’s access to healthcare and maternal / reproductive facilities. Efforts to engage with both national and local governments have had some success. UN Women, for instance, has helped local governments in Metropolitan Manila (a metropolitan area in the Philippines) to incorporate

6 Actionaid.org. (2011). Women and the City. [Online] Available at: http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/actionaid_2011_women_and_the_city.pdf. 7Plan International. (2018). Girls Work Towards Fear Free Cities. [Online] Available at: https://plan- international.org/ending-violence/girls-work-towards-fear-free-cities. 8 Bachelet, M. (2013). Making Cities Safe for Women and Girls. [Online] The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/21/making-cities-safe-women-girls.

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gender into their urban planning initiatives. This then prompted the municipal government to start the Women’s Safety Audit research project in 2015.9 However, there are several potential issues with this approach. Firstly, it relies on governments’ willingness to engage with the issue. Moreover, there are fundamental issues with policy implementation. Many of the problems faced by women in cities are underpinned by social norms. While legislation can be seen as having a normalising effect, it has to be reinforced by meaningful social change, which can be difficult to achieve.

Changing Social Norms As discussed above, policy change has to be combined with social change. Changing social norms, therefore, is key to this issue. One key issue is how to engage men in this issue. Working with men can be a useful way of strengthening women’s rights and safety. However, it can be difficult to do so and must be done using a grassroots approach that is specific to the country, or even society, in question.

Building Institutional Capacity Specifically, this includes things like providing training to relevant institutions, such as the example of Metropolitan Manila. This also includes strengthening research into the issue of women’s urban safety and developing codes of best practice (or effective policies). According to ActionAid’s recommendations, research should be carried out in an intersectional way and should acknowledge the different ways in which women living in urban areas might be marginalised.

Bloc Positions

European Union: The EU supports women’s rights as part of its commitment to ensuring the upholding of human rights. It aims to empower women and strengthen women’s rights advocacy networks. The EU’s High-level group on gender mainstreaming, which focuses on ensuring the EU follows up on the Beijing Platform for Action, is one such example.

USA The US has a mixed record on international women’s rights. Michelle Obama’s recent Let Girls Learn initiative, for instance, showed the US’ commitment to improving accessibility of education and the safety of girls and young women internationally. However, Trump has claimed he will scrap the scheme. It is also important to note that the US has still not ratified CEDAW, despite signing it in 1980. This is seen as a conspicuous oversight.

9 UN Women | Asia and the Pacific. (2018). UN Women helps Metro Manila authorities as they design women- friendly public spaces. [Online] Available at: http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/news-and- events/stories/2018/08/un-women-helps-metro-manila-authorities.

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Latin America Latin America is the world’s most urbanised region10, thus very relevant to this debate. According to a report 11, Bogota (capital of Colombia) is the most dangerous city for women and girls in terms of experiencing sexual harassment in public spaces. The same report found that Lima (capital of Peru) is the most unsafe city for a girl to go outside alone or to use public transport. Moreover, the issue of slums and poverty is prominent in South America, especially in the favelas of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil).

Africa According to the Plan report mentioned above, Cairo (capital of Egypt) is the city with the least effective legislation on women and girls’ safety. It also found that Kampala (capital of Uganda) is the city where girls are most at risk of murder and kidnap, while Johannesburg (South Africa) is the most dangerous city for theft, robbery and sexual assault.

Asia The issue of urbanisation and women’s rights is pertinent to Asia, particularly South Asia. With major cities in Asia, such as Dhaka (capital of Bangladesh), Colombo (capital of Sri Lanka) and Mumbai (India) being home to large slums, the feminisation of poverty is a key issue in the region.

10 Center, A. (2014). Urbanization in Latin America. [Online] Atlantic Council. Available at: http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/articles/urbanization-in-latin-america. 11 Plan International. (2018). Girls Work Towards Fear Free Cities. [Online] Available at: https://plan- international.org/ending-violence/girls-work-towards-fear-free-cities.

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Points a Resolution Should Address

1. How can UN-Habitat ensure countries take a gender-sensitive and intersectional approach to urban planning? 2. How can we ensure women feel safe enough to fully engage with their cities? 3. How can public transport be made safer for women? 4. Should all-female carriages be used more? 5. How can the effects of urban poverty on women’s rights (eg lack of access to maternal healthcare) be mitigated? 6. How can legislative or government change be supported by social change?

Further Reading 1. Executive Summary -- https://actionaid.ie/wp-content/uploads/2016/10/Women-and- the-City-Examining-the-Gender-Impact-of-Violence-and-Urbanisation-1.pdf 2. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/21/making-cities-safe- women-girls 3. https://plan-uk.org/act-for-girls/make-cities-safer-for-girls 4. https://plan-international.org/news/2016-10-14-girls-voices-crucial-make-cities-safe#

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Bibliography Actionaid.org. (2011). Women and the City. [Online] Available at: http://www.actionaid.org/sites/files/actionaid/actionaid_2011_women_and_the_city.pdf. Transport for Development. (2018). Gender-Based Violence. [Online] Available at: http://blogs.worldbank.org/transport/category/tags/gender-based-violence Reuters. (2014). Does single-sex public transport help or hinder women?. [Online] Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/women-poll-carriages/exclusive-poll-does-single-sex- public-transport-help-or-hinder-women-idUKL6N0S42MD20141029. Fiafoundation.org. (2016). Safe and Sound: International Research on Women's Personal Safety on Public Transport. [Online] Available at: https://www.fiafoundation.org/media/224027/safe-and-sound-report.pdf. Habitat for Humanity GB. (2018). Gender Discrimination: Women's Rights & Lives in Slums. [Online] Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2018/09/women-poverty- slums/. ARCHIVE Global. (2018). Women, Slums and Health - ARCHIVE Global. [Online] Available at: http://archiveglobal.org/women-slums-and-health/. Plan International. (2018). Girls Work Towards Fear Free Cities. [Online] Available at: https://plan-international.org/ending-violence/girls-work-towards-fear-free-cities. Bachelet, M. (2013). Making Cities Safe for Women and Girls. [Online] The Guardian. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/feb/21/making-cities- safe-women-girls. UN Women | Asia and the Pacific. (2018). UN Women helps Metro Manila authorities as they design women-friendly public spaces. [Online] Available at: http://asiapacific.unwomen.org/en/news-and-events/stories/2018/08/un-women-helps-metro- manila-authorities. Center, A. (2014). Urbanization in Latin America. [Online] Atlantic Council. Available at: http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/publications/articles/urbanization-in-latin-america. Plan International. (2018). Expert Survey: Girls' Safety in Cities Across the World. [Online] Available at: https://plan-international.org/publications/expert-survey-girls-safety-cities.

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Topic B: Tackling homelessness and slum upgrading in cities

Introduction to Topic B In an era of rapid globalisation, shared responsibility and development, homeless remains the least examined and studied areas of inequality. Stemming from lack of access to adequate and fair housing, unregulated markets and wealth gap, it opens people to many vulnerabilities.

Homelessness and those affected by it are seen as a stigmatized group that face constant discrimination, social exclusion and inequality. It affects vulnerable groups such as refugees, lower-income individuals, LGBTQ persons, people with disabilities and women.

Homeless individuals tend to live in slums or shelters, many of which are violate basic expected standard of adequate sanitation and rights. This topic looks at the various types of slums and its association with homelessness, the obligations of governments individually and globally to eradicate homelessness.

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Understanding the topic

International framework It is estimated that around 1.6 billion individuals around the world live as homeless, squatters or in temporary shelters, all of which leads to lack of adequate housing and facilities. There are various international declarations, laws, treaties that place obligations on states to ensure all basic needs are met. Some of them are mentioned below:

● 10th December 1948, Universal Declaration of Human Rights Article 25 states: “Everyone has the right to a standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family, including food, clothing, housing and medical care and necessary social services, and the right to security in the event of unemployment, sickness, disability, widowhood, old age or other lack of livelihood in circumstances beyond his control.”

● International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), adopted by United Nations General Assembly resolution 2200 A (XXI) on 16 December 1966, entered into force on 3 January 1976. Article 11. I states: "The States Parties to the present Covenant recognize the right of everyone to an adequate standard of living for himself and his family, including adequate food, clothing and housing, and to the continuous improvement of living conditions. The States Parties will take appropriate steps to ensure the realization of this right, recognizing to this effect the essential importance of international cooperation based on free consent.

● International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965), adopted by General Assembly resolution 2106 A (XX) on 21 December 1965, entered into force on 4 January 1969.

Article 5 states: "In compliance with the fundamental obligations laid down in article 2 of this Convention, States Parties undertake to prohibit and eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms and to guarantee the right of everyone, without distinction as to race, colour, or national or ethnic origin, to equality before the law, notably in the enjoyment of the following rights: . . . (e) Economic, Social and Cultural rights in particular: . . . (iii) The right to housing."

● WHO Decade Assessment Report, 1990 recognizes that 1.8 billion people across the globe live without adequate access to water and sanitation

● International Labour Organisation (ILO) Recommendation No. 115 on Workers Housing (1961), adopted at the forty-fourth session of the ILO Governing Body on 7 June 1961. Principle 2 states:

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"It should be an objective of national [housing] policy to promote, within the framework of general housing policy, the construction of housing and related community facilities with a view to ensuring that adequate and decent housing accommodation and a suitable living environment are made available to all workers and their families. A degree of priority should be accorded to those whose needs are most urgent."

● Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements (1976), adopted by the United Nations Conference on Human Settlements in 1976. Section I (8) states "Adequate shelter and services are a basic human right which places an obligation on governments to ensure their attainment by all people, beginning with direct assistance to the least advantaged through guided programmes of self-help and community action. Governments should endeavour to remove all impediments hindering attainment of these goals. Of special importance is the elimination of social and racial segregation, inter alia, through the creation of better balanced communities, which blend different social groups, occupations, housing and amenities.”

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Discussion of Topic

Slums

A slum is an unplanned settlement.12 UN-Habitat defines a slum through five characteristics: (1) inadequate access to safe water, (2) inadequate access to sanitation and infrastructure, (3) poor structural quality of housing, (4) overcrowding, (5) insecure residential status or no security of tenure.13 According to estimates by UN-Habitat, one in eight people live in slums, or around one billion people.14 As cited by Habitat for Humanity, it is currently estimated that by 2030, one in four people will live in a slum.15 In developing countries, one in three urban residents is a slum dweller: an individual who lives in a slum16. Across the world, slum dwellers face discrimination and disadvantage, are often unrecognised and neglected by their government, face eviction, and are vulnerable to crime, disease, and natural disasters. Thus, the UN Millennium Development Goal 7 Target 7D outlines specifically the need “to have achieved by 2020 a significant improvement in the lives of at least 100 million slum dwellers”.17 Depending on the state and city, slums develop due to different reasons. However, a common trend is rapid urbanisation, particularly in developing countries. Governments and cities cannot provide housing and infrastructure to the large influx of people migrating from rural to urban areas to seek economic gain.18 Demand for housing simply outranks supply.

Slum Upgrading Slum upgrading is simply improving the conditions of slums, including establishing basic infrastructure such as clean water and sewage.19 Particularly, utilising slum upgrading as opposed to slum removal or relocation has become vital in Latin America and the Caribbean 20. As highlighted in UN Millenium Development Goal 11 Target 11.1, slum upgrading is

12 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 13 Housing & slum upgrading – UN-Habitat [Online]. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing- slum-upgrading/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 14 UN Habitat (2016). Slum Almanac 2015-2016: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers. [Online],pg. 2. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/. 15 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 16 ibid. 17 UN Habitat (2016). Slum Almanac 2015-2016: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers. [Online],pg. 2. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/. 18 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 19 What Is Urban Upgrading? [Online]. Available at: http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/whatis/what-is.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 20 Wulfhorst, E. (2016). Mexico’s Ciudad Neza rises from slum to success story. Reuters [Online]. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-slum-neza-idUSKBN12E1F2 [Accessed: 17 December 2018].

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vital to improving the living conditions of slum dwellers.21 Likewise, improving the conditions of existing slums is a key focus of UN-Habitat. The agency applies a “twin-track” methodology, which emphasises both supply and affordability.22 According to UN-Habitat, upgrading slums in a sustainable manner is best achieved at a local neighbourhood level, such as through small community projects which can in term develop into larger projects with time.23 UN-Habitat stresses the importance of understanding lack of secure tenure, issues of “land management arrangements” and keeping in mind collective housing design.24 Overall, when upgrading slums, the needs of poor and vulnerable groups -- such as women -- should be considered first and foremost.25 A key example of slum upgrading by UN-Habitat it the Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP). PSUP was launched in 2008 as a joint effort between the European Commission, African, Caribbean and Pacific states and UN- Habitat.26 The programme seeks to improve the living conditions of those living in slums through upgrading slums, working with the local community and thus utilising the skills of slum dwellers.27 According to UN-Habitat, the programme has been active in 190 cities - including 39 African, Caribbean and Pacific nations - and improved the lives of at least 2 million people living in slums.28 Whilst the agency praises its inclusive approach and cites many successes - such as changing negative stereotypes about slum dwellers and presenting sustainable improvements, the programme faces numerous obstacles.29 Firstly, the programme has only been implemented in a slim number of cities and has yet to be active in states most in need of slum upgrading, such as India. Secondly, high poverty rates, increased employment, urbanisation, and interests in using land for non-housing purposes pose a challenge to implementing the programme.30 Thirdly, it is crucial to remember that many states do not recognise the existence of slums, as slum dwellers are usually not documented or registered to their home.31 Thus, some states will not implement a slum upgrading programme. Lastly, whilst the programme has help millions, the number of slum dwellers continues to increase yearly.32

21 UN Habitat (2016). Slum Almanac 2015-2016: Tracking Improvement in the Lives of Slum Dwellers. [Online],pg. 2. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/. 22 Housing & slum upgrading – UN-Habitat [Online]. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing- slum-upgrading/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 23 ibid. 24 ibid. 25 ibid. 26 Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP) – UN-Habitat [Online]. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/urban-initiatives/initiatives-programmes/participatory-slum-upgrading/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 27 Fact Sheet Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP) – UN-Habitat [Online],pg. 1. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/fact-sheet-participatory-slum-upgrading-programme-psup/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018] 28 ibid. 29 ibid. 30 ibid. 31 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 32 Fact Sheet Participatory Slum Upgrading Programme (PSUP) – UN-Habitat [Online], p. 1. Available at: https://unhabitat.org/fact-sheet-participatory-slum-upgrading-programme-psup/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]

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Homelessness

The United Nations enshrines the right to a “standard of living adequate for the health and well-being of himself and of his family” in article 25 of the Universal Declaration of Human Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 1 Homelessness statistics and their correlation to national strategies ADDIN ZOTERO_ITEM CSL_CITATION {"citationID":"IqNA0NZ2","properties":{"formattedC itation":"(\\uc0\\u8220{}As Cities Grow Worldwide, So Do the Numbers of Homeless | YaleGlobal Online,\\uc0\\u8221{} n.d.)","plainCitation":"(“As Cities Grow Worldwide, So Do the Numbers of Homeless | YaleGlobal Online,” n.d.)","noteIndex":0},"citationItems":[{"id":171,"uris ":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Ixk3kzIL/items/WG GUUEAT"],"uri":["http://zotero.org/users/local/Ixk3 kzIL/items/WGGUUEAT"],"itemData":{"id":171,"typ e":"webpage","title":"As Cities Grow Worldwide, So Do the Numbers of Homeless | YaleGlobal Online","URL":"https://yaleglobal.yale.edu/content/ cities-grow-worldwide-so-do-numbers- homeless","accessed":{"date- parts":[["2018",12,17]]}}}],"schema":"https://github .com/citation-style- language/schema/raw/master/csl-citation.json"} (“As Cities Grow Worldwide, So Do the Numbers of Homeless | YaleGlobal Online,” n.d.)

Rights.33 In 2009, the United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) defined homelessness under two groups:

(a) Primary homelessness (or rooflessness). This category includes persons living in the streets without a shelter that would fall within the scope of living quarters; (b) Secondary homelessness. This category may include persons with no place of usual residence who move frequently between various types of accommodations (including dwellings, shelters and

33 Universal Declaration of Human Rights (2015). [Online]. Available at: http://www.un.org/en/universal- declaration-human-rights/index.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018].

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institutions for the homeless or other living quarters). This category includes persons living in private dwellings but reporting ‘no usual address’ on their census form (Economic and Social Council, 2009, p. 3).

In 2016, a United Nations human rights expert called upon nations and governments to recognize homelessness as a human rights crisis. Homelessness should be seen as a failure of states to protect its most vulnerable population, opening them up to discrimination, social stigma and violence.34

Homelessness does not come with one hard and fast definition. There are three proposed dimensions of definition for homelessness:

(a) The first dimension addresses the absence of home — both the absence of the material aspect of minimally adequate housing and of the social aspect of a secure place to establish a family or social relationships and participate in community life;

(b) The second dimension considers homelessness as a form of systemic discrimination and social exclusion, recognizing that being deprived of a home gives rise to a social identity through which “the homeless” is constituted as a social group subject to discrimination and stigmatization;

(c) The third dimension recognizes those who are homeless as rights holders who are resilient in the struggle for survival and dignity. With a unique understanding of the systems that deny them their rights, homeless people must be recognized as central agents of the social transformation necessary for the realization of the right to adequate housing.

Much like slum dwellers, people are driven into homelessness due to a variety of complex issues, including domestic violence, forced eviction, drug or alcohol abuse, poverty, mental or physical illness, or simply lack of affordable housing.35 Alongside heavy stigmatisation and facing discrimination, homeless individuals are highly susceptible to violence, crime, health problems. Furthermore, the homeless often cannot access toilets and sanitation, education, banking, and government services due to the lack of a permanent address. The

34 Governments Must Commit to Eliminating Homelessness by 2030, UN Rights Expert Urges (2016). [Online]. Available at: https://news.un.org/en/story/2016/03/523512-governments-must-commit-eliminating- homelessness-2030-un-rights-expert-urges [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 35 Why People Are Homeless | The Salvation Army [Online]. Available at: https://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/Who-We-Are/our-work/Homelessness/Why-are-people-homeless/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018].

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most recent statistic conducted on worldwide homelessness was in 2005 and yielded a number of 100 million.36

Homeless shelters Homeless shelters provide homeless people with temporary accommodation. Often, meals and other services are provided in congruent with shelter.37. They are especially crucial to protect the homeless from environmental stressors, such as extreme cold weather.

Across the world, there is a drastic shortage of homeless shelters, particularly as subsidised housing has a long waitlist. Some shelters delegate beds on a nightly basis -- often using a “lottery system” -- whilst others provide stays of anywhere between a week and 90 days.38 Often, a homeless individual may find themselves on a waiting list to be allocated a bed, which -- in the most extreme cases -- can take weeks.39

Transitional housing Transitional housing provides homeless people or individuals in need of housing with temporary accommodation designed to “bridge the gap from homelessness to permanent housing”.40 Transitional housing is relatively common in Western cultures or the global North, and offers “structure, support (for addictions and mental health [...]), life skills, [...] education and training”.41

Supportive housing Similarly, supportive housing offers individuals affordable, safe and community-focused housing. Unlike transitional housing, supportive housing does not have a time limit. Supportive housing is assured to be affordable through “rent subsidy or setting rents at an affordable levels”.42 According to research conducted in the United States, supportive housing is crucial in resolving homelessness through increasing housing stability. It is also credited to reduce the need for “publicly-funded crisis services, including shelters, hospitals, psychiatric centers, jails, and prisons”.43

36 Global Homelessness Statistics Homeless World Cup [Online]. Available at: https://homelessworldcup.org/homelessness-statistics/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 37 Brown et al. - 2017 - Waiting for shelter Perspectives on a homeless sh.pdf [Online], pp. 846-847 Available at: http://content.ebscohost.com/ContentServer.asp?EbscoContent=dGJyMMvl7ESep7U4wtvhOLCmr1CeprZSr62 4SK%2BWxWXS&ContentCustomer=dGJyMPGptEy1qbJPuePfgeyx43zx1%2B6B&T=P&P=AN&S=R&D=a 9h&K=124846699 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 38 ibid. pp.847 39 ibid. 40 Transitional Housing | The Homeless Hub [Online]. Available at: https://www.homelesshub.ca/solutions/housing-accommodation-and-supports/transitional-housing [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 41 ibid. 42 Supportive Housing | United States Interagency Council on Homelessness (USICH) [Online]. Available at: https://www.usich.gov/solutions/housing/supportive-housing/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 43 ibid.

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Health and risk of disease For those living in slums, diseases are a high risk because of they spread very quickly.44 As an unplanned settlement, access to sanitation, clean water, and other hygiene facilities are largely impossible and thus, water-borne diseases are common.45 Similarly, due to an absence of windows or ventilation, respiratory diseases are highly contagious in slums.46 The combination of disease and a lack of access to vaccination or medical treatment can be deadly. High rates of sickness and disease and perpetuate the cycle of poverty, as children may be hindered from attending school due to illness.47 Due to disease, their performance in school may drastically decline, and overall, drop-outs due to sickness are common in children living in slums.48

Likewise, the homeless are at a high risk for chronic and acute diseases.49 Homelessness leaves individuals more susceptible of developing health problems due to the extremities of their environment, skin diseases or ailments, and trauma, such as physical assaults and rape.50 Malnutrition, parasitic infestations, and dental problems are also common.51 As a result of drug abuse or alcoholism, hepatitis remains widespread in homeless communities.52 Homelessness can often exacerbate and worsen health problems. Even routine treatments are very difficult to administer. For example, diabetes can be adequately managed through a healthy diet and insulin, however, as a homeless person, such treatments are very difficult to administer: syringes can be stolen, insulin cannot be stored properly in a refrigerator, and diets cannot be controlled.53 Furthermore, it is important to note that health problems can be not only a consequence of homelessness, but also a cause. In the absence of therapy, medication, or appropriate housing arrangements, major mental illnesses, such as chronic schizophrenia, may cause an individual to unable to live with others and thus be driven to homelessness.54 Alcoholism, drug use, and disabilities or diseases - such as AIDS - leading to unemployment or high health care expenses can equally contribute to homelessness.55

Vulnerability to natural or man-made disasters

44 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 45 ibid. 46 ibid. 47 ibid. 48 ibid. 49 Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Health Care for Homeless (1988). Health Problems of Homeless People. [Online]. National Academies Press (US). Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218236/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 50 ibid. 51 ibid. 52 ibid. 53 ibid. 54 ibid. 55 ibid.

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Slum dwellers are disproportionately affected by disasters as the poor construction “cannot withstand earthquakes, landslides, excessive wind, or heavy rainstorms” 56In the Dharavi slum of Mumbai, the effects of the record monsoon rains in July 2005 were deadly. Although the exact number of casualties is unknown, it is estimated hundreds lost their lives in the flood.57 Similarly, the homeless are often most affected by natural disasters. Equally, according to a 2017 study by the United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, every year, natural disasters make 14 million people homeless.58 Especially in Asia, natural disasters such as floods, storms and earthquakes lead to millions losing their homes.59 The largest amounts of homelessness due to natural disasters are in South and Southeast Asia. This includes China with 1.3 million people losing their homes yearly and India, which yields a figure of 2.3 million people driven to homelessness because of a natural disaster.60 Particularly, sustainable housing is critical in ensuring natural disasters do not cause homelessness. For example, both Japan and the Philippines have the same amounts of people exposed to cyclones, yet as Japan has “more robust” houses, it faces far less homelessness due to disasters compared to the Philippines, which has far less stable homes.61 Hence, ensuring homes are built in a safe and sustainable manner is crucial in tackling homelessness.

Violence and crime The lack of infrastructure - such as roads, street signs, telephone lines, or street lights - make it very difficult for emergency and law enforcement vehicles to navigate through a slum.62 Thus, crime is difficult to monitor, control or prevent. Often, slum upgrading is seen as key in reducing crime. NGO projects upgrading slums typically include crime and violence prevention strategies. Likewise, the homeless are often most vulnerable to violence and crime. In the United Kingdom, “rough sleepers” are 15 times more likely to face abuse and violence compared to non-homeless individuals.63 Globally, homeless women are most susceptible to violence, and are often victims of emotional, physical or sexual violence, such as rape.64

56 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 57 Sturcke, J. (2005). India floods death toll nears 700. The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2005/jul/29/india.naturaldisasters [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 58 Natural Disasters Make 14 Million People Homeless Each Year, Reports Show (2017). [Online]. Available at: https://www.globalcitizen.org/en/content/disasters-climate-change-14-million-homeless/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 59 ibid. 60 ibid. 61 ibid. 62 What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 63 Foster, D. (2016). Crisis Report Reveals Shocking Dangers of Being Homeless | Housing Network | The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2016/dec/23/homeless-crisis- report-attack-violence-sleeping-rough [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 64 Lindsay, S. (2014). Do Homeless Women Experience Violence? | The Homeless Hub [Online]. Available at: https://homelesshub.ca/resource/do-homeless-women-experience-violence [Accessed: 17 December 2018].

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Anti-homelessness legislation or anti-vagrancy laws Whilst the term refers to legislation aiming to prevent homelessness through providing shelter and housing, anti-homelessness legislation also denotes laws aiming to criminalise homelessness as a whole. In the United Kingdom in May 2018, the newspaper The Guardian uncovered that nationwide, “over 50 local authorities” utilised “public space protection orders”.65 Public space protection orders were introduced by Prime Minister Theresa May in 2014 to “restrict” ways in which a specific public space could be used.66 The order often results in homeless people being “fined, given criminal convictions, and [...] imprisoned for begging and rough sleeping”.67 Many homeless individuals were banned from city or town centres.

65 Greenfield, P. and Marsh, S. (2018). Hundreds of homeless people fined and imprisoned in England and Wales. The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/may/20/homeless- people-fined-imprisoned-pspo-england-wales [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 66 ibid. 67 ibid.

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Bloc Positions

Brazil Brazilian favelas (shanty towns or slums) are common in large urban cities, such as Rio de Janeiro or São Paulo. According to the 2010 Census of Brazil, around 6 percent of all Brazilians live in a favela.68 Many inhabitants of a favela do not consider themselves poor, have deep cultural connections with their home and may pride themselves living in a favela. Many houses have working toilet and water facilities, electricity, and newer houses are constructed out of stable concrete.69 Yet, drug and crime rates in favelas are of the highest in Brazil.70 Many drug dealers hire school children and thus, gangs are a rampant and endemic problem in favelas .71 The Pacifying Police Unit (UPP) was established in Rio de Janeiro in 2008 to reduce violence in favelas and improve relations between the police and community.72 It is important to note that Brazil would soon be hosting the 2014 World Cup and Rio would host the Olympic Games in 2016.73 Thus, decreasing crime was essential to not only improve citizens’ safety, but improve the image of the nation. The UPP had a 24- hour presence in favelas and aimed to implement a “social assistance-focused model” instead of a “violent, corrupt, and militaristic” one.74 However, UPP workers have been accused of police brutality and even killing residents.75 The UPP have also been accused of attempting to “pacify” favela residents.76 Thus, a UPP model to prevent crime in slums is not without its faults.

Kenya The Kibera slum in Nairobi houses more than 700 thousand slum dwellers.77 Built using mud, dirt, and “recycled tin rooftops,” the slum dwellers of Kibera are at risk of natural disasters.78 Only 20 percent of houses in Kibera have electricity and water shortage is a critical problem in the slum.79 Whilst Kibera has been cited as a successful slum upgrade and become a model

68 What Are The Favelas Of Brazil? [Online]. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the- favelas-of-brazil.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 69 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 70 What Are The Favelas Of Brazil? [Online]. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the- favelas-of-brazil.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 71 ibid. 72 Leeds, E. (2016). What Can Be Learned from Brazil’s “Pacification” Police Model? [Online]. Available at: https://www.wola.org/analysis/what-can-be-learned-from-brazils-pacification-police-model/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 73 ibid. 74 ibid. 75 ibid. 76 ibid. 77 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 78 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 79 ibid.

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for other settlements around the world, development efforts have been halted due to the “density of the settlements” and the “steep topography”.80 Due to the water shortages, many slum dwellers have been forced to pay large amount of money to receive drinkable water.81 Charity projects have sought to combat this through installing pipelines, yet “competitors in the market” destroy these to “regain their position on the slum dwelling consumers”.82 Because the Kenyan government does not recognise Kibera as a formal settlement, the government cannot combat such crimes.83

India In Mumbai, the Dharavi slum contains more than 1 million slum dwellers.84 Unlike in other countries, slum dwellers often are employed.85 Many are not living below the poverty line and are well-educated, but live in slums due to lack of housing.86 Since the 1950s, Mumbai has had restrictive housing policies, creating an unfavourable environment for housing development and construction in the city.87 Living conditions are very poor, with few working toilets and limited access to clean water.88 A nearby river functions as both. Thus, diseases such as “cholera, dysentery, and tuberculosis” are rampant. The slum is also highly susceptible to natural disasters such as “monsoon rains, tropical cyclones, and subsequent flooding”.89

Prime Minister Narendra Modi announced a Housing for All plan in 2015 which sought to provide affordable housing.90 Regional states are tasked with implementing the plan. The Maharashtra government encompassing Mumbai has formulated a plan to upgrade slums, but little has been done so far.91 The city has implemented a “market-dominant model” to upgrade slums, which has reaped little success due to funding.92 It is also difficult for slum dwellers to be assigned new, redeveloped housing because of complicated administrative procedures: only slum dwellers with documents proving they “have been living in the slum

80 ibid. 81 ibid. 82 ibid. 83 ibid. 84 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 85 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 86 Zhang, Y. (2016). Building a Slum-Free Mumbai [Online]. Available at: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/building-slum-free-mumbai [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 87 ibid. 88 Fisher, J.R. (2018). Urban Slums: How and Why They Form [Online]. Available at: https://www.thoughtco.com/massive-urban-slums-1435765 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 89 ibid. 90 Zhang, Y. (2016). Building a Slum-Free Mumbai [Online]. Available at: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/building-slum-free-mumbai [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 91 ibid. 92 ibid.

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prior to [...] January 1, 2000, are eligible for [...] free housing”.93 Thus, the non-eligible population is forced to continue to live in slums.

Mexico The Neza slum in Mexico City houses some 1.2 million people.94 To many, the Neza slum has become a success story of slum upgrading, as slum dwellers demanded improved living conditions in the 1970s.95 Since then, the government has continued to develop the area.96 Yet, high crime - particularly drugs and violence - remains prevalent

Pakistan The world’s largest slum is found in Orangi Town in Karachi, Pakistan. According to Habitat for Humanity, more than 2.4 million people live in Orangi Town.97 The population increased rapidly in the early 1970s as thousands migrated from East Pakistan post-war of independence.98 As the government stalled or refused to install sewage, residents began to build sewage pipes themselves.99 As of late, more than 90 percent of the slum has sewage pipes, apparently “all put in by residents”.100

United States of America In 2017, 553,742 Americans were “homeless on a single night,” yielding an increase of 0.7 percent over 2016.101 Despite an improved economy since 2008, such figures demonstrate an inability to provide shelter for the most vulnerable in the country. Increases were highest in metropolitan areas such as Los Angeles and New York City. As median hourly wages have not increased for decades but living costs and rent sours, the lack of housing or support supplied by the federal government is reflected in the increased number of homeless people.102 Yet, recently, citizens in Los Angeles voted to tax themselves to provide funding

93 ibid. 94 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 95 Wulfhorst, E. (2016). Mexico’s Ciudad Neza rises from slum to success story. Reuters [Online]. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-slum-neza-idUSKBN12E1F2 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 96 ibid. 97 The World’s Largest Slums: Dharavi, Kibera, Khayelitsha & Neza (2017). [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/blog/2017/12/the-worlds-largest-slums-dharavi-kibera-khayelitsha-neza/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 98 News Desk (2016). Karachi’s Orangi Town Named Largest Slum in the World | The Express Tribune [Online]. Available at: https://tribune.com.pk/story/1245044/karachis-orangi-town-named-largest-slum-world/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 99 ibid. 100 ibid. 101 Gee, A. (2017). America’s Homeless Population Rises for the First Time since the Great Recession | US News | The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/05/america- homeless-population-2017-official-count-crisis [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 102 ibid.

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for homeless shelters and the government of Hawaii will implement “authorised tent encampments”.103 Thus, the future of the homeless in the United States remains uncertain.

European Union Whilst homelessness is comparatively low in Europe, the number of homeless individuals has increased in all Europe countries, except Finland.104 Particularly, housing systems have been strained in “London, Paris, Brussels, Dublin, Vienna, Athens, Warsaw and Barcelona”.105 Housing costs have increased and overcrowding has become common in most urban European cities. In Greece, 95 percent of low income citizens spend more than 40 percent of their income on housing.106 As many as one in 70 people are homeless in Greece.107 Across the continent, young people, minorities - such as Roma - and migrants are susceptible to homelessness. In Denmark, the amount of homeless young people increased by 85 percent from 2009 to 2015.108 Only Finland has been able to reduce the number of homeless. European member states may attempt to model Finnish housing programme, including permanent, affordable housing and a Housing First programme, wherein the homeless are given stable housing to end - not manage - homelessness.109 Furthermore, the European Commission has devised strategies for member states, including homelessness prevention, re- housing, and data collection shared across the Union. However, many member states lack the institutional capacity to implement such plans, such as in the case of Romania, where as recent as the 1980s, homelessness was regarded as a “personal deficiency” and not the outcome of socio-economic or other problems.110 Thus, the plans of the European Commission face hurdles in its application.

Points a Resolution Should Address 1. How will intra-state conflict and climate change affect homelessness and slum housing in the future? 2. How can member states uphold ethical standards when upgrading slums? 3. What other factors – gender, race, disenfranchised groups or minorities – play a role? How and in what ways should these be considered when proposing solutions to homelessness and improving conditions in slums?

103 ibid. 104 Foster, D. (2017). Homelessness at crisis point in all EU countries – except Finland. The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2017/mar/21/homelessness-housing-problems- crisis-point-all-eu-countries-except-finland [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 105 ibid. 106 ibid. 107 Kelly, L. (2017). Alarming Trend Shows Homelessness Crisis across Europe • INSP [Online]. Available at: https://insp.ngo/alarming-trend-shows-homelessness-crisis-across-europe/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 108 ibid. 109 Foster, D. (2017). Homelessness at crisis point in all EU countries – except Finland. The Guardian [Online]. Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/housing-network/2017/mar/21/homelessness-housing-problems- crisis-point-all-eu-countries-except-finland [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. 110 Briciu, C. (2014). Homelessness in Romania – Challenges for Research and Policy. Vol. 5.

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4. What are long-term and immediate, short-term solutions to homeless and slums? Try to consider health risks and exposure to weather and natural disasters.

Further Reading 1. The UN Habitat website has many resources specific to homelessness and slums: https://unhabitat.org/urban-themes/housing-slum-upgrading/ 2. The slum almanac provides greater detail on slum upgrading: https://unhabitat.org/slum-almanac-2015-2016/ 3. For statistics on your delegation regarding homelessness and housing, refer to the UN statistics division: https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/sconcerns/housing/

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What Are The Favelas Of Brazil? [Online]. Available at: https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/what-are-the-favelas-of-brazil.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. What Is a Slum? Definition of a Global Housing Crisis [Online]. Available at: https://www.habitatforhumanity.org.uk/what-we-do/slum-rehabilitation/what-is-a-slum/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. What Is Urban Upgrading? [Online]. Available at: http://web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/whatis/what-is.html [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. Why People Are Homeless | The Salvation Army [Online]. Available at: https://www.salvationarmy.org.au/en/Who-We-Are/our-work/Homelessness/Why-are- people-homeless/ [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. Wulfhorst, E. (2016). Mexico’s Ciudad Neza rises from slum to success story. Reuters [Online]. Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mexico-slum-neza-idUSKBN12E1F2 [Accessed: 17 December 2018]. Zhang, Y. (2016). Building a Slum-Free Mumbai [Online]. Available at: https://www.wilsoncenter.org/article/building-slum-free-mumbai [Accessed: 17 December 2018].

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