DOCSLIB.ORG

Mineral and Fossil Fuel Production in Virginia (1999-2003)

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Mineral and Fossil Fuel Production in Virginia (1999-2003) VIRGINIA DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES OPEN-FILE REPORT 05-04 MINERAL AND FOSSIL FUEL PRODUCTION IN VIRGINIA (1999-2003) Amy K. Gilmer, Catherine B. Enomoto, James A. Lovett, and David B. Spears COMMONWEALTH OF VIRGINIA DEPARTMENT OF MINES, MINERALS AND ENERGY DIVISION OF MINERAL RESOURCES Edward E. Erb, State Geologist CHARLOTTESVILLE, VIRGINIA 2005 FRONT COVER: Pump jack installation on coalbed methane well operated by CNX Gas Company, LLC, in Buchanan County. Photograph provided by the Division of Gas and Oil. CONTENTS Introduction .............................................................................................................................................1 Mineral Resources ...................................................................................................................................1 Sand and gravel ............................................................................................................................1 Clay materials .......................................................................................................................2 Crushed stone..............................................................................................................................6 Lime ............................................................................................................................................6 Dimension stone...........................................................................................................................6 Feldspar..................................................................................................................................11 Gypsum..................................................................................................................................11 Heavy mineral sands................................................................................................................13 Industrial sand ..............................................................................................................13 Iron-oxide pigments...................................................................................................................15 Kyanite...................................................................................................................................17 Vermiculite.............................................................................................................................18 Salt.....................................................................................................................................18 Gemstones............................................................................................................................20 Fossil Fuel Resources..............................................................................................................................21 Coal........................................................................................................................................21 Natural gas..................................................................................................................................28 Oil............................................................................................................................................33 Credits and data sources.........................................................................................................................36 References cited.....................................................................................................................................36 Appendices.............................................................................................................................................40 Appendix I Tables....................................................................................................................40 Appendix II Geologic map of Virginia......................................................................................77 ILLUSTRATIONS Figure 1. Total value of fuel and nonfuel mineral resource production in Virginia by year.......................2 2. Relative contribution of Virginia’s mineral and fossil fuel production sectors to the total value of mineral production for 2003..............................................................................................2 3. Sand and gravel production and value 1986-2003........................................................................3 4. Sand and gravel production and price 1986-2003.......................................................................3 5. Sand and gravel mining operation in Augusta County.................................................................4 6. Sand and gravel extraction sites in Virginia with active permits during 1999-2003...................4 7. Clay material production in Virginia, 1986-2003.......................................................................5 8. Clay material in Orange County extracted for brick production................................................6 9. Bricks produced from clay mined in Orange County...................................................................6 10. Map of crushed stone operations in Virginia with active permits during 1999-2003.................7 11. Limestone quarry in Russell County............................................................................................7 12. Crushed stone production and value 1986-2003..........................................................................8 13. Crushed stone production and price 1986-2003........................................................................8 14. Chemical Lime Company’s underground limestone mine in Giles County..............................9 15. Map of dimension stone operations in Virginia with active permits during 1999-2003.....9 16. Dimension stone production in Virginia, 1986-2003........................................................10 17. LeSueur-Richmond Slate Corporation’s Buckingham Slate quarry......................................10 18. Earlier operations of a soapstone quarry in Nelson County. ......................................................11 19. U.S. Silica feldspar mine in Hanover County..........................................................................11 20. Feldspar production and value 1986-2003................................................................................12 21. Feldspar production and price 1986-2003................................................................................12 22. Gypsum production in Virginia, 1986-1999. ...........................................................................13 23. Heavy-mineral sand production in Virginia, 1991-2003..........................................................14 24. Heavy-mineral sand mine in Dinwiddie County.......................................................................14 25. Industrial sand production and value 1986-2003......................................................................15 26. Industrial sand production and price 1986-2003......................................................................16 27. Iron-oxide production in Virginia, 1986-2003..........................................................................16 28. Iron oxide-rich rocks in the Hoover Color Corporation mine..................................................17 29. One of Kyanite Mining Corporation’s processing facilities at Willis Mountain.......................17 30. Open cut in weathered mafic rocks of the Green Springs pluton.........................................18 31. Vermiculite production and value 1986-2003..........................................................................19 32. Vermiculite production and price 1986-2003.........................................................................19 33. Salt production in Virginia, 2000-2003...................................................................................20 34. The underground Morefield Gem mine in the Morefield pegmatite in Amelia County...........20 35. Coal production by mining method and total value, 1980-2003..............................................22 36. Locations of coal in Virginia....................................................................................................23 37. General locations of surface coal mine operations with active permits during1999-2003....24 38. General locations of underground coal mine operations with active permits during 1999-2003.......................................................................................................24 39. Generalized stratigraphic column.............................................................................................25 40. Generalized stratigraphic column of productive intervals of fossil fuels................................28 41. Natural gas production and value 1993-2003.......................................................................29 42. General locations of wells that produced conventional gas in 2003.....................................30 43. General locations of wells that produced coalbed methane in 2003....................................31 44. Natural Gas production by county, 1993-2003...................................................................31 45. Natural Gas production by type, 1993-2003.....................................................................32 46. Natural Gas production and unit pricing, 1993-2003...............................................................32
Load more

Recommended publications
  • New River Geology
    Wow! Did You Know... National Park Service Total length of the New River: 320 miles • U.S. Department of the Interior • Total size of the New River watershed: 6,965 square miles (encompasses 4,457,000 acres) New River Gorge National River • Number of dams on the New River: seven (Fields Dam in Mouth of Wilson, VA; Fries Mill Dam in Fries, VA; Byllesby Dam in Austinville, VA; Buck Dam in Carroll County, VA; Claytor Dam in Dublin, VA; Bluestone Dam in New River Geology: Hinton, WV; and Hawk’s Nest Dam in Ansted, WV) • Highest point: Snake Mountain, North Carolina at Ribbon Through Time 4,800 feet above sea level (south fork of the New River) • Lowest point: Gauley Bridge, West Virginia at 680 feet above sea level. At this point the New and Gauley Rivers join together to form the Kanawha River. • Length of New River in New River Gorge National River: 53 miles, established as a unit of the National Park Service in 1978 (encompasses over 70,000 acres) • American Heritage River: the entire New River received this national designation in 1998 • The New River drops 750 feet between Hinton and Gauley Bridge, West Virginia (around 11 feet per mile) • One of the widest sections of the river in New River Gorge National River: Sandstone Falls area, 1500 feet Stand at any overlook in the New River Gorge and • One of the narrowest sections of the river in New River look into the canyon. These panoramas of the gorge Gorge National River: Fayette Station rapid, 200 feet are where it best presents itself, where it reveals the • One of the deepest sections of the river in New River character of its natural sculpture and landscape.
    [Show full text]
  • Phase-Out 2020: Monitoring Europe's Fossil Fuel Subsidies
    Phase-out 2020 Monitoring Europe’s fossil fuel subsidies Ipek Gençsü, Maeve McLynn, Matthias Runkel, Markus Trilling, Laurie van der Burg, Leah Worrall, Shelagh Whitley, and Florian Zerzawy September 2017 Report partners ODI is the UK’s leading independent think tank on international development and humanitarian issues. Climate Action Network (CAN) Europe is Europe’s largest coalition working on climate and energy issues. Readers are encouraged to reproduce material for their own publications, as long as they are not being sold commercially. As copyright holders, ODI and Overseas Development Institute CAN Europe request due acknowledgement and a copy of the publication. For 203 Blackfriars Road CAN Europe online use, we ask readers to link to the original resource on the ODI website. London SE1 8NJ Rue d’Edimbourg 26 The views presented in this paper are those of the author(s) and do not Tel +44 (0)20 7922 0300 1050 Brussels, Belgium necessarily represent the views of ODI or our partners. Fax +44 (0)20 7922 0399 Tel: +32 (0) 28944670 www.odi.org www.caneurope.org © Overseas Development Institute and CAN Europe 2017. This work is licensed [email protected] [email protected] under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial Licence (CC BY-NC 4.0). Cover photo: Oil refinery in Nordrhein-Westfalen, Germany – Ralf Vetterle (CC0 creative commons license). 2 Report Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for support and advice on the report from: Dave Jones of Sandbag UK, Colin Roche of Friends of the Earth Europe, Andrew Scott and Sejal Patel of the Overseas Development Institute, Helena Wright of E3G, and Andrew Murphy of Transport & Environment, and Alex Doukas of Oil Change International.
    [Show full text]
  • A New Era for Wind Power in the United States
    Chapter 3 Wind Vision: A New Era for Wind Power in the United States 1 Photo from iStock 7943575 1 This page is intentionally left blank 3 Impacts of the Wind Vision Summary Chapter 3 of the Wind Vision identifies and quantifies an array of impacts associated with continued deployment of wind energy. This 3 | Summary Chapter chapter provides a detailed accounting of the methods applied and results from this work. Costs, benefits, and other impacts are assessed for a future scenario that is consistent with economic modeling outcomes detailed in Chapter 1 of the Wind Vision, as well as exist- ing industry construction and manufacturing capacity, and past research. Impacts reported here are intended to facilitate informed discus- sions of the broad-based value of wind energy as part of the nation’s electricity future. The primary tool used to evaluate impacts is the National Renewable Energy Laboratory’s (NREL’s) Regional Energy Deployment System (ReEDS) model. ReEDS is a capacity expan- sion model that simulates the construction and operation of generation and transmission capacity to meet electricity demand. In addition to the ReEDS model, other methods are applied to analyze and quantify additional impacts. Modeling analysis is focused on the Wind Vision Study Scenario (referred to as the Study Scenario) and the Baseline Scenario. The Study Scenario is defined as wind penetration, as a share of annual end-use electricity demand, of 10% by 2020, 20% by 2030, and 35% by 2050. In contrast, the Baseline Scenario holds the installed capacity of wind constant at levels observed through year-end 2013.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydroelectric Power -- What Is It? It=S a Form of Energy … a Renewable Resource
    INTRODUCTION Hydroelectric Power -- what is it? It=s a form of energy … a renewable resource. Hydropower provides about 96 percent of the renewable energy in the United States. Other renewable resources include geothermal, wave power, tidal power, wind power, and solar power. Hydroelectric powerplants do not use up resources to create electricity nor do they pollute the air, land, or water, as other powerplants may. Hydroelectric power has played an important part in the development of this Nation's electric power industry. Both small and large hydroelectric power developments were instrumental in the early expansion of the electric power industry. Hydroelectric power comes from flowing water … winter and spring runoff from mountain streams and clear lakes. Water, when it is falling by the force of gravity, can be used to turn turbines and generators that produce electricity. Hydroelectric power is important to our Nation. Growing populations and modern technologies require vast amounts of electricity for creating, building, and expanding. In the 1920's, hydroelectric plants supplied as much as 40 percent of the electric energy produced. Although the amount of energy produced by this means has steadily increased, the amount produced by other types of powerplants has increased at a faster rate and hydroelectric power presently supplies about 10 percent of the electrical generating capacity of the United States. Hydropower is an essential contributor in the national power grid because of its ability to respond quickly to rapidly varying loads or system disturbances, which base load plants with steam systems powered by combustion or nuclear processes cannot accommodate. Reclamation=s 58 powerplants throughout the Western United States produce an average of 42 billion kWh (kilowatt-hours) per year, enough to meet the residential needs of more than 14 million people.
    [Show full text]
  • Are Biofuels an Effective and Viable Energy Strategy for Industrialized Societies? a Reasoned Overview of Potentials and Limits
    Sustainability 2015, 7, 8491-8521; doi:10.3390/su7078491 OPEN ACCESS sustainability ISSN 2071-1050 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability Article Are Biofuels an Effective and Viable Energy Strategy for Industrialized Societies? A Reasoned Overview of Potentials and Limits Tiziano Gomiero Independent Consultant and Researcher on Multi-Criteria Farming and Food System Analysis, Agro-Energies, Environmental Issues, Treviso 30121, Italy; E-Mail: [email protected]; Tel.: +39-32-0464-3496 Academic Editor: Andrew Kusiak Received: 7 April 2015 / Accepted: 26 June 2015 / Published: 30 June 2015 Abstract: In this paper, I analyze the constraints that limit biomass from becoming an alternative, sustainable and efficient energy source, at least in relation to the current metabolism of developed countries. In order to be termed sustainable, the use of an energy source should be technically feasible, economically affordable and environmentally and socially viable, considering society as a whole. Above all, it should meet society’s “metabolic needs,” a fundamental issue that is overlooked in the mainstream biofuels narrative. The EROI (Energy Return on Investment) of biofuels reaches a few units, while the EROI of fossil fuels is 20–30 or higher and has a power density (W/m2) thousands of times higher than the best biofuels, such as sugarcane in Brazil. When metabolic approaches are used it becomes clear that biomass cannot represent an energy carrier able to meet the metabolism of industrialized societies. For our industrial society to rely on “sustainable biofuels” for an important fraction of its energy, most of the agricultural and non-agricultural land would need to be used for crops, and at the same time a radical cut to our pattern of energy consumption would need to be implemented, whilst also achieving a significant population reduction.
    [Show full text]
  • Update on Recent Progress in Reform of Inefficient Fossil-Fuel Subsidies That Encourage Wasteful Consumption
    UPDATE ON RECENT PROGRESS IN REFORM OF INEFFICIENT FOSSIL-FUEL SUBSIDIES THAT ENCOURAGE WASTEFUL CONSUMPTION Contribution by the International Energy Agency (IEA) and the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) to the G20 Energy Transitions Working Group in consultation with: International Energy Forum (IEF), Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) and the World Bank 2nd Energy Transitions Working Group Meeting Toyama, 18-19 April 2019 Update on Recent Progress in Reform of Inefficient Fossil-Fuel Subsidies that Encourage Wasteful Consumption This document, as well as any data and any map included herein, are without prejudice to the status of or sovereignty over any territory, to the delimitation of international frontiers and boundaries and to the name of any territory, city or area. This update does not necessarily express the views of the G20 countries or of the IEA, IEF, OECD, OPEC and the World Bank or their member countries. The G20 countries, IEA, IEF, OECD, OPEC and the World Bank assume no liability or responsibility whatsoever for the use of data or analyses contained in this document, and nothing herein shall be construed as interpreting or modifying any legal obligations under any intergovernmental agreement, treaty, law or other text, or as expressing any legal opinion or as having probative legal value in any proceeding. Please cite this publication as: OECD/IEA (2019), "Update on recent progress in reform of inefficient fossil-fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption", https://oecd.org/fossil-fuels/publication/OECD-IEA-G20-Fossil-Fuel-Subsidies-Reform-Update-2019.pdf │ 3 Summary This report discusses recent trends and developments in the reform of inefficient fossil- fuel subsidies that encourage wasteful consumption, within the G20 and beyond.
    [Show full text]
  • Figure 3A. Major Geologic Formations in West Virginia. Allegheney And
    82° 81° 80° 79° 78° EXPLANATION West Virginia county boundaries A West Virginia Geology by map unit Quaternary Modern Reservoirs Qal Alluvium Permian or Pennsylvanian Period LTP d Dunkard Group LTP c Conemaugh Group LTP m Monongahela Group 0 25 50 MILES LTP a Allegheny Formation PENNSYLVANIA LTP pv Pottsville Group 0 25 50 KILOMETERS LTP k Kanawha Formation 40° LTP nr New River Formation LTP p Pocahontas Formation Mississippian Period Mmc Mauch Chunk Group Mbp Bluestone and Princeton Formations Ce Obrr Omc Mh Hinton Formation Obps Dmn Bluefield Formation Dbh Otbr Mbf MARYLAND LTP pv Osp Mg Greenbrier Group Smc Axis of Obs Mmp Maccrady and Pocono, undivided Burning Springs LTP a Mmc St Ce Mmcc Maccrady Formation anticline LTP d Om Dh Cwy Mp Pocono Group Qal Dhs Ch Devonian Period Mp Dohl LTP c Dmu Middle and Upper Devonian, undivided Obps Cw Dhs Hampshire Formation LTP m Dmn OHIO Ct Dch Chemung Group Omc Obs Dch Dbh Dbh Brailler and Harrell, undivided Stw Cwy LTP pv Ca Db Brallier Formation Obrr Cc 39° CPCc Dh Harrell Shale St Dmb Millboro Shale Mmc Dhs Dmt Mahantango Formation Do LTP d Ojo Dm Marcellus Formation Dmn Onondaga Group Om Lower Devonian, undivided LTP k Dhl Dohl Do Oriskany Sandstone Dmt Ot Dhl Helderberg Group LTP m VIRGINIA Qal Obr Silurian Period Dch Smc Om Stw Tonoloway, Wills Creek, and Williamsport Formations LTP c Dmb Sct Lower Silurian, undivided LTP a Smc McKenzie Formation and Clinton Group Dhl Stw Ojo Mbf Db St Tuscarora Sandstone Ordovician Period Ojo Juniata and Oswego Formations Dohl Mg Om Martinsburg Formation LTP nr Otbr Ordovician--Trenton and Black River, undivided 38° Mmcc Ot Trenton Group LTP k WEST VIRGINIA Obr Black River Group Omc Ordovician, middle calcareous units Mp Db Osp St.
    [Show full text]
  • On Alternative Energy Hydroelectric Power
    Focus On Alternative Energy Hydroelectric Power What is Hydroelectric Power (Hydropower)? Hydroelectric power comes from the natural flow of water. The energy is produced by the fall of water turning the blades of a turbine. The turbine is connected to a generator that converts the energy into electricity. The amount of electricity a system can produce depends on the quantity of water passing through a turbine (the volume of water flow) and the height from which the water ‘falls’ (head). The greater the flow and the head, the more electricity produced. Why Wind? Hydropower is a clean, domestic, and renewable source of energy. It provides inexpensive electricity and produces no pollution. Unlike fossil fuels, hydropower does not destroy water during the production of electricity. Hydropower is the only renewable source of energy that can replace fossil fuels’ electricity production while satisfying growing energy needs. Hydroelectric systems vary in size and application. Micro-hydroelectric plants are the smallest types of hydroelectric systems. They can generate between 1 kW and 1 MW of power and are ideal for powering smaller services such as processing machines, small farms, and communities. Large hydroelectric systems can produce large amounts of electricity. These systems can be used to power large communities and cities. Why Hydropower? Technical Feasibility Hydropower is the most energy efficient power generator. Currently, hydropower is capable of converting 90% of the available energy into electricity. This can be compared to the most efficient fossil fuel plants, which are only 60% efficient. The principal advantages of using hydropower are its large renewable domestic resource base, the absence of polluting emissions during operation, its capability in some cases to respond quickly to utility load demands, and its very low operating costs.
    [Show full text]
  • Fossil Fuels and Water Quality 75
    Chapter 4 Lucy Allen, Michael J. Cohen, David Abelson, and Bart Miller Fossil fuels are essential to the global economy—for electricity production, transporta- tion, plastics and chemicals manufacturing, heating, and many other purposes. How- ever,Fossil the extraction Fuels and processing and of fossil Water fuels, in addition Quality to their use, have profound impacts on the environment and natural resources, including water. Large oil spills— such as the recent Deepwater Horizon drilling rig spill, which leaked over 4.9 million barrels (780,000 cubic meters) of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico—have focused atten- tion on the potential for disasters associated with oil drilling to cause contamination of the natural environment (Lubchenco et al. 2010). The growing recognition of the seri- ous risks to surface-water and groundwater quality from natural gas fracking operations also raises new questions. And even normal fossil-fuel extraction and refining processes pollute the environment. The connections between water and energy have been studied in recent years, with growing recognition of how closely the two are linked. Water is used, in varying quanti- ties and ways, in every step of fossil-fuel extraction and processing (Ptacek et al. 2004). For example, the amount of coal produced worldwide in 2009 required an estimated 1.3 to 4.5 billion cubic meters (m3) of water for extraction and processing.1 Oil refining requires approximately 4 to 8 million m3 of water daily in the United States alone (the amount of water that two to three million U.S. households use daily) (US DOE 2006).
    [Show full text]
  • Fossil Fuel Hunt Adapted from “Fossil Fuels and the Ticking Clock” At
    Issue 7: Energy and the Polar Environment http://beyondpenguins.nsdl.org/ Fossil Fuel Hunt adapted from “Fossil Fuels and the Ticking Clock” at www.powerhousekids.com You’ve been hired by an energy company to find coal deposits. The coal you find will be burned to produce electricity for homes and businesses. Coal and natural gas are known as fossil fuels. They are formed from the remains of ancient plants and animals. When the plants and animals died and became buried deep in the earth, the heat and pressure of the earth’s layers slowly transformed them into coal, natural gas, and oil. In this activity, you will search for pennies four times. You only have 30 seconds to search each time! After each search, you will count the pennies, record the total, and deposit them in the correctly numbered cup. After the fourth search, you will recount each cup of pennies one at a time, and make a bar graph to show the number of pennies you found in each search. First search: __________ Second search: ____________ Third search: ___________ Fourth search: __________ Copyright 2008: Ohio State University. Funded by the National Science Foundation. Licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported License. Issue 7: Energy and the Polar Environment http://beyondpenguins.nsdl.org/ 45 35 Number of pennies found 25 15 5 1st 2nd 3rd 4th search search search search Questions: 1. In which search did you find the most pennies? 2. In which search did you find the least pennies? 3. Why do you think it became increasingly harder to find pennies? 4.
    [Show full text]
  • Fossil Fuels? Beside Each Sentence Below, Write Down Whether It Is Talking About Coal, Oil, Or Natural Gas
    Puzzles & Word Games Coal, Oil or Natural Gas? How well do you know your fossil fuels? Beside each sentence below, write down whether it is talking about coal, oil, or natural gas. Watch out! Some may have more than one answer. Name the Fossil Fuel 1. There is probably enough of this fossil fuel to last another 200 years. 2. Started out as plankton (tiny plants and animals) millions of years ago. 3. This fossil fuel provides about 40% of the world’s energy. 4. In its early stages this fossil fuel is a spongy brown material called peat. 5. This fossil fuel provides about 40% of the world's electricity. 6. This fossil fuel produces more carbon dioxide than any other fossil fuel. 7. Before people can use this fossil fuel it is cleaned and separated at a special factory called a refinery. 8. Using this fossil fuel contributes to global warming. 9. More than half of this fossil fuel comes from the Middle East. 10. This fossil fuel burns the hottest, which makes it the most efficient for making electricity. ecokids.ca Puzzles & Word Games Coal, Oil or Natural Gas? How well do you know your fossil fuels? Beside each sentence below, write down whether it is talking about coal, oil, or natural gas. Watch out! Some may have more than one answer. Name the Fossil Fuel Coal 1. There is probably enough of this fossil fuel to last another 200 years. Oil & Natural gas 2. Started out as plankton (tiny plants and animals) millions of years ago.
    [Show full text]
  • Hydropower Can Help Replace Fossil Fuels
    The Future of Renewable Energy What Is the Future of Hydropower? Stephen Currie ® San Diego, CA 1 Hydropower_FRE_v3.indd 1 6/18/12 1:25 PM Contents Foreword 4 Overview: Visions of the Future: Hydropower 6 Chapter One: Can Hydropower Ever Replace Fossil Fuels? The Debate 11 Hydropower Can Help Replace Fossil Fuels 12 Hydropower Cannot Replace Fossil Fuels 18 Chapter Two: Is Hydropower Affordable? The Debate 24 Hydropower Is an Inexpensive Source of Fuel 25 Hydropower Is Much More Expensive than It Appears 31 Chapter Three: How Does Hydropower Impact the Environment? The Debate 37 Hydropower Is an Environmentally Friendly Source of Energy 38 Hydropower Has Negative Effects on the Environment 44 Chapter Four: Can the Oceans Provide a Significant Source of Hydroelectric Power? The Debate 50 Oceans Represent the Future of Hydropower 51 Oceans Do Not Represent the Future of Hydropower 57 Source Notes 63 Hydropower Facts 67 Related Organizations and Websites 70 For Further Research 73 Index 75 About the Author 80 Hydropower_FRE_v3.indd 3 6/18/12 1:25 PM Hydropower Can Help Replace Fossil Fuels “Hydropower is the only renewable source of energy that can replace fossil fuels’ electricity production while satisfying growing energy needs.” — Agriculture and Rural Development of Alberta, Canada, which oversees Alberta’s agriculture and food industries. Government of Alberta [Canada], Agriculture and Rural Development, “Hydroelectric Power,” May 27, 2010. www1.agric.gov.ab.ca. Although hydropower is an inexpensive and environmentally friendly form of energy, it is often overlooked as an energy source. In particular, hydroelectricity can be overshadowed by the widespread use of fossil fu- els such as oil, coal, and natural gas.
    [Show full text]