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Maximus the Confessor as a European Philosopher edited by Sotiris Mitralexis, Georgios Steiris, Marcin Podbielski, Sebastian Lalla [Veritas, Cascade Books, Before & After 9781498295581] Appendix: John Paul II and the authorship of Gaudium Christendom et Spes 22 §1 and 24 §3 by William Newton Renewal Within Tradition: Series Editor: Matthew Table of Contents Levering in the Second Century: Themes and The Culture of the Incarnation: Essays in Catholic Developments edited by James Carleton Paget and by Tracey Rowland [Emmaus Academic, Judith Lieu [ Press, 9781945125171] 9781107165229] ‘Two Scrubby Travellers’: A psychoanalytic view of A Companion to Second-Century Christian 'Heretics' flourishing and constraint in religion through the lives edited by Petri Luomanen and Antti Marjanen of John and Charles Wesley by Pauline Watson [Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae, Brill Academic [Routledge, 9781138241046] Publishing, 9789004144644] After Christendom Series The Origin of Divine Christology by Andrew Ter Ern Post-Christendom: church and mission in a strange new Loke [Society for Studies Monograph world, Second edition by Stuart Murray [After Series, Cambridge University Press, Christendom Series, Cascade Books, 9781107199262] 9781532617973] Leontius of Byzantium: Complete Works edited and Theology after Christendom: forming prophets for a translated, with an Introduction by Brian E. Daley, SJ post-Christendom world by Joshua T. Searle [After [Oxford Early Christian Texts, Oxford, Christendom, Cascade Books, 9781532617300] 9780199645237] The Schism of '68: Catholicism, Contraception and A Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity by Josef Humanae Vitae in Europe, 1945-1975 edited by Lössl and Nicholas J. Baker-Brian [Blackwell Alana Harris [Palgrave Macmillan, 9783319708102] Companions to the Ancient World, Wiley-Blackwell, 9781118968109] Essay: The Vatican's View of Sex: The Inaccurate Conception by Robert T. Francoeur Augustine: Conversions to Confessions by Robin Lane Fox [Basic Books, 9780465022274] Human Dependency and Christian Ethics by Sandra Sullivan-Dunbar [New Studies in Christian Ethics, Augustine in Context edited by Tarmo Toom Cambridge University Press, 9781107168893] [Cambridge University Press, 9781107139107] How the Nations Rage: Rethinking Faith and Politics in Beatific Enjoyment in Medieval Scholastic Debates: a Divided Age by Jonathan Leeman [Thomas Nelson, The Complex Legacy of Augustine and Peter 9781400207640] Lombard by Severin Valentinov Kitanov [Lexington Books, 9781498556484] Bibliography Augustine and Kierkegaard edited by Kim Paffenroth and John Doody [Augustine in Conversation: Tradition and Innovation, Lexington Books, 9781498561846] Christianity in the Second Century: Themes and Sulpicius Severus' Vita Martini by Philip Burton Developments edited by James Carleton Paget [Oxford University Press, 9780199676224] and Judith Lieu [University of Cambridge Press, Sulpicius Severus by Richard J. Goodrich [Ancient 9781107165229] Christian Writers, Paulist Press, 9780809106202] "This volume is the result of a conference, entitled The Christian Second Century, which was held

1 | page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com between March 14th and 16th, 2013, at the PART III INTERPRETING TEXTS AND Centre for Research in the Arts, Social Sciences and ENGAGING IN PRACTICE Humanities (CRASSH), University of Cambridge. 10 Galen and the Christians: Texts and and includes bibliographical references and index. Authority in the Second Century AD by Rebecca Flemming Christianity in the Second Century shows how 11 `Authoritative Texts' and How to academic study on this critical period of Christian Handle Them: Some Reflections on an development has undergone substantial change Ambiguous Concept and Its Use in Second- over the last thirty years. The second century is Century Christian Literature by Joseph often considered to be a time during which the Verheyden Christian church moved relentlessly towards forms 12 Belief and Practice in Graeco-Roman Religiosity: Plutarch, De Iside and Osiride of institutionalisation and consolidated itself against 379 c by Teresa Morgan so-called heretics. However, new perspectives have 13 Lot Oracles and Fate: On Early been brought within recent scholarship as the Christianity among Others in the Second period has attracted interest from a variety of Century by Laura Salah Nasrallah disciplines, including not only early Christian studies, PART IV MODELLING IDENTITIES but also ancient Judaism and the wider world of 14 Christians as a `Third Race': Is Ethnicity the early imperial scholarship. Christianity in the at Issue? by Erich S. Gruen Second Century seeks to reflect this changed 15 Ethnic Discourse in Early Christianity by scholarly landscape, and with contributions from Oskar Skarsaune key figures in these recent re-evaluations, it aims to 16 Pagan Attitudes by John A. North 17 'Away with the Atheists!' Christianity enrich and stimulate further discussion. and Militant Atheism in the Early Empire by Contents Tim Whitmarsh List of Contributors 18 Modelling the Second Century as the Acknowledgements Age of the Laboratory by Judith Lieu List of Abbreviations Bibliography Introduction by James Carleton Paget and General Index Judith Lieu PART I CONTEXTS Excerpt: What is the second century? Should we, as I Empires, Diasporas and the Emergence of Religions by Greg Woolf with other `centuries', talk about it in terms of a 2 The Mediterranean Jewish Diaspora in long second century,' ascribing to it a period of the Second Century by Tessa Rajak time which goes beyond its strict mathematical 3 The Rabbis and Their Rivals in the limits. And how will any particular perspective on Second Century CE by Philip Alexander the century affect the way its length is calculated? 4 Church and Synagogue vis-à-vis Roman A `Christian' second century, for instance, may be Rule in the Second temporally different from a `Jewish' or `pagan' Century by William Horbury second century.' Whatever we think of this matter, PART II DISCERNING CONTINUITY AND a Christian second century has been a perennial DISCONTINUITY IN EARLY CHRISTIANITY subject of interest among scholars, in particular 5 The Second Century from the Perspective of the New Testament by James Carleton because of its perceived transitional character Paget which, for many, renders it a Schlüsselepoche. 6 Continuity and Change in Second- Conventionally, it has been presented as a time of Century Christianity: A Narrative against consolidation, seen in increased institutionalization, the Trend by Lewis Ayres often in the face of crises, during which the ideas of 7 The Gnostic Myth': How Does Its Demise orthodoxy and heresy were honed and the Impact Twenty-first Century Historiography inchoate authority structures of Christianity of Christianity's Second Century? By Karen established; hence the transition is from the rather L. King looser conception of the Christian faith witnessed in 8 The Gnostic Myth by Mark Edwards the New Testament to the more systematic 9 Modelling Second-Century Christian Theology: Christian Theology as articulations of belief and practice, as well as of philosophia by Winrich Löhr networked structures of authority, that emerged 2 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com from the third century. Yet even this looks different comprehensive, nuanced, inclusive account, where if the emphasis is looking forward from the first the old certitudes of a once apparently familiar (New Testament) century to the second, or if it is map, delineating a story of continuities, disappear looking back from the more obviously ecclesial and new accounts become necessary. Such accounts third century to the inchoate second. need not reject narrative — indeed many continue to want to tell a story of sorts — but insofar as But over the past thirty or so years, while the belief they embrace that idea, it will be in a more that the century is an important one has not complex form. diminished, there has been a growing awareness that this older characterization should be revised Complementary to this shift in emphasis has been a and a more complex account of this period be growing sense that Christian developments in the undertaken. This is partly due to an emerging second century should not be seen primarily in consensus that Christianity in this period was isolation from the wider cultural and religious world stubbornly diverse, a view with its roots in Walter out of which they emerged. Rather, reflecting a Bauer's Orthodoxy and Heresy of 1934, whose trend in the study of late antique Christianity real effect only came to be seen in the early 1970s pioneered by Peter Brown, such developments and beyond.' Accompanying this conviction, but should be viewed within the framework of wider also emerging from textual discoveries and the changes in the ancient world. Such a shift is application of new theoretical insights, is the view precisely that — Christianity has always been that many of the old categories, which had become viewed by those who have specialized in its study central in descriptions of the Christian second as a movement emerging from a particular context century, categories adopted from some of the and explicable in relation to that context. However, second century's principal Christian writers, such as whereas the tendency has been to describe it as Justin and , needed to be revised. Terms primarily new and marked by its `difference' within like `heresy' and `orthodoxy', `Gnosticism' and the ancient world, the shift towards a more even `Christianity' and `Judaism' were no longer embedded representation allows Christianity to be self-evident. Such terms, on this account, are treated as one among a number of Mediterranean constructs,6 the expressions of dangerously reified religions. entities, which mask more complicated realities, The current volume seeks to reflect this changed among Christians (and Jews) in general, where environment through the discussion of a number of identities were evolving and fluid, and where issues and themes which are central to it. While the distinctions between groups, whether those broad subject of the individual chapters was chosen traditionally termed heretical and orthodox, or Jew by the convenors of the conference, there was no and Christian, were less clear. In such a view all attempt to impose a particular format upon them or texts, not least those written by individuals who a unifying ideological position. In fact, as will later came to be associated with the orthodox, are become clear, while all the chapters reflect the read not as defences of a generally recognized shifting landscape of second-century Christian `deposit of faith', but as attempts, in the midst of a studies, they do so in very different ways, great and interconnected diversity, to construct one. sometimes agreeing, sometimes disagreeing, with Against such a background, made more complex the broad trends that are outlined earlier and will by the long acknowledged lack of sources be discussed in greater detail later, but always available for this period (only a fraction of the feeling the need to engage with them. number to which refers in his Ecclesiastical History), attempts to characterize the century in It is not the purpose of the chapters to provide terms of the various components of a developing either an introduction to the complexities of the new `orthodoxy' (a view, which to varying degrees is landscape outlined earlier or a comprehensive beholden to an Irenaean/Eusebian view of the analysis of them.'° The subjects treated do, in period), confronted with intermittent crises, become different ways, reflect key aspects of the changing much more difficult, and the construction of world of second-century studies, although inevitably narratives of any kind suspect, with their tendency they could be extended in many directions; to teleologies of various kinds. The aim of a moreover, the adoption of different levels of second-century history becomes a more approach, some more abstract, others more 3 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com detailed and specific, offers a combination of at the time. Yet even in this endeavour the focus of broader theory and assessment with text-based attention has perhaps shifted. As in other history- analysis. writing, it is no longer assumed that the story is to be told through the `great, the good and their The volume also reflects the shifting environment to dastardly opponents', that is through the church which the previous paragraphs have referred men [sic], their hierarchies and institutions, and their through the identity of its contributors. While some triumphant battles over the forces of opposition, of these hail from departments of theology and/or whether external `paganism' or internal `heresy'. religious studies, others are classicists or scholars of There may be only limited interest in describing the ancient Judaism. While it would be wrong to imply `everyday life of the early Christians', which was that people from the latter two disciplines have not probably not so different from the everyday life of been participants already for some time in the their neighbours, but that latter fact itself becomes discussion of the Christian second century, they are a point of interest rather than of disdain. more so now than was once the case, a fact which Moreover, the varying perceptions and practices of reflects, in part at least, a growing sense that those who did not leave literary texts are no longer ancient Christianity can illuminate the development treated as of secondary interest or status; hence, as of ancient Judaism and of the pagan world out of shall be seen, `archaeology' and the study of which it emerged as well as the study of those material culture are now recognized as offering an subjects illuminating it. It is hoped that, together, the alternative window into the past, capturing such variety of subject and of approach, inevitably experiences, in contrast to the older picture of selective, will provoke further conversations `biblical archaeology' as being in the service of between participants from different backgrounds demonstrating the truth and antiquity of the texts." and contribute towards re-envisaging this period. This is taken up by Laura Nasrallah's chapter, which In what follows we attempt to locate the chapters enables a dialogue between the material evidence within the framework of some of the formative for dice oracles and literary texts in order to offer debates, both of subject and method, within the a new perspective on Christian participation in study of second-century Christianity, and invite fundamental human experiences and the readers to join in the conversation that ensues. philosophical questions they provoked. Methods of Study This example reflects the broader concern to hear It cannot yet be said that the second century has alternative voices to those that speak through the become the conscious focus of methodological texts which previous accounts have traditionally experimentation to the extent that has been the treated as the authoritative record of the past. That case with the New (and Old) Testament. In the concern coincides with other related ones, and with latter, the primacy of the so-called historical-critical similar ones elsewhere in the humanities. The method, with its attention fixed on questions of pervasive current emphasis on the diversity of sources, dating, authorial intention and readerly emergent Christianity, as also of the Judaism of the context, has been effectively challenged, period, reflects this widespread rejection of particularly by approaches which either prioritize allegiance to the controlling narrative of the the ideological agenda introduced by the supposed victors. That this is but a subset of the investigator, or immerse themselves in the literary rejection of a single master-narrative, which is strategies of the narrative, and in the play characteristic of post-modernity, need only alert us between the reader and a text, which is the sole to the fact that previous accounts of the period reliable producer of its `world'. Many students of were no less contextually framed. So, too, the the second century are still more concerned in contemporary rejection of established authorities is general to uncover 'what happened', and are played out here in the fascination with non- largely confident of being able to do so, even canonical texts of the period, whether long-known while acknowledging, at least in the case of both or newly discovered, and with the theories of past the Jews and the Christians of the Graeco-Roman political manoeuvering that ensured their world, that the exercise is constrained, if not suppression, both as popularized (The Da Vinci distorted, by the fact that the surviving evidence Code) and in more scholarly circles (the claims for represents a small fraction of what was produced the priority of Marcion's ). 4 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Perhaps most illustrative of the method would be uncontroverted account of what it is to be 'a the now familiar example of listening to the Christian', even if that is not a term all prioritize. alternative voices of women, a subject not treated Students of the classical world have examined how, in this volume. Here, the study of early Christianity out of a disparate set of peoples, histories and has followed in the wake of that of the New experiences, a sense of `being Greek' was shaped, Testament, while also being enriched by what has regardless of whether all signed up to it; the same been happening in scholarship on Late Antiquity. was true of `Roman-ness'. How far did the Initial strategies merely named the women, either construction of a `Christian' identity follow the same whose presence in the texts had long been ignored lines? Some, echoing their early forbears, would (e.g. Junia in Romans 16.7) or who were to be emphasize that Christian texts play little attention found in writings that had been marginalized in the to such defining `ethnic' characteristics as language, political processes of the following centuries, and territory or descent. Erich Gruen and Oskar gave them their place in the history, often in Skarsaune are largely agreed in what follows that conscious challenge to subsequent histories and the formula 'a third race [genas]', found in a few vested interests that denied them a continuing role. early texts, does not point to any `ethnic' Subsequently, greater awareness of the text itself, characterization of the early Christians within the and of the rhetorical strategies embedded in all second century, either by outsiders or by writing and even the apparently `purely themselves. Both highlight the primary concern of informational' or `documentary', has challenged an the texts cited as one of negotiating the optimistic historicism. More recently, attention has relationship between the new movement and the turned from `women' to `gender', a category from Jewish matrix and heritage of its birth. More which none can escape, but which nonetheless is implicitly, both are engaged in a refutation of recognized as a cultural construct; hence the those interpreters who, with more emphasis on the interest has been on how the constructions of constructed character of all such attempts at self- gender characteristic of the Graeco-Roman and definition, whether or not dubbed `ethnic' or Jewish worlds can be seen to play out within `racial', would contend that the strategies Christian texts, and how, if at all, the latter subvert deployed by early Christian writers are in practice these. The intersection between cultural studies and of a very similar order to those of their `Greek' or the study of Late Antiquity, particularly in North `Roman' peers, as also to those of the theoretical America, has been especially creative, with modelling of identities. However, such reference mostly to the fourth century although with methodological concentration on the nature of an impact also on the second." Yet an emphasis on literary rhetorical strategies and on the instability `construction', the so-called literary turn, may of construction may lead some to question whether successfully undermine any attempt to parrot the any study of `early Christianity', and so of its received master-narrative, but may also exclude fellow journeyers, is able to identify the object of the retrieval of any alternative narrative after all its endeavours. available. Narrative or No Narrative The same dilemmas of `construction' also plague the Can a story of second-century Christianity be told? recent interest in identity and its formation. Past Is such an undertaking desirable? These questions confident histories of Christianity and its neighbours can be raised on a number of accounts. First, the in the second century inevitably assumed a stability issue of Christian diversity, however understood, and unanimity regarding the subject of the story. problematizes privileging particular versions of Contemporary critiques of the essentialism that has Christian truth over others, and so telling a accompanied modern discourses of race, ethnicity particular story, which necessarily excludes and so, or nationhood have joined forces with sensitivity to by extension, misrepresents. Related to this is the the rhetoric of the literary texts (as also of material issue of teleologies — that is, the difficulty of culture) as being no less engaged in the persuasive telling a story without assuming a particular result, construction of a reality. The reverse side of the or put another way, the linear character of stories coin of the recognition of the diversity of early always assumes an endpoint, which, again in an Christianity(ies) has been the recognition also of the exclusionary way, dictates the way the story is told. strategies by which the literary texts project an Third, does the rise of theoretical considerations, 5 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com discussed before, make the telling of a story seem broadly what one might term an anti-exceptionalist passé, perhaps impossible, even if in the end it may one. be difficult to avoid? The mild anti-exceptionalism of North's chapter has Those who have been strong advocates of diversity been echoed in more detailed and specific studies. have not always abandoned narrative. Bauer had Illustrative of this has been recent study of Christian a story to tell, which assumed the temporal heresiology: where previously even those who were precedence in many parts of the empire of what keen to emphasize its constructed character saw it came to be called: as strongly Christian in expression, a younger generation of scholars have located it within Anti-Exceptionalism developments witnessed in Platonism, among While it is true that Christianity has always been sophists and other philosophical movements. For studied with reference to its contemporary wider instance, Kendra Eshelman has argued, inter alia, pagan and Jewish world, and that a sound that the formation of orthodoxy is something of a knowledge of the context in which Christian beliefs shared project of the second century, and that and ideas were forged was essential to scholarly sophists and philosophers not only provide some of pursuit of the subject, there is now more awareness the same resources and techniques, which will of, and interest in, the extent to which Christianity enable Christians to create an idea of orthodoxy, was an expression of wider movements in the but that there is a general drift in this sort of ancient world. In earlier scholarship there was a direction in the ancient world. In an exploration of tendency to interpret Christianity through its developing Christian discourse, Laura Nasrallah has difference from contemporary culture, or for its sought to show how Christian literature of the adoption of aspects of that culture, in particular second century takes up themes relating to justice, were defined as `philosophical' or `Hellenistic', piety and related religious matters, which found which might be viewed as distorting the essential expression in the material culture of the period. structure of Christianity.3' While such concerns may Complementary to some of this discussion has been not have disappeared, early Christianity has come Rebecca Lyman's thesis that Christian ideas of to be seen as a part of what is often dubbed 'late heresy simply represent a range of attempts by antiquity' and as expressive of, and contributing to, Hellenistic thinkers to bring together ideas of its `making'. Elements of this tendency can already universal truth and local beliefs, thereby in some be seen in the volume edited by Lieu, North and ways detoxifying Christianity's apparent Rajak over two decades ago, all contributors to the intolerance. Other expressions of this tendency to present volume. North, for instance, argued against seek to understand Christianity as, amongst other the view that Christianity was in some senses a new things, a reflection of the concerns of the Second manifestation in the ancient world, to be hived off Sophistic could be multiplied. None would argue a and separated from other ancient `religions'. case for Christianity being precisely like something Instead, it was a reflection of a development in the else but the emphasis in the discussion has ancient world 'from religion as embedded in the undoubtedly changed. city state to religion as choice of differentiated groups offering different qualities of religious The chapters in this volume reflect elements of this doctrine, different experiences, insights, or just debate. Greg Woolf presents an intentionally anti- different myths and stories to make sense of the exceptionalist case for Christianity: taking forward absurdity of human experience'. In an influential the arguments of North, and the thoughts of J. Z. but contested metaphor, Christianity emerges in an Smith, Woolf argues that Christianity emerged in a ancient world where religion is no longer seen in world, which, influenced by the rise of empires terms of a monopoly but of a marketplace, where which promoted immigration and mobility, had choices are possible and competition and conflict spawned diasporic communities and undermined inevitable. North was not arguing for the view that conventional distinctions between local and Christianity was no more than the expression of a translocal cults. The new religious movements which tendency — he makes much, for instance, of its emerged in such a context, the beginnings of which missionizing character, something which he sees as can be seen in the second century, shared family unique to it — but the argument of his chapter is resemblances, accounted for by the shared context 6 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com in which they arose. It is in such a context that and `Christianity' has been perhaps the most competition between religions arose and with it, securely established in scholarly discussion. The persecution. At a more fine-grained and specific older model, according to which `Christianity', level, and from different perspectives, Morgan and conceived, if not already brought to birth, in the Nasrallah seek to undermine conventional person of or of Paul, had broken away from distinctions between Christianity as, on the one `Judaism' by the end of the first century, taking hand, a religion of doctrine, and pagan and with it the Scriptures (`Old Testament') in their indeed Jewish religion as, on the other, ones Greek translation, and effectively leaving its marked by praxis. So Morgan shows, by an erstwhile parent to ossify in legalism, has now examination of Plutarch and others, that belief largely been confined to the annals of the history about the gods was in fact important, while of scholarship. This triumphalist model was replaced Nasrallah, through looking at a dice oracle at by one which gave greater recognition to the Corinth, discusses the complex relationship between ongoing but separate history of Jewish communities, practices represented by such objects and the which for a time continued to present a seductive beliefs they imply, beliefs, which in complex ways threat to early Christian groups. Dubbed as 'the could be seen to be reflected in Christian texts. Parting of the Ways' at a time when it was already Other chapters, which are not consciously breaking down, that model had assumed that it engagements with this question, adopt more was reasonable to speak of `Judaism' and ambivalent positions on it. So John North, while `Christianity' as discrete entities, confused only by clear that Lucian's presentation of Christianity is not `Jewish Christians' who defied the inevitable and so one marked by a sense of repulsion at the were viewed as `heretics' by both. As has been phenomenon, that is, an ingrained sense of its alien seen, even before the relationship between the two character, shows how Lucian can be seen to align it came under scrutiny, the unitary character of each with Cynicism, but still suggests that Lucian is was being dissolved; at the same time the Dead struggling to place it on his religio-cultural map, a Sea Scrolls and a re-evaluation of Hellenistic struggle reflected in other writers, even Christian Jewish texts meant that a more variegated ones like Diognetus. Tim Whitmarsh, in his `Judaism' seemingly provided a less hostile contribution on Christians as atheists, sees the environment within which Jesus, 'the early Jesus former as both using contemporary understandings movement' and, indeed, its successors into the of atheism in a variety of rhetorically charged second century could be located. The `alternative ways, but also as contributing to a development of voices' evidenced by the patterns of archaeological the term. Rebecca Flemming, on the other hand, in a remains often resisted unequivocal definition as discussion of textual authority amongst various either Christian or Jewish (or, indeed, pagan); medical writers in the period, especially Galen, these, together with the shadowy figures highlights the broadly eclectic approach to this presupposed by the polemic of texts whose matter. True, Galen can speak of a kind of 'sect- legitimate authority was no longer given historical mania' when it comes to some medical writers, but priority, pointed to more complex patterns of this is misleading when the sources are analysed coexistence and of porous boundaries as well as of closely. Christians are difficult to situate on this map elasticity of doctrinal definition. Dissatisfaction with but their unified approach to knowledge does not, a single grand narrative directed attention to the as Eshelman argues, reflect a well-established different stories of particular localities or texts. The characteristic of the age. For Verheyden result was the continually unstable and proliferating canonization or the movements towards it, which `Partings (and perhaps Re-joinings) of Ways', the seem to mark out second-century Christianity, could time frame for which could be extended into the be taken to reflect tendencies in that direction in fourth century and even beyond. It has to be the Second Sophistic, partly because Christians admitted that this is not the picture that the texts have left no record of their reasons for proceeding project, as the chapters by Gruen and Skarsaune in such a way. both demonstrate; equally it is not the picture that seems to be presupposed by the accounts of The Parting of the Ways persecution 'as a Christian', even by those Of the various themes addressed in this volume, the suggested by the Roman authors such as Tacitus, remodelling of the relationship between `Judaism' 7 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com and, unsurprisingly, not by the majority of `Martyr extent of literacy, however defined, in the Empire, Acts', which are penned by `Christians'. These latter, and the expectation that Christians (and perhaps in the second century most notably the Martyrdom Jews) would have been positioned at the lower of and that told in the Letter of the levels of the social range, texts dominate Churches at Lyons and Vienne, are constructed contemporary understandings of the distinctive around the self-defining statement `I am a character of the period. In an age where, it has Christian', giving little role, or only a highly been argued, the popularization of philosophy ambiguous one, to the Jews. This last position, of the extended deeply across society, the proper `difference' established by persecution, is to a interpretation of troubling insecurity. In so doing he considerable extent defended by Horbury in this examines a larger range of sources than is volume, although he too acknowledges to a greater commonly considered in the debate to allow some degree than have some scholars the extent to which similarity between the Jewish and Christian Jewish communities also faced the political experience, although at the end it is difference in authorities with Septuagint and other Hellenistic status that is most marked; this, then, implies that Jewish texts. The irony of this approach, which the difference between Jews and Christians was seeks to restore to those Diaspora communities their recognized by outsiders, and that they could be own distinctive and self-chosen identity, is that these distinguished in times of persecution. Hellenistic texts, of which there are very few that However, the new model has been to underplay survive, were for the most part transmitted and `difference', and to stress shared experiences, preserved through Christian channels, and the allegiance and perhaps communal practices. Yet, to literary and conceptual frameworks within which the extent that it can still generate a broad they can be read are those provided by surviving narrative, this has often remained a `Christian' one. Christian literature. Hence, even a narrative that As was also the case in the period under review seeks to be told in its own voice is hard put to and in its sources (as is well illustrated by escape the shadow of 'the Parting'. Skarsaune's chapter), the `problem' has been The Shifting Challenges of Studying Texts largely one of and for Christian history and Despite the important corrective of the voices from theology — although this is not to deny the material culture already noted, the recovery of the important contributions made by Jewish scholars, second century is necessarily dominated by texts especially more recently. Both Alexander and and the reading of texts. This is not simply a matter Rajak show, however, how it can also be treated as of the nature of the evidence that survives, or of the a Jewish narrative. Alexander's chapter intersects inclinations and opportunities of those who study it: with the vigorous debates within scholarship on there are indeed few material remains that can be early Judaism as to whether the rabbinic texts unequivocally assigned to a Christian provenance reflect directly the dominance of the rabbis in from the second century, but literary works, even if Palestinian Judaism from the second century, or but the tip of the iceberg, have been transmitted, whether they are the product of the constructed or while others, once lost or suppressed, have been imagined world of a self-defining caucus, and/or recovered — such as the Nag Hammadi texts which whether they are essentially irrelevant even for the have revolutionized the study of `Gnosticism' (as history of Syria-Palestine under the Roman Empire. reflected in the chapters by King and Edwards). It Alexander seeks a mediating path, admitting the is also the case that, even among Christians, the minority status of the Rabbis but offering a model production of texts and the debates over the for their developing influence without ignoring the authority ascribed to texts were a primary other groups whom the rabbinic perspective seeks mechanism for developing self-understanding, or to marginalize, including the Christians. for the construction of an identity (so Verheyden). It has been the weight of literary sources that has Thus both Gruen and Skarsaune, in asking how far inevitably led the rabbinic perceptions to dominate Christians understood themselves as 'a new (or both the old and the new narratives. More recently, third) race', are driven to the close reading of texts careful attention to the archaeological remains, as well as to seeing how these texts in turn are monumental and inscriptional, alongside Jewish engaged in the reinterpretation of earlier texts, the texts written or preserved in Greek, has redressed `Jewish' scriptures. Despite debates over the limited 8 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com the balance and allowed the Jews of the Diaspora second century can be understood without the a voice of equal authority to that of the land and prejudicial use of terms such as `orthodoxy', city they recognized as a motherland. Tessa Rajak `heresy' or even `heterodoxy'. Such models would addresses the much-debated question of the nature emerge only beyond our period with the of the interaction between Jewish communities and development of new institutional structures. All this their Graeco-Roman context, avoiding simplistic can seem a long way from the older approaches antitheses of (syncretic) assimilation versus stubborn that treated the texts as documentary evidence to isolationism. In so doing she draws on the model of be excavated to uncover the 'real world behind being a `translation culture', particularly in the light them'. Yet such approaches are not excluded; North of the function of the inherited writings of the past, begins by setting out how the complex literary whether of Homer or of Plato, was a major strategies of a Lucian need careful negotiation in preoccupation. As noted by Löhr, this was a period order to get beyond the playfulness of the text, in which the commentary, the lexicon and the and yet he still argues that such negotiation is handbook of excerpts flourished, as too did the possible and that it can yield valuable results in hermeneutical challenge of allowing the `myths' of suggesting how Christian communities may have old to address the sensibilities of the present. In appeared, or at least how they can have been exploring the nature of `Gnostic myth', Edwards credibly represented, to a curious readership. presents a contextually rooted hermeneutical lens that provides an alternative to the extreme Religion or Appropriate Categories for fantasizing encouraged by the more literal Christianity accounts of so-called `Gnostic' writings given by the As questions of identity formation have come to heresiologists such as Irenaeus or Epiphanius. Some play an ever greater role in the study of early have argued that it was at this textually and Christianity, the problem as to how best to hermeutically focused point that the early characterize the movement has loomed large. In Christians, and perhaps their more elusive Jewish one sense the answer to this question has appeared neighbours, might look most like the other textual simple — Christianity is a religion; indeed, more enthusiasts of their day; indeed Christian often than not the movement is discussed in that `intellectuals' may have had more in common with context, that is, as a part of the religious history of their intellectual peers of whatever persuasion than the ancient world. In this context the second century with some who `only' shared their faith in Jesus. is sometimes held to be the period in which that Such approaches make possible an account that identity came to be more precisely defined. Yet it sidesteps the value-laden categories of canon or of is at this point that one of the most hotly contested inspiration, as Verheyden's analysis of the functions definitional questions emerges: namely, is it of the ascription of authority indicates. Yet it is possible to talk about religion in the ancient world? striking that he and Flemming take different Is it a category that the ancients would have positions as they try to locate the practices of understood or that makes sense of the experiences ascribing authority to texts among the early and phenomena to be described? There is broad Christians and their philosophical neighbours. From agreement that what the Romans described as another perspective and challenging religio and the Greeks as threskeia are not the representations of the Christian institutional form, same as what is understood by `religion' in a 'the church', as a new phenomenon, owing contemporary context, if that is taken to refer to something to the Jewish diaspora synagogue but private or personal spiritual activities and developing under its own momentum, Löhr, as experiences separate from those activities already noted, argues that the model of conventionally designated as secular, such as those `philosophical school', where such textual debates associated with politics, economics or family life. It were carried out, best fits the framework in which is a truism that in the ancient world so-called many of the more creative Christian thinkers religious activities permeated all areas of life,49 worked. With its porous boundaries and whereas the `religious' versus `secular' dichotomy opportunities for debate and experimentation, Löhr can be held to be a product of the early modern finds here too the framework within which the age when, for a number of complex reasons, a diversity of Christian thought and practice in the concept of secularity came to be developed. This is 9 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com not to deny that certain acts were performed in the John North explicitly raises the question about the ancient world that might most naturally be dubbed appropriateness of the term `religion' in this period. `religious', nor that, for some at least, there was He accepts that the term can only be used something like a kind of embedded religion;5' nor advisedly but at the same time highlights the way even that there are signs at points prior to the in which writers like Lucian struggled to find an early modern age for the idea of religion as a appropriate term with which to describe the separate category. Perhaps inevitably, many Christian movement, noting in passing how the discussions of the topic and of the period, even author of the can describe the while expressing considerable caution about the movement as a theosebeia, a genos and a term `religion', nevertheless feel that it can be used, epitedeuma (Diog. I.I), in the space of a few lines, albeit with a considerable health warning, and indicating the lack of an appropriate category with even that it has to be used." which to describe the latter. Löhr adds a further designation, philosophic, and demonstrates that Within this context how should Christianity in the objections to its use on the grounds of the second century be categorized and where should it apparently `religious'/revelatory attitude to be positioned in the broader cultural background knowledge amongst Christian philosophers fail to of which it was a part? To what extent, indeed, did take sufficient account of the religious content of Christianity mark a significant point in the creation pagan philosophy. William Horbury notes the of something called religion, or perhaps reflect a shared nomenclature between Jews and Christians, wider changing religious landscape? not least in their usage of biblically charged words A number of the chapters here touch on aspects of like `assembly' (ekklesia), or a `gathering' this dilemma, examining both the issue of (sunagoge) or a `people' (laos) to describe Christianity's place within a wider religious themselves. While he does not discuss the religious environment and aspects of its own self- dimension of such terms, he does hint at their designation. As has been seen, Greg Woolf, political import. Erich Gruen and Oskar Skarsaune building upon the work of Jonathan Z. Smith and comment further on the idea of Christians as a race John North, sees the second century as a transition or a people, particularly on the epithet `third race'; period between a world in which there was no despite their scepticism about its `racial' distinction between religious identity and ethnic or associations and their attempt to highlight what familial identity to a time when the world was they take to be its religious characteristics when beginning to be organized by religions, or, as he used by Christians, it can hardly be denied that prefers to call them, emergent religions, products in this, and the other terms discussed, used both by some sense of `convergent evolution', and in that others and themselves in this period, further sense only gradually evolving entities. The term complicates the debate about Christianity's identity `emergent' does not only express this overall as a religion. gradualism, but also refers to those characteristics As will have become obvious, it has not been the he wishes to associate with religions (a distinctive task either of this Introduction or of the volume as a world view; an exclusive membership; unique whole to provide a new and settled account of the rituals, symbols and perhaps texts of special second Christian century. Participants in the significance for co-religionists; institutionalized conference which initiated the book were agreed authority). The tone here is tentative but Woolf is that it had stimulated many conversations which clear that a text like Apuleius' Metamorphosis, with had a long way to run, with yet other questions its exploration of different religious ideas and waiting to be asked. The chapters that follow are modes of thought, and Lucian's Alexander, where intended both to introduce those unfamiliar with the Epicureans and Christians are presented as period or with recent debate to both, and to invite competing to have their truth claims accepted, both them and the more seasoned students to could not have been written in earlier centuries. engage in further exploration and mapping. Here, then, there is an acceptance of a transition in the history of religion as an idea, but one in which A Companion to Second-Century Christian 'Heretics' Christians are participants but not the only edited by Petri Luomanen and Antti Marjanen participants. [Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae, Brill Academic

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Publishing, 9789004144644] It also includes a scholarship. All the essays are thoroughly paperback edition. researched, clearly written and well documented. This volume will be essential reading, and an This landmark about volume Christian heresies and important reference work, for all those studying the heretics is biographical and covers both primitive variegated in the second and early church, ca. 30-600, each essay the century. It is certainly an excellent and timely includes bibliographical references and index. production and will be very much appreciated as a The book illuminates “the other side” of early resource by readers." Christopher Tuckett Christianity by examining thinkers and movements (Pembroke College). that were embraced by many second-century "This lively collection of essays, authored by an religious seekers as legitimate forms of Christianity, impressive cast of international scholars, portrays but which are now largely forgotten, or are known some of the most creative and provocative only from the characteristics attributed to them in Christian thinkers of the second century - Basilides, the writings of their main adversaries. Valentinus, Marcion, Tatian, Montanus, and others - The collection deals with the following teachers and all of whom were destined to be called "heretics" movements: Basilides, Sethianism, Valentinus’ school, and were to be silenced by their opponents. This Marcion, Tatian, Bardaisan, Montanists, Cerinthus, fascinating book gives voice to these teachers once Ebionites, Nazarenes, Jewish-Christianity of the again, and it allows their alternative interpretations Pseudo-Clementines, and Elchasites. of Christianity to be heard with clarity". Marvin Meyer (Chapman University). Where appropriate, the authors have included an overview of the life and significant publications of "This volume offers the most up-to-date and the “heretics,” along with a description of their sophisticated introduction available to diverse and movements. Therefore, this volume types of second century Christianity that were can serve as a handbook of the second-century criticized by the patristic opponents of heresy. In a “heretics” and their “heresies.” Since all the series of brilliant and nuanced articles, scholarly chapters have been written by specialists who specialists assess recently discovered evidence wrestle daily with their research themes, the alongside the better known heresiological contributions also offer new perspectives and testimony. The result is a sound and insightful insights stimulating further discussion on this portrait of the social dynamics and astonishing fascinating—but often neglected—side of early inventiveness of these alternative Christianities." Christianity. Karen L. King (Harvard University, The Divinity School). '"The "Companion "is a landmark. A handbook of the so-called heresies or heterodox Christianities of CONTENTS the first and second centuries, it performs two Preface functions at once, both equally important. It Introduction provides us with the most authoritative and lucid Basilides the Gnostic by Birger A. Pearson presentations of the consensus of scholarship on the Sethianism by Michael A. Williams given documents or tendencies or groups as well as The School of Valentinus by Ismo Dunderberg giving us the considered, cutting-edge thinking of Marcion by Heikki Räisänen just the right scholar for each one."' Daniel Boyarin Tatian the Assyrian by William L. Petersen (University of California, Berkeley). Bardaisan of Edessa by Nicola Denzey "So-called "heretics" in the early church have : Egalitarian Ecstatic "New Prophecy" by Antti Marjanen become an important focus of interest for many in Cerinthus by Matti Myllykoski recent years. New texts and new insights have Ebionites by Sakari Häkkinen increased our knowledge of some of these Nazarenes by Petri Luomanen individuals and groups which the "orthodox" Jewish Christianity of the Pseudo- rejected. These essays will provide a valuable Clementines by F. Stanley Jones resource for those wanting to find out more about Elchasaites and Their Book by Gerard P. these figures in the light of the most recent Luttikhuizen

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Notes on Contributors adversaries' teaching, and assess it in light of what Index of Modern Authors can be known of these persons' own productions. General Index The problem is that the material for comparison is often extremely scanty. Excerpt: The idea for this publication sprang from As a matter of fact, Tatian is the only figure in this an afternoon coffee break in the Department of volume from whom a complete work exists. Even in Biblical Studies at the University of Helsinki. At the his case, the work that has survived is not the one table were members of two research groups of the that he is most famous for, the Diatessaron, but Department: Early Jewish Christianity and Myth Oratio ad graecos, an apologetic treatise that and Social Reality in Gnostic and Related later served the interest of the Church in Rome very Documents. Both groups work with texts well. Bardaisan's thoughts have to be gleaned from traditionally considered moreor-less heretical. As the Book of the Laws of the Countries which was we chatted together, somehow, rather composed by one of his students, Philippus. Some spontaneously, the idea of a volume focusing on the fragments of Basilides', Marcion's, Valentinus', and "other side" of second-century Christianity the Montanists' own works have survived in the materialized. It would examine the documents and writings of their adversaries, but no overall picture groups and persons that had been marginalized of their views can be painted on the basis of these and denounced as heretical by the emerging fragments alone. Cerinthus' ideas can also be "Great Church." After twenty minutes of discussion reconstructed only from the polemical, inconsistent, (and several cups of coffee) a plan was developed and contradictory writings of the church fathers. If to fill an obvious lacuna in current research on the he ever wrote any treatises, no references to his development of early Christianity. A volume was writings have been preserved, apart from rumors envisioned that would provide an up-to-date which attribute the Gospel of John and the Book of description of the most important second-century Revelation to him. Although a scholar who aims at a "heresies" and these movements' leading figures. historical-critical reconstruction of the original ideas Although it took several years to convert these and teachings of "heretics" like these faces plans into reality, the volume in hand suggests that difficulties, the task is by no means impossible. The coffee breaks can serve several useful purposes chapters in this book show that after a careful simultaneously. assessment of the source materials, some distinctive This collection of essays deals with persons and ideas of these alternative second-century Christian movements traditionally characterized as heretical. movements can be delineated. However, as the quotation marks in the title of this The articles in the present collection have been volume suggest, the intention is not to map the arranged in three partially overlapping thematic second-century religious terrain from the viewpoint clusters: (1) Gnostics, (2) Teachers in the West and of the form of Christianity that became dominant in the East, and (3) Jewish Christians. We have also and developed into the early . chosen to present teachers and movements that can Instead, the idea is to investigate "the other side," more squarely be fixed in history before those by examining the thinkers and movements that whose historical character is debated. The thematic were, at the time, embraced by many second- arrangement means, however, that there are century religious seekers as legitimate forms of exceptions to this rule. Christianity, but which are now largely forgotten, or are known only from the characteristics attributed The two earliest teachers discussed are Cerinthus to them in the writings of their main adversaries. and Basilides, who were already active in the late first and early second century. Although Cerinthus The task is not easy since much of the crucial may have been active even before Basilides, the firsthand evidence is lost or, at best, waits to be collection is opened with the article on "Basilides found somewhere in secluded caves, ancient the Gnostic," followed by two thematically related dumping grounds, or in unlisted holdings of papyri. contributions on Sethianism and Valentinus' school. This means that the researcher must try to glean After Valentinus follow Marcion and Tatian, two reliable information from the church fathers' teachers who were also active in Rome. polemical writings, their biased descriptions of their 12 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Tatian returned to the East, where his fame was attributed them to the Ebionites mixing the data he comparable to that of Bardaisan, the great man of picked from these texts with all the tales his Edessa, the center of Eastern Syrian Christianity. predecessors had provided about the Ebionites. The Phrygian prophesy, Montanism, although it also When studied in its own right, the Circuits of Peter, gained influence in Rome and elsewhere in the the basic writing behind the Pseudo-Clementine West, originated in Asia Minor, where it found its Homilies and Recognitions, reveals a type of Jewish greatest support. The same was true with Cerinthus. Christianity to which Epiphanius' discussion in Since chiliasm has been discussed in connection with Panarion 30 (the chapter on the Ebionites) hardly both the Montanists and Cerinthus, these two are does any justice. treated after Bardaisan. The significance of the Pseudo-Clementines for the Although Cerinthus was a historical figure, scholars study of Jewish Christianity is comparable to the have not been able to agree whether he was a status of the Nag Hammadi texts in the study of the Gnostic or a Jewish-Christian teacher. The chapter phenomenon traditionally called Gnosticism. Both in the present collection argues that he was mainly the Pseudo-Clementines and Nag Hammadi texts drawing on Jewish ideas. For this reason, and provide an important devotees' point of view to because the heresiologists usually described him as religiosity criticized by the church fathers indicating a predecessor of the Jewish-Christian Ebionites, the that early Christianity was even more colorful than chapter on him opens the Jewish-Christian section of one would imagine on the basis of the this volume. heresiological treatises. While the information about the history and ideas The writers of the articles on Basilides, Sethians and of Cerinthus, Basilides, Valentinus, Marcion, Tatian, Valentinus' school have made extensive use of the Bardaisan, and the Montanist prophets is meager, Nag Hammadi texts. Nevertheless, the Gospel of there is no doubt about the historicity of these Thomas is not discussed in this volume although teachers, and a relatively reliable picture of their there is no doubt about its significance in second- main ideas can be inferred from the sources century Christianity in general. One reason for this available. The situation is different in the case of is that the volume focuses on the movements and persons and movements more or less closely tied to persons that have been traditionally included Jewish Christianity. Therefore, we have placed the among "heresies," and the church fathers did not "Gnostics" and the "Western and Eastern teachers" speak about Thomasine Christians, although they before the `Jewish Christians" hoping that those made some reference to the Gospel of Thomas in who read the articles in that order would be able their lists of canonical and non-canonical writings to form an overall view of the historical (for instance, Eusebius, Hist. eccl. 3.25). Another circumstances and of current topics in philosophical reason for the omission is that an abundance of and theological debates before moving on to the literature on Thomas and its community is already articles—from Cerinthus onwards—that have less available. first hand evidence available. The fact that Thomasine Christians are not refuted The present collection is a selection of "heresies" in the heresiologies illustrates very well one of the among which the formative Catholic Christianity features that stand out in the present collection as a found its main adversaries in the second century; whole: Teachers and movements were denounced but it is clear that it is not a complete collection of as heretical especially because they were in the second-century alternative teachers and conflict with the type of Christianity that was movements. In addition to the "heresies" listed by gaining the upper hand in Rome in the second half the church fathers but not treated in this volume, of the second century. Had there appeared a there were also other movements and teachers who teacher in Rome who based his teaching exclusively never made their way to the heresiological on the Gospel of Thomas the same way Alcibiades treatises. Only one such branch of Christianity is was drawing on the Book of Elchasai—later discussed in this book: the Jewish Christianity of the heresiologists might very well have tried to refute Pseudo-Clementines. To be sure, Epiphanius the "Thomasaites," too. The dominance of the obviously had some Pseudo-Clementine writings in Roman viewpoint in heresiological discourse is also his use when he composed his Panarion but he exemplified by the fact that Tatian's heretical 13 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com reputation as one of the chief proponents of however, many of the chapters, written by Encratism was entertained only in the western specialists who wrestle daily with these subjects, heresiologies. Tatian was condemned in the West offer new perspectives and insights into these as a leading proponent of Encratism and expelled issues. In our view, this gives the volume a unique from the Roman church. But in the East, Syrian and independent profile and will hopefully also Christianity—which was characterized from the stimulate further research on this fascinating—but outset by much stronger ascetic tendencies than was often neglected—side of early Christianity. <> Western Christianity—unreservedly accepted him and his harmony of the , the Diatessaron, apparently unaware of (or choosing to ignore) his The Origin of Divine Christology by Andrew Ter Ern reputation as a "heretic". Loke [Society for New Testament Studies Monograph Series, Cambridge University Press, Another characteristic prominent in the following 9781107199262] chapters is the proximity of many of the "heretical" ideas discussed in this volume with ideas in the New In recent years, there has been considerable Testament. Although the teachers who were debate concerning the origin of divine Christology. condemned as "heretics" imported ideas from the Nevertheless, the proposed theories are beset with outside of the New Testament as well—often from problems, such as failing to address the evidence popular philosophy (in which mainstream Christian of widespread agreement among the earliest writers were equally interested)—many of their Christians concerning divine Christology, and the positions were squarely grounded in the issues with issues related to whether Jesus' intention was which New Testament authors were also wrestling. falsified. This book offers a new contribution by For example, Marcion's radical denial of the addressing these issues using transdisciplinary tools. validity of the Old Testament scriptures can be It proposes that the earliest Christians regarded seen as a logical consequence of Paul's Jesus as divine because a sizeable group of them denunciation of the law. On the other hand, it is perceived that Jesus claimed and showed himself to clear that the views of the conservative Jewish be divine, and thought that God vindicated this Christians were equally representative of ideas claim by raising Jesus from the dead. It also documented in the New Testament. "Possession" provides a comprehensive critique of alternative Christology, which is linked with Cerinthus and the proposals, and synthesizes their strengths. It Ebionites, may very well be one of the oldest defends the appropriateness and merits of utilizing Christological models in the New Testament. The philosophical distinctions (e.g. between ontology central role of prophecy in Montanism has its roots and function) and Trinitarian concepts for in the proclamation of the Paraclete whom the explaining early Christology, and incorporates Johannine Christ promised to send to his followers comparative religion by examining cases of to teach them the truths his own disciples could not deification in other contexts. receive in their lifetime. The millenarian kingdom 'This fresh attempt to grapple with the problem of which is part of the teachings of Cerinthus and the the origins of Christology both offers what is in Montanists stems from the concluding chapters of some ways an elegantly simple solution, and is the Book of Revelation. Furthermore, ascetism is not argued with a philosophical sophistication an unknown phenomenon in the New Testament. All uncommon in New Testament scholarship. Loke's in all, from the viewpoint of reception history it is argument deserves close attention from all those often impossible to make any difference between interested in the earliest Christian beliefs about "orthodox" and "heretic" teachers as regards the Jesus.' Simon Gathercole, University of Cambridge way they reinterpreted New Testament materials. 'The debate over Jesus and the origin of views The authors have sometimes included an overview about his divinity in Christology is a maze for most, of the life and significant publications of the woven over a few centuries of careful discussion. "heretics," along with a description of their Loke's The Origin of Divine Christology surveys and theologies and movements. Therefore, this volume assesses that debate with skill, bringing it up to can serve as a handbook of the second-century date and providing guidance for thinking through "heretics" and their "heresies." At the same time, the question. It provides a way through the maze 14 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com that is of rich benefit to readers.' Darrell L. Bock, 4.2 Concerning the Claim That Jesus Was Dallas Theological Seminary Distinguished from and Subordinated to God 'Andrew Ter Ern Loke draws on the lively debate 4.3 Concerning the Claim That about early Christology in recent scholarship to Adoptionism/Exaltation Christology Was establish the claim that the earliest Christology was Present Earlier already the highest Christology. But how did this 4.4 Concerning the Claim That Jesus Was high Christology originate? Loke provides one of Regarded as the most systematic examinations of this question, Functionally Divine but Not Ontologically pressing the logic of the evidence back to Jesus' Divine 4.5 Concerning the Claim That Jesus own claims about himself.' Richard Bauckham, Was Merely Venerated, Not Worshipped Emeritus Professor of New Testament Studies, 4.6 Concerning the Claim That Sacrifice Is University of St Andrews, Scotland Never Said in the New Testament to Be CONTENTS Offered to Christ 4.7 Conclusion Acknowledgements 5 The Extent of Highest Christology 1 Introducing the Theories and in Earliest Approaches Christianity Concerning the Origin of Divine 5.1 Introduction Christology 5.2 The Argument for Widespread Extent 1.1 Significance of the Question 5.3 Is There Absence of Jewish Objection 1.2 Introducing Various Types of Theories to Paul's Divine Concerning the Christology? Origin of Divine Christology 5.4 Argument from Silence? 1.3 Introducing the Issue of Jesus' Self- 5.5 Reply to Objections by Bart Ehrman Understanding and Others 1.4 The Approach of This Book 5.6 Examples of Theories Which Fail to 1.5 Clarification of Key Terms Explain the 1.6 An Overview of the Rest of This Book Widespread Extent 2 The Highest Christology Was 5.7 Conclusion Present Among the 6 The Best Explanation for the Earliest Christians: The Evidences Origin of Highest Christology 2.1 Introduction 6.1 Introduction 2.2 1 Corinthians 8:6 6.2 The Earliest Christians Were Evidently 2.3 Philippians 2:6-11 Concerned 2.4 Evidence from Devotional Practices About Passing on the Traditions of Jesus' 2.5 Evidence from Expressions of Spiritual Teachings 6.3 The Difficulty of the Idea of Desire Regarding a Human Jesus for Christ As Also Truly Divine 2.6 Conclusion 6.4 The Issue of Falsification of Jesus' 3 Replies to Objections Involving Intention 6.5 The Best Historical Various Exalted Explanation for a Diversity of Figures in Second Temple Judaism Other Peculiar Beliefs and Practices of the 3.1 Introduction Earliest 3.2 The Importance of the Creator— Christians Is That They Originated from Creature Divide Jesus 3.3 Concerning the Angel of the LORD 6.6 It Is Likely That Jesus Was Perceived to 3.4 Concerning Kings, Messiahs and Others Have Given Clear Indications That He 4 Replies to Other Objections Regarded Himself as Truly Concerning the Highest Christology of the Divine by a Significant Number of Earliest Christians Disciples 4.1 Concerning the Claim That According 6.7 The Role of Early Christian Thinking to Acts the Earliest Christians Did Not About Intermediary Figures Worship Jesus 6.8 Is My Proposal Too Christocentric Rather Than Theocentric? 6.9 Conclusion 15 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

7 Assessing the Evidences for the An Overview of This Book Origin of Highest My argument in this book shall proceed by way of Christology in the Gospels answering the following two historical questions: 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Counter-Evidence in the Gospels? (1) Was Jesus regarded as truly divine 7.3 Traces in the Gospels among the earliest Christians, and 8 Conclusion (2) If so, what caused them to do so. Bibliography Scripture and Apocrypha Index In Chapters 2 to 4, I assess the current scholarly Index of Other Ancient Sources debate concerning the first question. Chapter 2 Index of Authors summarizes the case that has been put forward by Index of Subjects scholars of the New Religionsgeschichtliche Schule Excerpt: Some scholars have claimed that for thinking that highest Christology was found Christianity was wildly diverse at the beginning of among the earliest Christians. In Chapters 3 and 4, its history and that we should speak of `earliest I discuss the objections by critics and argue that Christianities' rather than `earliest Christianity'. they are inadequate. They have argued that `throughout the first century, and from the earliest evidence we have in Q, Chapter 5 shows that there are good reasons for Thomas, and Paul, there were many different thinking that the Pauline letters reflect the groups that claimed Jesus as their founder'. Yet it is widespread conviction within earliest Christianity evident from the quotation that even these scholars that Jesus was truly divine. I point out that either would acknowledge this common element among the explanation for the origin of this widespread the supposedly existent diverse groups: Despite conviction involves the earliest Christians perceiving their differences they all claim to follow Jesus (I Jesus implicitly or explicitly claiming to be truly address the arguments of these scholars in Chapter divine, or it does not involve this. I interact with 5). By defining `Christians' broadly as `those who several proposals for the latter possibility and claimed to follow Jesus' rather than as `those who illustrate the significant problems which beset this followed certain doctrines about Jesus', I avoid kind of proposal. In the rest of the book, I show begging the question in my historical argument by how these and other problems can be avoided or not assuming that Christians were those who resolved by the proposal that the earliest Christians regarded Jesus as truly divine and that this was the did indeed perceive that Jesus claimed to be truly `orthodox' view. divine. I shall define `earliest Christianity' as the religion of In Chapter 6, I argue that it would have been those who claimed to follow Jesus during the period difficult and disadvantageous for the earliest from c. AD 30 to 62; this definition leaves open the Christians to originate and maintain the idea that question concerning the extent of diversity within the human Jesus whom they had lived with should this religion. In subsequent chapters I shall show, on be recognized as truly divine alongside God the the basis of evidences rather than definition, that Father. I demonstrate that, on the other hand, there was widespread acknowledgement in earliest evidences from first-century texts indicate that the Christianity that Jesus was truly divine. earliest Christians regarded Jesus as the primary communicator of God's demands, they were I shall define 'the primitive Palestinian Christian evidently concerned about accurately passing on community' as a subset of the `earliest Christians': Jesus' teachings, and that the best historical This community would include Christians who existed explanation for a wide variety of peculiar beliefs before the first Pauline epistle was written, and it and practices of the earliest Christians is that they would include the most influential members of the were following Jesus. I go on to explain an very first Christian community, such as members of important corollary of the above observations: If 'the Twelve' who had followed Jesus closely for the earliest Christians knew that Christ had himself some time, as well as their first converts. indicated that he was not divine, or that he did not Excerpt: indicate that he was divine, then it is unlikely that they would have come to the widespread acknowledgement that he was truly divine. On the 16 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com other hand, the proposal that Jesus had clearly philosophical distinctions (e.g. between ontology indicated that he regarded himself as truly divine and function) and Trinitarian concepts for would adequately explain how the highest explaining early Christology, highlighted the Christology of the earliest Christians could have importance of the Creator-creature divide in been held by even the more traditionalist Jewish earliest Christianity and demonstrated that Jesus Christians. Because they were Christians, they was regarded to be on the Creator side of this would all have agreed that what Christ indicated divide. I have also argued that highest Christology was what God demanded that they believe. I was widely held among the earliest Christians and argue that this indication would have to be clear in replied to objections by Ehrman and others. The its original setting to a significant number of crucial question is how to explain this widespread disciples, for if it had not been so, we would have conviction. I have argued that proposals which do expected extensive discussions and debates among not involve Jesus claiming to be truly divine, such as the earliest Christians rather than widespread Early Evolutionary Theory (Bousset), Resurrection agreement concerning the divinity of Jesus. and Ascension Theory (Ehrman), Religious Experience Theory (Hurtado) and Theological In Chapter 7, I tackle the question 'is there any Deduction Theory (DeConick), fail to account for evidence in the Gospels that Jesus gave a clear this. indication that he regarded himself as truly divine?' I defend the claim that certain 'pre-resurrection' I conclude that the best explanation for the origin and 'post-resurrection' passages contain this of divine Christology involves the earliest Christians evidence. perceiving that Jesus claimed and showed himself to be truly divine. This conclusion is supported by In Chapter 8, I defend the above conclusion against various historical considerations, such as the earliest a number of objections that are based on Christians' regard for Jesus as the supreme theological and philosophical assumptions. I also communicator of God's will, their evident concern to summarize the discussion of previous chapters under pass on the traditions of Jesus' teachings, the fourteen historical considerations and conclude that difficulty of the idea of regarding a human Jesus the alternative hypotheses do not explain these as also truly divine, the issue of falsification of considerations as adequately as the proposal Jesus' intention and the fact that Christ is the best defended in this book. I end this book by testing historical explanation for a diversity of other these considerations against potential counter- peculiar beliefs and practices of the earliest examples involving the deification of human figures Christians. I have argued that, to explain the in various socio-religious contexts. I show that, widespread conviction, Jesus must have given a instead of being genuine counter-examples to my clear indication that he regarded himself as truly proposal, these cases serve to illustrate the strength divine to a significant number of disciples. The of my proposal. early Christians subsequently modified the The question concerning the origin of divine language that had been used in earlier literature Christology is an important question for anyone to describe intermediaries such as the Word, who is interested in how Christianity began. In this Wisdom and Spirit, and utilized the modified book, I have argued that there are significant language to express the highest Christology that problems with a variety of proposals in the came from Jesus. By basing the earliest Christians' literature. Against the Later Unfolding Theory conviction that Jesus was truly divine on their (Dunn) and the Later Evolutionary Theory (Casey), I understanding that this was God's demand as have argued that the highest Christology was known through Christ, my proposal is appropriately present among the earliest Christians. This is Theocentric and Christocentric. Finally, I have indicated by various evidences in the earliest argued that traces of my proposal can be found in Christian documents, such as 1 Cor. 8:6, Phil. 2:6- the 'pre-resurrection' and 'post-resurrection' 11, the indications of devotional practices (e.g. passages in the Gospels. `calling upon the name of our Lord Jesus Christ' in 1 Concerning whether Jesus claimed to be truly Cor. 1:2) and the expressions of spiritual desire for divine, Ehrman objects by arguing at various points Jesus. I have shown the inadequacies of various in his book that such claims are only found in the objections, defended the appropriateness of using 17 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Gospel of John. He claims that they are not the readers draw the implication? The latter might authentic because they are not multiply attested, be more strategic and appropriate in certain not found in the Synoptic Gospels and do not pass circumstances given the strong Jewish reverence for the test of dissimilarity as they express the view God. It is true that the Synoptic Gospels do not that the author of the Gospel of John seems to explicitly declare Jesus as the pre-existent divine hold. He also notes that, although we have a few person who was on the Creator side of the of Jesus' sayings in Paul, we do not find Jesus Creator-creature divide (cf. John 1:1-18 and the `I claiming to be divine in Paul. He argues that the AM' saying in John 8:58). However, it can be view that Jesus claimed to be divine is not argued that one of the intentions of the authors of contextually credible because we have no record the Synoptic Gospels is to emphasize instead how of other Palestinian Jews claiming to be divine, and the disciples gradually came to realize, through that if one were to claim that Jesus was the Jesus' words and actions such as his `mighty works' exception one would need very strong evidence, associated with God's creative acts (McDonough but we have only the sayings in the Gospel of John 2009), that he was within the being of God the which Ehrman thinks is unreliable. Creator (e.g. Matt. 28:19, see Chapter 7). Given the Jewish monotheistic pre-understanding, this In reply, it has been pointed out in Chapter 1 that implicitly carries the connotation of his pre- the criterion of dissimilarity is highly problematic. existence on the Creator side of the divide. Contrary to the implications of this criterion, it is plausible to suggest that that the author of John's As for Ehrman's objection that we do not find Jesus Gospel held certain views about Jesus because he claiming to be divine in Paul, this is another invalid wanted to follow the views of his beloved master, argument from silence. It is instructive to compare i.e. Jesus himself! Moreover, it has been argued in Ehrman's objection with Allison's observation that 1 Chapter 7 that various statements and actions of Cor. 15:3-11 contains only a bare outline listing the Jesus portrayed in the Synoptic Gospels can be individuals and groups to whom Jesus was understood as implicit claims to be truly divine as supposed to have appeared, without mentioning well, and that the author of the Gospel of John is the details of the appearances. Allison insightfully merely reflecting on Jesus' indirect claims and argues that, since it is implausible that the Christians making more explicit the full significance he finds in in Corinth (or anywhere else) would have believed them. Likewise, Kruger explains, based on the scanty information in 1 Cor. 15:3-8 alone without knowing (or at least wanting to know) We can agree that John's Gospel makes such claims to divinity even more direct - some of the details (e.g. what did these disciples as the last Gospel it is not surprising that it see? Did they touch Jesus?), 1 Cor. 15:3-8 must offers a more sustained theological have been a summary of traditional resurrection reflection on the person of Jesus. But, we narratives which were told in fuller forms should not confuse the directness of a claim elsewhere. Likewise, it can be argued that the best with the existence of a claim. The historical explanation for Paul's failure to refer to important evidence suggests the Synoptic Jesus and details concerning whether Jesus claimed to be the Johannine Jesus both claimed to be the truly divine - even though Paul himself regarded God of Israel. Jesus to be truly divine and was concerned to pass Ehrman says, `If Jesus really were equal with God on Jesus' teachings (see Chapters 2 and 6) - is that from "the beginning," before he came to earth, and these details were told elsewhere. That is, Paul he knew it, then surely the Synoptic Gospels would knew that these details were already in circulation have mentioned this at some point ... But, no, in in the form of various traditional narratives, some Matthew, Mark, and Luke he does not talk about of which might have been included in the Gospels himself in this way'. However, this is an invalid form later, for example, in Mark 14:62, Matt. 28:16-20 of argument from silence. Why must Jesus be and John 20:28-29 (see the argument for the portrayed by the Synoptics as saying `I am equal historical root of these passages in Chapter 7). It with God from the beginning' if he knew it? Why may well be that there was no controversy about can't Jesus be portrayed by the Synoptics as giving these details among the earliest Christians - just as less direct but nevertheless clear and unambiguous there was no controversy about Christ's divinity claims to true divinity (see Chapter 7), and letting among the earliest Christians, as argued in earlier 18 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com chapters - therefore Paul did not see the need to warned that one must be careful not to exaggerate discuss them. Ehrman's argument from silence this sensible requirement into an insuperable assumes that there was such a need, but he has not epistemic barrier, as it would lead to the excluded other possible explanations such as those destruction of common sense and the failure to offered here, thus his argument fails. recognize extraordinary individuals and events. As philosopher Timothy McGrew explains, Ehrman might object that Paul did not say in his letters that 'a sizeable group of earliest Christians The 19th century saw a proliferation of perceived that Jesus claimed to be divine, and they satires in which Humean scruples about thought that God vindicated this claim by raising accepting testimony for extraordinary Jesus from the dead' was the cause of earliest tales were applied to the events of secular highest Christology. In reply, Hurtado observes that history, with consequences that are equally disastrous and humorous ... Whately's the early Christians 'were more concerned to satire, which is the most famous, proclaim Jesus' significance and to express their `establishes' on the basis of many historical devotion to him than to provide explanations of improbabilities that Napoleon never how they came to the convictions that prompted existed but was a mythic figure invented them to do so'. Thus the key question of this book by the British government to enhance has to be answered by other historical national unity. considerations, and I have argued that various The lesson is that, while one may legitimately historical considerations favour my proposal over require more evidence for an extraordinary story the alternatives. If, as I have argued, a sizeable than for a mundane story, one must be careful not group of earliest Christians did perceive that Jesus to exaggerate this sensible requirement into an claimed to be truly divine and the details of such insuperable epistemic barrier, for this would result event(s) were circulated elsewhere as traditional in a standard that cannot be applied without narratives which were well known to their audience, absurdity in any other field of historical then there would have been no need for Paul to investigation (McGrew 2013). To avoid the explain what was the cause of earliest highest absurdities, one should not require the evidence for Christology to his readers, since this would have `extraordinary claim' to be extraordinary in the been well known to them. sense of forming an insuperable epistemic barrier, but rather sufficient for demonstrating the As noted earlier, Ehrman objects that the view that unreasonableness of alternative hypotheses. Thus, if Jesus claimed to be divine is not contextually someone claims that he saw an aeroplane, one credible because we have no record of other could easily believe the person without demanding Palestinian Jews claiming to be divine. Likewise, it evidence that would demonstrate the has been claimed that no first-century Jew could unreasonableness of alternative hypotheses. have thought of a human being - much less himself - However, if someone claims that he saw a UFO as the incarnation of God. For example, Goulder with aliens, then one would need to consider this writes, `Being a monotheist, Jesus cannot have more carefully by examining whether there are thought of himself sanely as being Yahweh' evidences to rule out alternative explanations (e.g. (Goulder 1979a, 143). Wright replies that this hoax, mis-identifications). I have argued that we do claim is what two generations of history-of-religions have evidences to indicate the implausibility of scholarship had presupposed, not usually argued. those explanations concerning the origin of divine Now Ehrman does argue that, if one were to claim Christology which do not involve Jesus claiming to that Jesus was the exception one would need very be truly divine. And contrary to Ehrman, the case strong evidence, but we have only the sayings in for thinking that Jesus claimed to be truly divine is the Gospel of John. However, Ehrman's argument is not merely based on the sayings in the Gospel of problematic. He seems to presuppose that John, but also on a number of sayings in the `extraordinary claim requires extraordinary Synoptics and, more importantly, the historical evidence', a philosophical principle which is considerations evidently in the letters of Paul, as famously associated with David Hume's objection to argued previously. To do history properly, one must miracles (see his An Enquiry Concerning Human allow for the possibility of exceptions involving Understanding). In reply, other scholars have 19 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com extraordinary individuals, and the exception in this his/her judgement on the basis of such assumptions. case is well justified by the evidences. The historical considerations which I have established in this book include the following: Concerning Goulder's claim, the fact that Jesus was a monotheist and held many beliefs that were the (1) The conviction that Jesus was truly same as the Jews of his day does not imply that he divine was present among the earliest could not have thought of and expressed beliefs Christians. about God (such as the belief that he and the (2) This conviction was held by certain Father are both within the one being of God, a Jews who remained deeply committed belief which is consistent with monotheism as to their monotheism with its strict explained in previous chapters) that were beyond Creator—creature divide. the Jews of his day. To claim that Jesus would have (3) The worship of another figure (i.e. rejected the idea of himself as divine as Jesus) alongside God the Father was blasphemous or that 'in the Jewish piety that Jesus probably the greatest change for shared, it would have been totally inappropriate these Christian Jews. for him to claim any status until it had been (4) Those who held this conviction included conferred by God'' would be to foreclose what those traditionalist Jewish Christians texts like Dan. 7:9-13 may well have permitted. who opposed Paul. Additionally, it would beg the question against (5) The earliest Christians did not avoid various possibilities, such as the possibility that Jesus disagreements with one another in was indeed truly divine and knew this all along, matters of importance, and traces of and thus could have regarded it appropriate and such disagreements can be found in in accordance with the will of the Father to claim the earliest Christian documents. this status in order to reveal his identity to his (6) The conviction that Jesus was truly disciples.' Proponents of this view might argue that divine was widespread and persistent Ehrman's observation that we have no record of among the earliest Christians from the very beginning. There is no trace of other Palestinian Jew claiming to be truly divine disagreement concerning this in the only goes to show how difficult it would have been earliest Christian documents. On the to make up such a claim or to be mistaken about it, contrary, there are evidences for given the Jewish monotheistic context. In any case, thinking that Paul considered the the point here is that a historian qua historian Jerusalem to be fully Christian, should not beg the question for or against such assumed the authority of Jerusalem possibilities. If one were to exclude a priori the leaders and proclaimed the same possibility that Jesus was indeed truly divine such gospel concerning Jesus Christ; these that he could have thought of and expressed evidences imply that Paul's highest beliefs about God that were beyond the Jews of Christology was also the Christology his day, it would be to import theological and of the Jerusalem Christians. philosophical assumptions into his/her judgement. (7) Considering the strict Jewish Likewise, if one were to exclude, on the basis of monotheistic context of the earliest naturalistic assumptions against the resurrection, the Christians, it is unlikely that the idea of possibility that the root of certain detail(s) in Matt. worshipping a human figure whom 28:16-20 and/or John 20:26-29 could have been some of them had followed closely for a memory of the 'post-resurrection' Jesus giving a some time could have originated from clear indication that he regarded himself as truly them. divine, this would be to import theological and (8) Even if it did, it is unlikely that other philosophical assumptions into his/her judgement as earliest Christians would have well. Concerning the historical question whether followed and maintained this idea, Jesus claimed to be truly divine, a historian should especially if they knew that Jesus make his/her judgement based on historical himself did not have such an idea. considerations — such as those listed below — (9) Additionally, there would have been rather than assuming beforehand whether divine those among Jesus' earliest disciples intervention is or is not possible and then make who would have defended Jesus' own 20 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

views against such falsification; in part of my cumulative-case argument in this book. which case there would not have been The other parts of my argument include the widespread acknowledgement that he historical considerations numbered 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, was truly divine. 13 and 14, and these do not involve argument (10) The idea that the human Jesus should from silence. Thus, my conclusion is not entirely be worshipped alongside God the dependent on the argument from silence. On the Father while maintaining strict contrary, Considerations 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 and monotheism was a difficult idea to 14 are already sufficient to constitute a powerful originate and maintain. cumulative case for my conclusion, and the (11) It was a disadvantageous idea to argument from silence (together with the positive originate. evidences for Considerations 4, 6 and 9) only adds (12) The earliest Christians were concerned to the case to make it even more powerful. to pass on the traditions of Jesus' Conversely, given the context of Considerations 7, teachings, and they would have been 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 and 14, the argument from interested in what the historical Jesus silence is even more plausible. himself thought or would think about the worship of him. It should be emphasized that these considerations (13) The view that, in order to know a should not be assessed separately when we person's identity, it is important to examine the origin of divine Christology. Rather, know what he/she thinks about they should be considered together as part of a himself/herself and what he/she does, cumulative case. Taken separately, one might find was present among the first-century a number of exceptions in the history of religions to Christians. some of these considerations. For example, taken (14) The best historical explanation for a apart from the consideration of monotheism, we do wide variety of peculiar beliefs and find many exceptions to Consideration 8 in certain practices of the earliest Christians is pantheistic or polytheistic cultures in which `good', that they were following Jesus. `noble' and `heroic' people are thought to become divine after their death, regardless of whether they With regard to the historical question concerning regarded themselves as divine when they were whether Jesus was perceived to have claimed to be alive. However, such `exceptions' to Consideration truly divine, the above historical considerations, 8 are irrelevant when we consider the case of taken together, are evidences that he was. On the Jesus, whose truly divine status was affirmed by other hand, it has been explained in previous Christian Jews who held to a strict form of chapters that the Later Unfolding Theory (e.g. monotheistic belief with its sharp Creator-creature Dunn) and the Later Evolutionary Theory (e.g. divide (see Chapters 2 to 4). Casey) are contradicted by Consideration 1, the Early Evolutionary Theory (e.g. Bousset) and the In what follows, I shall consider two cases which are Resurrection and Ascension Theory (Ehrman) do not apparently more relevant and which are likely to fit Considerations 2 to 14, and the Religious be the two most striking potential counter-examples Experience Theory (Hurtado) and the Theological to my argument, one coming out from the Christian Deduction Theory (DeConick) do not fit tradition and the other from the Jewish tradition. Considerations 4 to 14. These two cases are the deification of the Ethiopian emperor Haile Selassie (1892-1975) by members It might be objected that Considerations 4, 6 and 9 of the Rastafarian faith, which claims hundreds of are based on argument from silence. In reply, I thousands of adherents worldwide, and the have already defended the validity of using an deification of Menachem Mendel Schneersohn argument from silence for these considerations in (1902-1994) by members of the Elokist Chabad Chapters 5 and 6, and I have also shown that these Jews. These two cases are more relevant than the considerations are not merely based on silence; on new religious movements discussed in Hurtado: The the contrary, there are also positive evidences Qumran `Teacher of Righteousness', Muhammad, which imply that Paul's highest Christology was also Baha Ullah, Guru Nanak, and the American native the Christology of the Jerusalem Christians. `Ghost Dance' and `Handsome Lake' movements. Moreover, Considerations 4, 6 and 9 are only one 21 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Although these movements involve religious claim, and Selassie's case seems to fulfil this experiences generating modifications in devotional necessary condition. How did this remarkable event practice, they do not involve a deification of human happen. figure against his/her own will in a monotheistic The main event which led to Selassie's deification tradition. Whereas the cases of Selassie and was the 'prophetic' preaching of Marcus Garvey Schneersohn apparently do, and mystical religious (1887—1940), who exhorted the oppressed experiences were involved as well. Examining these Jamaicans to 'Look to Africa for the crowning of a two cases might seem a strange task for biblical Black King; he shall be the Redeemer'. Together scholars, nevertheless the usefulness of such a with Selassie's coronation in 1930 in front of procedure is well stated by Cameron and Miller: representatives from many nations, his declaration Like anthropologists, biblical scholars can gain of himself to be in the line of King Solomon and his insight from the study of texts and cultures that taking of the names Haile Selassie I (Might of the appear to be strange, uncommon, or remote. 'For Trinity), 'King of Kings' and 'Lion of the Tribe of there is extraordinary cognitive power in ... Judah', many Jamaicans came to think of him as the "defamiliarization" - [in] making the familiar seem fulfilment of messianic prophecy and even God strange in order to enhance our perception of the incarnate. While Rastafarians have been interested familiar.' Since the origins of Christianity seem so to pass on certain teachings of Selassie (e.g. his self-evident to most students and scholars of the speeches), many of them interpreted Selassie's New Testament, what is needed is another point of denial of divinity as an expression of his humility departure, some other text or topic that will enable and wisdom. An objector to my proposal might us to retest the discoveries of the past and see old therefore argue that the case of Selassie provides truths in a new light. a rare, but compelling counter-example to my claim that the considerations which I have listed Thus, I shall test my historical considerations and above warrant the conclusion that Jesus claimed to conclusion in light of these two `strange cases'. be truly divine. With regard to the case which came from the On closer examination, however, certain problems Christian tradition, the deification of Selassie is emerge concerning this potential counter-example. remarkable in a number of ways. The deification of Scholars have noted that, in the years prior to the other figures, such as ancient Roman emperors and emergence of Rastafarianism, Afrocentric kinds of the Indian Guru Sai Baba (1926-2011), occurred Christian beliefs and cultic practices, including with relative ease in largely polytheistic or worship of sky-bound spirits, angels and archangels pantheistic cultures (even those so-called ancient alongside the Triune God, had separated from pagan monotheists condoned the worship of many orthodox Christianity and become dominant in divine beings). By contrast, the deification of Jamaica. The subsequent preaching of the deity of Selassie started among Jamaican Christians who Selassie was informed by this Afro-Christian were supposed to be monotheists. More shockingly, occulture and by a strongly immanentist theology in unlike those figures who claimed to be divine and which the divine was understood to be present who led their followers to hold such a view (e.g. within all people. One of the Rastafarians' earliest Antiochus IV Epiphanes [c. 215 BC-164 BC]; Jim leaders, Leonard Howell, also claimed to be divine Jones [1931-1978]), the deification of this himself. Rastafarian religiosity is characterized by Ethiopian emperor seems to have been against the a focus on the individual's mystical links with God will of the emperor himself, and it began when he and the cosmic energy called earth-force; it de- was still alive. It should be noted that cases of emphasizes dogma and social organization. The historical figures who claimed some kind of exalted above-mentioned factors made it easier for the status, such as being the brother of Jesus, should not idea of Selassie's divinity to originate and be be regarded as counter-examples to my conclusion. widely accepted. By contrast, as argued in The reason is because I am arguing that Jesus was previous chapters, the earliest Christian Jews were perceived to have made a claim to exalted status deeply committed to a strict form of monotheism himself. To qualify as a potential counter-example, with its clear Creator-creature divide the historical figure must have been exalted (Considerations 2, 3, 4, 7 and 10), and there is no against his will rather than in accordance with his 22 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com indication that their leaders such as Peter and Paul analogous to the worship of Jesus. One could claimed to be divine. hardly find any such examples in the subsequent history of Judaism either. Although there were With respect to Consideration 14, it is noteworthy many messianic figures such as Judas Maccabeus that a wide variety of peculiar Rastafarian beliefs (d. 160 BCE), Theudas (?-46 CE), Simon Bar Kokhba did not originate from Selassie in Ethiopia, rather (d. 135), Abu Isa (eighth century) and Abraham they originated in faraway Jamaica under the Abulafia (1240—c.1291) (Lenowitz 1998), these leadership of Howell and others who developed were not regarded by their followers to be on the several central beliefs and practices, such as the Creator side of the Creator—creature divide but sacramental use of cannabis, from a range of merely as human agents of God. A minority of sources. Mystical experiences seem to have been followers of Sabbatai Zevi (1626-1676) came to more important for many Rastafarians than finding regard him and his supposed successor Barukhia out from Selassie who he thought he was. Russo (d. 1720 or 1721) to be Messiah and divine. Nevertheless, with respect to Considerations 5, 6 However, their beliefs could hardly be considered and 9, there have been traces of discussion and as strictly monotheistic since they distinguished Zevi disagreement among the claimed followers of and Russo from the supreme God who was thought Selassie within forty years after his death to have no concern for this world (it is also concerning whether he was truly divine. Certain interesting to note that they believed that there Rastafarians such as members of the `Twelve Tribes was a higher form of Torah which commanded them of Israel' sect who have continued to honour to practise incest and adultery). Additionally, Zevi Selassie have nevertheless denied that he was and Russo had made exalted claims about divine. Of course, if we define Rastafarians as themselves prior to their exaltation by these those who regard Selassie as divine, then the followers, and therefore they cannot be regarded members of this sect would not be considered as genuine counter-examples to my proposal that Rastafarians, but this would then be a circular Jesus was perceived to have made exalted claims argument against my consideration (there are about himself. nevertheless some others who have ceased from calling themselves Rastafarians altogether because A more noteworthy case is that of Menachem of Selassie's denial of his divinity). As explained, I Mendel Schneersohn, an outstanding rabbi avoid circularity in my argument by defining (`Rebbe') and popular leader of the Chabad- `Christians' broadly as `those who claimed to follow Lubavitch movement. A personality cult grew Jesus' rather than as `those who regarded Jesus as around him, a proportion of his followers exalted truly divine'. It is also significant that the him as the Messiah (`Moshiach) and a tiny minority overwhelming majority of Selassie's supporters in of extremists (the Elokists) even considered him to Ethiopia, who knew him better and followed him be divine. Remarkably, this started among Jews more closely than those in faraway Jamaica, do not who were supposed to be monotheists and against regard him as divine, and there are traces of the will of Schneersohn himself. disagreements between these two groups. For Nevertheless, on closer inspection it is observed that example, the former group has condemned the the Chabad doctrines, which had originated Jamaican Rastafarians' deification of Selassie as centuries earlier, had already compromised the madness. This is unlike the case of Jesus, in which traditional Jewish monotheistic Creator—creature the acknowledgement that he was truly divine was divide by developing a theosophical system in widely held by his earliest disciples, which included which all things in the world are permeated by a those who had followed him closely for some time divine element and which denies that the world is a in Palestine. distinct entity from the divine essence. Even then, Let us consider the second case, the deification of many Chabad leaders would have felt Schneersohn within the Jewish tradition. Concerning uncomfortable with the deification of human beings, this tradition, it has been noted in previous chapters and it is noteworthy that the Elokists constitute only that there is no example of cultic practice of a tiny minority of Schneersohn's followers. By worship (rather than merely literary speculation) of contrast, as argued in earlier chapters, there was human figures in Second Temple Judaism that is widespread agreement that Jesus was truly divine

23 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com among the earliest Christians who affirmed the occurs, there would likely have been evidences of traditional Jewish monotheistic Creator—creature disagreements rather than widespread divide. More importantly, in a manner consistent acknowledgement among the earliest followers, if with Consideration 9, Schneersohn's emissaries have this leader himself had not claimed to be truly fiercely defended the views of Schneersohn himself divine. It is true that factors such as social by criticizing those who exalted his status. A oppression, mystical experiences and charismatic statement issued by the Central Committee of leadership can spark remarkable transformation of Chabad-Lubavitch Rabbis in United States and beliefs among certain people, sometimes even to Canada on 19 February 1998 provides an the extent of going beyond and contrary to the illuminating confirmation of the predictions of the views of those leaders concerning their own considerations which I listed. In that statement, the identities. However, as illustrated by the case of highest ranked leaders of the movement Schneersohn, there would likely have been a condemned the deification of any human being as significant number of earliest followers who had `contrary to the core and foundation of the Jewish heard from those charismatic leaders themselves faith', and they mentioned that 'The preoccupation and who would defend the views of their beloved with identifying [the deceased] Rebbe as Moshiach leaders against a falsification of their identities. is clearly contrary to the Rebbe's wishes.' By The above-mentioned considerations, together with contrast, there is no indication that the strict the previously mentioned dissimilarities between the monotheistic Jewish leaders of the earliest Christian cases of Schneersohn and Selassie and that of movement (i.e. the Twelve, James or Paul) Jesus, the rarity of potential counter-examples and condemned the deification of Jesus as `contrary to the lack of any genuine counter-example, indicate the core and foundation of the Jewish faith', and that Jesus must have been perceived by the earliest there is no indication that they mentioned that 'the Christians to have made exalted claims about preoccupation with identifying the deceased Jesus himself. Following the good historical methodology as Messiah or as truly divine is clearly contrary to of assessing what is the best explanation for a set Jesus' wishes'. On the contrary, there were of historical phenomena and considerations, it is evidences of widespread agreement that he was very difficult to avoid the conclusion that the most truly divine. plausible explanation which can address all Hence, instead of being genuine counter-examples fourteen considerations adequately is that the to the considerations which I have listed, these two earliest Christians regarded Jesus as truly divine, fascinating cases actually serve to illustrate the because they thought it was God's demand which strength of these considerations, taken together. was known in the following way: A sizeable group One might object that historical figures sometimes of earliest Christians perceived that Jesus claimed become the object of religious worship because this and showed himself to be truly divine, and they helps the preservation of group coordination thought that God vindicated this claim by raising efficiency for groups above a certain size-threshold Jesus from the dead. From a historical perspective, (citing the example of Rastafarianism along with this is the best explanation for the origin of divine others such as Roman imperial worship, the Christology. deification of Aztec emperors, Egyptian pharaonic ‘Two Scrubby Travellers’: A psychoanalytic view of gods and ancestor worship). However, the flourishing and constraint in religion through the preservation of group coordination efficiency is lives of John and Charles Wesley by Pauline clearly not the only consideration relevant to Watson [Routledge, 9781138241046] deification, and it may be overridden by other considerations, such as beliefs concerning a strict The ways in which people change and grow, and Creator—creature divide. As noted earlier, it is learn to become good, are not only about conscious significant that there is hardly any example of decisions to behave well, but about internal change cultic worship of human figures in Second Temple which allows a loving and compassionate response Judaism and in the subsequent history of Judaism, to others. Such change can take place in even though this might have helped the psychotherapy; this book explores whether similar preservation of group coordination efficiency in processes can occur in a religious context. certain conditions. Additionally, even if deification 24 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Using the work of Julia Kristeva and other post- from my experience working as a psychiatrist and Kleinian psychoanalysts, change and resistance to psychoanalytic psychotherapist in an acute hospital change are examined in the lives of John Wesley, setting. I worked with patients who often made the founder of Methodism, and his brother Charles, contact with the service at times of crisis. This meant the greatest English hymn-writer. Their mother’s that the old-fashioned luxury of being able to description of them as young men as ‘two scrubby select people as `suitable' for psychoanalytic travellers’, was a prescient expression indicating psychotherapy was not usually available. Many of their future pilgrimage, which they negotiated them had severe personality disorders, addictions through many struggles and compromises; it points or psychosomatic disorders; there were many who towards the ‘wounded healer’, a description which had `borderline' or `narcissistic' pathology, and could be applied to John in later years. The use of some who might be termed `difficult to reach'. psychoanalytic thought in this study allows the My experience confirmed what Joseph had found: exploration of unconscious as well as conscious that such patients, if they were engaged processes at work and interesting differences psychotherapeutically, were often able to begin to emerge, which shed light on the elements in religion know themselves better only after a prolonged that promote or inhibit change, and the influence of struggle with intense and negative feelings towards personality factors. the therapist. It was not uncommon for both patient ‘Two scrubby travellers’: A psychoanalytic view of and therapist to have a sense of being pushed to flourishing and constraint in religion through the the brink of catastrophe and to have a sense of a lives of John and Charles Wesley enriches our life-and-death battle. I also met a different group understanding of these two important historical of people: they saw themselves as deeply figures. It questions the categorising of forms of committed Christians, who subscribed to the religion as conducive to change and so ‘mature’, Christian ideals of love and forgiveness, but, in and other forms as ‘immature’, at a time when spite of these beliefs and their regular religious many, particularly young people, are attracted by practices, were unable to give up destructive fundamentalist, evangelical forms of belief. This behaviour towards themselves and/or others. They book will be essential reading for researchers would either turn a blind eye to the effects of their working at the intersection of psychoanalysis and behaviour or attempt to legitimise it by invoking religious studies; it will also be of interest to God's will. They felt that their actions were good, psychotherapists and psychoanalysts more morally right and justifiable; as a result, they saw generally, and to researchers in the philosophy of no necessity for change. religion. Members of the first group may or may not have Excerpt: Nathan, the Old Testament prophet, knew been willing to engage with psychotherapy, should that self-deception was easy and ubiquitous and they be offered it. The second group would usually that seeing ourselves as we are was more see no need for it, expecting that any necessary challenging. King David had lusted after and change would be identified and brought about in bedded Bathsheba, and then engineered the death the context of their religious experience. On first of her husband Uriah by putting him in the forefront acquaintance, the people in these groups would of a battle. Nathan told him a parable (2 Samuel appear to have little in common, but in fact, like 12:1-13). A rich man who owned a flock of sheep King David, they share considerable resistance to would not kill one of his own sheep to feed a accessing unconscious conflicts, wishes and motives. traveller but took the only possession of a poor The book explores possible elements in religion man, his beloved `little ewe lamb'. When he heard which might lead to change by facilitating access to the parable, David was outraged. He said that the the unconscious. Are there processes within an rich man deserved to die and should be made to individual's relationship with religion that can be restore the lamb fourfold. Nathan replied simply, compared to the facilitating elements in 'Thou art the man'. psychotherapy, which allow increased awareness This book is about the struggle to see ourselves as of deep truths about the self, and lead to freedom we are, as it might take place in both a to act in more loving ways? Are there forms of psychotherapy and a religious context. It arose religion which are more likely to facilitate change 25 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com than others, and are there some which tend to study is to shed light on these difficult questions. hinder change and growth? Theological and psychoanalytic ideas about the human struggle to maturity and goodness are used My concern is not only with those whose lives are to elucidate differences in the brothers' lives. By constrained by mental disorders of some kind or by using Kleinian, post-Kleinian and Kristevan theory, their own extreme destructive behaviour but also elements have been highlighted which would have with all those, including ourselves, who turn a blind been less evident in a study using the eye to some of our hurtful behaviour and who feel developmental methods that are more often used in a need to grow and to live life 'more abundantly'. the study of religion, in which there is less emphasis I explore these questions using post-Freudian on the unconscious. psychoanalytic theory and particularly the I have chosen the Wesley brothers because psychoanalytic concepts of Julia Kristeva, the Methodism is the form of Christianity with which I French psychoanalyst and professor of linguistics. am most familiar and because early Methodism as Although Kristeva privileges art, poetry and preached by John and Charles Wesley would be psychoanalysis over religion as enablers of growth categorised by some psychologists and and change (offering what she calls `alternatives to psychoanalysts as an `immature' form of religion. narcissism'), she is interested in the personal use of An extreme form of this view is found in the work of Christian symbolism by believers, and her insights someone who is not a psychologist or a are enlivening and enlightening but also disruptive. psychoanalyst but a Marxist social historian, E.P. I use her theory in relation to two specific Thompson. Thompson (who came from a Methodist examples: the lives and personalities of John missionary family) saw Methodism in the late Wesley, the founder of Methodism, and his brother eighteenth and early nineteenth century as Charles, thought by many to be the greatest English damaging and oppressive, as enforcing obedience hymn writer. The book is titled Two Scrubby and submission through fear and as sapping Travellers' because their mother described them as revolutionary fervour from the gullible masses. He such in an affectionate and intimate way, but it also suggested that emotion was seen by Methodists as represents two aspects of their lives. `Travellers' is dangerous to the social order and that it was safe a recognition that they were, like most people, on a to release it, only harmlessly, in a religious meeting, pilgrimage through life; and `scrubby' indicates usually after a rousing sermon, as 'a ritualised form their humanity, their ways of dealing with the of psychic masturbation'. If Thompson is right, this inevitable struggles and compromises on the way. It form of religion would be expected to lead to an points towards the 'wounded healer', a description `immature', infantilising and stultifying response, which could be applied to John in particular in later rather than to an opportunity for growth among its years. believers. This exploration of the Wesley brothers has been John and Charles Wesley were both Anglican undertaken to try to learn more about how the priests. They devoted their lives to the reform of personalities of different people affect the way the church into which they had been ordained, and they interact with the religious cultures surrounding which was, in many places, lacking in dedication them. Are there forms of religion which are more and inspiration. They travelled through the whole likely to encourage more `mature' or `immature' country, preaching and writing, and clearly had a kinds of religious experience, as has been powerful effect on many people, especially those previously suggested by psychologists? And to who felt themselves ignored by the church. John what extent do people use or exploit aspects of Wesley was anxious at the outset not to separate their religious culture, of whatever sort, in helpful or from the Church of England, insisting that his unhelpful ways, according to their own particular followers should attend their parish church, but his needs? Both of these questions are of great field preaching, and his conduct of worship in the significance at a time when large numbers of fledgling Methodist societies, provided many with people, particularly young people, continue to their first hope and purpose in a society in which embrace `fundamentalist' forms of religion, they seemed to be ignored and forgotten. This may traditionally thought by many psychologists to have been interpreted by Thompson as frustrating promote `immature' relating. The purpose of the 26 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com a natural aspiration towards a necessary personality factors which are of interest in revolution, but this study shows the real situation to comparing their responses to their faith. be more complicated. The book is separated into two parts: Part I Much has previously been written about the (Chapters 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5) outlines psychoanalytic Wesley brothers, and a great deal of it is understandings of an individual's growth to hagiographical. Adam Clarke, in his Memoirs of the emotional, mental and moral maturity. It is Wesley Family, ended by saying that never `since concerned mainly with mechanisms of change in the the days of Abraham and Sarah, and Joseph and early life of an individual and in psychotherapy. In Mary of Nazareth, has there ever been a family to addition, it looks at parallel opportunities for which the human race has been more indebted'. In change in a religious context, attempting to the present book, I hope to avoid such unqualified understand them psychoanalytically. It includes a praise and to question some of the myths and discussion of some forms of religion which in legends. The use of psychoanalytic theory conventional terms might be expected to addresses not only conscious but possible encourage defensiveness rather than growth. unconscious factors which may have affected their Chapter 1 describes the context in which ideas lives. In order to achieve this, I have relied as far about growth and change in psychoanalysis and in as possible on their own writings and those of their theology have developed. It focuses on Melanie mother, Susanna. I have also made use of letters Klein, the child psychoanalyst who wrote between and other information from their contemporaries. the 1920s and the 1960s, and Julia Kristeva (the It may seem foolhardy to attempt to understand main theorist used in this book), who was greatly the inner worlds of two people whose lives influenced by Klein. It looks at some parallel extended throughout most of the eighteenth changes in psychoanalytic and theological thinking century; there are obvious hazards in having to rely in the post-modern era, and also at the changes in on material, some of which is inevitably second- psychoanalytic attitudes to religion over the second hand. But the present study has the advantage, half of the twentieth century and in the twenty-first unusual at this distance in time, of access to the century. extensive writings about the Wesleys' early lives Chapter 2 is concerned with the search for by their mother, as well as their own personal `goodness' and `maturity' in religion and in journals and letters. Although the ideas and psychoanalysis. It examines what is meant by speculations drawn from these sources cannot be `growth' and 'goodness' in theology (through the checked out repeatedly with each brother, as work of Rowan Williams (2000) and Ellen Charly would happen if they were in therapy, and (1997)) and in psychoanalysis. It concentrates on although there can be no information gained from the relationship between ideas about `growth' or non-verbal or counter-transference sources, there `development' and ideas of the `good'. Two are records of a wide range of interactions with elements necessary to promote growth and change family members, with other people, with their work emerge from Waddell's study, and these two and with religious and cultural elements. These can facilitators of change are used in subsequent be used to add to weight to the suppositions made chapters as a framework to re-examine important from their subjective writings. In many ways, the psychoanalytical ideas about development. Wesleys' situation is a ready-made experimental setting for a comparison between the two brothers. Chapter 3 is concerned with first of these While they had very similar cultural, educational, facilitators: the interaction with an emotionally religious and family influences, their individual available object.' It outlines ideas about the experiences within the family would have been development of the moral sense in the context of a different. In addition to their genetic make-up, relationship with a good object, as they have these individual experiences, particularly with their evolved through Kleinian thought and subsequently. parents, would have contributed significantly to Although I have taken a mainly Kleinian focus, their personality differences. There is sufficient relevant, illuminating insights are included from documentation and detail about their early lives for Fairbairn's object-relations theory, Kohut's self- this to be usefully explored, and it is these psychology and from analysts in the Independent

27 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com tradition such as Winnicott and Bollas. The chapter known and the unknown, the human and the divine, also considers some of the consequences for a or the `symbolic' and the `semiotic'); the use of subject's relationships with other people, religious symbols, narratives, sacraments and rituals philosophies or religion, when these processes go to symbolise the `semiotic' (this section is mainly awry. concerned with Kristeva's thought on symbolism and ritual, and introduces her concept of the `abject'); In Chapter 4 the second of the facilitators of and the availability of triadic spaces. change is explored more fully. This relates to the search for increased awareness of the 'deep truth' In Part II (Chapters 6, 7, 8, 9 and 10), the lives of about the self, achieved in repeated confrontation John and Charles Wesley are explored in the light with the truth in everyday interactions with other of the theories about growth and transformation people in life, or in the particularities and detail of discussed in Part I. therapy. Truth is described as food for mental Chapter 6 outlines their shared cultural and growth, but accessing the 'deep truth' about the self religious heritage and their family background. An is no easy matter. It depends on the capacity to examination of the sermons and the character of `symbolise', which in psychoanalytic theory includes their maternal grandfather, Dr Samuel Annesley, not only the use of material symbols and rituals but an eminent dissenting preacher, provides evidence also the capacity to conceptualise and verbalise of the beliefs, values and expectations which they unconscious content. inherited, many of which appear in their writings This chapter is concerned with the development of and those of their mother. Her writings are the this capacity and also with the ways in which the source of a great deal of information about their use of symbols can facilitate the search for 'deep immediate family, early experience and education. meaning'. It introduces Kristeva's understanding of Chapters 7 and 8 explore the individual lives, very early infantile development, and her view that relationships and spiritual journeys of the Wesley culture (religious or secular) must provide brothers. Using psychoanalytic theory, and opportunities to 'symbolise' disturbing unconscious particularly Kristevan theory, an attempt is made to contents arising from pre-verbal experiences, if an understand their mental structures and individual is to grow and develop. Her thoughts on psychological defence mechanisms from their own the entry into what she terms the `symbolic' realm writings and from the writings of others close to (a realm of language and rules), through them. Ways in which these personality features identification with a loving, supportive object, which affected their responses to the religious faith they facilitates the separation from the mother/child shared are considered. dyad, add another layer of understanding to the more conventional ideas about the relationship with Chapter 9 explores the theological differences a good object. Her emphasis on the need for a between the Wesley brothers. It is concerned with dialogue between the `symbolic' and the `semiotic' their conversion experiences, their attitudes to (a term she uses idiosyncratically to indicate the , their ideas on Christian Perfection and realm of the body, of sensation and fragmented their positions on the meaning of suffering and on affect) is important for the study of how religion the Trinity. As far as is possible, these are related might promote growth. to their psychological needs. In Chapter 5, following the analysis of processes of Chapter 10 draws together the findings from these change in Chapters 2, 3 and 4, four elements chapters, outlining the differences between the two emerge which are important in facilitating the brothers and the implications of these differences in process of growth. They are all important in the understanding the ways in which individual work of Kristeva and can be understood in her personality factors and psychological defences terms. In this chapter, they are considered in influence the practice of religion. The merits of relation to religion. employing Kristeva as the main theorist in the book are considered, and her privileging of art and They include interactions with transforming objects; psychoanalysis over religion is readdressed in the opportunities to experi¬ence `intersections' light of the findings. This final chapter also returns (between the universal and the particular, the to the classification of forms of belief by 28 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com psychologists as `mature' and `immature', which is 7 Augustine as a inevitably dismissive and denigrating of `immature' (Hippo) Andrea Sterk forms. The differences between two people within PART II LITERARY AND INTELLECTUAL the same religious context demonstrate that each CONTEXTS person's response is complicated and idiosyncratic 8 Language James Clackson and that classification of forms of religion in terms 9 Classical Literary Culture of their being conducive to mature or immature in North Africa W. Martin Bloomer relating is too simplistic to be useful. 10 Education, Grammar, and Rhetoric Yun Lee Too 11 Scripture and Biblical Commentaries Stephen A. Cooper 12 Latin Christian Literature I Augustine in Context edited by Tarmo Toom (Polemical and Theological [Cambridge University Press, 9781107139107] Writings) Josef Lössl Augustine in Context assesses the various contexts - 13 Latin Christian Literature historical, literary, cultural, spiritual - in which II (Moral and Spiritual Writings) David G. Hunter Augustine lived and worked. The essays, written by 14 Letter Writing and an international team of scholars especially for this Preaching Jaclyn Maxwell volume, provide the background against which 15 Philosophical Trends in Augustine's treatises should be read and Augustine's Time Giovanni interpreted. They are organized according to a Catapano rationale which moves from an introduction to the PART III RELIGIOUS CONTEXTS person (the so-called 'personal context') to the 16 Roman Religion Jeffrey contexts of Augustine's works and ideas, starting Brodd from the intellectual setting and extending to the 17 Manicheism Nicholas socio-political realm. Collectively the essays Baker-Brian 18 Ecclesiological highlight the embeddedness of Augustine in the Controversies Alden Bass world of late antiquity and the interdependence of 19 Soteriological his discourse with contemporary forms of social life. Controversies Dominic Keech They shed new light on one of the most important 20 Trinitarian Controversies figures of the western canon and facilitate a more Mark Weedman enlightened reading of his writings. 21 Monasticism/ Marilyn Dunn Contents PART IV POLITICAL, SOCIAL, AND List of Contributors CULTURAL CONTEXTS Acknowledgments 22 Imperial Politics and General Abbreviations Legislation in Roman Africa Dean Abbreviations of Augustine's Works Hammer Introduction: A Chronological Chart 23 War Alexander Sarantis 1 Augustine in Context and 24 Religious Violence Augustine on Context Tarmo Toom Despina Iosif PART I LIFE 25 Relationships in 2 Biography in Late Augustine's Life Geoffrey Nathan Antiquity Arthur P. Urbano 26 Popular Culture and 3 Augustine on Himself Entertainment Jerry Toner Annemaré Kotzé PART V RECEPTION 4 Possidius on Augustine 27 Augustine's Reception of Erika T. Hermanowicz Himself Johannes Brachtendorf 5 Augustine in Roman North 28 Reception of Augustine Africa (Thagaste, ) Gareth Sears during His Lifetime Mathijs 6 Augustine in Higher Lamberigts Society (Rome and Milan) David M. Gwynn

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29 Reception of Augustine in textindependent "backgrounds," some sort of Hadrumetum and Southern Gaul external restrictions on linguistic utterances, but Alexander Y. Hwang rather as part of the literary phenomenon itself. A Note on Augustine's Works They are con-"texts" that help to determine the Further Reading semantic coordinates of what has been said. Index Excerpt: Extending this series, its underlying assumptions, and guiding principles to religious studies (in this Augustine in Context and Augustine on case, to Augustine), certain parallels between the Context two respective disciplines, literary studies and Augustine has had a formative role for Christianity patristics, can be detected. In the second half of the and Christian culture. Everyone who has something twentieth century and as far as methodology is to do with western thinking and/or theology has concerned, first social history and then cultural been influenced by him in some way, either directly anthropology dominated the field of patristics - (through Augustine's works) or indirectly (through hence the heightened attention to contextual studies the works of those who have read Augustine). (i.e., to social and religiohistorical rather than to David Tracy has assessed, "In one sense, any theological research). Scholarly trends have western Christian thinker (and a good number of emphasized the embeddedness of early Christian post-Christian secular thinkers) is a part of the authors in the world of late antiquity, the history of the effect of the texts of Augustine. Some interdependence of their discourse with the social 5 million words from Augustine's pen are extant, forms of life, and their sharing of the common which is vastly more than we have from any other "presupposition pools" with the larger culture. writer from antiquity. It is not to say that others Christian history and culture have been increasingly have not contributed to the shaping of western seen as part of and deeply situated in Roman Christianity but rather that only a few have been history and culture. This means that recently the as influential as Augustine has been. As Phillip Cary early Christian texts have been studied as once remarked, much of what people say or think literature - a particular medium of communication as Christians carries a little tag, "Made by vis-à-vis a message with an extrasystemic Augustine." reference - that provides a key to the social Augustine in Context: Some Guiding realities of the time. Principles Here is how Augustine in Context proceeds. Part I The very act of writing an introduction is creating a intends to introduce Augustine. The first question to context - a context of convictions and circumstances be asked is, "How do we know about him?" and that have generated the project Augustine in "What might be the implications of knowing him the Context. To paraphrase a contemporary literary way we do?" Most of Augustine's later biographies theorist, the idea or impetus behind this volume is are based on his Confessions (his early life until "to map the contours of the discourse environment in becoming a bishop) and Possidius' sympathetic Vita which [Augustine's writings were] produced and (his life as a bishop and his controversies). consumed." Thus a key assumption in envisioning this Accordingly, Part I examines Augustine's life and book has been that context, which relates public career from his birth and upbringing until his communicative actions and their surroundings to death. Although literary studies (e.g., New Criticism) literary texts, is crucial for comprehending any text. have made it efficiently clear that an author's biographical data are not absolutely necessary for Cambridge's prolific series "Literature in Context" understanding his or her texts - in fact, they might seems to be guided by certain interests and be quite irrelevant (see below) - various author- presuppositions in recent literary studies, such as and context-oriented approaches have strongly those of New Historicism, which take texts to be disagreed with this contention. inseparable from the context in which they were written (i.e., a "thick description"). That is, texts are Augustine was a man of words and, therefore, perceived primarily as the products of the social particular attention is given to language and circumstances of their creation. Consequently, literary contexts. Since Augustine is mostly known historical contexts are not perceived as for his writings and ideas rather than for his 30 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com personal qualities, Part II investigates the contexts given author. Because of the recent publication of a that concern Augustine's literary activity and major 3 volume work on Augustine - The Oxford thought. For deeper understanding and better Guide to the Historical Reception of Augustine appreciation, his intellectual quests and pursuits edited by Karla Pollmann, Willemien Otten ( - it should be understood in the light of the existing does not make good sense to attempt it again on a intellectual culture and his texts in the web of much lesser scale. However, because this interrelationships with other writings of the period. megastudy does not say much about the very beginning of the reception history of Augustine, Part III attempts to remind the interpreters of Augustine in Context attempts to fill the gap and Augustine that he always strived to "know God and focus on the beginning of this complicated process. the soul [de Deo, de anima]" (Sol. 1.2.7). So did Accordingly, Augustine is placed alongside his many others, but with rather different results. contemporary friends and foes who read him either Therefore, it is important to consider the contexts of with great enthusiasm or with deep suspicion. competing worldviews without which it would be Although by the sixth century and for many virtually impossible to understand certain Augustine had become Saint Augustine, the early (reactionary) emphases in Augustine's deliberations. reception of him may provide an interesting Because his contribution to and impact on his corrective to the widespread but naive impression contemporary and subsequent (philosophical) that his authority was never questioned. This volume theology definitely outweigh his contribution to and attempts to assist its readers in moving away from impact on any other field of study, heightened a still widespread perception of the "canonical" attention is given to the religious contexts of his Augustine as a self-standing, transhistorical treatises. Such "privileging of religion" is justified, I intellectual giant who was somehow above the believe, by Augustine's own privileging of religion. mundane realities of his time. After all, most people are not reading Augustine to find a fourth-fifth century understanding of family The essays in this volume are about the context of and economics. Fewer still seek out Augustine's texts Augustine and not about Augustine per se. The in order to get an idea about imperial correctional "Guidance Notes for Volume Editors" says, "The facilities or healthcare systems. Rather, most people volume should not focus on accounts of the are reading Augustine for the subject matter that individual's actual work, but instead offer accounts he discusses, for certain "big questions" of theology of contextual issues, bringing in the work as and philosophy, that is, for religious insight. Yet the necessary for illustration purposes." That is, the bishop of Hippo and his numerous religious writings goal is to provide a set of possible contexts that have still to be located within a society/culture of are reconstructed - with some obvious exceptions in late antiquity with everything it had to offer Parts I and V - from sources other than Augustine's because particular circumstances definitely shaped works and yet pertinent for understanding his his personality, convictions, and literary output. works. This is deliberate. In many cases, it helps to Social conventions and expectations just have to be avoid the tendency of circular reasoning, where a in place for any meaningful communication to context is reconstructed from Augustine's works and happen. Even the somewhat rebellious Augustine then his works are interpreted in the light of the could not entirely free himself from such things or context thus reconstructed. (This happens frequently make his texts immune to what was going on in the case of ancient texts, especially when little or around him. no comparative material is extant.) In a sense, Part IV continues Part III by extending Augustine in Context is written by experts in their the investigation to some other aspects of the social fields and is intended for the larger audience, yet reality of Augustine's time. No one escapes the without ignoring the many scholars and students of impact of sociopolitical realities, no matter whether Augustine. It provides a set of "glasses" (i.e., that impact is appreciated or dreaded. Augustine's various contexts) through which the works of activities, too, are inevitably embedded in the Augustine can be seen or "spaces" in which one can circumstances of his time. ponder about Augustine. In other words, the intention is not to put together another improved Several previous volumes in the series "Literature in Companion to Augustine for Augustinian scholars. Context" have a section on reception history of a 31 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Rather, the overall idea is to supply a set of First, among theorists, there is really no consensus possible (historical) contexts (none of which is the about what context as such is. Augustine in what? "master context," as the singular of the word "Widely accepted standard definitions or theories "context" in the title might suggest) that are ion the context are not on the market."While pertinent for understanding the literary output of everyone seems to acknowledge that context refers the bishop of Hippo. In a sense, this book is a to the various aspects that are relevant for prolegomenon for reading Augustine's own works, understanding a text or an utterance, defining that is, for a more nuanced reading of his works. "context" is usually confined to mere listing of its component parts. Yet how many textual and Perhaps it should also be clarified that neither the extratextual component parts need to be number nor the order of essays pretends to exhaust considered in order to have a context? How do we the possibilities. Neither do they suggest a select them from a wide spectrum of possible hierarchy of importance or a claim to be contextual cues and on the basis of what to comprehensive. Nevertheless, the organization of determine their relevance? In brief, context proves essays does have a rationale that moves from an to be a rather elusive concept when one attempts introduction of the person (the so-called personal to define it. context) to the contexts of Augustine's works and ideas, starting from the intellectual setting and Second, contexts — whatever they are taken to be extending to the sociopolitical realm. The grouping — are never objectively given, fixed, and ready to of topics into Parts II, III, be used for everyone who would like to operate with them. This means that at least contexts for and IV should also not give an impression that these ancient writings are always reconstructions of later thematic sections are somehow self-standing and readers, and because of fragmentary evidence, independent entities. To have a section on political they can never be reconstructed in their totality. As and social contexts is not to contend that politics such, reconstructed contexts remain ever-mutable and social circumstances would exist apart from entities, already and inevitably contaminated with culture or, for that matter, religions or nationality. the presuppositions, biases, and interests of the one The grouping also attempts to avoid, despite a who reconstructs them for his or her own particular separate section of religious contexts (e.g., Part III), purposes. This amounts to saying that describing a stark separation between "religious" and various contexts for Augustine's life and work may "secular" spheres, ideas, and material culture. generate a false yet convenient feeling of The essays, which at times inevitably overlap, are assurance that finally one has found an objective not edited for better coherence and consensus. interpretative device. However, such hermeneutical Productive differences of opinion are deliberately optimism needs to be tamed by careful allowed to stand because disagreement provides acknowledgment of the provisional character of the necessary energy for generating further any reconstruction of a context. debate and research. Third, how much weight should be given to historical Some Further Issues contexts for construing a meaning of a text? In the 380s, Ambrosiaster was adamant, "For to Although contextual interpretation has been take things out of context is to sin" (i.e., it is to emphasized, practiced, and highly praised for commit a hermeneutical "sin") (comm. on 1Tim 8-9). quite some time, it rests on certain philosophical Indeed, there is much to gain from contextual study assumptions about how meaning is constituted and of ancient texts. For example, it tends to eliminate raises, for example, the issue of the hermeneutical various anachronistic readings and prevents forcing normativity of "original contexts." Yet an "original Augustine to answer the questions he never raised. context" is arguably not some sort of super criterion It is believed to provide both constraints on and for interpreting ancient texts because what an possibilities for the meanings of his utterances. utterance meant in its historical context is not all Nevertheless, there are some issues related to the that a given utterance can and has to mean. If one concept of context that deserve mention for further is to follow Grice, texts have context-independent consideration. semantic meanings and context-dependent pragmatic meanings.' This distinction helps, at least,

32 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com to understand the irrefutable fact that there are a one likes it or not, often an appeal to what is taken whole lot of utterances and texts that communicate to be the authorial intent in the historical "original extremely well, although no one knows and will context" proves to be nothing but guesswork. never know what their "original context" was. Is it Fourth, the series "Literature in Context" also seems not the case that Augustine's Confessions, for to give a definite preference to the contexts of a example, can be deeply meaningful even for the given author. Yet various possible contexts of readers who know absolutely nothing about the readers may prove to be equally important. Even text's provenance and the historical circumstances Augustine knew that the context of a reader of its composition? This text "speaks to" and mattered for discovering the meaning of an mesmerizes its readers even if they do not know the utterance. For example, in s. Dom. mon. 2.7.26, he very century in which it was composed or by whom argues that for eastern Christians the designation it was composed. "Classical" texts are particularly "daily bread" (Mt 6:11) cannot mean the Eucharist prone to multicontextualism. In short, finding a text because they just do not celebrate the Eucharist meaningful does not necessarily presuppose the daily. In this case, the context of the knowledge of the "original context" or the readers/interpreters restricts the semantic realm of provenance of the text. Searching for the meaning a phrase. Likewise, the meanings of Augustine's own of a text on a postcompositional level can yield texts always evolve in the particular reading equally remarkable results. Breed remarks, "The process and by particular readers, who carry their truth is that texts always leave their contexts, own interpretative contexts with them and especially their putative original contexts, and consequently approach texts with their concerns contexts never seem to do anything to stop them. and questions. Thus the contexts of an author are Actually, the situation is even worse: original not the only ones that matter. The contexts of contexts simply disappear into the mists of time readers, too, have a determinative role for while the texts romp around in the present." establishing meaning(s). "Understanding is not Furthermore, the "original context" is often believed merely a reproductive but always a productive to offer an important clue about authorial intention, activity as well." and authorial intention is believed, in turn, to govern the meaning of a text or utterance. Yet Augustine On Context again, literary studies have strongly questioned the Although not sharing the ideologies behind New age-old conviction that authorial intent always Historicism or any other modern "school," Augustine controls the meaning of a text. It has been likewise emphasized the importance of context(s) proposed that what matters are the intrinsic and and contextual interpretation. True, his structural aspects of a literary work rather than its deliberations concerned mostly the interpretation of intended meaning and extratextual reference (e.g., Scripture, but they can also be applied to the Formalism). Augustine, for example, knew very well reading of any ancient text, including his own. that often it was impossible to appeal to authorial First, Augustine advises an interpreter to consider intention. He wondered in civ. Dei 20.19, "We, who the literary context of a word or an utterance. "The do not know what they [i.e., the addressees of the context of the scriptures customarily illuminates a Book of Revelation] knew, are not able to arrive at given passage, when the words adjunct to the text the apostles' meaning even with an effort, and no in question are carefully examined" (div. qu. 69.2). matter how much we desire to do so." Again, Likewise, in doc. Chr. 3.2.2, he admonishes the "Which of us can discover [the meaning of the text interpreter to consider "the preceding and of Genesis] with such assurance that he can following passages" in case a statement is unclear confidently say, 'This is what Moses meant and this or ambiguous - just like Cicero had instructed him, was his meaning in that narrative' ... I cannot see in "[I]t must be shown that from what precedes and Moses' mind that this is what he was thinking when follows in the document the doubtful point becomes he wrote this" (conf 12.14.33). While Augustine plain" (Inv. 2.40.117). For example, in doc. Chr. never questioned the hermeneutical priority of 2.12.18 and in order to determine how the authorial intention or the fact that texts referred to particular word "calf' needs to be translated in something, he was very much aware of the Wisd 4:3, Augustine investigates the "words that complications that these notions entailed. Whether follow." Or, in s. Dom. mon. 1.16.44, the meaning 33 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com of the designation "the rest" in 1 Cor 7:12 is fact his whole life" (Inv. 2.40.117). He elaborated, ascertained by the next sentence. Again, detecting "For it is easy to estimate what is likely that the a contradiction between 1 Jn 1:8 and 3:9, he takes writer intended from the complete context and the phrase "He who has been born from God does from the character of the writer [ex persona not sin" as referring to a particular sin - a violation scriptoris], and from the qualities which are of charity (ep. Jo. 5.1-2, 7) - because the whole associated with certain characters" (Inv. 2.40.117). epistle "commends charity" (5.4; cf. 6.4). Augustine, for example, knew, on the basis of other canonical texts what Jesus, the evangelists, or Paul For reading Augustine's own treatises, this means was likely to say, and often this helped him to that his statements, too, have to be considered in make a decision about the intended meaning of an their immediate literary setting (i.e., in the utterance. Obviously, the more information one has intratextual context or cotext). Progressively, they about the author and the greater the number of have to be considered also in the ever-enlarging available writings, the easier it is to determine the settings of the particular treatise (i.e., in the author's "personal context." infratextual context), Augustine's other treatises, Latin Christian literature, the literature of late Perhaps a special difficulty with (ancient) written antiquity, and so on (i.e., in the intertextual texts should be pointed out here as well. Namely, contexts) and finally also in the extratextual there is a certain immediacy to oral communication contexts (if these are not already bracketed - the context is present at hand, and the way together with a text). something is said directs the hearers' understanding. Participants in a conversation Second, an interpreter also has to consider the construct context in the process of communication. situational context of an utterance. The larger life Even if misunderstanding occurs, they can always setting - or as the rhetorical manuals called it, ask for a clarification. Just as Augustine says, circumstantiae - may provide a key for a more "[Moses] is not now before me, but if he were, I adequate understanding of what is said. For would clasp him and ask him" (conf 11.3.5). That is, example, if one hears the words, "Quit pulling my in oral communication, the linguistic medium is never leg!," one needs to know the life situation of this separated from the person using it. There is no such utterance for comprehending the request. One thing as a living discourse that would exist needs to know whether someone wants someone independently of the speaker and the context of else to quit teasing him or her, whether people are the utterance. But things are rather different in the wrestling, or whether there is an ongoing rescue case of written texts, where everything, including operation. Situational context makes an utterance life situation, authorial intention, tone of voice, and semantically specific and indicates how it is to be other such interpretative clues, is not easily understood at that moment. In s. Dom. mon. accessible and sometimes not available at all. This 1.20.65, Augustine contends that the punishments posits an extra difficulty for interpreters of written mentioned in the Old Testament cannot be texts, especially anonymous and ancient texts. understood unless one becomes aware "of the Periods, commas, question marks, and grammatical mentality and the particular times that marked constructions can be of some help here, but in the these deeds." Similarly, he urges, "We must pay case of written text, an interpreter does not have careful attention to what befits places and times the help of the supplementary "illocutionary acts" and persons, in order not to judge behavior rashly (i.e., the nonlinguistic communication devices). as infamous" (doc. Chr. 3.12.19). Augustine realizes that when authorial intention is Third, a personal context proves to be important as not explicitly stated and when contextual clues, such well. Because the intention of an author was given as phrasing (doc. Chr. 3.2.2-4.8), intonation (civ. such importance for determining the meaning of a Dei 16.6; doc. Chr. 3.3.6), and gesticulation (en. Ps. text, for adequate interpretation, ancient 34[2].11) happen to be unavailable, an interpreter rhetoricians urged consideration of the whole life of cannot have any extra help from such illocutionary an author. They stressed the importance of what acts. can be called "personal context." Cicero wrote, For Augustine in Context, the first, the literary "One ought to estimate what the writer meant from context, is relatively less important because the his other writings, acts, words, disposition, and in 34 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com current volume does not assess Augustine's works viewpoints after nearly fifty years. He has outlined (except some essays in Parts I and IV). The second, in a second edition how he would adjust to them the situational (or historical) context, is the center of and I have remained aware that he would have attention in Parts II, III, and IV. The third, the done so in ways which I am not even able to see. I personal context, is reconstructed in Part I. have said less on guilt and more on mysticism and I have presented differently Augustine's relation to Augustine: Conversions to Confessions by Robin Neoplatonism and to a 'lost future' in his middle Lane Fox [Basic Books, 9780465022274] age. I have had the luxury of much more space, as "This narrative of the first half of Augustine's my book stops with the Confessions. I have life conjures the intellectual and social milieu therefore given more attention to the disputed of the late Roman Empire with a Proustian details of his conversions and much more to the next relish for detail." --New York Times eleven years of his writings and actions before he began to confess. I have a different view of the In Augustine, celebrated historian Robin Lane Fox immediate context of the Confessions, their genre follows on his journey to the and their length of composition. I also have more to writing of his Confessions. Unbaptized, Augustine say about the last three books, ones which perplex indulged in a life of lust before finally confessing initial readers but which I have come to-value most. and converting. Lane Fox recounts Augustine's sexual sins, his time in an outlawed heretical sect, There are many fine short books on Augustine, from and his gradual return to spirituality. Magisterial Marrou to Chadwick, Trapé to Te Selle. I saw no and beautifully written, Augustine is the reason to add another, so I opted for a long book, authoritative portrait of this colossal figure at his based on my own reading of all Augustine's most thoughtful, vulnerable, and profound. surviving writings until September 397. I have deliberately minimized my use of his writings after Augustine is the person about whom we know most that date, partly for a practical reason, my relative in the ancient world. Sixteen hundred years later, ignorance, partly because myopia has advantages, he can still be followed in changing detail through as he himself composed the Confessions without his own voluminous writings. For that reason alone, knowing what he would write later. he is a fascinating study, inexhaustible evidence for a world both like and unlike our own. It still amazes I have planned the book with a clear structure for me that we can read the very words of himself and which a musical analogy may be helpful. his debaters on exact days as far away as 13 Throughout, it is composed as a biographical November 386 or 28 August 392. The ancient symphony whose theme is Augustine's life up to the world is suddenly very close to us. Augustine is also age of forty-three. a Christian and is immediate to many readers for The first half, or movement, is mostly about that reason too. When I began this book, both the conversions, with confessing as an undercurrent. The Pope and the Archbishop of Canterbury were second half is mostly about confessing, with distinguished scholars of his thought and context. I conversions now the undercurrent, his conversions of do not share their, or Augustine's, faith, but, like others rather than himself. Throughout, I allow them, I am intrigued by his restless intelligence and pagan Libanius and Christian Synesius to play his exceptional way with words. My greatest debt, variations on some of the chords. Neither of them therefore, is to Augustine, who is always articulate had Augustine's intelligence, but, behind their about himself and his beliefs. I have often rhetoric and complex style, I have found myself wondered how he would write to me, belittling my sympathizing with each of them too, at least over worldly multiplicity, but failing, I think, to dislodge what they present as the most important items in it. their lives. Like many others across the world, I have been Augustine is the subject of a yearly torrent of inspired and sustained in my interest in him by scholarship across the world. I owe it a debt which Peter Brown's superb biography, first published in readers, I hope, will bear in mind throughout. The 1967. As he is the first to realize, the continuing challenge is less to say something which has flood of modern studies and even, remarkably, nowhere been said before than to decide what to some newly found evidence alter some of its 35 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com believe and why and what to work into a new subject. Sigrid Mratschek read the last six chapters whole. I have been helped by many lifelong with her exacting eye and tightened their contents experts who have looked kindly on yet another with her unrivalled knowledge of the exchanges of Augustine book. Two visits to Villanova University letters between the protagonists. In Oxford, and the kindness of Fr Allan Fitzgerald at its Matthieu Pignot has helped invaluably with the Augustinian Institute have been most helpful. So has notation and correction of the text and has given much modern scholarship across Europe and me encouragement on many of its topics, especially America, in particular the incisive writings of Henry Augustine's catechumenate, on which his research is Chadwick, the detailed commentaries by the great particularly important. Jonathan Yates of Villanova expert J. J. O'Donnell and the French tradition, old University then read most of the book at short and new. At every turn I have learned from its past notice with kind patience and expert attention, a masters, Aimé Solignac, Pierre Courcelle and Jean masterclass which has improved it in many ways. Pépin, more recently from Georges Folliet and None of these readers would have written as I above all Goulven Madec, whose cigarette, at have, but I have responded carefully to what they least, I once lit, before receiving a terse answer to have corrected and adjusted. Their own views of a question about Augustine's ideas about `weight' Augustine would often be different. and the soul. The exact writings of Martine Dulaey My fellow classicists tend either to be cool towards and the brilliant studies by Isabelle Bochet have Augustine or else to be unsure what his confessions continued to make me see much which I would and conversions really are. I have written to be otherwise have missed. Augustine's writings have intelligible, whatever the reader's prior knowledge long been scrutinized for allusions to the pagan of the subject. The effort requires more exposition classical authors, but although his use of Christian than a book written for hard-pressed scholars only. authors began very soon after his conversion, it has I have been helped on the way by many able only recently been studied in similar detail. 'His Oxford pupils who were encountering this subject learning is too often borrowed,' Gibbon slyly after the insights of Herodotus, Thucydides, remarked in a note to his great Decline and Fall, Aristophanes, Plato and many others in the classical 'his arguments, too often his own.' We are now world which we love. Jonathan Fowles, Caroline better placed than Gibbon to test this remark Halliday, Michael Blaikley, Joshua Horden, Joseph against Augustine's early years, thanks especially Diwakar, Isabel Sunnucks and Christopher Micklem to the work of Dulaey, Bochet and Nello Cipriani. have all made me rethink some of my views, as has In Britain, the expertise of Gillian Clark, Carol Ella Grunberger-Kirsh, while adding a dossier, fit Harrison, G. J. P. O'Daly, Roger Tomlin and Neil for the modern social worker, on the case of McLynn has been invaluable, accompanied by the Augustine, his mother, his home and the elusive kindness of many colleagues across the world who Father with whom, he believed, he had briefly have sent me articles, books and helpful references, established contact. including A.-I. Bouton Touboulic, John P. Kenney, A full bibliography of all that I have read for each Paula Fredriksen, Christoph Markschies, Sigrid chapter would make the book unwieldy. Instead, I Mratschek, Michael Williams, Jason BeDuhn, Frisbee have picked out a few studies on each one, C. Sheffield and Peter Brown. I am particularly emphasizing them in prefaces to the notes on each grateful to those who have read and criticized all chapter so as to orient readers. Research into or part of the book. My American publisher, Lara Augustine now means crawling on hands and knees Heimert, made penetrating comments on its shape to find essential journals in a sub-basement. and structure. My English publisher, Stuart Proffitt, read it with the closest attention to its phrasing and Augustine and Kierkegaard edited by Kim intellectual blind spots. Mark Edwards commented Paffenroth and John Doody [Augustine in acutely on my chapters on the Platonists and Neil Conversation: Tradition and Innovation, Lexington McLynn on the two about Rome and Milan. It is a Books, 9781498561846] special pleasure to me that Samuel Lieu found time This volume is a continuation of our series exploring to comment on the Manichaean chapters forty Saint Augustine’s influence on later thought, this years after I read his important thesis on Mani and time bringing the fifth century bishop into dialogue his mission in Asia which revived my interest in that 36 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com with 19th century philosopher, theologian, social Christian doctrine. Rather, these two great minds, critic, and originator of Existentialism, Soren particularly when placed in conversation, continue Kierkegaard. The connections, contrasts, and to stimulate our thinking on topics as diverse as sometimes surprising similarities of their thought are time, beauty, and community. (Christopher B. uncovered and analyzed in topics such as exile and Barnett) pilgrimage, time and restlessness, inwardness and Contents the church, as well as suffering, evil, and humility. Acknowledgment The implications of this analysis are profound and Introduction far-reaching for theology, ecclesiology, and ethics. Kim Paffenroth and Helene Talion Russell This book is a collection of fifteen clearly written PART I: THE DIVINE/HUMAN RELATIONSHIP and penetrating essays on the relation between 1 Justification within the Limits of Augustine and Kierkegaard. Written by both Anthropology Alone: Augustine and philosophers and theologians, the authors include Kierkegaard on Freedom and Grace many well-known scholars as well as some fresh Curtis L. Thompson and creative younger voices. Anyone interested in 2 The Image of God in Augustine and Kierkegaard or Augustine will learn much from this Kierkegaard Matthew Dreyer volume, which is a first-rate contribution to our 3 Augustine, Kierkegaard, and Evil understanding of both thinkers. (C. Stephen Evans, Erik M. Hanson Baylor University) 4 The Spiritual Trial of Divine Seduction: Temptation Kierkegaard's reading of Augustine, like and the Confessing Self Nietzsche's reading of Kierkegaard, is one of the Simon D. Podmore great 'what ifs?' of intellectual interest. PART II: TIME Kierkegaard, it has been shown, had little direct 5 Kierkegaard and Augustine on Time knowledge of Church Father's major writings, Karl Aho leaving a wonderful tangle of potential points of 6 Eternal Becoming and Temporal Understanding: Kierkegaard contact between the two great Christian thinkers and Augustine on Time, Faith, and hanging in the air. This many-sided collection starts Knowledge to unpick and to sort some of these connections, Robert Reed exploring a wide range of topics about which the PART III: HUMANS AND THE FINITE, African and the Dane could have had much to say MATERIAL WORLD to each other, including faith, time, temptation, evil, 7 Sacrament and Self-Construction: freedom, beauty, love, humility, martyrdom, and Augustine and Kierkegaard the divine image. These are themes that richly on Love for the Finite resonate with creatures such as we are— Janna Gonwa metaphysically homeless and longing, 8 Beauty Matters: Augustine and Kierkegaard questioningly, for our one eternal home. On all on Sensual Beauty these topics, Augustine and Kierkegaard still have Peder Jothen much to say, as this collection fully shows. (George 9 You Must Change Your Life: Pattison, ) Kierkegaard and Augustine Over the last few decades, Kierkegaard on Reading Thomas J. Millay scholarship has devoted increasing attention to PART IV: HOME AND HOMELESSNESS those who had an influence on the Dane’s 10 Hidden Inwardness authorship. Felicitously, this trend has led to a Ralph Harper reconsideration of the ways in which Kierkegaard 11 Home, Love, and the Self: A Dialogue both draws on and departs from the thought of with Augustine Augustine of Hippo. The present book not only and Kierkegaard contributes to this reconsideration but does so in Natalia Marandiuc creative fashion, demonstrating that the connection 12 Existence as Pilgrimage: Echoes of between Augustine and Kierkegaard can hardly be Augustinian Thought reduced to, say, a handful of debates regarding in Kierkegaard 37 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Robert B. Puchniak not prevent him from being read for spiritual PART V: HUMAN COMMUNITIES AND edification. ETHICS 13 Augustine and Kierkegaard on the Although they are separated by 1400 years, a Church: Nurturing continent, and the protestant 's largest Mother or Challenging Provocateur? divide in western Christianity, they share quite a Lee C. Barrett few characteristics, some of which provide the basis 14 In Praise of Humility: From Augustine to for the discussions in this volume. Augustine and Kierkegaard W. Glenn Kirkconnell Kierkegaard hold together both sides of the 15 Augustine and Kierkegaard on tensions between grace and love, faith and will, Martyrdom speaking and silence, and time and eternity; their and "Polite Persecution" thoughts thrive on these internal and external Jack Mulder Jr. Bibliography tensions and contrasts. Even their contemporary Index scholars engage in modern and postmodern About the Editors and Contributors approaches to grasping their insights more fully. Though both men were epitomes of the times they lived in (late antique and modern), their thoughts In Augustine and Kierkegaard edited by Kim still resonate with and challenge our postmodern Paffenroth and John Doody [, Lexington Books, world and lives. Finally, despite the fact that 9781498561846] the editors of the series, Augustine is viewed as a church theologian par Augustine in Conversation: Tradition and Innovation, excellence and Kierkegaard's critique of depart from the usual format of connecting Christendom kept him from even taking communion Augustine with some topic or discipline—politics, on his death bed, they articulate a compelling view literature, the environment, and so on—and of Christianity as a complex and paradoxical examining how he treats that subject, and how he mystery that is only grasped in the devoted subsequently influences other thinkers in their worship and practice of Christianity. The practice and study within that area of thought. consummate insider and the outspoken outsider Instead, we now propose to pair Augustine with a both end up at a strangely traditional place in single, later thinker, to see connections in how they belief and commitment, though for both the treat a variety of topics, issues, and challenges. The emphasis should probably fall on "strangely," for thinker who first came to mind for this exercise was their versions of devotion is never comfortable, the nineteenth-century philosopher and theologian comforting, or easy. Soren Kierkegaard. Storen Kierkegaard makes an intriguing and fruitful dialogue with Augustine for a We begin our collection with a set of essays on variety of reasons. What are the advantages of what is most certainly the most important and bringing together Kierkegaard and Augustine? frequently explored topic for both Augustine and Kierkegaard, "The Divine/Human Relationship." Augustine and Kierkegaard are two of the most Curtis Thompson's essay compares the thoughts of influential and charismatic figures in the Western Augustine and Kierkegaard on the relation of God Christian tradition. Both have more than their fair and the human being, while examining their share of critical acclaim. They are striking thinkers respective theological anthropologies. The focus is in the way that they inspire both ire and devotion. quite restricted. For Augustine, the investigation In scholarly circles, there are few historical figures centers on his 412-page work, The Spirit and the that have been attacked and defended with as Letter; for Kierkegaard, the analysis is directed much passion. This is due not only to the prodigious toward his 1849 pseudonymous writing, The insights of their thoughts, but also to the intriguing Sickness unto Death. Augustine's distinctive emphasis and personal nature of their writings and lives. on totus Christus is treated before digging into his Augustine's philosophical sophistication does not thinking by way of the six links in his "Golden prevent him from being widely seen as a classical Chain"—law, faith, grace, healing, freedom, and spiritual writer. Likewise, Kierkegaard's use of love via Spirit. Likewise, after discussing indirection, pseudonyms, and his refusal to take Kierkegaard's distinctive emphasis of coram Deo, communion from a clergyman before he died, does the same six links are used to structure the

38 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com consideration of his reflections on these matters. The Finishing this section, Simon D. Podmore takes up analysis points out more commonalities than the function and process of seduction. Within our differences between these two figures whose contemporary "cultures of seduction," the anxiety of importance is still great for those desiring nuanced temptation assumes an endemic yet trivialized understanding of these matters. presence. For both Augustine and Kierkegaard, however, "temptation" performs a decisive role in Matthew Dreyer next explores the parallels the de-construction of the self's relation to God, to between Augustine and Kierkegaard's account of others, and to itself. Temptation helps to open the divine image and how this structures the human awareness of an estranged inner space of despair relation to God and offers an alternate and self-alienation, while also giving rise to a perspective to tendencies among contemporary consciousness of the longing for healing by Divine philosophers and theologians to read Augustine's Grace. Reading through the "intersections" between anthropology directly or indirectly into modernist Augustine's Confessions and Kierkegaard's and postmodernist views of the human person. Both development of the dialectical relationship Augustine and Kierkegaard develop a similar between "temptation" (Fristelse) and "spiritual trial" Pauline-inspired reading of Genesis 1:26-27, (Anfoegtelse), this essay proposes a constructive arguing that the divine image constitutes a unique theological account of the role of tentatio in the relation between God and humans within the narrative of "the confessing self." In doing so, it overall context of material creation, but one that explores how the language of seduction is humans cannot exploit into claims that they are commensurate with the erotic longing of the restless inherently superior to all other things. The self: how the self comes to itself through the doxological movement at the root of the divine confession of its seduction by "lower" and "higher" image rejects all such attempts as sinful and forms of desire before God. Through Augustine ultimately idolatrous, and instead points to a and Kierkegaard, a theology of "temptation" and dynamic in which humans uniquely re-present the "spiritual trial" arises, which offers a critical infinite God within their finite natures, and so alternative to the banality of temptation evident in image (reflect) what they can never possess as their our contemporary cultures of seduction. own. Two of our essays then treat of the paradox that is In his essay, "Augustine, Kierkegaard, and Evil," Erik "Time." Although neither Augustine nor Kierkegaard M. Hanson focuses on Soren Kierkegaard's is known chiefly for his metaphysics, Karl Aho shows commitment to autonomy and moral rigorism which how their philosophies of time share key similarities. is debilitated by the Augustinian account of the They each emphasize the difficulty of distinguishing origin and persistence of evil through hereditary the present from the past and the future, and each sin. Yet his defense of human freedom and moral retains an important role for each person's responsibility requires that he also avoid experience of the present. Yet they prompt their , a task that he takes up in The Concept readers to respond to this experience differently: of Anxiety. He thereby presents an alternative Augustine exhorts his readers to anticipate their account of the origin of evil to that of Augustinian future rest with God while Kierkegaard commends hereditary sin, in which its source is found in a his readers to instead focus on the present. morally neutral anxiety propelled by a consciousness of ignorance and possibility in the Despite this apparent disagreement, however, face of a divine prohibition. Hanson argues that in Augustine and Kierkegaard ultimately affirm that doing so, Kierkegaard upends and presents an that our orientation towards time should direct us alternative to the Augustinian explanation for the towards rest in God. origin and persistence of evil. Nevertheless, he Robert Reed's chapter argues that Kierkegaard's shows that Kierkegaard retains a commitment to understanding of faith, based on a thoroughly the Augustinian account of both the nature of evil innovative theory of time-consciousness and the self, and human freedom in The Sickness unto Death by is fundamentally at odds with Augustine's on the offering an existential account of Augustinian relation between faith and knowledge. While privatio boni as despair. Augustinian faith anticipates an eternal life after death for a self that will finally realize true 39 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com happiness, Kierkegaardian faith is concerned solely multiple desires that carry her through the with the next moment, the atemporal "instant" progression. Considering Augustine's where "time and eternity touch each other," a autobiographical narration and Kierkegaard' s concept apparently original with Kierkegaard. The "stages of life" as two models for the teleological self "becomes eternal" by accepting the anxiety of progression of desire, it proposes a sacramental temporal existence as the natural manifestation of reading of the objects of desire that might allow a the void (Afgrund) characterizing each instant. Only singleness of will to coexist with a multiplicity of by continually acknowledging one's nothingness in loves. the instant can one will to be the self one in fact Peder Jothen next examines sensual beauty, a is—at every moment utterly dependent upon one's frequently overlooked theme when linking creator for everything. To consent to this self- Augustine and Kierkegaard. Seemingly, Augustine's nullification before God is for Kierkegaard the sole Platonism and Kierkegaard's Protestantism task of faith, and since he views all cognitive exemplify such divergent views that beauty is an activity, even human self-consciousness, as unhelpful interpretive lens. Yet, both see human essentially an attempt to posit oneself—in a word, existence as decidedly relational, with both as intentionality or sin—the intentional act of emphasizing love as decisive in relating to beauty. inquiring intellectually about what is absolutely Likewise, both affirm the divine goodness of Other must to some degree deny the reality of the worldly beauty. That said, behind these continuities instant and subvert one's relation to the Other. lies conflicting accounts of the essential nature of Reed shows how the divergence between Augustine sensual beauty. Augustine values it as a form of and Kierkegaard on faith and knowledge is theological communication; experiencing sensual reflected in their responses to the classic paradox beauty sacramentally hints at beauty as an of inquiry, recounted in Plato's Meno, and in their attribute of God, thereby opening one up to a different views on time, anxiety, and despair. virtuous existence. Kierkegaard, though, sees it as a Nearly as important as how humans relate to their form of existence communication; like a mirror, God, is how they relate to the material and finite seeing worldly beauty allows a self to reflect and world in which they find themselves, and the next evaluate how one is relating to God and others. But three essays concern themselves with various as such, both thinkers share the common thread of elements of that relation. Janna Gonwa explores stressing the need to rightly love sensual beauty as the conviction, shared by Augustine, Kierkegaard, a key dimension to Christian existence. and Foucault, that desires play a pivotal role in the Thomas J. Millay then focuses on similarities and constitution of subjectivity. Philosophers sometimes differences in Augustine and Kierkegaard' s take Foucault and other poststructuralists to be philosophies of reading. Drawing on Brian Stock, drawing radically novel conclusions about the chapter begins by briefly articulating subjectivity-formation and the fragmentation of the Augustine's philosophy of reading, focusing desiring subject, but in fact, Augustine expressed especially on (a) the transformation of the self that similar views, many of which Kierkegaard later should occur when reading, and (b) the kinds of adopted. Her essay argues that readers of books that lend themselves to eliciting such Foucault may dismiss such similarities out of a belief transformation. This serves as an entry point into that Augustine's and Kierkegaard's teleological Kierkegaard's philosophy of reading, which is both Christian thought has no room for a true multiplicity similar to and importantly different from Augustine. of desires. Further, they may have moral objections Drawing in particular from For Self-Examination, to any attempt to organize and unify multiple Millay shows how Kierkegaard's philosophy of desires under an overarching love for God, as both reading, like Augustine's, places its accent on the Augustine and Kierkegaard seek to do. While transformation of the self: if one's reading is not acknowledging that Augustine and Kierkegaard drawing one closer to God, one is not reading both hoped that the Christian might progress over rightly. In regard to this theme, Kierkegaard is time to more fully integrate all her desires into her profoundly similar to Augustine. The two differ Christian calling—and, therefore, to become a essentially, however, with respect to what genres of more unified self—the essay suggests that this literature have the potential to generate such a trajectory need not be taken to instrumentalize the 40 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com self-transformation. For Augustine, one should in Robert Puchniak next shows how both Augustine general stick to reading Scripture (for it possesses and Kierkegaard employed the imagery of words that point to or mediate the Word), and existence as pilgrimage in their writings. Pilgrimage poetic fictional works are to be avoided. Reading was a useful trope for each as he depicted the Scripture was also hugely important for suffering, alienation, and penitential devotion that Kierkegaard, but in contrast to Augustine he marked Christian life. Human beings, as restless maintains that poetical-fictional works can also be creatures, wander along a path fraught with occasions for upbuilding—indeed, novels can even anxiety, temptation, and an unsated longing for hold greater transformative potential than transcendence. While Augustine understood explicitly upbuilding works (especially, pilgrimage more prominently in a communal sense Kierkegaard thinks, novels written in his own age, (i.e., as the faithful gathered within a "pilgrim such as Thomasine Gyllembourg's A Story of church"), Kierkegaard employed the imagery of Everyday Life). pilgrimage with reference to the solitary journey of "the single individual." Augustine walked in the A particular way of relating to the world, as "Home company of others; Kierkegaard walked alone. and Homelessness," informs our next set of essays. The first in this section is a reprint of a chapter Our collection ends with essays on the topic of originally in The Seventh Solitude: Metaphysical "Human Communities and Ethics." Beginning this Homelessness in Kierkegaard, Dostoevsky, and section, Lee C. Barrett traces how the soteriological Nietzsche by Ralph Harper (1916-1996) [The visions of Augustine and Kierkegaard shared much Johns Hopkins University Press, 978-0801802560]. in common in spite of the vast chronological and In this remarkable, interdisciplinary romp through cultural differences that separated them. Both saw disparate texts and across many centuries, Harper faith and love as inseparable responses to the explores the Kierkegaardian idea of "inwardness beauty of God's self-giving in the Incarnation, and [as a] metaphysical tension within the soul" in both therefore linked justification and sanctification Dostoevsky's novels. In this examination, he uncovers in ways that defied Catholic and Protestant interesting connections between Kierkegaard and scholastic orthodoxies. Moreover, both Socrates, but mostly contrasts between incorporated individual pathos into their highly Kierkegaard and Augustine, especially on the point rhetorical ways of writing theology. However, this of individualism and community (similarly noted in convergence did not prevent them from developing other essays in this volume). radically different ecclesiologies. This divergence is understandable in light of the different In her essay, Natalia Marandiuc engages the impediments to growth in love that they discerned concepts of home, love, and the self as an in their respective cultural contexts. Augustine felt interconnected nexus, and argues, in dialogue with that in an environing secular culture that valorized Augustine and Kierkegaard, that love relationships self-aggrandizement, spiritual pilgrims needed the create the self and constitute its home. The nurture, reinforcement, and guidance of a argument assumes a theological anthropology of community that instantiated God's self-giving love. human interconnectivity and ultimate yearning for The church needed to intensively socialize wayward union with God, albeit expressed in human loves. individuals in order to combat the powerful Fueled by desire, the journey toward God temptations of the secular world. coincides with the formation of the self. While Augustine's distinction between frui and uti love Kierkegaard, on the other hand, feared that precludes him from positing an earthly home, complacency and passionlessness had infected Kierkegaard's emphasis on the human eros Chistendom and had undermined the pursuit of relativizes the Augustinian limits and provides Christian virtues. Therefore, in order to make building blocks for this essay' s constructive passionate faith possible, a genuine Christian argument that human love creates subjectivity. The community had to become an agent of essay envisions home as a relational space of destabilization and foment uncertainty and human love in which God the Holy Spirit dwells passionate risk-taking. Augustine's concerns led to a between partners as a "middle term." collectivistic and sacramental view of the church, while Kierkegaard' s worries led him to envision the

41 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com church as an intentional fellowship of mutually SJ [Oxford Early Christian Texts, Oxford, challenging religious provocateurs. 9780199645237] In his essay, W. Glenn Kirkconnell examines the virtue of humility. In his seminal After Virtue, Contents Alasdair Maclntyre argued that Kierkegaard was Key to the Apparatus of Leontius's part of the liberal moral tradition that ultimately Florilegia led to emotivism and the collapse of ethics as a Abbreviations rational project. This essay examines this view of Introduction Kierkegaard as the arbitrary existentialist, and I. The Author and his Times uses MacIntyre's description of the Augustinian II. The Works moral tradition to argue that Kierkegaard should The Six Treatises instead be seen as a modern heir to the Augustinian The Florilegia legacy. In particular, Augustine treats humility as III. Leontius the Theologian IV. The Manuscripts the cardinal virtue, and pride as the original and V. The Scholia deadly sin; this essay compares Augustine's VI. Earlier Editions discussion of humility with the role this virtue plays VII. This Edition in Kierkegaard's thought. Finally, this essay ends VIII. Select Bibliography with an argument for the importance of humility as Text and Translation a moral and epistemological virtue today. Contra Nestorianos et Eutychianos (Logos á) In our final essay, Jack Mulder Jr., discusses some Appendix I (Scholion) of Augustine's ideas about martyrdom and Appendix II (Scholion) persecution, and also his vision for his famous two Epilyseis (= Solutiones Argumentorum cities, the earthly city, and the heavenly city. He Severi) then turns to Kierkegaard's work, which shows a Epaporēmata (= Triginta Capita contra certain impatience with post-Constantinian Severum) Christianity, and the compromises he believes take Contra Aphthartodocetas (Logos ß) place within it. Kierkegaard thinks of martyrdom as Deprehensio et Triumphus super something more like a requirement for genuine Nestorianos (Logos ÿ) Christian faith and thinks that persecution by the Adversus Fraudes Apollinaristarum established order will be more or less explicit when Fragmenta Incerta Appendix III (Excerpta Leontina) someone embraces a truly radical Christian faith in Appendix IV (A tabular comparison of the real life. As a way of assessing these two thinkers extracts in Leontius's when it comes to martyrdom and persecution, he florilegia with the florilegia of other considers how they might respond to 's ancient authors) categories of explicit and polite persecution. Index to Introduction Ultimately, Augustine is nearer to "explicit" Index to Works of Leontius persecution and martyrdom and may understand it Greek Terms better. In regard to "polite persecution," Mulder argues that this is essentially Kierkegaard's Leontius of Byzantium and his Times intellectual milieu, and so the wider phenomenon Modern attempts to speak of the person of Jesus may be more familiar to him. Augustine has tools to within the framework of the Christian tradition understand particular cases of polite persecution, usually begin with the dense, technically worded though. Both figures have much to teach us in formulation produced, after several decades of regard to times when Christianity meets cultural heated controversy, by the Council of Chalcedon in resistance. the year 451; for most Christians, this statement provides the necessary foundation for an orthodox understanding of who and what Jesus is. There, Leontius of Byzantium: Complete Works edited and after reviewing the earlier creedal formulas for translated, with an Introduction by Brian E. Daley, Christian theism promulgated by the Councils of Nicaea (325) and Constantinople (381), which 42 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com present, in summary form, the biblically based and exegetes of the Antiochene tradition had narrative of creation, Incarnation, and Christian stressed. Taken by itself, the text seems to reflect a hope, and after reviewing the more sharply studied ambiguity. focused questions about the personal identity of And as is well known, the immediate effect of Christ that had arisen, mainly in the Greek- Chalcedon's formula was not to be the basis for speaking world, in the years since the Council of reconciliation among dissenting parties in the Constantinople, the at Chalcedon added Churches of the Eastern Empire—despite the fact their own terse, carefully balanced attempt to that, with the sanction of the imperial government, it express clearly how the Churches, building on that immediately attained the force of law. The classical base, must understand Jesus: statement came, instead, to be the cause of even Following, then, the holy Fathers, we have more long-lasting and bitter divisions. To many all learned to confess with one voice that Christians in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, it was our Lord Jesus Christ is one and the same simply Nestorian Christology thinly disguised—the Son: the same one complete in his divinity triumph of a way of thinking about Jesus that and complete in his humanity, the same focused on the irreconcilable differences between one truly God and truly human, with his full human reality and the Mystery of God that rational soul and body; of one substance with the Father in his divinity, the same one he personally revealed; to others, intellectual heirs of one substance with us in his humanity, of the Antiochene school, it seems to have "like us in all respects apart from sin':..; represented compromise and pious obscurantism, recognized in two natures without and pointed up the need to be still more explicit confusion, without alteration, without about not confusing God and the human in the division, without separation, in such a way person and work of Jesus. During the reigns of the that the distinction of his natures is never emperors Zeno (474-91) and his successor destroyed by their union, but rather that Anastasius I (491-518), imperial policy was clearly the particular character of each nature leaning away from relying on the Chalcedonian comes together to form one persona and formula to bring about a religious reconciliation in one hypostasis—something not divided or distinguished into two personae, but one the East, even though no later emperor ever and the same only-begotten Son, God the formally disowned what Chalcedon had produced. Word, the Lord Jesus Christ ... In the second decade of the sixth century, the Much has been written, and continues to be written, direction of official theology changed. The emperor about the import of this statement for Christan faith Justin (518-27), along with his gifted, ambitious, and practice; about the historical context, origins, theologically learned nephew and successor and intended signification of the terms being used; Justinian (527-65), tried to rebuild consensus and about the complex history of the reception and through ecclesiastical diplomacy, through theological use of the statement, especially in the negotiation, and through promoting a careful, three or four centuries immediately following its subtly expressed reinterpretation and even a formulation. Carefully crafted to reflect the rephrasing of the Chalcedonian portrait of Christ, language and emphases of a number of different which made the Council's language appear to be voices in the debates about the person of Christ more unambiguously friendly to the vision of Cyril during the late fourth and early fifth centuries, the of Alexandria than had been obvious before. This Chalcedonian formulation was—and still is— attempt to recast Chalcedon in more unitive, Word- capable of a variety of interpretations. It can be centered terms has been called by some modern read as a cautious affirmation of the emphasis Western scholars "neo-Chalcedonian" Christology. had increasingly articulated, on And while the term has not been universally Christ's personal, subjective unity as Son of God accepted—especially by those who want to and divine Savior, during his long debate with emphasize doctrinal continuity and consistency in Nestorius and his followers in the two decades the Church's classical pronouncements—the reality after 429; it can also be read as an attempt to of an increasingly unitive, increasingly God- express, in widely acceptable terms, the symmetry centered interpretation of what Chalcedon had and balance Christians recognize between Christ's said about the person of Christ is clearly expressed human and divine characteristics, as the theologians 43 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com in the writings of such sixth-century theologians as Chalcedonian Christians, whose theological heroes John of Caesaraea, Ephrem of Amida, and the were Diodore of Tarsus and Theodore of emperor Justinian himself, as well as by such Latin Mopsuestia, but he was providentially"converted" writers as John Maxentius and the celebrated to a more orthodox understanding of the Church's "Scythian monks," who campaigned together in East official Christology. Now, apparently after some and West for such an understanding of Christ in the years of strenuous theological controversy, he has 520s. This approach to receiving and expressing been urged by pious friends to put his own position Chalcedonian Christology became official Church in writing," and a "just cause," as well as the duties doctrine—and imperial law—with the decrees and of friendship, move him to comply. He tells us no canons of the Second Council of Constantinople, in more, however, about what that just cause might 553. be. The late fifth to early sixth century, then—the Besides these direct autobiographical references, century between Chalcedon and Constantinople the works themselves give a few further hints to the II—was a time of enormous importance for the identity, career, and date of Leontius the monk. development of Christian theology and institutions, Although he claims, with conventional modesty, to mainly centered on the continuing reception of have had neither secular education nor experience Chalcedon's vision of Christ. Christian theology, as a writer, the author of these tracts was clearly a from the mid-fifth century on, was characterized to man of consi¬derable dialectical and philosophical an unusual degree by a new, "scholastic" style of training, with extraordinary sharpness of mind and thought and expression: by a rhetoric and a style strong theological passions. All of his extant works of argument derived more from academic debates are polemical in nature. The first three treatises in than from ecclesiastical preaching or polemics. the collection—the Contra Nestorianos et Question-and-answer format, sets of theses or Eutychianos (CNE), the Epilyseis (Epil.) or Solutiones provocatively formulated statements, chains of Argumentorum Severi, and the Epaporēmata syllogisms, and the use of massive dossiers of (Epap.) or Triginta Capita contra Severum—are excerpts from classical Christian authorities to lend undoubtedly directed first of all against the anti- weight to an author's argument all became Chalcedonian supporters of Severus of Antioch. The standard features of theological controversy. fourth tract, Contra Aphthartodocetas, is aimed Accuracy in terminology, coherent argument, and against Chalcedonians who have adopted Julian of theological consistency and precision became Halicarnassus's theory of the innate incorruptibility increasingly the central concern on all sides of of Christ's body. The Deprehensio et Triumphus Church debates, and the terms used were super Nestorianos is a tirade against the more frequently those of the philosophical schools— extreme representatives of Antiochene Christology. especially of the Athenian and Alexandrian Even Leontius's remaining work, the florilegium of Neoplatonic commentators on Aristotle' This is the extracts from the Apollinarian writings known as the cultural and historical context, clearly, in which the Adversus Fraudes Apollinaristarum, though it theological writings edited here, all focused on contains no substantial theological arguments of the defining the person and the reality of Christ, all author's own, has the polemical purpose of proving reflecting the heat and intensity of sixth-century that many of the patristic proof-texts used by his post-Chalcedonian debate, must be located. opponents—presumably, again, the party of The six theological works associated with the name Severus—are really taken from the writings of of Leontius of Byzantium provide little clue to the Apollinarius or his followers. In addition to this author's life or personality. Indeed, the manuscripts fairly well-defined set of opponents, Leontius of his works give no place of origin for their author occasionally refers in a veiled but more personal at all, but refer to him simply as a monk: "the way to the other enemies against whom he wields "blessed monk Leontius," "the blessed hermit his pen: these are "the wise ones of today the "top Leontius," "Leontius the ascetic,"? "Abba Leontius." philosophers who hold the traditions of the Fathers And the tracts themselves do not add much to our in contempt," and who hope, by the use of their information. Their author was once, we read, when influence at court, to "make themselves wise men by still young, an enthusiastic member of a group of decree ' Clearly politics, as well as theology, is in the air. 44 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

All of these polemical references, taken together, monks in his company, who were now busily holding suggest the reign of Justinian, the emperor- disputations in the capital with "monophysites" were theologian in whose court theological controversy in fact tainted with these two heresies. The two seethed through all the toils of political and classical heresies seem to be associated in Cyril's personal intrigue; more specifically, they suggest mind, for reasons I shall explore further; and the 530s, when the controversy over Julian of Leontius of Byzantium is the one Origenist Cyril Halicarnassus's doctrine of the incorruptibility of explicitly names 35 About 514, a monk named Christ had spread beyond Egyptian and Palestinian Nonnus and three of his friends had been expelled "monophysite" circles to the Byzantine Church, and from the Nea Lavra, one of the smaller communities when the emperor's policy of promoting conciliation in the Judaean desert, for holding the "atheistic" towards Severus and his followers had led to doctrines of , Evagrius Ponticus, and Didymus heated public debate between Chalcedonian and the Blind." Five years later, under a new hegumen, anti-Chalcedonian theologians. Further, Leontius's the Origenist group had been quietly readmitted; allusions to the Pseudo-Dionysius, and his inclusion then, if not before, Leontius had been one of their of a passage from the De Divinis Nominibus in the number. Now Sabas discovered again, in florilegium make it unlikely that he was writing Constantinople, the "unorthodoxy" of Leontius and much before 532, the year of the first known his party; accordingly, he "sent them away and reference to the Dionysian corpus within the excluded them from his company. Chalcedonian Church. There are, it is true, two apparent references to Leontius by Byzantine writers, which suggest a somewhat later date for his writings than Justinian's reign, but neither of them has a strong claim to credibility as a source. And two references in the DTN seem to confirm a Sulpicius Severus' Vita Martini by Philip Burton date of composition the desert monasteries during [Oxford University Press, 9780199676224] the 530s and early 540s, and who exercised, for a The Vita Martini or Life of Martin of Sulpicius time, strong influence at Justinian's court. Since the Severus is one of the classic Latin hagiographies. Its works of the monk Leontius were first published, in hero, Martin, was one of the first monks in the Francisco Torres's careful Latin translation, in 1603, Western Roman Empire, and was also one of the scholars have debated whether the author is first monk-bishops. His life, as presented by indeed the same Leontius as Cyril's Origenist from Sulpicius, is a series of confrontations: with various the Judaean desert. Before we attempt to reach Emperors and other leading figures in the Roman our own conclusion, it may be useful to summarize state, with members of the "Arian heresy," briefly what Cyril has to say. Christians whose theology of the Trinity placed Cyril first mentions Leontius of Byzantium as a them at odds with exponents of "Nicene" member of the party of monks who accompanied St Christianity, with the his lax and venal fellow- Sabas, the influential Palestinian monastic founder bishops in Gaul, and above all with the Devil, and leader, on a mission to Constantinople in April whose various shows of strength and guile Martin 531, to petition the emperor for economic aid for faces down. The Vita Martini is a brilliant Christian Palestine, which had recently been combination of Christian and classical culture, devastated by Samaritan raids. In return for the providing allusions both to the and to authors emperor's help, Sabas predicts success for Justinian such as Virgil and Sallust throughout. In addition to in his reconquest of the territory lost by his its intrinsic literary and historical interest, it is also predecessors: success as part of God's plan for an ideal first example of a "real Latin" text, with a ridding the capital and the world of "the heresy of series of vivid, anecdotal episodes. This edition Arius and those of Nestorius and Origen."His provides a Latin text with facing English translation, mention of here is understandable enough, along with a commentary addressing matters of since much of the empire Justinian hoped to regain linguistic, literary, theological, and wider cultural was then held by Arian Goths; but Sabas interest, taking into account the revolution in the mentioned and Origenism, Cyril tells study of 'late antiquity' in the last fifty years. us, because he had discovered that some of the 45 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

This edition began in notes produced for students in follows is a selective guide to other reading, mostly the Universities of St Andrews and Birmingham with Anglophone or in translation. whom I had the pleasure of reading the Vita Those looking for general background in late- Martini. I would like to thank those students for antique studies may derive pleasure and profit reminding me constantly of what matters to them. I from Peter Brown's The World of Late Antiquity, ÁD hope our shared experience may be of use to 150-750 (1991) and The Making of Late Antiquity others who set out to read this fascinating text in (1993), from Averil Cameron's The Later Roman their turn. Empire (1993), from Stephen Mitchell's A History of the Later Roman Empire (2002), and from Gillian Contents Clark's Late Antiquity: A Very Short Introduction Note on Background Reading (2011). There are many books on early Note on Biblical Texts Christianity. Among the older English works we may Introduction note William Frend's The Early Church (1965) or Sulpicius Severus Henry Chadwick's work of the same name (1962). Chronology and Historicity of the Vita Martini More recent ones include Mark Humphries' Early The `Genre of Hagiography' Christianity (2006), Josef Lössl's The Early Church: Typology in the New Testament History and Memory (2010), and Morwenna Typology in the Vita Martini Ludlow's The Early Church (2009). On Christianity's The Style of the Vita Martini transition from fringe to mainstream religion, see Notes on the text Robert Markus, The End of Ancient Christianity Vita Martini (1991). On the early history of the ascetic and Text and Translation monastic movements, see Derwas J. Chitty, The Commentary Desert a City (1966), Peter Brown, The Body and Bibliography Society: Men, Women, and Sexual Renunciation in Index Rerum et Nominum Index Locorum Citatorum Early Christianity (1988), and William Harmless, Index Locorum Biblicorum Desert Christians (2004). On monks and bishops, see Philip Rousseau, Ascetics, Authority, and the Church (2010) and Claudia Rapp, Holy Bishops in Sulpicius Severus by Richard J. Goodrich [Ancient Late Antiquity (2005). Two authors remain essential Christian Writers, Paulist Press, 9780809106202] for the wider study of Severus and Martin: Jacques Volume 70 in the Ancient Christian Writers series Fontaine, for his edition of the Vita Martini (1962- offers the first complete English translation since the 9) and of the Dialogues of Sulpicius Severus late nineteenth century of the works of Sulpicius (2006), and Clare Stancliffe, for her St Martin and Severus, an early fifth-century Gallic writer. his Hagiographer (1983). Where these works do Although Sulpicius is primarily known for his two not supersede earlier scholarship, they serve as the works on Saint Martin of Tours (Life of Saint Martin best introduction to it. and Dialogues), he also wrote the Chronica, a A little reading will soon reveal a shift in history of the world in two books that began with perspective in the half-century covered by the the creation of Adam and extended to the literature listed above. The study of late antiquity ecclesiastical controversies of late-fourth-century has increasingly taken its place as part of the study Gaul. These three works, plus a small number of of the ancient Mediterranean generally. At the extant letters, offer a fascinating glimpse into the same time, the disciplines of `patristics' and `church emerging Gallic church, the use of historical writing history', traditionally researched and taught in in biography, apologetic, and polemic, and the university departments of theology and in religious role played by Roman aristocrats in promoting and institutions, have grosso modo been supplemented shaping the western monastic movement. or supplanted by the wider discipline of `early Excerpt: Sulpicius Severus' Vita Martini is its own Christian studies', largely taught in departments of best introduction. However, as some readers may classics or ancient history. A sure-footed account of not necessarily be familiar either with the late this process maybe found in Elizabeth A. Clark's antique world or with early Christianity, what essay 'From Patristics to Early Christian Studies, in 46 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com the excellent Oxford Handbook of Early Christian (second edition, 1992) and the Encyclopedia of Studies edited by Susan Ashbrook Harvey and Ancient Christianity edited by di Berardino and David Hunter (2008). For an example of this others (2014). On the classical world, The Oxford approach in action, see Gillian Clark, Christianity Classical Dictionary edited by Simon Hornblower, and Roman Society (2004). Antony Spawforth, and Esther Eidinow (fourth edition, 2012) is the standard one-volume Primary sources remain, of course, primary. On the reference work. There are various useful essays in Roman Empire in the mid to late fourth century, the Companion to Late Antiquity edited by Philip there is no substitute for the works of Ammianus Rousseau (2009), and Glen Bowersock, Peter Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire (a selective Brown, and Oleg Grabar's Late Antiquity: A Guide translation by Walter Hamilton, with introduction to the Postclassical World (1999). and notes by Andrew Wallace-Hadrill, is published by Penguin). For general background on A Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity by Josef Christianity up to the age of Constantine, it is hard Lössl and Nicholas J. Baker-Brian [Blackwell to get round Eusebius of Caesarea's Ecclesiastical Companions to the Ancient World, Wiley- History (translated by G. A. Williamson in Penguin Blackwell, 9781118968109] as The History of the Church, with an introduction by Andrew Louth)—even though Eusebius' master- A comprehensive review of the development, narrative of Christian triumph is some way from geographic spread, and cultural influence of current historical orthodoxy. Eusebius' Life of religion in Late Antiquity Constantine (edited and translated by Averil A Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity offers an Cameron and Stuart Hall) is likewise a central work authoritative and comprehensive survey of religion for our understanding of church/state relations in in Late Antiquity. This historical era spanned from the fourth century, and offers a very different view the second century to the eighth century of the of the matter from that found in Severus' writings. Common Era. With contributions from leading Also useful for comparison and contrast with the scholars in the field, the Companion explores the Vita Martini is the Life of Antony, Athanasius' classic evolution and development of religion and the role biography of the ascetic holy man, conveniently various religions played in the cultural, political, available in Carolinne White's (1992) Penguin and social transformations of the late antique volume on Early Christian Lives (which also includes period. 's Lives of Paul of Thebes, Hilarion, and The authors examine the theories and methods used Malchus, along with Severus' Vita Martini and in the study of religion during this period, consider Gregory the Great's Life of Benedict). the most notable historical developments, and By the late fourth century, there is a great body of reveal how religions spread geographically. The Christian writing, much of it available in translation authors also review the major religious traditions online. Martin and Severus are very peripheral that emerged in Late Antiquity and include figures in this, but Paulinus of Nola saw the former reflections on the interaction of these religions as a master and the latter as a friend; his Letters, within their particular societies and cultures. This translated (with notes) by Peter Walsh (1962), are important Companion: available in the Ancient Christian Writers series. No • Brings together in one volume the work work dramatizes the intellectual and emotional of a notable team of international conflicts of the age better than the Confessions of scholars Augustine of Hippo (numerous translations available), a work exactly contemporary with the • Explores the principal geographical Vita Martini. divisions of the late antique world • Offers a deep examination of the For those seeking information on general points of predominant religions of Late background, there are various encyclopedias and Antiquity reference works. We have mentioned Harvey and • Examines established views in the Hunter's Oxford Handbook of Early Christian scholarly assessment of the religions of Studies; there is also the excellent Encyclopedia of Late Antiquity Early Christianity edited by Everett Ferguson 47 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

• Includes information on the current Tours, and went to visit him. Around this time too he trends in late-antique scholarship on withdrew from his legal career and began to sell religion off his family estates. The account he gives in the Vita Martini 25 strongly suggests that this was the Written for scholars and students of religion, A result of Martin's urgings and Paulinus' example. Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity offers a We can date the beginning of this process to 394, comprehensive survey of religion and the influence as Paulinus refers to it in his Epistle 1.1, written in religion played in the culture, politics, and social spring 395.3 His mother-in-law Bassula supported change during the late antique period. him in this, though his father did not (Paulinus, Review pending Epistle 5.6)' He seems quickly to have established a religious community of his own, the 'holy sons' that Sulpicius Severus Paulinus mentions in his Epistle 11.4, of 392. The fullest picture we have of the life of Sulpicius Severus comes from his correspondence with From the same letter we learn that Severus has Paulinus, the famous bishop of Nola (Epistles 1, 5, been working on a Life of Martin, which Paulinus 11, 12, 22-4, 22-32).1 The most obvious praises, while showing something like jealousy at biographical information is found in Paulinus' Epistle Severus' frequent visits to Martin and his 5.4ff. Here we learn that Severus embarked on an comparative neglect of himself (Epistle 11.11-13).5 ascetic life at a rather younger age than Paulinus This, along with the infrequency of Severus' letters, himself had done (Epistle 5.4-5, mihi aetas leads to a breach of sorts between the two men in provectior ... tu ... aetate florentior). Paulinus had late 398, or perhaps 399 (Epistle 12). been in his late thirties, perhaps forty, when he did By the time of Paulinus' Epistle 23, in 400, the this. Given that Severus is already an ascetic by the breach has been newly mended, and it is from this time of Paulinus' first extant letter to him, in 395, a period onward that we learn most from Paulinus birth-date of around 360 has generally been felt about Severus' life as head of his own community. to fit the available facts. From the same letter we This was established on a little plot of land learn that Severus was born into a wealthy family (praediolum: Paulinus, Epistle 24.1), the freehold of (substantia facultatum non egentior, says Paulinus), which he had assigned to the Church. In Paulinus' though apparently not, like Paulinus; of senatorial Epistles 31.1 and 32.2, dateable to 402-4, this is rank. We learn that Severus had behind him a named as Primulacium. Two questions arise. First, successful career as a lawyer, `enjoying fame in the had this always been the site of Severus' courts and holding the palm for eloquence' (fori community? Second, where was it? celebritate diversans et facundi nominis palmam tenens). We hear also that he gained further On the first of these questions, we must remain wealth from his marriage into a consular family agnostic. Certainly if some eight years had elapsed (divitiae de matrimonio familiae consularis between Severus' renunciation of the world and our aggestae). We know little about this marriage earliest reference to Primulacium, his community except for the fact that it ended, and that Severus, could have moved in this time. However, Paulinus' though still in the prime of life, avoided the `licence references to the praediolum in Epistle 24 clearly to sin' that his single condition afforded (post suggest that this was Severus' permanent base by coniugium peccandi licentia et caelebs iuventas). 400. As Paulinus in this letter addresses Severus' scruples over the extended process of divesting We do not know how Severus became acquainted himself of his properties, one might infer that he with Paulinus. As we will see, Severus seems, like kept other properties up to this date. This is Paulinus, to have been from south-west Gaul; they certainly possible; but there is no stronger evidence may have met at Bordeaux, where Paulinus at least that his community was permanently based was educated. Paulinus' Epistle 1, written shortly elsewhere. At all events, the Primulacium after his ordination at Christmas 394, presumes a community—a group of highly-educated men, who close friendship between the two, though there are had renounced secular careers in order to live no reminiscences of a shared youth. At some point together and practise a combination of Christian around this time Severus became acquainted with asceticism and classical cultured otium—belongs to Martin, the ascetic and controversial bishop of a type we find elsewhere in the late fourth and 48 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com early fifth centuries in the Latin West. The short- south-western Gaul was remarkably rich in Martin's lived community that formed in the autumn of 386 life not recorded in the Vita. The focus of the work, around Augustine at Cassiciacum (Confessions therefore, is not on Severus' own life, and few 9.3.5), probably near Milan, is a slightly earlier details emerge of it. There are dark allusions to a example; the `Theodolits' established around 414 bishop who had previously acted as his protector, by C. Postumus Dardanus, former prefects but who had withdrawn his friendship and Galliarum, near modern Sisteron in Maritime Alps is protection (Dialogue 1.2). We hear more reflection a slightly later one. on the inadequacies of bishops generally (a theme familiar to readers of the Vita), and on the The question of Primulacium's precise location is undesirability of involving the secular arm in church somewhat more vexed.' Some have been tempted politics (Dialogue 1.2). We have a mixed, but to identify it with modern sites on the basis of mostly positive, assessment of Jerome and his work. toponymy; thus for example Babut (1912: 39) Implicitly at least, Severus uses the Dialogues to places it simply at Prémifiac in the Périgord, and is give an impression of his life at Primulacium as he followed in this by e.g. Walsh (1962: 1.211). would like others to picture it; a community cultured Fontaine (1962: 32ff) cautions against such and purposeful, where monks and priests rubbed identifications, and attempts to locate it on the shoulders with (but outranked) high officials of the basis of geographical references within Paulinus' Roman state (see especially Dialogue 3.1). and Severus' writings to Naurouze, some 46 kilometres south-east of Toulouse.' Building on Severus' other main work is his Chronica, a synthesis Fontaine, Stancliffe (1983: 30) places it to the west of biblical and secular history down to the of Toulouse (though outside the diocese), near the consulship of Stilicho in 400." This work is not road to Bordeaux. Wherever the precise location, generally seen as a major source for events before it was there that the Vita Martini was probably Severus' own day, but is notable for his description written. of the process by which the ascetic Spanish bishop Priscillian was tried and put to death, despite the Severus' estate there fills the dual role of a place protests of Martin of Tours and of Milan, of cultured retirement for him and his friends, and a under the Emperor Magnus Maximus—the first bustling hospice for `pilgrims and the poor' recorded legal murder of a Christian for heresy. (peregrinis et egentibus, Epistle 24.3). Meanwhile, Without exculpating Priscillian and his followers, Paulinus does his best to spread his friend's Severus is typically scathing about the role of reputation in the Latin Christian world. He sends Spanish and Gallic bishops in bringing him before Severus a tunic which belonged to his relative the secular courts, and of the Roman state's Melania the Elder, the famous ascetic and herself intervention in matters of church discipline. But while the subject of a Life a few years later; he also his personal views emerge clearly, there is no more reads Severus' Vita Martini to her, in person-'she is information on his life, beyond the dating of the very keen on stories of that sort' (Epistle 29.14, work; for the legend of Helena's discovery of the with Trout 1999: 32ff). From Paulinus (Epistle 31.1) True Cross (Chronica 2.46-51) Severus is we learn also that at Primulacium Severus had dependent on the account given to him by Paulinus established two basilicas, the later 'on bigger lines (Epistle 31), giving a terminus post quem of 403-4. than the previous one' (maiorem priore). Paulinus and his wife Therasia send Severus and Bassula a Also transmitted under Severus' name are a number fragment of the True Cross, to go with his existing of letters. Along with the prefatory Epistle to collection of sacred ashes; Paulinus notes that the Desiderius which introduces the Vita Martini, three Cross `remains as it were intact, though people others deal with Martinian matters and are take fragments from it every day' (quasi intacta generally taken to be authentic. Epistula 1, permaneat cottidie dividua sumentibus; Epistle addressed to a Eusebius, recounts an incident when 31.6). Between the two basilicas is a baptistery, Martin's straw pallet caught fire under him, and with pictures of Martin and Paulinus over the font how he put the flames out by prayer. In Epistle 2, (Epistle 32.2-3). At the altar is buried Clarus, whom addressed to a deacon by the name of Aurelius, Severus had named in the Vita 23 as one of the writer describes how he saw Martin ascending Martin's most distinguished disciples. Given that to heaven in a dream-vision, followed by his pupil

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Clarus. On waking up he learns that Martin has just agnoscens loquacitatis culpam silentium died. Martin is holding a copy of Severus' Vita, usque ad mortem tenuit, ut peccatum quod suggesting it is effectively complete by the time of loquendo contraxerat, tacendo penitus his death. Epistle 3 is addressed to his mother-in- emendaret. law Bassula, whom we know from Paulinus' letters `Severus the priest, surnamed Sulpicius, of the province of Aquitaine, a man noble in to have been very close to him; in it Severus, his birth and in his writings, and writing from Toulouse, teases his mother-in-law for distinguished by his love of poverty and having rifled through and published his private humility, well loved also of those holy men letters, including the one to Aurelius; he then tells Martin, bishop of Tours, and Paulinus of the story of how Martin died while on a peace- Nola; he wrote some short works which are making visit to the town of Candes. Epistle 2 is not to be despised. For he wrote many presumably written shortly after Martin's death, so letters to his sister, urging her to the love in late 392 or early 398, and Epistle 3 not long of God and the contempt of the world; after Epistle 2. Epistle 1 presupposes that the Vita these are well known. He wrote two to the is now widely circulated, but is presumably written aforementioned Paulinus of Nola, and others to other people; but, since matters before the Dialogues, giving a date of roughly of close personal interest are contained, 398-404. Of the seven other letters ascribed to these have not been published. He Severus, two are addressed to a sister, Claudia, composed also a Chronicle. He wrote also, and deal with the Last Judgement and with for the edification of the many, a Life of virginity. One is addressed to a `bishop Paulinus' the Blessed Martin, Monk and Bishop, a (Paulus in Halm's edition) and one to an unknown man renowned for his signs and portents Salvius; the rest have no addressee. The and mighty works, and a Conference of authenticity of these seven letters is doubtful. Postumianus and Gallus, with himself intervening and acting as adjudicator of We have already mentioned the notice given by the lifestyle of the oriental monks and of Gennadius (De Viris Illustribus 19), writing in the Martin himself; this is in the form of a late fifth century. This may now be quoted in full: dialogue, with two divisions. In the first of these he recounts what in his own time was Severus presbyter, cognomento Sulpicius, resolved by the Synod of Alexandria, Aquitanicae provinciae, vir genere et namely that Origen should both be read litteris nobilis et paupertatis atque carefully by the wise, for his good points, humilitatis amore conspicuus, carus etiam and that he should be rejected by the less sanctorum virorum, Martini, Turonensis able, for his bad ones. In his old age he episcopi, et Paulini Nolani, scripsit non was misled by the Pelagians; and, contemnenda opuscula. Nam epistulas ad acknowledging the guilt of his loquacity, amorem dei et contemptum mundi kept silence till his death, so that he might hortatorias scripsit sorori suae multas, quae by complete silence make good the sin he et notae sunt. Scripsit ad supra dictum committed by speaking. Paulinum Nolanum duas et ad alios alias, Gennadius' is the only self-contained account we sed quia in aliquibus etiam familiaris have from antiquity of Severus' life. Unfortunately, necessitas inserta est, non digeruntur. Composuit et Chronicam. Scripsit et ad many details in it are questionable. So far as the multorum profectum vitam beati Martini, letters are concerned, the extant ones addressed to monachi et episcopi, signis et prodigiis ac Claudia may be two of the `many' that Gennadius virtutibus inlustris viri, et collationem knows of addressed to her. Likewise the one to Postumiani et Galli se mediante et iudice Paulinus may or may not be one of the two de conversatione monachorum Orientalium Gennadius knew; Paulinus' own letter collection et ipsius Martini habitam in dialogi assumes that Severus wrote him at least eleven. The speciem duabus incisionibus comprehendit. three generally unchallenged letters, to Eusebius, In quarum priore refert suo tempore apud Aurelius, and Bassula, do not correspond closely to Alexandriam synodo episcoporum anything mentioned by Gennadius. As for the other decretum, Origenem et cautius a sapientibus pro bonis legendum et a minus information given by Gennadius, we may note in capacibus pro malls repudiandum. Hic in particular that detail that Severus was a presbyter, senecta sua a Pelagianis deceptus et or priest. It is, however, notable that Severus 50 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com himself nowhere indicates that he is one. Our best authors, including 'our friend Severus in his recent source of information on this point is Paulinus, dialogue called the Gallus' (nuper Severus noster in Epistle 24. In this letter he reassures Severus over dialogo cui Gallo nomen imposuit). The passage in his scruples at having retained the usufruct on his question seems to be Dialogues 2.14, in which family estate at Primulacium when he renounced Gallus summarizes Martin's views on the coming of the world. This suggests that Severus was a layman, the Antichrist; he had, Martin believed, already and (unlike Paulinus) could not expect a livelihood been born and was waiting to come to legal age from the Church. Moreover, the fact that Paulinus to assume his empire. This passage is in fact represents Severus as the moral equal of a cleric omitted in various manuscripts of the Dialogues, (24.3) strongly suggests that he is not one in fact. which presumably represents an attempt by right- thinking readers to remove the portions Jerome had Gennadius adds further that Severus in his later life found exceptionable. This is presumably also why became a follower of Pelagius, the Irish monk who the list of Scriptural books in the so-called taught that humans could by their own strength of Decretum Gelasianum (usually dated to the early will choose not to sin. The chronology is plausible, sixth century, though containing earlier material) as Pelagius' ideas came to prominence in the first puts the `works of Postumianus and Gallus' decade of the fifth century, and remained in (opuscula Postumiani et Galli, presumably Severus' debate after his condemnation by the Synod of Dialogues) in the rather baggy category of Carthage in 411. Severus' writings do not, `apocryphal' books. however, suggest a Pelagian in the making; indeed, Martin's `recognizing the goodness of God in his By the middle of the fifth century, some at least in own work' (bonitatem dei in suo opere cognoscens, the Greek world know of his work; the church Vita Martini 1.4) suggest rather the contrary. historian Sozomen, writing shortly before 450, Whatever the truth of Gennadius' statement about probably in Constantinople, includes in his Historia Severus' Pelagian sympathies, he clearly knew of a Ecclesiastica, a brief account of Martin and of tradition that Severus lived for some time after his Hilary which is clearly based on the Vita Martini. burst of literary activity in 396-405, without Slightly later, Paulinus of Périgueux is commissioned publishing further works. It is presumably on this by Perpetuus, bishop of Tours from 461 to 491, to basis as much as anything that standard accounts compose his metrical version of Severus' Martinian give his death as around 420, though earlier (or works. Perpetuus himself, in his Testament, asks to later) dates are not precluded. be buried by the feet of Martin, and provides for a supply of oil for the use of Martin's tomb. It is This is the extent of the biographical information entirely likely that Perpetuus inherited a local that we have on Severus. In addition to this, we tradition of veneration for Martin; for the details of have various indications, the earliest from within his Martin's life, however, it seems that Severus' Vita own lifetime, of the impact of his work. The first was the source par excellence. This trend continues occurs at the beginning of Paulinus the Deacon's in the sixth century, with a further verse paraphrase Life of Ambrose, composed in around 399, where commissioned by the Frankish queen Radegund the author recalls Augustine's suggestion that he (died 582) of Venantius Fortunatus. Likewise should write a life of the late bishop of Milan, 'just Gregory of Tours (c.538-94), while aware of as the blessed bishop Athanasius and the priest numerous local traditions surrounding Martin's Jerome penned Lives of the hermits Antony and posthumous miracles, seems essentially dependent Paul, and as Severus the slave of God also on Severus for his biographical data. composed, in highly-polished style, a Life of Martin, the venerable bishop of Tours' (sicut etiam Martini It will be clear from this outline of Severus' career venerabilis episcopi Turonensis ecclesiae Severus that we have no information on many details. We servus dei luculento sermone contexuit). A dozen or would like to know exactly when he was born, and so years later, Jerome himself, in his Commentarius when he died; we have only approximate in Hiezechielem (11.36, composed around 410-14), indications of either. We would like to know attempts to play down expectation of an imminent whether he was brought up as a Christian; all Second Coming and the descent of a New circumstances suggest he was, at least nominally, Jerusalem from heaven, as described in various but nothing confirms it. We would like to know

51 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com where he was educated; his friendship with Paulinus enjoyment is possible, whether beatific enjoyment is might indicate Bordeaux, as might his Aquitanian the same as pleasure, whether it has an intrinsic origins, but this too is conjecture. We would like to cognitive character, and whether the enjoyment of know more about his secular career, his marriage, God in heaven is a free or un-free act. his renunciation of the world. We would like to Even though the concept of beatific enjoyment is know more exactly where Primulacium was, and essentially religious and theological, medieval about his later life. What details we have of him, scholastic authors discussed this concept by means however, are at least clear and consistent in outline. of Aristotle's logical and scientific apparatus and The same cannot be said of his hero Martin. through the lens of metaphysics, physics, Contents psychology, and virtue ethics. Bringing together Note on Background Reading Christian theological and Aristotelian scientific and Note on Biblical Texts philosophical approaches to enjoyment, Kitanov Introduction exposes the intricacy of the discourse and makes it Sulpicius Severus intelligible for both students and scholars. Chronology and Historicity of the Vita Martini Kitanov’s book is a detailed, well-composed The `Genre of Hagiography' treatment; indeed, one could liken it to an Typology in the New Testament encyclopedia. He presents many positions and Typology in the Vita Martini discusses them thoroughly according to the The Style of the Vita Martini sources. . . .He also gives summaries after almost Notes on the text each section, which makes it easy for the reader to Vita Martini Text and Translation grasp the essence of the sections. . . .Kitanov’s book Commentary is a good compilation of the different Bibliography interpretations of Augustine’s (and Lombard’s) view Index Rerum et Nominum of man’s final happiness in its Christian form. Any Index Locorum Citatorum scholar interested in the history of beatific Index Locorum Biblicorum enjoyment in the Latin West during the would be well advised to consult Kitanov’s Beatific Enjoyment in Medieval Scholastic Debates: book. (Review of Metaphysics) The Complex Legacy of Saint Augustine and Peter The author's astute philosophical and logical Lombard by Severin Valentinov Kitanov [Lexington treatment of its subject prevents a straight-through Books, 9781498556484] reading of Beatific Enjoyment from becoming a Beatific Enjoyment in Medieval Scholastic Debates paralyzing ordeal, rendering instead merely a examines the religious concept of enjoyment as difficult and careful journey that is well discussed by scholastic theologians in the Latin worthwhile. . . .The author's treatment of his subject Middle Ages. Severin Valentinov Kitanov argues is an unusual achievement of both historical that central to the concept of beatific enjoyment research and discerning insight into a subject that (fruitio beatifica) is the distinction between the requires both. Beatific Enjoyment in Medieval terms enjoyment and use (frui et uti) found in Saint Scholastic Debates is highly recommended by this Augustine's treatise On Christian Learning. Then reviewer to anyone willing to persevere in Kitanov's , a twelfth-century Italian theologian, labyrinthine treatment of this very specialized chose the enjoyment of God to serve as an opening intellectual journey. (The Sixteenth Century Journal) topic of his Sentences and thereby set in motion an Beatific Enjoyment in Medieval Scholastic Debates enduring scholastic discourse. Kitanov examines the provides a thorough and reliable analysis of the nature of volition and the relationship between discussion of medieval beatific enjoyment, enriching volition and cognition. He also explores theological our awareness of the epistemic, moral, and debates on the definition of enjoyment: whether psychological resources of this fascinating subject. there are different kinds and degrees of (Risto Saarinen, University of Helsinki) enjoyment, whether natural reason unassisted by divine revelation can demonstrate that beatific Severin Kitanov’s thorough analysis reveals the tremendous complexity and diversity of medieval 52 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com views not just on beatitude but also on freedom, the of heavenly bliss in the presence of God, the passions, and cognition. Beatific Enjoyment in concept of beatific enjoyment became a staple of Medieval Scholastic Debates is invaluable for Christian systematic theology thanks to Church philosophers and medievalists alike, on topics from Father and Saint Aurelius Augustine. St Augustine natural theology to moral psychology and beyond. developed the concept both as a way of giving a (Eileen Sweeney, Boston College) teleological orientation to Christian learning and as a way of distinguishing the Christian ideal of The book not only brings together the scholarship heavenly beatitude from rival philosophical—Neo- on the topic to date but maps out whole new areas Platonic and Stoic—conceptions of human for research and investigation. (Michael Dunne, flourishing. St Augustine's concept and treatment of National University of Ireland, Maynooth) enjoyment were passed on to medieval scholastic The Concept of Beatific Enjoyment theologians as a result of the systematizing effort It has been said that part of what makes a book of Peter Lombard. Once incorporated into great is that book's enduring influence, and that scholastic theological discussions in the medieval what explains a book's influence is the ability of university, the concept was articulated dialectically the stories or ideas contained in it to provoke and with scholastic discussion of enjoyment focuses interest over and over again through the on a relatively minor issue — the conceptual generations and to still be found relevant by possibility of differentiating a "neutral" or "middle" readers centuries after the stories were told and act of the will; an act that is neither enjoyment nor the ideas explored. As far as philosophical stories use, that is directed at something other than God and ideas are concerned, one will hardly find a and that can be viewed as a weaker or lesser type story of more enduring influence than Plato's of enjoyment. In Georgedes's eyes, the idea of the Parable of the Cave and an idea of more potent "neutral" or "middle" act of the will foreshadows and awe-inspiring character than the idea behind humanist developments in ethics and paves the way the Parable of the Cave, namely, that the for articulating a purely philosophical and secular knowledge of ultimate reality is blissful and concept of enjoyment. According to Georgedes, the liberating. A story parallel in depth and "neutral" or "middle" act of the will is "[a] crack in importance is part of the historical narrative and the Augustinian edifice, hence the title of self-definition of Christian theology. It is the story Georgedes's doctoral dissertation— The Serpent in of salvation through the resurrected Christ, the Son the Tree of Knowledge: Enjoyment and Use in of God and second person of the Holy Trinity. The Fourteenth-Century Theology. Georgedes gives the idea behind this story is not much different from the impression that medieval theologians—such as John lesson of Plato's Cave Parable. In essence, the idea , Peter Auriol and, above all, William of is that the knowledge of what is ultimately real is Ockham — were deeply interested in weaker or blissful and liberating. The significant difference, of lesser types of enjoyment. Considered in the whole course, is that the ultimate reality in Christian context of the actual treatments, some of which theology is the reality of the triune God, not the encompass dozens of questions, the problem of impersonal and abstract reality of Plato's forms, weaker enjoyments appears to be of only marginal and that we come to know and become one with concern. In fact, the treatments show much more ultimate reality through Christ alone, not by being interest in whether the enjoyment of God in heaven tutored by a Philosopher King. According to is a matter of intellectual contemplation or Christian theology, the best prospect to hope for volitional quiescence, whether enjoyment is and anticipate in this life is the experience of the cognition or volition, whether enjoyment is the same face-to-face vision of the triune God in the next or not the same as pleasure, whether differentiated life. Christian theology teaches us that this vision enjoyments with respect to the Trinity are possible, will be accompanied with unprecedented and and whether the enjoyment of God in heaven is a wholly consuming joy. free act or not. The concept of beatific enjoyment is a theological, Similar in its ambition to comprehend the historical not a philosophical concept; it is the concept of transformation from medieval Christian to early religious, not secular enjoyment. Based on New modern secular ethics is Rosenfeld's exploration of Testament allusions to the indescribable experience the development of the concept of enjoyment and 53 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com love in late medieval poetry. The extraordinary to the Trinity, and the contingency and necessity of value of Rosenfeld's contribution is in showing that enjoyment in heaven. My book consists of five the clash between the Aristotelian ideal of chapters. The first chapter deals with St Augustine's happiness in this life and the Christian ideal of view of enjoyment. My objective is to show what beatitude in the next did not characterize only the things ought to be enjoyed and used, and to high culture of medieval university intellectuals and explain what enjoyment is and how it relates to St ecclesiastical personae. A profound sense of this Augustine's view of the human passions and will. I clash is also present in medieval vernacular love also survey Peter Lombard's adaptation and poetry. Furthermore, Rosenfeld shows convincingly interpretation of St Augustine's distinction between how, under the combined impact of Aristotelian enjoyment and use. In the second chapter, I moral philosophy and Christian theology, the examine different thirteenth-century views about medieval poetic imagination contributed to the the objects and psychology of enjoyment. I also emergence of what Rosenfeld calls "an earthly inspect enjoyment in connection with volitional ethics of the love between subjects at the mercy of quiescence, and I address the problem of animal fortune," an ethics very much akin to that of enjoyment. My analysis focuses on the views of Jacques Lacan. Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, St and St among others. *** In the third chapter, I look at early fourteenth- In my book, I explore the various dimensions of century conceptions about the objects and beatific enjoyment as a theological concept. I psychology of enjoyment. The central themes in this argue that the medieval scholastic debate about chapter cover the division of the acts of the will, the the nature and possibility of beatific enjoyment problem of the relationship between enjoyment gave rise to a very rich and complex and cognition, on the one hand, and between understanding of the state of the human being in enjoyment and pleasure, on the other. The key heaven. I also claim that by relying on the tools of figures in this chapter are major early fourteenth- Aristotelian ethics, logic and metaphysics and by century theologians such as John Duns Scotus, Peter engaging the contents of Christian doctrine Auriol, Francis of Marchia, Walter Chatton, William dialectically, medieval scholastics achieved a of Ockham, Robert Hol-cot and Adam Wodeham deeper understanding of the intellectual among others. I also provide an account of the foundations of the Christian worldview, on the one controversial view of Durandus of Saint Pourçain hand, and the limitations of philosophical reason, on regarding the adequate object of beatific the other. Scholastic theologians asked many enjoyment, and I discuss Durandus's view in terms of different questions about the nature of ultimate its critical reception at the time. In chapter four, I states of consciousness and answered these review the early fourteenth-century discussion of questions differently depending on how they the enjoyment of the Trinity. The main question in understood theology as a scientific discipline, the chapter four is whether there can be differentiated method of theological analysis and argumentation, enjoyments with respect to the divine essence and the structure and functioning of human cognition, persons. In chapter five, I give an overview of early volition and motivation. The questions medieval fourteenth-century positions regarding the theologians asked would still be asked today, if we contingency of beatific enjoyment. Here, as in the shared their faith and if we were intellectually preceding two chapters, I pay close attention to the curious about that faith and courageous enough to positions of Scotus, Auriol, Ockham, Chatton, Holcot, ask difficult questions about it. and Wodeham among others. I conclude with a brief overview of the state of the debate about In what follows, I discuss the concept of beatific beatific enjoyment in the late Middle Ages and the enjoyment in light of its origin in the theological early modern era and I summarize my findings. works of St Augustine and in the setting of the tradition of commenting on Peter Lombard's Sentences. More precisely, I discuss beatific enjoyment as an act of the will, the relationship between enjoyment, pleasure and cognition, the possibility of differentiated enjoyments with respect 54 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Beatific Enjoyment in the Late Middle authors such as John Klenkok, Richard Brinkley (ca. Ages and Beyond: Conclusion and 1325-73)5 and Hugolin of Orvieto (t1375) as well Summary as the fairly unknown figures Bonsemblant (1327- Interest in the concept of beatific enjoyment 69) and Facinus of Asti (theology bachelor at Paris persisted throughout the late Middle Ages and the during 1361-63 and theology doctor before Renaissance, although the treatments of the concept 1373). Dobelinus's treatment of enjoyment contains become more and more perfunctory and repetitive two principal questions—the first focusing on the closer we get to the sixteenth century, Martin whether the enjoyment of the highest good is solely Luther's Reformation movement and the dawn of an operation and pleasure of the created will and the modern era. The tendency of late medieval the second examining whether something other than discussions of enjoyment to become more and more the highest good can satisfy the will. A closer look routine can be briefly illustrated on the basis of the at Dobelinus's discussion of enjoyment reveals work of Erfurt University theologians. As is well- Dobelinus's profound familiarity with the various known, Erfurt University was Martin Luther's alma issues examined by early fourteenth-century mater. Luther (1483-1546) earned the Master of Sentences commentators in the context of the first Arts degree at Erfurt University (1505) and, distinction of book I. Dobelinus discusses problems consequently, entered the Augustinian monastery in such as whether enjoyment is an incomplex or Erfurt to study theology. At the monastery, Luther complex volition, whether there is a third thing or served as a sententiary bachelor (1509-1511) and middle act (res media, actus medius) between wrote his own marginal notes on Lombard's enjoyment and use, whether enjoyment itself Sentences. By Luther's time, the theological training requires cognition as a partial efficient cause or at Erfurt had a very firm reputation based on a whether it actually is a certain kind of cognition, long tradition stretching back to religious houses of etc. How original is Dobelinus in general? Perhaps study founded almost a century prior to the official Dobelinus is not very original, according to inauguration of Erfurt University in 1392. Damasus Trapp's verdict, even though he is often critical with respect to his most cherished authorities, One of the earliest treatments of enjoyment from according to Zumkeller. The fact remains, however, an Erfurt theologian is found in the Sentences that Dobelinus's treatment of enjoyment, in commentary of the Augustinian Angelus Dobelinus. particular, is astoundingly rich and complex. One Dobelinus (or the "Angel of Döbeln") was Erfurt cannot read this treatment without at the same time University's first theology professor and dean. Since acknowledging the highest degree of rigor and he received his theological training at Prague, sophistication that the debate about the nature and where he studied under John Klenkok, and at Paris, possibility of beatific enjoyment had achieved by where he earned his theology doctorate, Dobelinus the middle of the fourteenth century. On the other can be seen as the founding father of Erfurt hand, one is hard pressed to find novel positions theology, especially the theology of Erfurt and problems. What we see, instead, is the Augustinians. Dobelinus's Sentences commentary rehearsal of already familiar views and arguments (Lectura in Sententias) is preserved in a single to the point of saturation. manuscript owned by the Jena University Library and dates probably from the period when Decades after Dobelinus, as we move closer to the Dobelinus lectured on the Sentences at Paris (1373- turn of the fourteenth century and enter the 75). The commentary covers all four books of fifteenth century, we tend to discover trimmed Lombard's Sentences and the treatment of down treatments of enjoyment. Most of the enjoyment it contains is among the most extensive surviving Sentences commentaries from Erfurt treatments in the commentary. Dobelinus's treatment theologians stem from the Franciscan tradition. A of enjoyment abounds in references to the views of representative example of the state of the debate early fourteenth-century theological authorities, about beatific enjoyment from early fifteenth- such as Duns Scotus, Gregory of Rimini, Adam century Erfurt is found in the Sentences commentary Wodeham, Richard Kilvington (ca. 1302-61), of Matthias Döring (ca. 1393-1469), also known as Robert Holcot, Roger Roseth and Richard FitzRalph. Doctor Armatus (i.e. "The Armed Doctor"). Döring We also find mention of more contemporary was a talented preacher and was regarded as a highly competent interpreter and defender of 55 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Catholic doctrine. Prior to receiving theological criticized by Ripa, amounts to the following: "the training at Erfurt, Döring had actually studied in act of the enjoyable vision has the divine essence England for five years. Döring's Sentences as a primary object, but the divine persons as a commentary has survived in a single manuscript secondary object; however, God can by means of owned by the Munich State Library. Ludger Meier a special outpouring assist man with respect to the has discovered that Duns Scotus is the most often evidence of the primary object and not of the cited theological authority in Döring's Sentences secondary [one]" 16 What we see happening in commentary. Besides being a faithful follower of late medieval discussions of beatific enjoyment— the Subtle Doctor, Döring is likewise a reliable and Döring's discussion is in my view a textbook interpreter of Scotus's views.72 One can therefore example—is an attempt to come to full terms with see significant value in Döring's work insofar as what has already been done by past masters by reading Döring can help one understand Scotus revisiting, elucidating and consolidating their better. Döring's treatment of enjoyment is in fact a positions and arguments. perfect illustration of Döring's hermeneutic abilities. Interest in the concept of beatific enjoyment in the Döring's treatment of enjoyment is to a substantial sixteenth century gradually disappears, and this degree representative of the tendency of late happens in great part as a result of lack of interest Erfurt Sentences commentators to remain closer to in commenting on Lombard's Sentences. One of the the letter of Lombard's text, but the treatment also last extensive and rich treatments of the concept of contains an examination of the problem of beatific enjoyment is found in the Sentences differentiated enjoyments. The problem is not itself commentaries of the renowned Scottish theologian formulated as a question to be discussed. Rather, and philosopher John Mair (1467-1550). Mair the problem emerges as a counter-argument to the studied and taught theology and logic at Paris, part of Döring's conclusion which states that only where he met influential historical figures such as the immutable Trinity is the genuine object of Desiderius of Rotterdam (1469-1536), ordinate enjoyment. One immediately realizes that Jean Calvin (1509-1564) and St Ignatius Loyola the counter-argument is in the text for the sake of (1491-1556). Mair's commentaries are not only an exercise. According to this counter-argument, the encyclopedia of medieval scholastic systematic Trinity functions as an adequate object of theology, but an important witness in connection enjoyment either under a single aspect (sub unica with the influence of humanism on scholastic authors. ratione) or under several aspects (sub pluribus One can still find surprises in Mair's lengthy and rationibus). But the Trinity cannot be subsumed tedious treatments of the already sorely familiar under a single aspect because the aspect proper to questions and problems pertaining to the object the Father differs from that proper to the Son. and psychology of enjoyment, the differentiated Neither can the Trinity be subsumed under several enjoyments of the Trinity, the contingency and aspects because then one could—without impeccability of the saints in heaven. Yet, it is contradiction— enjoy God under one aspect but difficult to dispel the feeling that the passion that not enjoy God under a separate aspect, which is once propelled the debate forward has long been impossible. Döring responds to this argument by gone as the snows of yesteryear. means of a "Scotist solution" (ratio Scotica). This At the dawn of the modern era, one can hardly solution is then itself subjected to dialectical find a more pronounced rejection of the entire examination in terms of objections raised by John scholastic exploration of transcendent states of of Ripa (fl. 1357-1368). In his assessment of Ripa's consciousness than in Thomas Hobbes's masterpiece objections, Döring points out that "[m]any who have of political philosophy, the Leviathan (1651) In his attempted to ensnare this [Scotus's] position have discussion of the human passions in Leviathan, Book only managed to trap their own feet." 15 Clearly, I, Ch. 6, Hobbes defines felicity as the Döring did not think much of Ripa's criticism of uninterrupted success in the satisfaction of desire. Scotus. What is especially rewarding about The satisfaction of one desire leads inevitably to Döring's text is the effort itself to clarify what another. The series of desire is endless, at least in Scotus had meant and whether or not Scotus had this life, for, as Hobbes states, "there is no such been understood correctly by critics such as John of thing as perpetual Tranquility of mind, while we life Ripa. Döring explains that Scotus's position, as 56 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com here." What about supernatural felicity? If such is volitional attitudes with respect to ends and means. possible for those of us who honor God, then we St Augustine maintained that only the Holy Trinity "shall no sooner know, than enjoy." However, such ought to be enjoyed, and that everything else in supernatural joys are now as incomprehensible "as the world, including fellow humans, must be the word of Schoole-men Beatificada Vision is enjoyed in the Holy Trinity. It became clear that St unintelligible." Hobbes's injunction against Augustine treats enjoyment as a volitional attitude, theological discourse about transcendent states of but that he also links enjoyment with the notions of consciousness— and enjoyment—may delight (laetitia) and bliss or joy (gaudium). The have a perfectly legitimate explanation in terms of enjoyment of God requires redirecting the human Hobbes's understanding of the scope of will and coordinating the whole affective life of the philosophical investigation. His injunction in effect believer. The influence of divine grace proved anticipates a famous twentieth century ban on essential for the effective turning of the will toward pseudo-philosophical questions and discourses— God. It was further shown that the enjoyment of viz., the ending of the Tractatus Logico- God in heaven can be understood as the ultimate Philosophicus (1922) of the Austrian Philosopher realization and fulfillment of our love of God. The Ludwig Wittgenstein: "What we cannot speak off state of beatific enjoyment and life in heaven is we must pass over in silence. also characterized by a sense of deep volitional calmness. After having dealt with St Augustine's Is the term "beatific enjoyment" a misnomer? It concept of enjoyment, I discussed the significance of certainly was not treated as a misnomer by Peter Lombard's Sentences for the transmission of medieval scholastic theologians. Is it permissible St Augustine's views and as the point of departure and legitimate to talk about beatific enjoyment for the scholastic conversation and debate about today without being accused of engaging in a enjoyment. St Augustine's distinction between meaningless intellectual exercise and vain curiosity? enjoyment and use became the basis of the outline I believe that it is, at least pragmatically speaking, of Lombard's Sentences. Lombard did not merely insofar as something like what scholastic assemble St Augustine's views, but provided a theologians meant by the term "fruitio" may still be critical assessment of certain aspects of those views. relevant to individuals who have embraced a Unlike St Augustine, Lombard stressed the religious way of life. Furthermore, the very idea of possibility of having an experience of enjoyment what contemporary moral philosopher John Kekes already in the present life. In addition to the calls "the rightful enjoyment of our being" comes traditional Augustinian themes, Lombard was close to the medieval scholastic understanding of interested in the question whether the virtues ought fruitio ordinata. A genuinely good and enjoyable to be enjoyed. He claimed that we should love or human lifestyle, according to Kekes, affirms human enjoy the virtues both for their own sake and for dignity and involves integrity of character, the sake of God. reflectivity and autonomy. Medieval scholastic theologians would agree with most details of In the second chapter, I turned toward the state of Kekes's account of rightful enjoyment. They would the debate about beatific enjoyment in the only add that the object of genuine enjoyment thirteenth century, and I surveyed the main topics cannot possibly be our own being alone, since we and questions in the debate on the basis of the are not alone in this universe, and that enjoyment is writings (primarily Sentences commentaries) of not to be sought in this life only, since there is hope Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, St. for life everlasting. Bonaventure, St. Thomas Aquinas, Peter of Tarantaise, Robert Kilwardby, William de la Mare, My aim in this book has been to examine the and Richard of Middleton. I treated theological concept of beatific enjoyment (fruitio) in the objects of enjoyment and concluded that only light of its origin in the work of St Augustine and in God is the legitimate object of enjoyment. Anything the context of commenting on Peter Lombard's other than God—our fellow humans, the virtues, the Sentences in the thirteenth and early fourteenth faculties of the human being—must be regarded as centuries. an object of use or as an object of a weaker type In the first chapter of the study, I demonstrated of enjoyment. A question which received partial that, for St Augustine, enjoyment and use are attention was whether the blessed have a single act 57 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com of enjoyment with respect to the Trinity. The of 1277. The general consensus of the discussed standard answer was that beatific enjoyment must authors is that enjoyment is strictly speaking an act be a unique act due to the common divine of the will, and there is great interest in the nature character and goodness of the persons of the of the relation between enjoyment and other acts Trinity. I also demonstrated that the term "fruitio" or passions of the will. The relationship between was usually understood to signify an act of the will. enjoyment and pleasure was also thoroughly Sometimes, however, the term was also taken in the explored. Duns Scotus distinguished between the sense of both something intellectual and something act of the will and the pleasure accompanying or volitional. A strong emphasis on the intellectual consequent upon the act. According to Scotus's character of fruitio was found in the writings of view, pleasure is a passion of the will caused by William de la Mare. According to de la Mare, the object. Scotus's analysis of enjoyment and beatific enjoyment should be called an act of the pleasure was imitated and deepened by Auriol, intellect. Another remarkable aspect of William's Ockham, Chatton, and Wodeham, among others. view of enjoyment was the idea of two distinct Auriol's views became the focal point of heated types of pleasure—a pleasure concomitant with the debate as well, partly because Auriol confused act of vision and a pleasure concomitant with the love with various forms of pleasure and partly act of love of God. The analysis of different because he believed that complaisance and thirteenth-century scholastic definitions of "fruitio" pleasure are free acts. However, Auriol's equation revealed two other key aspects of enjoyment— of beatific love with pleasure or bliss was pleasure and rest. It was believed that beatific approved by both Chatton and Wodeham. enjoyment involves pleasure, but a clear distinction Ockham, on the other hand, insisted that one should between enjoyment and pleasure was not visibly dissociate the love of God from the pleasure or drawn and systematically examined. Rest was happiness derived from the beatific vision. In the understood as a quality of volitional satisfaction last section of chapter three, I also engaged and fulfillment. Nevertheless, rest did not imply Durandus's view of the object of beatific enjoyment total volitional capitulation or absence of any and discussed this view in light of the criticism of volitional activity. Robert Kilwardby, for instance, Durandus's contemporaries. Durandus was criticized suggested that the blessed can have multiple acts for maintaining that the act of beatific vision, not of enjoyment or use with respect to things other God, is the fitting object of enjoyment. According to than God, e.g., the virtues. At the end of the the view of Durandus's opponents, Durandus had chapter, I also discussed briefly the enjoyment of inappropriately accentuated the subjectivity of animals. The official view was that animals can be beatific enjoyment. said to enjoy only in a very broad or imprecise I discussed the problem of the possibility of sense of the term. Genuine enjoyment can be differentiated enjoyments of the Holy Trinity in the experienced only by rational agents, such as fourth chapter of the book. The main question was human beings and angels. whether an individual can enjoy the essence of In the following three chapters, I focused upon the God without the three persons or one divine person Sentences commentaries of major theologians such without the others. This question became very as John Duns Scotus, Peter Auriol, Francis of popular probably because it offered the Marchia, Walter Chatton, , opportunity to test the applicability of ordinary Robert Holcot, and Adam Wodeham, and less- Aristotelian logic to the doctrine of the Trinity. The known theologians, such as Robert Graystones, question also proved challenging from the Richard FitzRalph, John Baconthorpe and Gerard standpoint of the very possibility of providing of Siena. In the third chapter, I concentrated upon satisfactory theological explanation of the mystery some of the more prominent early fourteenth- of the Trinity. We saw that Scotus and, to some century views of the object and psychology of extent, Chatton allow the possibility of having a beatific enjoyment. The examined texts confirm the vision or an enjoyment of the divine essence alone rise of a certain voluntarist psychology oriented or of one divine person apart from the others. toward the analysis of reflexive acts, free volition, Scotus and Chatton, however, are exceptional in virtues, and passions of the will. Interest in this type this respect because everyone else discussed in this of psychology was prompted by the Condemnation chapter disagrees about the possibility of enjoying 58 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com the essence of God without the persons or one God actively, both in the present life and in person apart from the others. Especially interesting heaven. In heaven, the will loves God necessarily is Ockham's fideistic approach to the problem of through an act of non-elective love. Nevertheless, differentiated enjoyments. He argued that since we the will retains a certain amount of independence are not explicitly asked to believe that there are insofar as it is always capable of eliciting an act of differentiated visions or enjoyments with respect to elective love. Thus, to keep the blessed continually the Trinity, we should simply eliminate the question fastened to Him, God must fortify their wills. From as irrelevant. We also observed different styles of the group of early fourteenth-century thinkers trinitarian explanation or investigation—one based whose views were examined, only Thomas Anglicus on metaphysics, in the case of Scotus, Auriol and (Scotus's harsh critic), Peter Auriol and Francis of Baconthorpe, and another based on syllogistic Marchia maintain that the will in heaven operates analysis, in the case of Chatton, Ockham and by necessity. According to Auriol's position, the will Wodeham. cannot resist the pull of the beatific object once it is seen clearly and it becomes immobilized. Marchia In the last chapter of the study, I focused upon the concurs with Auriol, even though Marchia argues the question of the contingency of beatific enjoyment. point differently. I finished my discussion of the At the beginning of the chapter, I related the contingency of beatific enjoyment by exploring discussion of the contingency of fruitio with the Robert Graystones's extensive account of the novel conceptual changes in the method of compatibility between freedom and necessity. I theological analysis. The treatment of enjoyment concluded that the blessed, according to was mainly influenced by the non-metaphysical Graystones, are free to choose or do anything contractual model (pactum) of the relationship other than what is or involves a sin. In essence, the between God and the religious believer. God's blessed are absolutely impeccable. In this life, decrees were viewed as the terms of a contract however, our personal experience teaches us that which can, in principle, be replaced by a wholly we do not desire God of necessity. different system of divine ordination. It became evident that Scotus, Ockham, Chatton, Holcot, Renewal Within Tradition: Series Editor: Wodeham and even FitzRalph admit a certain level Matthew Levering of contingency in the experience of beatific enjoyment. For Scotus, the will is always free in itself even though God must sustain its enjoyment Matthew Levering is the James N. and Mary D. perpetually. Ockham thinks that the will can reject Perry, Jr. Chair of Theology at Mundelein beatitude, turn away from the beatific vision, and Seminary. Levering is the author or editor of over even hate God if hatred becomes a righteous act. thirty books. He serves as coeditor of the journals He does state, however, that the will of the blessed Nova et Vetera and the International Journal of is totally passive with respect to the beatific acts Systematic Theology. insofar as they are caused and conserved by God. About the Series Chatton differentiates between a vision-based and reflects upon the content of a discursion- or abstraction-based enjoyment and divine revelation as interpreted and handed down claims that the will is entirely passive only with in the Church, but today Catholic theologians often respect to the visionbased enjoyment. He also find the scriptural and dogmatic past to be alien believes that the blessed can sustain and prolong territory. The Renewal within Tradition Series the beatific acts once they have been caused by undertakes to reform and reinvigorate God. Holcot considers various scenarios allowing contemporary theology from within the tradition, the suspension of enjoyment as well as the co- with St. Thomas Aquinas as a central exemplar. As presence of love and hatred of God in one and the part of its purpose, the Series reunites the streams same subject. He maintains that beatific enjoyment of Catholic theology that, prior to the Council, is partially natural and partially supernatural. He separated into neo-scholastic and nouvelle also thinks that the blessed cannot have absolute théologie modes. The biblical, historical-critical, certainty regarding the continuation of their patristic, liturgical, and ecumenical emphases of the beatitude. God can deceive the blessed. Ressourcement movement need the dogmatic, Wodeham argues that the will can love and enjoy 59 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com philosophical, scientific, and traditioned enquiries of Chapter S: Culture in the Thought of John , and vice versa. Renewal within Tradition Paul II and Benedict XVI challenges the regnant forms of theological Chapter 6: Poland and Communism (for liberalism that, by dissolving the cognitive content Those Too Young to Remember!) of the gospel, impede believers from knowing the Chapter 7: The Contribution of the Polish Intelligentsia to the Breakthrough of 1989 love of Christ. Chapter 8: Natural Law: From Neo- See the website for pertinent volumes Thomism to Nuptial Mysticism Chapter 9: The Humanism of the The Culture of the Incarnation: Essays in Catholic Incarnation: Catholic, Barthian, and Dutch Theology by Tracey Rowland [Emmaus Academic, Reformed 9781945125171] In this collection of essays, distinguished Australian Excerpt: This is a collection of essays that have theologian Tracey Rowland takes up the previously been published in separate journals over relationship of Christ and culture, broadly the past decade. In one way or another, they each understood. She contrasts the principles take seriously the idea that the Incarnation was the undergirding what St. John Paul II called a "culture greatest revolution in world history. When the of death" with those required for the flourishing of Word became flesh, a new era of grace began, a humanism that flows from the grace of the redemption from the effects of the first sin became Incarnation. possible, and humanity found itself in a sacramental cosmos. As St. Thomas Aquinas expressed the idea Rowland returns frequently to the theological poetically, Et antiquum documentum, Novo cedat insights of Joseph Ratzinger/Pope Benedict XVI, to ritui: ancient rites have now departed; newer rites whose thought she is deeply indebted. Drawing of grace prevail. upon the Augustinian and Thomist traditions of political theology, she offers a trenchant These newer rites of grace opened the gates to a theological critique of liberalism in all its forms, Christian humanism and a whole cultural order built with attention to our modern attraction to false upon it. St. John Paul II described such a culture as utopias and accommodationist impulses. a civilization of love and contrasted it with a culture of death. Pope Benedict XVI described the culture The nine essays in this volume engage such of death as a dictatorship of relativism. These two perennial topics as the place of natural law, the men, who were arguably two of the finest scholars theological status of the "world," and the nature of ever to occupy the Chair of St. Peter, shared a true humanism, along with timely topics such as the quarter century of intellectual partnership. During retrieval of the sources of Catholic resistance to this time, they offered the world a theological Communism and what is now commonly called analysis of the current crisis in which Western cultural Marxism. Rowland's inimitable voice, keen culture finds itself. The essays in the present volume wit, and penetrating insight into the distinctiveness amplify this analysis. of Catholic truth make this book a landmark volume as the Church today revisits anew its relationship to The first essay addresses the arguments by Joseph the world. Ratzinger/Benedict XVI against correlating the Catholic faith to the intellectual fashions and social CONTENTS Introduction practices of the times. The correlationist project Chapter 1: Beyond the Correlationist reached the zenith of its popularity in the 1970s, Paradigm: Joseph Ratzinger on Re- though it has never completely died out and Evangelization and Mass Culture enthusiasm for the project can still be found among Chapter 2: The World in the Theology of clergy and school teachers who came of age Joseph Ratzinger/Pope Benedict XVI during the 1960s, when the project was first Chapter 3: Augustinian and Thomist promoted. At the time, Ratzinger suggested that the Engagements with the World Church is not a haberdashery shop that updates her Chapter 4: Variations on the Theme of windows with each new fashion season, and he Christian Hope in the Works of Joseph described such projects in the field of liturgical Ratzinger/Pope Benedict XVI practices as "infantile claptrap." 60 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

The second essay addresses a related topic of Catholic idioms. Each time this is done, something of Ratzinger/Benedict's understanding of the world in the richness and complexity and even salvation history. This was initially written in multidimensional nature of the Catholic vision is lost. response to critics who argued that Ratzinger was This was a problem well understood by the late hostile to the world because of his Augustinian and great Cardinal Francis George of Chicago. In inclinations. It is certainly the case that theologians his doctoral dissertation, he concluded that "cultural steeped in patristic scholarship were much less forms and linguistic expressions are, in fact, not likely to support correlationism than those whose distinguished from the thoughts and message they early formation had been in scholasticism, and carry as accidents are distinguished from substance many of those with a scholastic education in their in classical philosophy. A change in form inevitably seminary did indeed buy the argument that entails also some change in content. A change in correlationism was merely a modern analogue for words changes in some fashion the way that we what Aquinas had done with Greek thought in the think." The difficulty of separating concepts from thirteenth century. In this second essay, however, it their cultural traditions and transposing them into is argued that these two dispositions (pro- the idioms of an alternative and often rival correlationism and anti-correlationism) had little, if tradition has also been a recurring theme in the anything, to do with an alleged different attitude philosophical works of Alasdair Maclntyre. toward the world on the part of Aquinas and The fifth essay broadens the discussion by bringing Augustine. The idea that theologians can be in ideas from St. John Paul II and examining how grouped into two classes, the grace sniffers and the the two pontiffs engaged with the concept of heresy sniffers, and that Thomists are by nature culture at its most general. Here, following the grace sniffers and that Augustinians are by nature categories typically used in German scholarship, it heresy sniffers, is here challenged. is argued that culture can be examined in at least The third essay is also addressed to the alleged three dimensions: (i) as a civilization, or what the difference in approach to the world by Thomist and Germans call a Kultur, (ii) in the sense of ethos or Augustinian scholars, though it is not narrowly the general character of an institution, and (iii) in confined to the scholarship of Ratzinger as a the sense of what the Germans call Bildung, the supposed showcase of Augustinian thinking. culture or education of a person. It is further suggested that the publications of St. John Paul II The fourth essay follows the trajectory set by the offer a wealth of material on culture understood in previous two by explaining that Ratzinger had an the first and second sense, while the publications of understanding of the theological virtue of hope Ratzinger/Benedict are more strongly focused on different from that of secular social theorists, culture understood in the third sense. especially from the ideas of Ernst Bloch. Bloch did have an influence on some Catholic theologians, The sixth essay takes the form of a lecture to most notably , but certainly not World Youth Day pilgrims who were about to over Ratzinger. One reason for Ratzinger's embark on a tour of Poland for the first time. This opposition to secularist analogues for the lecture was, therefore, written to give people born theological virtue of hope and to the whole after 1989 a 101-level introduction to the Polish correlationist project is that he believed that social experience of Communism. While it is not an theories are not theologically innocent. Many explicitly theological piece like the other essays, contemporary social theories are secularist and while those with strong memories of the 1980s mutations of classically Christian or Jewish ideas, may well decide to skip over it, it does serve as a and thus, to correlate the faith to them is to engage good introduction to the seventh essay, which is on in a project of self-secularization. Such projects the role of the Polish intelligentsia in the destruction confuse the faithful by giving the impression that of Communism. This seventh essay showcases how mutated concepts are consistent with Christian the Catholic faith, if followed by a significant concepts and, so, lead to a general lowering of the percentage of any given population, can transform intellectual horizons of the faithful, encouraging a debased, vulgar, and even brutal social order. theological illiteracy as the secularist language is The Polish Solidarnosc' movement was all about taken up and used in preference to specifically turning a culture of death into a civilization of love.

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In stark contrast to a Communist culture or a liberal by a Catholic priest delivered in 1548. Rather than culture taking the form of a dictatorship of being critical of the joys of life (beer, wine, and relativism, a significant component of the culture of party dresses) or denying the reality of miracles, the Incarnation is respect for the natural moral law the priest tells his congregation that, at the or human ecology. Thus, the eighth essay addresses wedding feast of the Lamb (of which Cana is this topic and, in particular, ways of effecting an merely a foreshadowing), they will all be princes. agreement between Thomist scholars and those who Therefore, he says, "I will call you Olaf the approach the subject of natural law from the Fisherman and Jock the Crofter no longer but I will perspective of the nuptial mystery. Since the time call you by the name the Creator will call you on this essay was published in 2008, other scholars the last day—Princes! Prince Olaf! Prince Jock!" such as Thomas Joseph White, O.P., and Edward T. Within a sacramental cosmos, not only is it possible Oakes, S.J., have recommended the work of for Christ to turn water into wine, but He can turn Matthias Joseph Scheeben (1835-1888) as a useful wine into blood and raw human beings into saints bridge between the two perspectives. Arguably the and members of a royal priesthood. scholarship of both Servais Pinckaers, O.P. It is hard to find a better literary portrayal of the (recommended in this essay), and that of Scheeben humanism of the Incarnation and the dramatic can both form useful connections between the two contrasts between a classically Calvinist, groups of theologians, who are already in strong contemporary liberal, and a deeply Catholic agreement that there actually is a natural law cosmology. As Alison Gray wrote in George (postmodern philosophy notwithstanding). Mackay Brown: No Separation, "the contemplative The final essay was initially written for presentation attitude finds a `quarry of images' in a pre- at an ecumenical symposium, and it therefore Reformation sensorium within which Mackay Brown addresses the ways in which a Catholic embraces not only a wild beauty but also vanished understanding of the humanism and culture of the communities; 'the old walls of Churches and Incarnation differs from variations to be found Monasteries, the defaced ruins of altars, images, within Calvinist intellectual circles. It was written and crosses do cry with a loud voice, that the before the author discovered the short story "The Romain Catholique faith of Jesus Christ did tread Treading of Grapes" by the Orcadian writer this way." George Mackay Brown (1921-1996). The story One hopes that we have not yet reached the point takes the form of three homilies delivered on the where one has to read short stories set in 1548 to theme of the Wedding Feast of Cana, and this get a sense of what the culture of the Incarnation essay presents the reader with these three might look like. Nonetheless, we do seem to be in completely different "takes" on Christianity. The the midst of an intense cosmic battle and the first homily, delivered in 1788 by a Calvinist following essays are all variations on this theme of Presbyterian minister, was down on every kind of building a culture out of the rubble of secularist human enjoyment from wine to party dresses, mutations so that twenty-first-century Prince Olafs berating the flock for spending too much money on and Prince Jocks (and their princesses!) might know their wardrobes and drinking too much at what it means for newer rites of grace to prevail. weddings. This minister compares their enjoyment of ale to piglets sucking on the teats of a sow. The A final comment is that readers will find that there second homily is delivered in the twentieth century are two quotations that re-appear throughout the by a modern liberal Protestant minister who uses essays: Gaudium et Spes §22 and a statement the homily to explain that Jesus did not really turn from the International Theological Commission's water into wine. There was no miracle: Jesus was document on Faith and . The repetition simply a good organizer who knew that his of these passages was unavoidable because the apostles were big drinkers and that, unless he saw essays were originally written as stand-alone to it behind the scenes, supplies would be pieces and the argumentation within them requires insufficient and the host of the event could have the citation of these paragraphs. It is well known found himself embarrassed. On this account, Jesus that Gaudium et Spes §22 [see William Newton was a responsible person and, therefore, a analysis of John Paul II’s contributions to that forward planner. Finally, one is treated to a homily document] was cited more times by John Paul II 62 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com than any other paragraph from the documents of 4. The System of Relations as a Pattern of the Second Vatican Council because it is the key to Historicity in the Metaphysics of St. the Christocentric interpretation of the Council and Maximos the Confessor by Smilen Markov to the New Evangelization favored by him and 5. An Introduction to Aristotle's Theory of Ratzinger/Benedict. Motion as a Precursor to Maximus' Understanding of Motion by Michail Mantzanas 6. Maximus' Theory of Motion: Motion, as a European Philosopher Returning Motion, Motion by Sotiris edited by Sotiris Mitralexis, Georgios Steiris, Mitralexis Marcin Podbielski, Sebastian Lalla [Veritas, PART II. EPISTEMOLOGY: KNOWLEDGE, Cascade Books, 9781498295581] APOPHATICISM, AND LANGUAGE 7. "A Greater and More Hidden Word": The study of Maximus the Confessor's thought has Maximos the Confessor and the Nature of flourished in recent years: international Language by Maximos Constas conferences, publications and articles, new critical 8. Both Mere Man and Naked God: The editions and translations mark a torrent of interest Incarnational Logic of Apophasis in St. in the work and influence of perhaps the most Maximus the Confessor by Jordan Daniel sublime of the Byzantine Church Fathers. It has been Wood repeatedly stated that the Confessor's thought is of 9. Roots of Scientific Objectivity in the eminently philosophical interest. However, no Quaestiones ad Thalassium by Michael dedicated collective scholarly engagement with Harrington 10. The Theo-Phenomenology of Negation Maximus the Confessor as a philosopher has taken in Maximus the Confessor between place--and this volume attempts to start such a Negative Theology and Apophaticism by discussion. Apart from Maximus' relevance and Natalie Depraz importance for philosophy in general, a second PART III. ANTHROPOLOGY: HUMAN question arises: should towering figures of NATURE, ETHICS, AND THE WILL Byzantine philosophy like Maximus the Confessor 11. St. Maximos' Distinction between Logos be included in an overview of the European history and TpóTtos and the Ontology of the of philosophy, or rather excluded from it--as is the Person by Andrew Louth case today with most histories of European 12. The Conceptual Apparatus of Maximus philosophy? Maximus' philosophy challenges our the Confessor and Contemporary understanding of what European philosophy is. In Anthropology by Georgi Kapriev 13. The Face of the Soul, the Face of God: this volume, we begin to address these issues and Maximus the Confessor and 71pó0co71ov examine numerous aspects of Maximus' philosophy- by Marcin Podbielski -thereby also stressing the interdisciplinary 14. The Philosophical Basis of Maximus' character of Maximian studies. Concept of Sexes: The Reasons and Purposes of the Distinction between Man Contents and Woman by Karolina Kochanczyk- List of Contributors Boninska Editorial Note on Abbreviations PART IV. MAXIMUS IN DIALOGUE: FROM List of Abbreviations ANTIQUITY TO CONTEMPORARY Introduction THOUGHT PART I. FIRST PHILOSOPHY: 15. Analogical Ecstasis: Maximus the ONTOLOGY/METAPHYSICS Confessor, Plotinus, Heidegger, and Lacan 1. "Eschatological Teleology," "Free by Nicholas Loudovikos Dialectic; "Metaphysics of the 16. Man as Co-creator: Reflections on the Resurrection": The Three Antinomies That Theological Insights of St. Maximus the Make Maximus an Alternative European Confessor within a Contemporary Philosopher by Dionysios Skliris Interdisciplinary Context by Stoyan Taney 2. A Metaphysics of Holomerism by 17. Aire oúoios Activity as Assent or Co- Torstein Theodor Todaefsen actuality? Compatibilism, Natural Law, and 3. Being Moved: St. Maximus between the Maximian Synthesis by Demetrios Anaxagoras and Kierkegaard 35 John Harper Panteleimon Manoussakis 63 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

18. Creation Anticipated: Maximian like Maximus the Confessor from such historical Reverberations in Bonaventure's overviews of philosophy' does not seem to be Exemplarism by Justin Shaun Coyle justified by any lack of philosophical efflorescence. 19. The Oneness of God as Unity of In that sense, Maximus' philosophy challenges our Persons in the Thought of St. Maximus the understanding of what European philosophy is. In Confessor by Vladimir Cvetkovic this volume, we will begin to address these issues 20. Seeking Maximus the Confessor's Philosophical Sources: Maximus the and examine numerous aspects of Maximus' Confessor and Al-Farabi on philosophy—thereby also stressing the Representation and Imagination by interdisciplinary character of Maximian studies. Georgios Steiris And taking into account the above considerations, Appendix: Philosophy and Theology—the we will approach his thought as an important Byzantine Model by Georgi Kapriev element of the history of European philosophy. Index This volume is comprised of four parts: (1) First Philosophy: Ontology/ Metaphysics, (2) The study of Maximus the Confessor's thought has Epistemology: Knowledge, Apophaticism, and flourished in recent years: annual international Language, (3) Anthropology: Human Nature, Ethics, conferences, publications and articles, new critical and the Will, and (4) Maximus in Dialogue: From editions and translations mark a torrent of interest Antiquity to Contemporary Thought. in the work and influence of perhaps the most sublime of the Byzantine Church Fathers. The first part begins with Dionysios Skliris' article. This acts as the actual introduction to this volume, It has been repeatedly stated that the Confessor's explaining in which way Maximus the Confessor is thought is of eminently philosophical interest, and to be considered as a European philosopher, or his work is now often approached from a rather as a philosopher that provides alternatives philosophical perspective. We can witness this to basic tenets of his Western contemporaries as tendency both in theological works highlighting the well as to later developments in European philosophical problems and solutions that Maximus philosophy. Following this introduction, Torstein proposes (starting from 's Tollefsen focuses on the relationship of "whole" and classic monograph Cosmic Liturgy: The Universe "part" in Maximus the Confessor's metaphysics, According to Maximus the Confessor) and in purely forming a distinct "Maximian holomerism" on the philosophical works, written by academic basis of the notion of the Logoi. Fr. John philosophers for a similar audience (e.g., Torstein Panteleimon Manoussakis proceeds to focus on Tollefsen's Christocentric Cosmology of St. Maximus Maximus' understanding of metaphysical motion the Confessor and Activity and Participation in Late with reference to Anaxagoras and Kierkegaard— Antique and Early Christian Thought). However, no and, indirectly, Origen. In the next chapter, Smilen dedicated collective scholarly engagement with Markov studies the importance of relation in Maximus the Confessor as a philosopher has taken Maximus' ontology, and particularly in the place—and this volume, together with the relationship between creation and the untreated in colloquium on which it is based, will attempt to start the context of history. We return to the theory of such a discussion. motion in the last two chapters of the volume's first Apart from Maximus' relevance and importance for part, proposing that Maximus' understanding of philosophy in general, a second question arises: motion is both a continuation and a radical renewal should towering figures of Byzantine philosophy of Aristotle's theory of motion in the context of an like Maximus the Confessor be included in an ontology that is markedly different from Aristotle's. overview of the history of European philosophy, or Michail Mantzanas offers an introduction to the rather excluded from it—as is the case today with Aristotelian motion, which is subsequently compared most histories of European philosophy? Latin Church by Sotiris Mitralexis to Maximus' understanding Fathers such as Augustine or Thomas Aquinas are thereof. self-evidently included in the long history of the The second part, "Epistemology: Knowledge, foundations of European philosophy. However, the Apophaticism, and Language; opens with Fr. equally self-evident omission of Byzantine Fathers Maximos Constas' account of the nature of 64 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com language in Maximus' thought (with reference to Fr. Nicholas Loudovikos employs the notion of ), and with introductory hints analogical ecstasis in order to proceed to a concerning the possibility of a Maximian—and discussion of Maximus in contradistinction to Christian—philosophy of language. This is followed Plotinus, Martin Heidegger, and Jacques Lacan. by Jordan Daniel Wood's article on the dialectics Stoyan Taney attempts an interdisciplinary of apophaticism and Incarnation, unknowability and approach to Maximus' insights, also proceeding to knowledge, hypostasis and transcendence. Michael a comparison of Maximus' notion of man as a co- Harrington proceeds to focus on Maximus' creator to the modern actor-network theory. Quaestiones ad Thalassium as a precursor to Following this, Fr. Demetrios Harper studies the scientific objectivity through the notion of natural autotomy in reference to contemporary contemplation and its comparison to Pierre Hadot's developments in ethics. In the next chapter, Justin philosophy. After this chapter on Maximus' positive Shaun Coyle compares certain Maximian ideas epistemology, we once again return to his negative from the Ambigua to Bonaventure's theory of epistemology with Natalie Depraz's treatment of exemplarism. Vladimir Cvetkovic studies the Maximus' theo-phenomenology of negation, in oneness of God as a unity of persons in Maximus' which apophaticism is contrasted to negative thought with the aid of modern theological inquiry, theology. while Georgios Steiris compares the Confessor and al-Farabi on representation and imagination, The third part, titled `Anthropology: Human Nature, tracing possible common philosophical sources. Ethics and the Will; begins with a "bridge" between theological ontology and (its consequences and Some contributors give the latinized form of the implications for) anthropology, i.e., with Fr. Andrew Confessor's name, Maximus, while others prefer its Louth's treatment of the Logos-topos distinction Greek original, Maximos: we have respected each (principle of nature-mode of existence) as the basis scholar's choice, as we have also done with their for a Maximian ontology of the person, human and preferences concerning the various editions of divine. This is followed by Georgi Kapriev's paper, primary Maximian sources. As there is an important in which he expounds the basic tenets of Maximus semantic difference between Logos with a capital the Confessor's anthropology in comparison to L, i.e., the second person of the Trinity, and contemporary anthropological inquiry and Logos/Logoi, the principles of beings, the latter will proceeds to propose that we may find the seeds be written with a small X even at the beginning of for solutions to certain contemporary philosophical sentences or in titles. Unattributed translations of problems in Maximus' works. Marcin Podbielski quotations indicate that the respective author provides us with a close textual approach to the translated them. meaning of rlpóowrrov, a key Maximian term. The international colloquium entitled "Maximus the Karolina Kochanczyk-Boninska studies Maximus' Confessor as a European Philosopher," which took understanding of sexual differentiation, of the place at the Freie Universität Berlin's Institute of distinction—and division—of the sexes in the case Philosophy from the 26th to the 28th of September of human beings and of its philosophical 2014, formed the basis of this volume—which, preconditions. however, has since been enriched with further The final part of the present volume, "Maximus in studies relevant to its research focus. Georgi Dialogue: From Antiquity to Contemporary Thought; Kapriev's appendix to the volume is a discussion is dedicated to discussions of the Confessor's deriving from the colloquium's round table on the philosophy in comparison to other philosophers and theology-philosophy divide and possible currents of thought, be they Maximus' predecessors, reconsiderations concerning its importance today. Maximus' contemporaries, or philosophers that The chapters by Boston College's doctoral appeared later in history. Most articles in this candidates Justin Shaun Coyle and Jordan Daniel volume take into account a number of philosophers, Wood were first produced as seminar projects for thinkers, and theologians, but this part is dedicated the Graduate Student Conference on Saint to deeper comparative approaches, even if most Maximos the Confessor's Ambigua to John, chapters could easily fit in the other parts of this organized by Fr. Maximos Constas at the Holy volume as well. Cross Greek Orthodox School of Theology in

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Brookline, Massachusetts, during the fall semester separated into neo-scholastic and nouvelle of 2014. We are grateful to both Fr. Maximos théologie modes. The biblical, historical-critical, Constas and the authors of the two papers for the patristic, liturgical, and ecumenical emphases of the opportunity to include them in the present volume. Ressourcement movement need the dogmatic, We would like to use this opportunity to note the philosophical, scientific, and traditioned enquiries of immeasurable importance of Fr. Maximos' Thomism, and vice versa. Renewal within Tradition translation—the first in English—of the complete challenges the regnant forms of theological Ambigua, as well as of his forthcoming English liberalism that, by dissolving the cognitive content translation of the complete Quaestiones ad of the gospel, impede believers from knowing the Thalassium, for the future of the study of Maximus love of Christ. the Confessor's thought. We extend our gratitude See the website for pertinent volumes<> to doctoral candidates Athanasia Theodoropoulou and Ioanna Tripoula (University of Athens) for their aid in the initial stages of formatting and proofreading After Christendom Series Christendom was a historical era, a geographical This volume is dedicated with great gratitude to Fr. region, a political arrangement, a sacral culture, Andrew Louth, the renowned patristics scholar and and an ideology. For many centuries Europeans Maximian studies pioneer. Together with the late have lived in a society that was nominally Christian. Hans Urs von Balthasar, Lars Thunberg, and Church and state have been the pillars of a Polycarp Sherwood, Fr. Andrew Louth's arduous remarkable civilization that can be traced back to work with St. Maximus the Confessor's texts the decision of the emperor Constantine I early in (including the first-ever English translations of the fourth century to replace paganism with substantial parts of Maximus' Ambigua), thought, Christianity as the imperial religion. and historical presence opened a way, in which Christendom, a brilliant but brutal culture, initiatives like the present one cannot but claim to flourished in the Middle Ages, fragmented in the be small steps forward. In this flourishing era for Reformation of the sixteenth century, but persisted Maximian studies, it is certain that future scholars despite the onslaught of modernity. While will look with much gratefulness to Fr. Andrew exporting its values and practices to other parts of Louth's ongoing Maximian legacy. the world, however, it has been slowly declining Renewal Within Tradition: Series Editor: during the past three centuries. In the twenty-first Matthew Levering century Christendom is unravelling. What will emerge from the demise of Christendom Matthew Levering is the James N. and Mary D. is not yet clear, but we can now describe much of Perry, Jr. Chair of Theology at Mundelein Western culture as "post-Christendom:' Post- Seminary. Levering is the author or editor of over Christendom is the culture that emerges as the thirty books. He serves as coeditor of the journals Christian faith loses coherence within a society that Nova et Vetera and the International Journal of has been definitively shaped by the Christian story Systematic Theology. and as the institutions that have been developed to express Christian convictions decline in influence. About the Series Catholic theology reflects upon the content of This definition proposed and unpacked in Post- divine revelation as interpreted and handed down Christendom, the first book in the After Christendom in the Church, but today Catholic theologians often series, has gained widespread acceptance. Post- find the scriptural and dogmatic past to be alien Christendom investigated the Christendom legacy territory. The Renewal within Tradition Series and raised numerous issues that are explored in the undertakes to reform and reinvigorate rest of the series. The authors of this series, who contemporary theology from within the tradition, write from within the Anabaptist tradition, see the with St. Thomas Aquinas as a central exemplar. As current challenges facing the church not as the loss part of its purpose, the Series reunites the streams of a golden age but as opportunities to recover a of Catholic theology that, prior to the Council, 66 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com more biblical and more Christian way of being The Expansion of Christendom God's people in God's world. From the Margins to the Center From the Center to the Margins The series addresses a wide range of issues, Strengthening the Center including theology, social and political Extending the Boundaries engagement, how we read Scripture, youth work, How Christian Was Christendom? mission, worship, relationships, and the shape and More Questions ethos of the church after Christendom. The Christendom Shift Augustine Post-Christendom: church and mission in a strange Summarizing the Christendom Shift new world, Second edition by Stuart Murray [After Illustrating the Christendom Shift Christendom Series, Cascade Books, Objections to the Christendom 9781532617973] Shift Alternatives to the Christendom Western societies are experiencing a series of Shift disorientating culture shifts. Uncertain where we are The Heart of Christendom heading, observers use "post" words to signal that The Culture of Christendom familiar landmarks are disappearing, but we Truth and Violence cannot yet discern the shape of what is emerging. The Bible One of the most significant shifts, "post- The Church Christendom," raises many questions about the Mission mission and role of the church in this strange new Marginal Voices The Disintegration of Christendom world. What does it mean to be one of many Christendom in Turmoil minorities in a culture that the church no longer Reforming Christendom dominates? How do followers of Jesus engage in Rejecting Christendom mission from the margins? What do we bring with Reflecting on Christendom us as precious resources from the fading The Christendom Legacy Christendom era, and what do we lay down as The Demise of Christendom in baggage that will weigh us down on our journey Western Europe into post-Christendom? Post-Christendom identifies Vestiges of Christendom the challenges and opportunities of this unsettling The Christendom Mindset but exciting time. Stuart Murray presents an Responding to the Christendom overview of the formation and development of the Legacy Post-Christendom: Mission Christendom system, examines the legacies this has Mission in Late Christendom left, and highlights the questions that the Christian Evangelism in Post-Christendom community needs to consider in this period of Mission in a Plural Society cultural transition. Church and Society Church and State

Post-Christendom: Church Contents What Kind of Church? Preface to the First Edition Emerging Church Preface to the Second Edition The Post-Christendom Lens The End of Christendom Inherited Church Snapshots of Post-Christendom Simple Church What Post-Christendom Is Not Reimagining Church The Meaning of Post-Christendom Revival or Survival? The Coming of Christendom Post-Christendom: Resources The Achievement of Christendom Church Constantine Bible From Pre-Christendom to Theology Christendom Imagery Constantine's Successors Terminology Converting the Empire Jesus at the Center Some Questions 67 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Excerpt: Writing Post-Christendom has been edition be a major reworking of the original text or daunting. It has meant surveying 1700 years of an opportunity merely to tweak it here and there? European church history and delving into This choice is complicated by a number of factors. missiological, sociological, and theological studies. I Post-Christendom, as intended, launched a series of am grateful to scholars whose research I have books under the After Christendom rubric. Eleven learned from, indicating in footnotes where their books in this series have now been published, insights can be accessed. But I realize that complex expanding on and exploring in greater depth subjects and periods have often been summarized issues discussed only briefly in the first book in the in a single paragraph or sentence. In a survey, series, and more are coming. I have also continued broad brushstrokes do not permit many nuances or to write on related themes, most recently A Vast discussion of disputed issues. Minority, in which I delve more deeply into topics I hope Post-Christendom contains few factual errors raised in my earlier book and offer fresh or irresponsible judgments, but it engages in what reflections on these. But it does not seem Alan Kreider calls "bunking." Some books engage appropriate to retrofit this material into a revised in "debunking"—critical studies that examine edition of Post-Christendom or to intrude into areas previous research and offer new interpretations of covered in later books in the series. Furthermore, details or challenge unreliable conclusions. These although unsurprisingly my thinking has developed are important and helpful books, providing secure and I might now nuance some of what I wrote foundations for those who rely on their careful fourteen years ago, rereading the text has not work. But "bunking" is valid too—describing the big prompted me to want to revise it substantially. picture, presenting a framework, identifying Nevertheless, during the past fourteen years, recurrent themes, and exploring implications. pertinent research has been published and so this Post-Christendom suggests we are experiencing revised edition needs to draw on this and on cultural turbulence as the long era of Christendom several books that offer fresh perspectives on the comes to an end. It argues that to negotiate this we nature of Christendom (and pre-Christendom) and need to understand Christendom, why it is reflections on contemporary expressions of post- collapsing, and how we reconfigure discipleship, Christendom. mission, and church for a new era. It looks at There have also been developments in our cultural familiar issues from unfamiliar angles, using the lens context and in the Christian community. The term of post-Christendom. It offers perspectives and "post-Christendom" is familiar now and its resources for Christians and churches no longer at implications are increasingly widely acknowledged. the center of society but on the margins. It invites a Many have embraced the definition of post- realistic and hopeful response to challenges and Christendom proposed in the first edition, although opportunities awaiting us in the twenty-first century. some younger readers respond that this is their The transition from modernity to post-modernity "normal" and that they have never known anything (whatever this means) has received a huge amount else. Are we moving into "post-post-Christendom"? of attention. The shift from Christendom to post- Or is the term becoming obsolete? Perhaps this Christendom is at least as significant for church and second edition will be the last. society, but the issues and implications have not yet been explored to anything like the same extent. The first edition was oriented towards Britain and This book is an introduction, a journey into the past, Western Europe. It acknowledged that Christendom an interpretation of the present, and an invitation took different forms and that post-Christendom to ask what following Jesus might mean in the likewise will not be monochromatic. I chose not to strange new world of post-Christendom. engage with the very different transition taking place in Eastern Europe. Although I have since Fourteen years have passed since the first learned more about this, it remains largely beyond publication of Post-Christendom. Although I have the scope of this revised edition. The first edition been persuaded that a revised and updated also accepted that the situation in America is edition would be helpful, this has not been a different from other Western societies but it gave straightforward undertaking. Should this second only limited attention to this. This second edition will 68 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com expand that section of the book a little, noting that CHAPTER 1: What Is Theology? there are very different views among American CHAPTER 2: Where Have All the Prophets writers, researchers, and church leaders as to Gone? Christian Formation in a Disciple- whether post-Christendom is an emerging reality, Making Culture an unwarranted analysis of their context, or an CHAPTER 3: The Marginalization of Academic Theology in Post-Christendom unhelpful notion. CHAPTER 4: Mission as Solidarity with the As the After Christendom series moves to a new World publisher, our intention is that it will become less CHAPTER 5 : The Kingdom of God as the Eurocentric and include voices from the global Focal Point of Theological Formation church, including North America. Two American CHAPTER 6 : Freedom, Compassion, and Creativity: New Points of Departure for authors and one Canadian have already Theology in Post-Christendom contributed to the series and we hope that more CHAPTER 7: Making the Gospel Visible in will follow, together with authors from other places the Public Sphere: The Church, Academy, experiencing and responding to the demise of and Society Christendom in different ways. CHAPTER 8 : Church without Walls: Post- Christendom Theology and the Renewal of Theology after Christendom: forming prophets for Community a post-Christendom world by Joshua T. Searle Conclusion [After Christendom, Cascade Books, Bibliography 9781532617300] Christianity must be understood not as a religion of Excerpt: What does theology have to say to the private salvation, but as a gospel movement of "crucified people"' who represent the suffering of universal compassion, which transforms the world in Christ in the world today? What does theology the power of God's truth. Amid several major mean to "the wretched of the earth", to those "non- global crises, including the rise of terrorism and persons" without status, wealth, or power? How religious fundamentalism and a sudden resurgence does theology connect with the lived experience of of political extremism, Christians must now face up the "poor in spirit" (Matt 5:3), of those who are "sat fearlessly to the challenges of living in a "post- upon, spat upon, ratted on"? How does theology truth" age in which deceitful politicians present their speak into the plight of the starving, the refugee, media-spun fabrications as "alternative facts." This the Alzheimer's patient, the cancer sufferer, or the book is an attempt to enact a transformative traumatized child caught up in a genocide? What theology for these changing times that will equip does theology have to say to the homeless people the global Christian community to take a stand for on the streets of our cities who die in solitude, the gospel in an age of cultural despair and moral unknown and unpitied without anyone even to fragmentation. The emerging post-Christendom era mourn their loss? calls for a new vision of Christianity that has come of age and connects with the spiritual crisis of our This book is the product of a long-term endeavor to times. In helping to make this vision a reality, discover a vision for the renewal of theology that Searle insists that theology is not merely an can address these questions and speak academic discipline, but a transformative prophetically into these situations. The main aim is enterprise that changes the world. Theology is to to envision a rejuvenated theology that can be experienced not just behind a desk, in an stimulate the emergence of a renewed Christianity armchair, or in a church, but also in hospitals, in in a post-Christian age. My key contention is that foodbanks, in workplaces, and on the streets. theology has a role akin to that of a midwife Theology is to be lived as well as read. bringing to birth a dynamic Christianity that is attuned to the signs of the times and orientated Contents towards the Kingdom of God. This emerging Foreword by Rev. Canon Steve Chalke theology will put compassion, creativity and MBE freedom at the heart of Christian life and will be Preface more concerned with the transfiguration of the Acknowledgements Introduction world than with the revival of the church. My 69 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com upbringing, temperament, and training have All these and an innumerable host of other instilled in me the conviction that theology must contemporary phenomena indicate that, in the engage with the basic questions of life in the world words of one prominent commentator, "humanity is in order to elucidate and, if possible, to overcome approaching a zero-point of radical the urgent problems of concrete existence. The transmutation:" The world is living through a emergence of post-Christendom offers an dangerous era of dehumanization and God- auspicious occasion to reflect on these problems forsakenness. Human dignity is degraded in a and to navigate a new course for theology. consumer society in which "relations between people assume the guise of relations among things." In the present "Secular Age"' a deep crisis has The present "moral apocalypse" is expressed in the engulfed theology. I have a presentiment that the increasing mechanization and digitization of life judgement of God is upon Christian theology. The through the technological revolution and the stifling rationalism of systematic theology and the renunciation of spiritual values. The world in this dubious endeavor to establish Christian doctrine on new age is dominated by information and a dogmatic foundation have enfeebled Christian communication. The global telecommunications witness and enervated the spiritual vitality of revolution and the powerful forces of globalization theological reflection. Theology has been and the mechanization and exploitation of the marginalized or ignored altogether, as theologians natural world have brought humanity to the edge have been slow to grasp the magnitude of of an apocalyptic precipice. According to Jürgen unprecedented developments in biotechnology, the Moltmann, the social and ecological convulsions in emergence and expansion of international our age betoken "nothing less than a crisis in human terrorism and the so-called "clash of civilizations;' beings themselves. It is a crisis of life on this planet, the rise of religious fundamentalism, the a crisis so comprehensive and irreversible that it appearance of lethal and incurable diseases, a can justly be described as "apocalyptic." major global financial crisis and a sudden resurgence of fascism and nationalism throughout Critical questions must be asked about why the world.' theology seems to have contributed so little towards the elucidation and resolution of the The term "Christendom" describes "a social order in spiritual crisis of our times. This crisis has which, regardless of individual belief, Christian engendered a passionate thirst for deep and language, rites, moral teachings, and personnel authentic spiritual life. This spiritual thirst follows a were part of the taken-for-granted environment." long period of relentless exposure in the parched The signs of the times indicate that this social order desert of secular materialism, which has left the is fading as society transitions into a new era of world virtually bereft of spiritual values of love, post-Christendom. The terminology of post- truth, and freedom. We are now living in a time of Christendom is finding resonance among a growing creative forces, in which foundations are being number of theologians and Christian leaders. Post- shaken, old certainties are disintegrating and new Christendom can be understood as an emerging solutions to the great issues of our times are being cultural and spiritual condition. The world is on the sought. The world is being convulsed by elemental brink of a radical, revolutionary change. The powers, the heavens are being shaken, and consequences of these changes for Christian faith in people's hearts are failing them for fear of what is the world are, as yet, unknowable. What is clear is coming to the world. The world is passing through a that spiritual values are disintegrating under the painful period of "ontological insecurity." constant assault of powerful dehumanizing forces in "Everything solid evaporates, all things sacred are today's society. In this new authoritarian age, a desecrated" and the beleaguered people of the new world is coming into being - a world that is earth are reduced to "the semblance of broken moved not by the Christian values of love, puppets" or of "bits of paper, whirled by the cold compassion and solidarity, but by power, by the wind." racial politics of blood and soil, and the demonic power of collective national identity and the The signs of the times betoken a crisis of media-fabricated "will of the people:' compassion and the commencement of a new faithless age in which people have lost reliable

70 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com criteria for distinguishing between love and hate, The cultural tide has now turned and the church, freedom and slavery, and truth and falsehood. unfortunately, has found itself stranded on a Christians must now face up fearlessly to the sandbank of social and political irrelevance. challenges of living in a "post-truth" age in which deceitful politicians present their media-spun fabrications as "alternative facts" The followers of Thinking Outside the Box Christ must be prepared morally and intellectually The basic argument of this work is that the for an enduring spiritual struggle in defense of emerging post-Christendom context demands a gospel values. Any attempt to evade these wholesale reenvisioning of theological formation challenges by clinging to sugary optimistic dreams and even of theology itself. Theology needs to be about imminent revival amounts to a hypocritical shaken to the foundations in light of the new reality collusion in the decline and degradation of the of post-Christendom. This book is not a compendium world. This book is an attempt to enact a of practical suggestions about how to produce transformative theology for these changing times more effective teaching environments and successful that will equip, empower and encourage the global learning outcomes. The aim, rather, is to imagine Christian community to take a stand for the gospel and envision, rather than merely to describe and in an age of cultural decline and despair. The explain, a way of forming people for mission in overriding aim is to envision theology in terms of today's post-Christendom context. This book, in prophetic redress of urgent and pressing issues in other words, is more concerned with the first-order the world today. question concerning the truth that theology aspires If it appears that Christianity is passing through its to elucidate than with the methods, models and twilight period and entering the darkness of night, techniques of learning and teaching theology.' The it should be remembered, in the words of book aims to make visible the powerful currents of Berdyaev, that "the night is no less resplendent than philosophical and cultural change that surge the day, no less divine. The night is illuminated by beneath the froth of here today, gone tomorrow the stars and brings to light that which is invisible education policies and church initiatives. during the day:" Accordingly, amid these crises a The reenvisioning of theological formation in post- new movement of the Holy Spirit can be discerned. Christendom re¬quires a reimagining of the nature, This movement defies the dehumanizing tendencies scope and aim of theology in general. There is now in contemporary society. It aims for the rediscovery a broad consensus that "our theological convictions of the true meaning of Christianity in terms of the should influence our approach to education and creation of a global community of solidarity. This spiritual formation." As Elizabeth Schüssler Fiorenza community radiates the gospel values of kindness, remarks, "The crucial issue for theological education compassion, truth, solidarity and justice. Within this is: what constitutes good theology?" and she global Christian community, the gospel is emerging maintains that, "the reform of theology is the as a transformative and world-shattering message condition for the reform of theological education." of the good news concerning the resurrection of This book thus considers the nature, aim and scope Jesus Christ. of theology with the aim of formulating an account In these times of transition from Christendom to of Christian formation that can elucidate and post-Christendom, the gospel can become a transform the contemporary world, which is powerful "historical force for the humanization of transitioning into a spiritual condition to which some the world." This gospel message, purified from have applied the label, "post-Christendom:' The deadening legalism and degrading notions of following study will be concerned with fundamental substitutionary propitiation for divine wrath, has a questions concerning how theology can be new basis not in judgement and retribution, but in reconstructed in light of the changes associated with divine-human creativity, compassion and the this new phenomenon. indestructible power of resurrection life. The gospel The post-Christendom shift involves not only social is a message not only of individual salvation, but of and political changes, but a deep, tectonic the transfiguration of the world in the power of the metamorphosis in thinking, culture and relationships resurrection.

71 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com which impinge upon the pressing spiritual issues of Perhaps this is one of the advantages of being a our times. relative outsider. Although I am a full-time lecturer at a theological college, I am part of a Baptist Adjustment to the new configuration is difficult community that is a minority even within the because it requires the kind of clear-sighted vision dwindling Christian community of post-Christendom and bold, prophetic leadership that Christendom Britain. Moreover, as a Baptist nurtured by the churches have singularly failed to produce. Anabaptist vision, I am on the margins even of this Christendom churches have thus tended to respond minority community. I do not see anything slowly or half-heartedly to these momentous particularly virtuous in any of this; it is a simple fact changes. As John Douglas Hall laments, "Why is or consequence of various circumstances, rather there such a reluctance to recognize this great than any attainment on my part. Since this is in transition through which the Christian movement is many ways a very personal work, in order to give passing? Why do Christians in our context so readers a perspective on how I came to my, consistently resist the opportunities for genuine conclusions, it seems appropriate to begin on a discipleship that historical providence has opened personal note with a brief narration of the up to us just at this point? circumstances that led me to write this book. Part of the answer to this question can be found in The aim of this book is to present an overview of the failure of Christendom to imagine an some of the challenges and opportunities appropriate and attainable vision of theological confronting theology in a post-Christendom context formation that can connect transformatively with the and to offer proposals about how to address the deep issues of life in the world today. The current state of crisis. This book is written in the formation deficit, in turn, can be attributed to a conviction that theology has reached a crucial feeble and compromised theology that has phase in its historical development. The great need subordinated life in the spirit to systems of required today is fear of the future. Being afraid of the dogma. If theological formation is to be future, one finds it easier to take refuge in history, reenvisioned for a post-Christendom age, theology as memory and nostalgia supplant vision and itself must undergo a radical transformation, creativity. Therefore, the future can be perceived corresponding to what one philosopher called a only through an optic of faith and hope; normal "transvaluation of values. sight is inadequate to the task of envisioning the It is sometimes difficult to envision what the future future of theological formation in the new cultural might hold for theology and Christian formation. reality of post-Christendom—"Only in hope will we This is because we are sometimes so assimilated be saved" (Rom 8:24). into systems of administration and acculturated within set paradigms of academic theory and Structure of the Argument practice that it is difficult even to think without the The book, in the first chapter, begins with an aid of familiar categories and concepts. As the elucidation of the nature, aims and scope of existentialist philosopher, Jose Ortega y Gasset theology. The second chapter explores the link (1883-1955), lamented: "How shall I talk of the between theological formation and prophetic sea to the frog, if he has never left his pond? ... vocation. The next chapter builds on this foundation How shall I talk of life with the sage, if he is the in order to account for the socio-cultural factors that prisoner of his doctrine?" Often the very proximity have contributed to the marginalization of implied by immersion conceals important aspects of academic theology in post-Christendom. Against one's ethos and practice and the invisible layers of this backdrop, chapter 4 follows a well-established tradition that lie behind them. The deep- approach that refuses to consider mission and rootedness of established patterns of thinking and theological formation as two separate tasks. Once behavior can stifle creative thinking about how to considered practically synonymous with break out of the current impasse. Such habituation "evangelization;' the word, "mission," now has a runs deep and even if we break out of accustomed much wider currency, encompassing not only ways of thinking, there may be other external proclamation (kerygma), but also community hindrances that can limit the horizon of what is (koinonia) and service (diakonia). This chapter possible. discusses the implications of this broadening of 72 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com mission and the challenges and opportunities presented by the development of the anovulant pill presented by post-Christendom in relation to in the late 1950s and its rejection as an acceptable theological formation. This chapter will indicate the form of birth regulation through Pope Paul VI's need for theology to break out of its captivity to infamous encyclical Humanae Vitae in 1968. The church structures by realigning itself with the collection brings together historians of gender, Kingdom of God. sexuality and modern Catholicism to discuss the differing reactions to and reception of the Chapter 5, accordingly, reflects theologically on Humanae Vitae encyclical by Catholic laity and the meaning and significance of the Kingdom of clergy, episcopacies, medical professionals and God as the focal point of theological formation. In media outlets across Europe. In demonstrating how light of these reflections, the aim of the next these debates, and the Roman Catholic Church's chapter is to understand how specific Kingdom important role within them, interacted with the imperatives apply to diverse contexts of social and sexual countercultures of the 1960s, the theological formation. The concepts of freedom, collection makes an essential contribution to a compassion, and creativity are invoked as useful growing historiography of radical social change in points of departure for thinking about the nature the 1960s. It also provides new perspectives and and role of theological formation in post- approaches that enrich the historiography of Christendom. Chapter 7 considers the interrelation sexuality, of gender, and of religion. In common of the church, the academy, and the public sphere with all volumes in the `Genders and Sexualities in and discusses the contribution of a post- History' series, The Schism of'68: Catholics, Christendom perspective to the emerging field of Contraception and `Humanae Vitae' in Europe, Public Theology. This chapter also examines the 1945-1975 presents a multifaceted and broader cultural shifts in the focus of theological meticulously researched scholarly collection, and is research away from knowledge and truth towards a sophisticated contribution to our understanding of interpretation and theory and makes proposals the past. about how the post-Christendom Christian college or theology faculty can reimagine itself as a hub of CONTENTS transformative knowledge. The final chapter 1 Introduction: The Summer of '68— illustrates how a transformative vision of theology Beyond the Secularization Thesis Alana in post-Christendom can be applied towards the Harris renewal of Christian community in these times of Part I To the Barricades 2 Hurnanae Vitae: Catholic Attitudes transition. This chapter draws on the experience of to Birth Control in the Netherlands and the Northumbria Community as an example of how Transnational Church Politics, 1945-1975 Christian faith can become relevant, credible and Chris Dols and Maarten van den Bos compelling even in the seemingly hostile conditions 3 Of Human Love: Catholics of the post-Christendom shift. <> Campaigning for Sexual Aggiornamento in Postwar Belgium Wannes Dupont The Schism of '68: Catholicism, Contraception and 4 'A Galileo-Crisis Not a Luther Humanae Vitae in Europe, 1945-1975 edited by Crisis'? English Catholics' Attitudes to Alana Harris [Palgrave Macmillan, Contraception Alana Harris 9783319708102] Part II Episcopal Controversies The Schism of '68: Catholics, Contraception and 5 Religion and Contraception in Comparative Perspective—Switzerland, `Humanae Vitae' in Europe, 1945-1975 is a 1950-1970 Caroline Rusterholz genuinely groundbreaking collection, where 6 Attempted Disobedience: international and interdisciplinary new scholarship Humanae Vitae in West Germany and explores the relationship between Roman Austria Katharina Ebner and Maria Mesner Catholicism and global developments in sexuality Part III Christian Science and Catholic and women's reproductive rights in the `radical Conservatism 1960s'. The authors examine the ways in which 7 The Politics of Catholic Medicine: ordinary Roman Catholic men and women, as well 'The Pill' and Humanae Vitae in Portugal as the Vatican and the news media across Europe Tiago Pires Marques and the world, responded to the 'sex problem' 73 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

8 Humanae Vitae, Birth Control and were he alive, the `nuclear' forces of the the Forgotten History of the Catholic Church's doctrine. Only truth can shatter Church in Poland Agnieszka Koscianska falsehood, only the dynamic force of Part IV Covering the Controversy revelation can bring all that is genuine and 9 A Kind of Reformation in good in the modern desire for a human Miniature: The Paradoxical and humane approach to love and sex into Impact of Humanae Vitae in Italy the great creative and redemptive Francesca Vassalle and Massimo Faggioli synthesis which our Lord has achieved for 10 Love in the Time of El our race. If this book can give a few Generalísimo: Debates About the Pill in pointers to this living spring of doctrine, it Spain Before and After Humanae Vitae will have served its purpose. Agata Ignaciuk In chapters surveying sources as diverse as the 11 Reactions to the Papal Encyclical Kinsey report and the work of Jung, coupled with Humanae Vitae: The French Conundrum sacramental theology and justified with the quip Martine Sevegrand that 'the patron of the Christian sexologist is not the Part V Church, State and Contraception ostrich', Trevett was representative of a reforming 12 The Best News Ireland Ever Got? strand of progressive theologians, confessors, Humanae Vitae's Reception on the Pope's Green Island Peter Murray doctors, psychologists and educated laity in Britain, 13 Catholicism Behind the Iron but most particularly on the Continent, seeking to Curtain: Czechoslovak and Hungarian present `Catholic truth in the scientific age'. As Responses to Humanae Vitae Mary Trevett surmised: Heimann and Gábor Szegedi The sex problem is one of the most acute 14 Afterword—Looking for Love of our time; it offers the Christian a great Dagmar Herzog opportunity. He must not think he has Index answered every question by quoting

Canon Law. Law is no substitute for Introduction: The Summer of '68—Beyond theology, still less for love. the Secularization Thesis by Alana Harris This volume surveys the ways in which ordinary Catholic men and women, as well as the Vatican In 1960, a year before the introduction of Searle's and the news media across Europe and the world, contraceptive pill `Conovid' to the British market,' responded to the intensification of the 'sex the married layman, Taunton school-master and co- problem' presented by the development of the founder of the annual `Catholic People's Weeks' anovulant pill in the late 1950s and its rejection as (first held at Wadham College, Oxford in 1945) a licit form of birth regulation through Pope Paul published Sex and the Christian. Produced within VI's infamous encyclical Humanae Vitae (HV) on 25 the Burns and Oates `Faith and Fact' series, this July 1968. That Reginald Trevett's call for the scholarly but highly accessible pamphlet advocated prioritization of the experiences of the laity over a Christian approach to sex and the `formation of male celibates continued to speak years later into a solid doctrine of sexuality based on the facts of this febrile debate—despite the author's clear revelation and of science'. As Trevett opined in the rejection of artificial barrier contraception and opening pages: cautious sanction of the Knaus-Ogino or `rhythm We have had enough of Sunday piety method's—is hinted at by the photograph on the and the Christian-shut-up-in-the-castle front cover of this edited collection. Taken in the mentality. We cannot go on forever trying Oxford University Parks in the Summer of 1968 by to reconcile papal encyclicals on marriage Paddy Summerfield, then a young man wrestling with the Hollywood code by which most of (as many within his generation) with the implications our friends more or less live. ... Mere pious exhortation, mere negative warnings are and actualities of the `sexual revolution' and the useless against this sort of barrage. We socioeconomic changes wrought by affluence, the must look for weapons in a better young woman sunbathing, reading and musing is armoury. Peter Maurin never tired of evocative of the many enquiring Christians in the calling on Catholics, clerical and laity, to 1960s whose loyal dissent led to an irreparable bring out what he would not surely call, rift in the church. It is their attempts to reconcile

74 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com their faith with, as Trevett called it, 'the "sexual fiftieth anniversary of Humanae Vitae, these climate" of our times', and their anguished theological tensions remain unresolved, as the engagement with and interrogation of the papal recent comments of Pope Francis demonstrate. Yet prohibition, which form the subject of this book. for those Catholics who remained within the church after the furore, at least 78% of whom today This edited collection brings together historians of support the use of contraceptives, they have found gender, sexuality and modern Catholicism to their own solutions and ethical resolutions in living discuss the differing reactions to and reception of and loving after the encyclical. the Humanae Vitae encyclical by Catholic laity and clergy, episcopacies, medical professionals and Narrating the Sixties: Secularization and media outlets across Europe. It situates the Vatican's the Sexual Revolution highly controversial determination that the use of In his most recent, magisterial and comparative `artificial' contraception by Catholics is `intrinsically survey of European Catholic activists seeking to wrong" within the longer trajectory of debates transform society in accordance with the precepts about `birth control' and the role of sex within of the Second Vatican Council, and as a companionate marriage emerging since the Second complement to his earlier The Spirit of '68 volume, World War. In demonstrating how these debates, Gerd-Rainer Horn has noted the propensity of and the Catholic church's important role within them, historians of the 1960s and 1970s to narrate the interacted with the social and sexual countercultures social and cultural transformations of these of the 1960s, it seeks to make an essential decades as `virtually exclusive secular affairs'. His contribution to a growing historiography exploring explanation for this oversight, indeed the marked `around '68'. It also aims to contextualize and historiographical silence, is that `today's historians illuminate a lived history of the Second Vatican mostly hail from the secular Left and thus have Council (1962-1965) and its afterlife, so often neither the ideological arsenal of tools nor the written from a predominantly theological relevant political background and interest to perspective, by exploring the gendered, material discover a religious undercurrent of radical change and metaphysical grounds for heated opposition to which appeared to go against the grain.' This and reinterpretation of the Vatican ruling. Common observation is certainly true of the first wave of to these historiographical interventions is a focussed sustained scholarship about the 1960s, epitomized interrogation of the `secularization thesis' as a by Arthur Marwick who confined discussion of descriptive and explanatory paradigm, explored religion to a mere three pages, and concluded that through the comparative perspective of fourteen 'it has to be stated that throughout the sixties the European case studies. The composite picture of this Catholic Church tended to operate as a centre of geographically expansive and thematically broad opposition to all the great movements aiming enquiry illuminates the complex and divergent towards greater freedom for ordinary human ways in which evolving mentalities about marriage, beings'. Yet more recent histories of the 1960s sexuality and reproduction, as well as conservative continue, for the most part, to ignore the role reactions (including Humanae Vitae itself and its played by religious actors in the utopian activism, interlocutors), had long histories, resonated with synchronic social movements and sexual particular national circumstances, and were reconfigurations of the period, focussing instead on relayed through transnational networks of activists questions of periodization and Eurocentrism. Mark and intellectuals. The attempts by liberal, Donnelly, for example, in his revisionist history of progressive Catholics to marry the insights of the sixties gave but two pages to the religious science, sociology and psychology with church transformations of the period, concentrating on teachings and sacramental theology culminated, structural changes such as the 'laws on personal ultimately, in an irreconcilable rent within the morality [and] levels of Christian church attendance' church, reinforced by the swing towards moral whilst conversely concluding that although some conservatism throughout Europe in the decade that individuals were `swinging', `millions more saw little followed. This was intensified through the `cultural difference in the ways that they experienced or wars' which played out through the papacy of John imagined their daily lives' A notable exception is Paul II and his `theology of the body' that Herzog found in Gerard DeGroot's The 60s Unplugged discusses in the Afterword. On the cusp of the 75 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com where, within a chapter entitled `Wilted flowers', religious optic in its exploration of revolutionary he described the deliberations of Pope Paul VI and phenomena beyond a Western paradigm and is reactions to Humanae Vitae, with a focus on the marked by a preoccupation with issues of memory contrast between Latin America's embrace of the and legacy. Even Frazier and Cohen's stimulating prohibition on birth control as a counter to Gender and Sexuality in 1968, with its call to American neo-imperialist family planning agendas explore the `multiple dimensions of sixties struggles supplanting developmental aid. [by expanding] the notion of who and what constituted ...political struggles, protagonists and This secularist agenda also characterized much of politics', seems oblivious to the potential of religious the historiography surrounding contraception and actors and theological protesters as candidates for sexuality in the post-World War II period, such as such an extended remit.59 Studies of '68 with their Hera Cook's The Long Sexual Revolution: English genesis in oral histories seem to overcome this Women, Sex, and Contraception 1800-1975 oversight in part, such as Ronald Frazer's [Oxford University Press, 978-0199252398], longstanding 1968: A Student Generation in Revolt, which situates its sole reference to HUMANAE VITAE complemented and considerably extended by a in an unwavering characterization of religion as an recent transnational, collaborative project based in inherently and unrelentingly repressive force and Oxford which drew from the oral histories of 500 the pill as a medical-technological innovation that former activists across fourteen countries. revolutionized women's lives overnight, opened up Synthesized in the edited volume Europe's 1968: the possibility of female sexual pleasure, and Voices of Revolt, which included an entire chapter liberated them from the tyranny of unfettered on `faith', its survey of experiments with worker childbirth. Daniela Danna's chapter in Gert Hekma's priests and base communities in France, Spain, Italy A Cultural History of Sexuality in the Modern Age and Hungary, alongside the contributions of [Bloomsbury Academic, 9781847888051] similarly Catholic trade unions to iconic protests such as the characterized the role of the churches as defensive Lip watch factory strike, led these authors to of the ancien régime, and in a brief discussion of conclude that `rejecting the path of secularism, HUMANAE VITAE she drew attention to Dutch religious activists found powerful ways to tie Catholic exceptionalism in a portrait of otherwise protest to belief.' They concluded: 'the sheer scale concerted resistance to female emancipation. of this religious rebellion challenges us to rethink National surveys of the sexual cultures of twentieth- "1968" as an inherently secular moment of century Europe have tended to pay slightly more transformation. However, despite that volume's attention to the intersections of newer sexual discussion of the Second Vatican Council, shifting technologies and cultural mores with the strictures of understandings of family and clerical celibacy, and Catholic teaching. Well before the 'religious turn' in a separate chapter on gender and sexuality, histories of gender diagnosed by Morgan and de Humanae Vitae is not mentioned once. Groot in 2013, editors Edner, Hall, and Hekma included extended discussion of the position of the What is striking in all these examinations of student Catholic church on sexology, birth control and militancy and revolutionary activities in the sixties, queer sexuality in their Sexual Cultures in Europe: even in those that do adopt a study of the National Histories. Perhaps the most consistent call transformation of Catholicism as their focus, is the for integration and interrogation of sexual and paucity of specific analysis of HUMANAE VITAE religious cultures has come from Dagmar Herzog, and the reticence of authors to integrate the not only within her seminal Sexuality in Europe: A dissension focussed by the encyclical into wider Twentieth-Century History but also in more recent studies of the agendas of `liberal' or `progressive' work identifying the need to move beyond a Catholics. From James Hitchcock's near- `paradigm of liberalization' to recognize the 'many contemporaneous assessment of The Decline and ambivalences and confusions the sexual revolution Fall of Radical Catholicism, in which there are caused from its inception', not only within national merely three passing references within an otherwise contexts but also between and within churches. lucid exploration of post-conciliar reform agendas, to the cursory treatment in Jay Corrin's excellent This myopia is particularly marked within the latest study of a `Catholic New Left' in Catholic scholarship surrounding 1968, which neglects a Progressives in England After Vatican II there 76 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com remains a telling lacuna within Horn's The Spirit of religious landscapes of the 1960s, such that sexual Vatican II, despite his calls for a reappraised liberation automatically equates to secularization: `spiritual 60s'. Common to these narratives is a The impact of the sexual revolution was so celebration of a period of theological and political great, so sweeping and intense within florescence, followed by disillusionment and Western society, that there were few declension, and an identification of the `political' in corners which were not penetrated by strictly structural, materialist and often male terms. liberal ideas. Most famously the Catholic This emphasis clearly overlooks the ways in which Church's attempt in the 1968 encyclical the widespread and much more inclusive protests Humanae Vitae to uphold opposition to by ordinary women and men against Humanae birth control was doomed ... Religion and Vitae could complement, complicate and in some sex were moving inversely in tandem. instances diversify the strategies and activities of But as the old adage would have it, correlation leftist militants, from the protest meetings of the does not necessarily imply causation. As the Katholikentag described (and illustrated) in Ebner's extended discussion of the Second Vatican Council and Mesner's chapter, to the inherent challenge and the sexual revolution within Hugh McLeod's The posed to the Fascist regimes of the Iberian Religious Crisis of the 1960s illustrated, 'the most peninsula by any post-conciliar activity. Yet beyond enigmatic aspect of the religious upheavals of this such unequivocally political manifestations, this period is the role of the "sexual revolution"'. volume contends that these attempts to reconfigure McLeod affirmed that the 'link between sex, 'the personal' within official Catholic teachings on gender, and rejection of the church was much love, marriage, family planning and intimate clearer in predominantly Catholic counties, because relationships, are inherently `political' if of Humanae Vitae and ... abortion', but his conceptualized through a New Left and later WLM overarching conclusion—which this volume ideological rendering. These protests therefore demonstrates could equally apply to many challenge a narrow definition of politics, with our Catholics across Europe—is that `those already compilation broadening out the transnational detached felt increasingly free to ignore church studies of `European Left Catholicism' by Horn and teaching, while those who remained in the church Tranvouez within a recent special issue of were claiming a greater freedom to make their Histoire@Politique. That collection covers own judgments of questions of ethics—and innovative new territory but continues to overlook sometimes doctrine too.' All of this affirms that there the sociopolitical controversies generated by were, indeed, sweeping religious changes and Humanae Vitae and the diversity of lay institutional upheavals in the 1960s, resulting in experiences of the post-conciliar changes. marked decline in religious observance and communal loyalty in many European settings. Yet as It is extraordinary, therefore, that a watershed Leslie Woodcock Tender has observed of American document such as Humanae Vitae and the highly Catholicism during this period, extending her sensational and vitriolic ferment that it generated, earlier study Catholics and Contraception which have been mostly ignored by historians of post-war remains the best substantive historical survey in sexuality and the sixties, and only superficially English of the attitudes of Catholics to contraception invoked by historians of religion preoccupied with across the twentieth century, `Catholics since the the secularization thesis. Callum Brown's highly 1960s have been at least as alienated by their influential The Death of Christian Britain, and his church's frequently uninspiring liturgies and the follow-up volume Religion and the Demographic impersonality of its very large parishes as by its Revolution, have set the terms of these coterminous teaching on sex'. Moreover, she pinpoints one of debates about `religious change and gender the paradoxes created by the 'non-reception' of power', foregrounding the role of increasingly the encyclical by the laity throughout the 1970s, economically autonomous and sexually which is taken up in the Afterword: a movement independent women in refashioning gender from near-incessant discussion about sex in the relationships, asserting their own contraceptive 1960s to a deafening silence, as `unable to speak choices, and thereby disaffiliating from Christian honestly about contraception, most priests in the mores. In Brown's corpus there is an explanatory wake of Humanae Vitae steered clear of nexus drawn between the reconfigured sexual and 77 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com addressing sexual matters generally, even secular epistemologies surrounding love, sexuality as ...sexual mores were undergoing their most and reproductive technologies and everyday dramatic changes ever.' What emerges, therefore, practices within these unstable, shifting and is a consensus around the diagnosis of a radical modulating frameworks. These intimate, intertwined transformation in Catholicism across both Western narratives of faith, gender and sexuality prompt us and Eastern Europe, into which the church's position to rethink exhausted teleologies surrounding on sexuality is intricately interwoven, although the 'modernity', `secularization' and `sexual liberation' terms used to characterize this change and begin to explore new vistas in the history of (disenchantment, dechristianization, etc.) vary. Yet modern sexuality and post-war chronologies. this volume shows that this factor is but one amongst *** a number of other catalysts, including critiques of social deference and traditional authorities, an In 1965, the British Catholic novelist David Lodge increasing emphasis on individualism and authentic published The British Museum Is Falling Down, which self-expression as Charles Taylor has explored, pivoted around the comically unsuccessful attempts and an openness (or resistance) to a reciprocal of a Catholic couple to practice the rhythm method. dialogue between `church' and the `modern world', Three years later, in the flurry of promotional including the cross-fertilization of theological interest generated by the promulgation of perspectives with insights from science, psychology, Humanae Vitae, the novel was reissued in sociology and history, as Talal Asad has paperback in the US under the title Vatican investigated. Roulette. Lodge wrote a new authorial note for the reissue, confessing that if writing the book in 1968 In this sense, this anthology speaks into the recent he would not leave the two principal characters agenda advanced by historians of contemporary with their reproductive dilemma unresolved: `there religion and sexuality to use heuristics such as is of course only one possible resolution that would `syncopated sex' or `postsecular sex' to unpick be consistent with the realities of their situation, with existing narratives which view sexual liberation as reason, with modern Christian thought, and with the a teleological and unequivocal product of the demands of a comic literary structure.' This secularization of sexual understanding and anecdote is related within Lodge's recent memoir in practices. The chapters that follow take the which he recalled the difficulties both he and his theological as well as the sexological aspects wife, as committed Catholics, encountered seriously in demonstrating that religious negotiating the church's teaching on contraception. understandings were not uniformly or Describing the publication of Humanae Vitae as unambiguously displaced by new scientific regimes 'like a Catholic equivalent to the secular revolt of but persisted and adapted, helping to reconfigure youth in America and Europe', he was also frank in the new sexual landscape, as well as to provide for confessing the `improvement in [his] marriage' two different constituencies, the rituals and rhetorics years earlier when his wife `decided to go on the needed for its resistance. This approach illuminates pill, without any prompting ... but a spectrum of Christian responses to social change with ...unhesitating agreement. Suddenly it seemed in the sixties and, as Tim Jones has theorized, the a very simple decision.' Lodge's well-known novel— vitality of `religious culture, ideas and convictions and his life narrative—could be seen as sequels to [to] provide rich and complex resources for sexual Trevett's Sex and the Christian with which I opened. self-making in the late twentieth century' and beyond. Taking up such calls for a 'post-secular' Here is a `human and humane approach to love approach moves the debate beyond now-stale and sex' which chimes with the personal questions of `whether and when Christianity's adjudications and, ultimately, good-faith resolutions cultural hegemony declined', a diagnosis which made by many Catholics across Europe that are looks increasingly unstable in the wake of the recounted in the chapters that follow. This was, conservative backlash of the decades that followed indeed, a `Catholic equivalent' to the better-known with increased traction by the religious right and secular revolts of 1968, which laid bare counter-reaction into the present. Instead, it enables theological, political, gendered and geographic us to open up new possibilities in examining the divisions within the church that persist to the present. intersections and interactions between religious and 78 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Vatican Roulette was no longer the order of the prepare for my main argument with a reductio ad day. absurdum diversion. If we accept the premises of the Vatican's view of sex, we are confronted with The Vatican's View of Sex: The Inaccurate some ridiculous conclusions ancient theologians Conception by Robert T. Francoeur never thought of because they lived in a relatively Trained in Catholic theology by Jesuits and uncomplicated world. We live in a world of Benedictines, Dr. Francoeur was ordained a contraceptive and reproductive technologies, of in- diocesan priest in 1958. He was granted depth psychological perspectives, and new forms permission by the Vatican to marry in 1967 without of male-female relationships that were being laicized. Author of 1972 Eve's New Rib: 20 inconceivable before 1900. The Vatican's view of Faces of Sex, Marriage and Family, and the sex is as much in touch with modern human college text 1991 Becoming a Sexual Person, he relationships as its view of the sun revolving around taught at Fairleigh Dickinson University and worked a flat world was with the world Copernicus and regularly with church and clergy groups on sexual Galileo knew as real in 1632. and life-style issues. This is a reprint from a 1988 article in the humanist quarterly, Critical Enquiry. Reduction to absurdity #1: No sexual fantasies. "Impure thoughts," "delectation morosa," lusty Ever since the Vatican II Council debates on birth fantasies are sinful because they involve mental control and priestly celibacy in the early 1960s, sexual pleasure that does not climax in statements by the pope and Vatican officials on reproductive marital intercourse. Pope John Paul II sexual morality have made headlines: "Vatican recently warned husbands not to lust after their calls masturbation a grave moral disorder." "Pope wives because such physical desire detracts a man urges married couples to abstain from sex." from his spiritual goals. (He implied that wives are "Premarital sex is always immoral." "Church accepts never tempted to lust after their husbands!) But homosexuals but says they must be celibate." "Test- Kinsey found that 84 percent of husbands and two- tube babies and artificial insemination condemned thirds of American wives fantasize while making as unnatural and adulterous." love with their spouse and many of those fantasies Though critics often attack such statements as are about having sex with a person other than that "reactionary," "Victorian," "out of touch with the spouse. Without the variety of those fantasies real world," and "antisexual," such judgments focus marital sex often goes flat. Even Jimmy Carter on details rather than on the whole picture. The confessed to "lusting in his heart" a few years back. essence of the current debates over sexual morality The fantasy enrichment exercises that are a in the Catholic church is not the conclusions but the common part of modern sex therapy are totally premises. Like every institution, the Vatican has unacceptable in the Vatican's morality. created its own picture of reality. Within that Reduction to Absurdity #2: No solo sex. framework and its assumptions, the current pope Masturbation is the most common sexual outlet for and Vatican officials adhere to a strict logic. All men and women of all ages. In the Vatican's view it sex is designed by nature and God for is both "unnatural and disordered." Thus a Catholic reproduction. Therefore, sex is allowed only for teenager who masturbates sins more seriously than couples in heterosexual marriages when nothing if he had fornicated. Fornication is a "disordered interferes with this goal. In simple terms, any form act" but natural because it involves vaginal of sex that does not end in vaginal intercourse— intercourse. (If the teenager used a condom while masturbation, oral and anal sex, as well as sex fornicating he might be more responsible but his sin with contraceptives, premarital sex, gay sex, would be greater than if he allowed the girl to comarital sex, and even lusty thoughts—is become pregnant!) "unnatural, disordered and immoral." Also, a Catholic wife may masturbate to orgasm if Given the knowledge of past ages, these views she doesn't climax during intercourse, but only if the may have been valid and functional years ago, but semen was properly deposited. Whether she can in today's world they are antediluvian, vestiges of have multiple orgasms is questionable. Her husband antiquated physiology and psychology. I will attack is not as fortunate. If physical exhaustion or psychic those primitive premises shortly, but first let me conflicts about "polluting a madonna mother" (his 79 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com wife) keep him from orgasm, he is not allowed to purpose, or only for that purpose. The Vatican's relieve himself. penis/ vagina morality exists as if persons were irrelevant. As long as the penis is licensed to the Reduction to Absurdity #3: No wet fun. Modern vagina and goes in naked, its penetration is physiology tells us healthy men and women have assumed to be morally good. erections or sexual arousal every ninety minutes during Rapid Eye Movement (REM) sleep. Vatican If, however, one views the sexual organs as parts morality prohibits any Catholic from enjoying this of a person who is relating with him or herself or pleasure if he or she wakes up and from relieving with another sexually active person, the the sexual tension by masturbation. One must not psychosomatic character of the relationship enjoy a spontaneous wet dream. becomes the basis of morality. As the authors of a 1977 report sponsored by the Catholic Theological Reduction to Absurdity #4: No barriers. It is Society suggested, Catholics need to move beyond perfectly natural and moral for a Catholic couple the Vatican's "prescientific physiology": "It bears to make love only when the calendar and clock say repeating, without provision, that where there is the wife is not ovulating, but it is unnatural and sincere affection, responsibility and the germ of disordered for a couple to use natural hormones to authentic human relationship—in other words, prevent ovulation so they can express their love for where there is love—God is surely present." each other whenever the spirit moves them. Also, Although this statement dealt with homosexuals, it is even when a wife is pregnant she cannot use a an authentic Catholic position applicable to contraceptive because superfecundation is possible. relations between all sexual persons regardless of If the wife has intercourse while pregnant and their status as straight or gay, single or married, doesn't use a contraceptive she may ovulate again and regardless of the logistics and uses of genital and become preg¬nant with fraternal twins. patristics too often attack the Vatican's conclusions Reduction to Absurdity #5: No breakdown. A about this or that act being disordered, unnatural, couple must be able to consummate their marriage, and immoral. It is more effective, in my view, to but a quadraplegic may not know whether or not attack the Vatican's principle of sexual mechanics he can do so. Either he fornicates before the and its refusal to accept erotic pleasure and marriage, or he risks entering an invalid marriage intimacy as a valuable, morally acceptable goal in that can be annulled. human relations. Other Absurdities: The behavioral exercises According to Pope John Paul II we left all pleasure devised by Masters and Johnson and widely used in the Garden of Eden. We are condemned to in sex therapy are often immoral no matter how "work, work, work, work . . ." Fifteen hundred years much they help the couple become sexually ago, Saint Augustine created a philosophy of work functional. Sensate focus, stop-and-go, partner and pleasure that endures today in the Vatican's sexual exam, and pelvic muscle exercises involve inaccurate conception of sex. After a wild life with sexual arousal but not necessarily vaginal a mistress and illegitimate child, Augustine joined intercourse. Sex surrogates are verboten. A the Manichean cult that held sex as the worst evil childless husband may not masturbate to obtain a possible. Later, as a repentant Christian bishop, semen sample for fertility testing. And, despite the Augustine pictured the moral life as a lifelong emphasis on making babies, artificial insemination conflict between the City of God and the City of and surrogate mothers are forbidden. Mammon. Sex might be tolerated, possibly, in marriage if it was productive work, but sexual Behind these and other absurdities is the Vatican's pleasure could never be accepted. Augustine's view neat logic of Newtonian machines. A cog is a cog. of pleasure still prevails in the Vatican today. "Lust A penis is a penis. A cog has its fixed purpose in a of the flesh, insofar as it seeks carnal and sensual machine and a penis has its proper, "natural" pleasures," the pope warns, "makes man in a mechanical function as a sperm depositor. Any certain sense blind and insensitive to the deeper "playing around" with the "sword" outside its values which spring from love and which at the vaginal "scabbard" is dangerous and immoral. But same time constitute love in the interior truth that is just because a penis functions well in reproduction its own." The present pope wants married couples does not mean it always has to be used for that 80 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com to exercise great control over their sexual impulses More basic, according to Silvestro, is a pervasive and commit themselves to periods of abstinence. fear among the hierarchy that they are "losing Put the Vatican mechanics of sexual parts together their ... power." In his 1983 book Sexual Practices, with Augustine's association of sexual pleasure with anthropologist Edgar Gregersen concedes that the the City of Darkness and you have the roots of conflict between the hierarchy and lay Catholics Vatican sexual morality. will "have far-reaching implications for the authority system as a whole." The Vatican may However, in the most authentic Catholic theology, appear to be winning, but the current neither the Vatican nor the pope is "the Catholic confrontations have all the appearance of the Nazi church." Both are currently acting as if they are "the Panzers gathering on the Russian front in 1943. church." There has always been what theologians Their fire-power appears invincible, but like the call the "sensus fidelium," the idea that the "the Nazis, the Vatican is facing for the first time people of God" constitute the church. The Catholic intelligent, independent-thinking laity and laity has spoken clearly on sexual morality since theologians. These Catholics resent being treated Vatican Il, when the majority of Catholic as children and told that nothing ever changes or theologians approved and accepted contraception, evolves and that sex revolves around making thereby confirming the moral judgment of the babies. While they believe in some fundamental majority of Catholics that sexual intercourse need principles of all morality, these Catholics know that not always be open to making babies. They view those principles can have different conclusions when the pope and the Vatican as being out of touch radically new situations arise. In the past, sexual with the church. This difference in conviction about morality may have revolved around making who and what constitutes the Catholic church is babies, but today sensible persons know that the evident in the Vatican's recent move to expel meaning and values of sex and sexual relations go twenty-four American nuns who dared to say far deeper than the mechanical picture. publicly that there is a pluralism of views on abortion among dedicated, committed Catholic A whole new ball game started twenty years ago theologians and laity. The nuns were among ninety- at Vatican Il. The older hierarchical umpires know four American Catholic leaders who signed a New their power is in jeopardy, yet it is almost as if York Times advertisement in support of Governor Galileo never lived. The Vatican umpires still insist Cuomo and vice-presidential candidate Geraldine on rules that worked before the sexual revolution Ferarro's position in the debate with Archbishop of the 1960s, patriarchical rules they made for O'Connor of New York. The nuns have refused to their children. Today, when the umpires shout "Play back down and have chided the Vatican for its ball," the nuns, theologians, and lay Catholics often "scandalous" attempt to impose its view of reality decide to move the game to another ballpark with on them. new rules. They are smart enough to know that they, the "people of God," and not the umpires, The battle lines are drawn. Umpires like Monsignor are the church. They control the game. That is why Caffarra, president of the Pontifical Institute for the the Vatican is taking such vehement stands on even Study of Marriage and Family, blame a half-dozen the most insignificant challenges. The whole French, German, and American theologians for authoritarian dogmatic hierarchical structure is on causing all the current confusion about the "Church's the verge of collapse and its support is fading. Like positions" on sex. These men, Caffarra complains, the ecclesiastical judges of Galileo, the Vatican's have "a vision that has accepted without sufficient worst fear is that the world is indeed moving. <> criticism many 'pseudo-dogmas' of the contemporary culture." Human Dependency and Christian Ethics by Sandra Sullivan-Dunbar [New Studies in Christian Ethics, Marsie Silvestro, coordinator for the ational Cambridge University Press, 9781107168893] Women's Ordination Conference, ignores the Vatican's scramble to find scapegoats and strikes Dependency is a central aspect of human existence, home when she states that the problem with the as are dependent care relations: relations between Vatican's view of sex boils down to the pope's and caregivers and young children, persons with bishops' "inability to deal as [adults] with disabilities, or frail elderly persons. In this book, sexuality." Sandra Sullivan-Dunbar argues that many 81 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com prominent interpretations of Christian love either 1 Human Dependency, Justice, and obscure dependency and care, or fail to Christian Love adequately address injustice in the global social 2 The Marginalization of organization of care. Sullivan-Dunbar engages a Dependency and Care in Political Theory wide-ranging interdisciplinary conversation 3 Economics and the Erasure of the Care Economy between Christian ethics and economics, political 4 Sacrificial Models of Christian theory, and care scholarship, drawing on the rich Love: Distortions of Need, Nature, and body of recent feminist work reintegrating Justice dependency and care into the economic, political, 5 Agape as Equal Regard: and moral spheres. She identifies essential elements Importing Moral Boundaries into Christian of a Christian ethic of love and justice for Ethics dependent care relations in a globalized care 6 Contemporary Retrievals of economy. She also suggests resources for such an Thomistic Accounts of Love and Justice ethic ranging from Catholic social thought, feminist 7 Elements of Justice for a political ethics of care, disability and vulnerability Dependent Care Ethic 8 Resources for a Conception of studies, and Christian theological accounts of the Justice Within a Dependent Care Ethic divine-human relation. Select Bibliography Human Dependency, Justice, and Index Excerpt: In this book, I argue that much recent Christian Love Christian ethics, like much modern and Dependency is a central aspect of human existence. contemporary Western philosophy, social theory, We begin life ensconced within and dependent and political theory, has failed to adequately upon the body of another human person, using her address our human dependency. Similarly, body as a source of nutrients, oxygen, warmth, and dependent care relations have largely been space. When we emerge into the world as a marginalized and rendered problematic in recent separate body, we remain utterly dependent upon understandings of Christian love. Equality is a other human beings to feed us, to keep us warm, to crucial value, and Christian theology has long hold us, to talk to and socialize us, to protect us asserted the equality of all human persons before from harm. We are bodily dependent again when God — offering a stronger basis for such equality we are sick, or when we are disabled, and if we than secular bases such as rationality and live to old age, we are often dependent on others autonomy. Notions of equality have been in the frailty of our final years. And at those points responsible for many social developments that we in our lives when we seem most autonomous, we hold dear, including the expansion of basic nevertheless remain deeply dependent on others in economic and political rights to propertyless men, countless ways that we often fail to acknowledge. women, and persons of color, and the abolition of Because dependency is central to human existence, many forms of slavery. The link between equality so are relations of dependent care: relations and autonomy is somewhat problematic, however, between caregivers and small children, persons because our dependency is also part of the human with disabilities (permanent or temporary), or frail condition. These two realities, dependency and elderly persons. In fact, such relations take up the equality, stand in a paradoxical tension, because bulk of human moral effort, and they are deeply when we are dependent on another, there are complex. However, as feminist theorists in various important ways in which we are not equal to that fields have shown, much recent Western thought other, and many groups of persons have had their reflects a marginalization of human dependency dependency exaggerated and enforced precisely and dependent care.' In keeping with the modern to exclude them from equality and autonomy. But in valuation. creating more egalitarian social structures, we must continue to account for that dependency that is

intrinsic to human life, or else we will undercut the Contents very equality we seek. I argue, therefore, that we Acknowledgments must acknowledge the centrality of dependency in our theological anthropologies, our understandings 82 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com of Christian love, and our conceptions of the and inorganic materials in the world around them. relation between Christian love and justice. In other They make claims on moderately scarce natural words, Christian theological ethics must integrate resources available to meet basic human needs. As human equality with human dependency. we shall see, many Christian ethicists take an overly simplified approach to the moral implications of The marginalization of dependency within Christian natural processes. Consideration of dependent care ethics is an injustice to those who engage in the relations calls for a nuanced consideration of the moral work of dependent care on a daily basis. It moral implications of our entrenchment in the devalues their labor in moral terms and reinforces natural world. the political and economic devaluation of this work. But the marginalization of human dependency and The negotiation of natural scarcity raises a second relations of dependent care is also problematic for arena within Christian ethics that takes on new the substance of Christian love theologies. These dimensions in light of dependent care relations: relations are a focal point for engaging a number what is the relation between love and justice? Some of foundational issues in Christian ethics. Christian ethicists see justice as sharply distinct from Christian love. For these thinkers, justice seeks its First, questions about the role of nature — our own, and demands its desert through merit or human nature, and the natural world around us — con¬tract. Love, in contrast, does not think of itself are particularly relevant in light of dependent care and rises far beyond the demands of justice in its relations. In terms of human nature, Christian self-giving. Other Christian ethicists see justice as a theologians offer markedly different virtue of individual persons and do not give understandings of the moral status of our own sufficient attention to the structures of injustice natural inclinations and desires and our efforts to within which these virtuous individuals make their satisfy them. Are our natural inclinations a source of moral choices. Most contemporary Christian love moral wisdom for human persons, as understood by theologians do not consider the relationship Roman Catholic natural law theories drawing (in between love and distributive justice, although they various ways) on the heritage of Thomas Aquinas? may consider distributive justice separately from Or, is human nature so fallen that Christian love is their discussions of love. From the perspective of defined by its radical difference from our "natural" dependent care relations, this omission is deeply way of loving, as for Anders Nygren or Soren problematic. Dependent caregivers do their work Kierkegaard, for example? What are the within unjust social, political, and economic implications of either stance for the love and structures, and their relative privilege or devotion we may be inclined to shower on our marginalization within these structures profoundly dependents, whether they be our children, parents, affects their capacity to meet their caring or clients? Thinking in terms of dependent care obligations. They require resources such as food, relations also re-centers inquiry from the goodness housing, health care, and labor time to provide this or selfishness of our own inclinations to the moral care. Justice helps to enable the love expressed valence of the inclinations of others. After all, these through dependent care relations, and injustice can relations are intended to support others in meeting hinder such care or even make it impossible. basic biological needs and fulfilling basic biological inclinations — most notably, the In much recent Christian love ethics, the question of inclination to persist in being, to survive. distributive justice has been subsumed under the question of "special relations," or relations with kin, The work of care also draws us into the gifts, friends, colleagues, or other persons to whom we conflicts, and tragedies of the natural world. have a particular, intensive bond. As outlined by Caregivers harness nature's resources to promote Gene Outka in his 1971 work, Agape: An Ethical the survival and flourishing of the objects of their Analysis, "special relations" are constituted by care. They offer other living things, plants and preference, whereas agape is constituted by animals, as food. They learn to facilitate the body's abstention from preference: we love someone own healing processes and to foster natural regardless of whether they are attractive to us or developmental pathways. They battle against can make a return on our love. The moral problem viruses, injuries, and natural disasters. They shelter then becomes one of allocating our love among their dependents within homes built from organic 83 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com preferential and nonpreferential relations, with any contrast universal, inclusive concern with particular decision to favor our preferential relations loves or pit the distant stranger against concern for requiring a special form of moral justification those near and dear to us. The globalization of the outside of the scope of agape. Special relations social organization of care means that the problem are important, and yet they are also dangerous that vexed the moderns — the problem of our distractions from disinterested, universal agape. In moral obligations to distant persons with whom we other words, the distributive problem is seen solely share humanity and interact in impersonal ways — in terms of the free choices of the individual as she has turned in on itself, as that distant person may allocates her moral energies among people she now be living in our home and changing our enjoys and people she does not. The problem of children's diapers (or our own). We cannot discern exclusion from care and community is not located the moral requirements of this situation in terms of within social and economic structures but is abstract universals, but neither can we draw upon a transferred to the will of the moral agent; it is not communitarian focus on a shared vision of the seen in terms of distribution of the concrete goods good. This is because some participants in the required to foster another human being's survival relevant moral relationships will not be part of our and flourishing, nor is it understood in terms of the community, but will be thousands of miles away, allocation of one's limited time and energy among missing their mother, or caring for the children of potential recipients of the labor of care. In this our nanny or home health care worker. They will be book, I challenge such a formulation and argue that living out ways of life that embody deep cultural, a Christian theology of love adequate to economic and political differences from our own, encompass dependent care relations must and yet are profoundly impacted by our own way understand love (particularly the element of care of life. A contemporary Christian ethic of provision) as interdependent with justice. dependent care relations must include a conception of love that can encompass care, and must An analysis of Christian love in terms of integrate Christian love with a conception of justice dependency and care is made more urgent by the that is adequate to address this globalization of contemporary phenomenon of "global care chains." caregiving relations, this "global heart transplant." This term, coined by Arlie Russell Hochschild, refers to "a series of personal links between people There are multiple terms for (and some would say across the globe based on the paid or unpaid work multiple forms of) Christian love: agape, eros, of caring." About half of the world's 2,32 million philia. In this book, I focus primarily on aspects of international migrants are women, and of these, an love most often captured by the word "agape," increasing number are migrating on their own (not while recognizing that not every thinker means the as a part of family units) in order to serve as child same thing by this word. In general, though, agape care workers, cleaners, home care aides, and connotes a steady other-regard that often comes at health care workers, or in long-term care, both in some cost to the self and is open to inclusion of all domestic and institutional settings. Many of these human persons (even if the individual Christian women leave behind their own children or elderly cannot personally show love to all human persons). parents in the care of other family members, Caregiving involves such other-regard and cost to neighbors, or even orphanages. In other words, the self, even when it is deeply rewarding. One of care-giving labor is effectively extracted from my primary concerns is the recognition of this many less-developed countries and imported to sacrifice in caregiving relations, and the integration more-developed countries, in what Hochschild has of justice with care such that this sacrifice, necessary dubbed a "global heart transplant." And some to the continuation of human life itself, is not forms of needed care are simply not available at disproportionately assigned to certain groups to all: the migration of health care workers has their severe detriment. I am also concerned that significant detrimental impacts on a range of key care be recognized more fully as moral work. Put health care indicators in sending countries, many of differently, I focus more on love as the sort of which have disproportionate health care needs. active benevolence highlighted in the parable of the Good Samaritan than on love as the spiritual This phenomenon confounds the paradigm used in communion highlighted in the Johannine literature. so many recent Christian love theologies that Dependent care is also frequently rewarding, and 84 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com the love that emerges in dependent care relations a Christian (and thus inclusive) ethic of dependent can express the sort of deep, spiritual, affective, care relations must incorporate both a more fully affirming, mutual, and erotic aspects that are articulated account of the human goods that both highlighted by many Christian thinkers. I do not politics and caring relations seek, and a more deny the importance of these dimensions of complex account of moral motives than Rawls uses Christian love, but my primary focus is elsewhere. to generate his principles of justice. Throughout this The justice I seek in dependent care relations can, in analysis, I draw upon, deepen, and occasionally fact, make precisely this sort of rich, rewarding critique recent work on Rawls by feminist and connection possible. disability theorists. Unfolding the Argument In Chapter 3, I trace the deliberate exclusion of Chapter 2 addresses the obfuscation of domestic and care work from the scope of the dependency and care in Enlightenment and "economic" during the development of classical and contemporary political theory. I begin by engaging neoclassical economics. This exclusion has resulted in the classical social contract political theories of John enormous material injustice against unpaid Locke and Thomas Hobbes. These thinkers, whose caregivers on a global scale, injustice that should primary theoretical opponents tried to ground be of direct concern to Christian ethics. Beyond this, political authority in relations of kinship and however, the exclusion of dependency and care dependency rather than autonomy, responded by from the realm of the economic required a highly either erasing (Hobbes) or privatizing (Locke) reductionist and dualistic account of the motives dependency and caregiving relations. In each case, involved in human economic activity, and thus leads the avoidance of dependency leads to internal to a distorted account of moral agency, one that theoretical contradictions, but both these cannot encompass the work of caregivers. Similarly, approaches to dependency continue to find this exclusion of dependency and care allows expression in contemporary theories of justice. I economists to avoid any consideration of the goods then engage the most influential twentieth century sought through economics. I close this chapter with political theorist, John Rawls, who combines aspects an analysis of the absurd implications that ensue of this social contract tradition (including its when Gary Becker turns a theory that was built on obfuscation of dependency) with strong Kantian the exclusion of the domestic sphere back onto the commitments. Rawls provides a fruitful conversation family. Constructively, this chapter argues that partner for several reasons. He brings together a dependent care relations must be recognized as strong emphasis on moral equality (through his economic, to secure justice for caregivers; but the strong commitment to Kantian respect for persons), conception of economics incorporated into an ethic an emphasis on equality as autonomy (which, again of dependent care relations cannot be the following Kant, serves as the grounding for moral neoclassical version applied by Becker and others. equality in Rawls), and a commitment to equality of It must be something closer to the "provisioning" basic need fulfillment, through the incorporation of conception adopted by feminist economists. a social minimum to meet basic needs. Thus, Rawls Taken together, Chapters 2 and 3 demonstrate the would appear to offer the sort of integration of interconnectedness, on a theoretical level, of the three forms of equality that I have argued any avoidance of any account of the goods to be ethic of dependent care relations must accomplish. sought in politics and economics, reductionist and However, to accomplish this, he also relies upon the bifurcated accounts of human motives, and the fourth form of equality, equality of power: he obfuscation of dependency and caregiving. These excludes the deeply and permanently dependent structural characteristics reappear again in the next (specifically, those with profound physical or two chapters, in which I examine the sacrificial and cognitive disabilities) from the scope of justice. Such equal-regard traditions among Christian love exclusion is not an option for a Christian ethic that theologies. Political theorists and economists avoid takes seriously the inclusivity of neighbor-love conceptions of the good to highlight and protect commanded by Jesus. A Christian ethic must do autonomy — autonomous choice both grounds some things differently to incorporate all persons. political authority and drives production and In particular, I begin to construct the argument that distribution in the market. In contrast, within these 85 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com two theological traditions, pursuit of the good is life that they must marginalize widespread framed as a matter of selfish grasping, something caregiving activity, activity that is not the exclusive dangerous to true Christian love, which is seen as purview of Christians. In fact, in marginalizing disinterested. As I shall argue, these theologies fall caregivers, these thinkers sideline an important into incoherence once we ask about the place of resource for challenging the self-interested, relations of dependent care within them. autonomous self and reclaiming the values they most want to promote. Christian sacrificial love Chapter 4 engages the sacrificial love tradition, theologies can engage productively with feminist particularly post-Enlightenment sacrificial love political ethics of care, but this will require some thinkers such as Kierkegaard, Niebuhr, Nygren, fundamental modifications to the existing sacrificial Ramsey, and, more recently, Timothy Jackson and tradition. I close the chapter with constructive Colin Grant. Though this tradition has been subject insights about how sacrifice must be framed within to wide and varied feminist critique, any ethic of a Christian ethic of dependent care relations. dependent care relations must incorporate an element of sacrifice, precisely because dependency In Chapter 5, I engage with Gene Outka's and the need for care are embedded so influential conception of agape as "equal regard," thoroughly in human existence. Sometimes we are a regard for others that is not based on any called to respond with our labor, concern, and particular characteristics that might render the material resources to persons who cannot object of love interesting or attractive to us. reciprocate fully, or at all. However, the thinkers Because it is unrelated to the particularity of the listed above treat sacrifice not as the pervasive other, agape is unalterable, claims Outka. He moral reality that it is, but as an ideal sharply constructs his conception of agape by analyzing opposed to the realities of our daily, embodied existing treatments of Christian love through the existence. In so doing, they marginalize caregivers lens of a school of analytic philosophy that has and their moral labor. Relatedly, in this tradition, been very effectively critiqued by feminist the positive moral work of helping life to flourish is philosophers for obscuring dependency and ignored. Thus the tradition requires a deeper and caregiving relations. But this critique has not yet more nuanced feminist critique. been applied to Outka himself. The fierce debate that Outka sparked over the relationship between The sacrificial love tradition, and particularly agape as "equal regard" and so-called "special Niebuhr, engages two foundational questions in relations" bore a striking resemblance to the Christian ethics that I have suggested must be debate over "justice" and "care" moral orientations addressed in any ethic of dependent care sparked by Carol Gilligan within feminist ethics, but relations: the nature of our moral engagement with the latter conversation has progressed beyond its natural processes, which involve adaptation for gendered beginnings and primary focus on the survival and flourishing, cooperation, symbiosis, and ethical orientation of the individual moral agent. competitive struggle; and the relation of love and Today feminist political theorists are producing justice. A dependent care ethic, I argue, must important work theorizing the appropriate social engage nature in a more complex way than simply structures to support caregiving relations, including idealizing transcendence of struggle and the ways in which such structures must evolve in light competition, and must incorporate a notion of of the globalization of the social organization of justice that goes beyond Niebuhr's balance of care. In contrast, the conversation in Christian ethics competing interests. Contemporary thinkers Jackson got stuck; it could not transcend the "moral and Grant each attempt to reclaim the sacrificial boundaries" (Joan Tronto) that obscure care in the love tradition in conversation with contemporary analytic philosophy on which Outka draws. critiques by feminist political theorists of dependency and care (Jackson) or by critics of the Chapters 2 through 5 outline bodies of thought in sharply separate autonomous self (Grant). These which the modern emphasis on equality and efforts are provocative, but ultimately cannot autonomy have worked to obscure dependency achieve their promise because both thinkers are so and devalue caregiving. In Chapter 6, I turn to committed to showing the uniqueness and necessity contemporary reclamations of a premodern of religious (specifically Christian) values in public tradition: the Thomistic understanding of Christian

86 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com love and its ordering. Stephen Pope, Jean Porter, including dependents and caregivers, can flourish. and others have effectively articulated many of the A conception of justice that can become part of a strengths of this tradition: it offers a picture of finite Christian ethic of dependent care relations must human persons embedded in a web of social recognize care as economic. Because so much of the relations of giving and receiving; it harnesses our care economy exists outside the market, because natural inclinations to do more good for those most care involves various complex local, national, and closely tied to us. To this, I add that the Thomistic international relationships and practices, and tradition conceives of us as loving others as good because caregivers are so vulnerable to for their own sakes, in a way that both calls out exploitation, this ethic of justice must articulate a sacrifice from us and adds goodness to our own juridical role for the state and for international lives. The Thomistic virtue tradition offers better regulatory and governing organizations. Finally, an tools than either sacrificial or equal-regard account of justice adequate to a Christian ethic of theologies for describing and assessing the dependent care relations must ensure that those complex, nuanced moral agency exercised within engaged in care processes can critically and particular dependent care relations. The Thomistic continuously assess care practices and the account of prudence, in particular, has parallels to allocation of responsibility for care. Such processes many feminist accounts of good care as comprised must amplify the voice of marginalized persons, of fine-grained judgments, careful attention, and who so often require the most care and/or provide emotional sensitivity. Finally, the Thomistic tradition the most demanding care. can draw upon a positive account of the goods that Given these parameters, in my final chapter, I care relations seek to instantiate — a rich account explore resources that might contribute to such an of what is due to vulnerable human beings. account of justice, including Catholic social thought, Things are more complicated, however, when we feminist retrievals of Thomistic natural law ethics, turn to the allocation of responsibility for care — secular feminist political ethics of care, and feminist what Thomas labels the "order of love." Here, some dependency-based theories of justice. Each of of the foundational assumptions of the Thomistic these resources has strengths and limitations for our tradition, assumptions deeply intertwined with the purposes, but together they may provide the European medieval social order and medieval building blocks to move forward. Finally, I explore scientific frameworks, must be challenged. The recent work in disability studies and feminist Thomistic order of love tradition is not sufficient, in philosophy on vulnerability, to show that secular a globalized context that is pervaded by feminist philosophy encounters difficulty when exploitation, inequality, and staggering levels of trying to ground an inclusive ethic that unmet human need, to ground an ethic of love and acknowledges dependency. I suggest that the inclusive justice for dependent care relations. Thus Christian theological tradition may offer resources the retrievable aspects of the Thomistic tradition for grounding our equality in dependency more must be integrated with a conception of justice effectively than secular feminist ethics can do. To adequate to the contemporary context, in which illustrate this possibility, I turn to a final resource, care itself has become a global commodity. Kathryn Tanner's notion of "non-contrastive Otherwise, an ethic based in the Thomistic order of transcendence" and its use to affirm a primordial love will only reinforce exclusionary structures of equality based in our relationship to God. <> injustice. How the Nations Rage: Rethinking Faith and Politics Accordingly, in Chapter 7, drawing on discussions in in a Divided Age by Jonathan Leeman [Thomas previous chapters, I outline several characteristics Nelson, 9781400207640] needed in any conception of justice adequate to address the contemporary global social How can we move forward amid such organization of care. Such a conception must political strife and cultural contention? articulate the prerequisites of human flourishing — We live in a time of division. It shows up not just the human goods — that caregiving relations between political parties and ethnic groups and should seek to fulfill. It is these prerequisites that churches but also inside of them. As Christians, must be distributed in such a way that all persons, we’ve felt pushed to the outskirts of national public

87 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com life, yet even then we are divided about how to Chapter 7: Christians: Not Cultural respond. Some want to strengthen the evangelical Warriors, but Ambassadors voting bloc. Others focus on social-justice causes, Chapter 8: Justice: Not Just Rights, but and still others would abandon the public square Right altogether. What do we do when brothers and Final Thoughts: Why the Battle Might Get Worse, but Our Political Hopes Can sisters in Christ sit next to each other in the pews Remain Unchanged, Untroubled, Untouched but feel divided and angry? Is there a way Notes forward? Acknowledgments In How the Nations Rage, political theology scholar About the Author and pastor Jonathan Leeman challenges Christians from across the spectrum to hit the restart button. Excerpt: First, we shift our focus from redeeming the nation to living as a redeemed nation. Second, we take A Nation Raging, a Church Unchanging the lessons learned inside the church into our public I am writing this late in the evening on July 4. My engagement outside of it by loving our neighbors daughters are in bed. The sizzle and crackle of and seeking justice. When we identify with Christ fireworks are over. But the music from PBS's more than a political party or social grouping, we coverage of the concert outside the US Capitol avoid the false allure of building heaven on earth building still rings in my ears. The show combined and return to the church’s unchanging political task: patriotic music, words from well-known American to represent a heavenly and future kingdom now. heroes, and photos of iconic American images—the It’s only when we realize that the life of our Statue of Liberty, the Lincoln Monument, the Grand churches now is the hope of the nation for tomorrow Canyon, the Golden Gate Bridge, and so on. that we become the salt and light Jesus calls us to O beautiful for spacious skies, for amber waves of be. grain. Jonathan Leeman is the editorial director at I feel a swell of emotion. Independence Day, for 9Marks, a ministry that helps church leaders build me, brings with it a sense of nostalgia, almost like a healthy churches. He teaches theology at several birthday does. A birthday evokes memories of seminaries and has written a number of books on childhood. July Fourth evokes memories of, well, the church. He is also a research fellow with the how do you describe it? Memories of America? Ethics and Religious Liberty Commission. He has What it is, what it represents, what we want it to degrees in political science and English, a master of be. science in political theory, a master of divinity, and a doctorate in political theology. Jonathan served I don't recall when I first became conscious of my for years as an elder at Capitol Hill Baptist Church affection for the United States. Maybe it was amid in Washington, DC, but has since left to plant a the glint of sparklers on the Second, our outward nearby church. He lives in the DC area with his wife turn must account for large-scale realities. For some and four daughters. Christians this might mean taking a job or using vacation time to combat broader "headline Contents grabbing" injustices. I think of Clare from my own Chapter 1: A Nation Raging, a Church church who took a year after college to move to Unchanging Guatemala to do data monitoring and evaluations Chapter 2: Public Square: Not Neutral, but on child sexual assault. I think of Thomasine, also a Battleground of Gods Chapter 3: Heart: Not Self-Exalting, but from my church, who moved to Ghana for a couple Born Again and Justified of years to fight slavery in the fishing industry. Chapter 4: Bible: Not Case Law, but a Chesed, a next-door neighbor and close family Constitution friend, has helped facilitate connections between Chapter 5: Government: Not a Savior, but refugees from Afghanistan and members of our a Platform Builder church. Dave, a friend of mine from another church, Chapter 6: Churches: Not Lobbying uses his vacations to fly to Thailand and work Organizations, but Embassies of Heaven against the sex-trafficking industry there. He's done this seven years in a row. 88 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Accounting for larger-scale realities more applicants. They proposed paying for this program commonly means examining where you live, work, by curtailing the printing of government or go to church and asking yourself if there's publications that are already available online. And anything you can do to address long-term I'm quite sure the world would benefit from fewer entrenched patterns or policies that cause some government publications! They have also partnered groups to be overlooked or disenfranchised. together to work on issues surrounding mass Drawing from the previous examples of implicit incarceration. bias, a real estate agent might consider how to I know little to nothing about these two men address the widespread pattern of treating otherwise, but I do pray the saints would follow minority and majority clients differently. Doctors that kind of bipartisan example. And I rejoice that might investigate why Asian Americans receive less many have already begun. cancer referrals even if they contract cancer at a higher rate. Law enforcement officers or teachers *** might look for ways to address such biases in their I confess, I'm not immediately optimistic about work. My friend Matt is a partner at a DC firm. He America's race problem, as well as its other points was asked to join the diversity committee. The firm of division. We keep reasserting our shared beliefs wanted to promote diversity by making a big deal in rights, equality, and liberty. But hiding inside of of Martin Luther King Day. That's fine. But much those words are different gods with their different more crucial, Matt proposed, is for the partners to views of justice. The principles that unite America, start looking for strong minority associates, taking ironically, divide it. them under their wing, and grooming them toward partnership. It's a long-term solution, but it will build And that's the bigger issue here. Our challenges on something more solid that lasts. It doesn't simply race are just one illustration of it. Equality, liberty, paint the veneer of reconciliation. and individual rights are good gifts from God. But apart from God they lack the ballast to keep a As we continue to pursue a Christian vision for nation united. There is no appeal to what's right justice, we must address political policies and and the Maker of right. Therefore, the nation rages projects. Most Christians already have a vision for against the Lord, just like every other nation since this, and we've talked about it in earlier chapters. the nativity of nations. Folks on the Right tend to work against issues like abortion. Folks on the Left tend to work against Can we force the nation to adopt our definition of racial matters. It's deeply frustrating to me, as I right in the public square? No, of course not. But said in the introduction, that Satan has managed to that doesn't mean we should stop speaking up for it so successfully divide Christians and churches, and living by it. Our political success, remember, particularly along ethnic lines, through our depends on faithfulness, not results. differently weighted justice burdens. The first step I do have hope and trust in the work of Christ and to restoring trust is reclaiming our joint membership his Spirit in the church. Our churches have the in the gospel. The second is to drop the solution: gospel love and gospel justice. One leads defensiveness and better listen to one another. to the other. In love, God the just became God the Imagine if majority and minority saints began to justifier. While we were yet sinners, Christ died for work together here? Might the saints not push back us (Rom. 5:8). In so doing he removed the barrier the kingdom of darkness a pace or two? In my between us and God, and then the barrier estimate, the greater responsibility to listen, learn, between us and one another. Our fate and hope and move in belongs to the majority. But let every and life in no way hangs on the favor of the saint heed the call of the gospel to unity, love, and nations. justice. Gospel love and gospel justice together untangle I appreciate the example of Republican Senator knots, neutralize acids, and dissolve the most Tim Scott working together with Democrat Senator intractable clogs. Love alone will cause us to choose Cory Booker to stimulate jobs for younger justice, to beat our swords into plowshares and Americans by offering tax credits to employers spears into pruning hooks. To turn the other cheek who offer apprenticeships for younger job and walk the extra mile. 89 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

Shouldn't our churches be the first places on the that the faintest glimmers of this warning show up planet where we witness these things? Where, as I every time someone looks at a dollar bill or hears said in chapter 1, we achieve and cherish Lincoln's that song. just and lasting peace? We should live this way inside. We should turn to do the same outside. The Love of Nation church's work, finally, is in no way contingent on the I do want God to bless America, land that I love. I favor of the nation toward Christianity. We might want him to bless it with peace and justice. I want be popular or unpopular. But our political task is the nation to know the blessing that comes to the same: love your neighbor, share the gospel, do citizens and leaders who take refuge in him, as the justice. final line of the psalm says. Some of my more globally minded friends wonder Why the Battle Might Get Worse, but if it's okay to love your country. As with many forms Our Political Hopes Can Remain of love, there's healthy and unhealthy versions of Unchanged, Untroubled, Untouched love for country. I went to a Washington Nationals baseball game yesterday with my wife and kids. We had a great I love America analogously to how I love my own time: pretzels, cheese fries, cotton candy, church. I don't love my church to the exclusion of lemonade. No one got a hot dog though. other churches. All our churches share one gospel and one God. We belong to one family. We're on During the seventh-inning stretch a woman sang the same team. Nonetheless, it's the members of my "God Bless America." People stood. Some removed own church whose names I know, whose children I their hats. watch in the nursery, whose classes I teach, whose I have to admit, that song feels a little strange to lives I'm a part of. My love for all God's people is me. Which God? What kind of blessing? It's sort of exercised there, among them, even with all our like the words "In God we trust" on our dollar bills. shortcomings and sin. Are we talking about the same God? And trust It should be the same with our love for our nation. how? We should not love it to the exclusion of other I see advantages and disadvantages to those kinds nations. We all share one God and belong to one of civic expressions of belief and trust in God. On common, God-imaging humanity. God has deter- the one hand, it's the church's job to pronounce the mined the periods and the boundaries of America name of the Almighty. Also, such civic expressions and every other nation so that people may find can feel like hypocrisy. their way to him (Acts 17:26-27). Nonetheless, it's the citizens and statues and buildings and holidays On the other hand, a nation and its rulers should and artists and landscapes and baseball games remind them-selves often that they will appear and cheese fries and hospital delivery rooms of our before the judgment seat of Christ, so that each nation whose names we know. Our love for may receive what is due for what has been done in humanity should be exercised there, among them, the body, whether good or evil (2 Cor. 5:10). The even with all our shortcomings and sin. psalmist warned: Hope for the Nation Now therefore, O kings, be wise; None of us knows what's ahead for the nation. The be warned, O rulers of the earth. Serve the LORD with fear, battle might tem-porarily grow fiercer. It might and rejoice with trembling. temporarily improve. We do know the nation will Kiss the Son, rage against our God and against his Anointed. lest he be angry, and you perish in the The Anointed One, his son Jesus, promised that they way, will do this until he returns. for his wrath is quickly kindled. Blessed are all who take refuge in him. (Ps. Yet the political hopes of the church can remain 2:10-12) unchanged, untroubled, untouched. After all, our Notice to whom these lines are addressed: the kings life is a supernatural life, and our work is a and rulers of all nations, including ours. And as supernatural work, my pastor has said. We cannot voters, aren't we those rulers? Perhaps it's good raise the dead or give sight to the blind. That was 90 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com true in the 1790s and the 1950s, and it's true it can be "free," in some impoverished and mangy today. Our work therefore is no harder or easier sense of that word, like a stray dog is free. But it than it's ever been. It has always depended won't be both. entirely on God. Which brings me back to healthy churches. If there We should not be naïve about the forces of is hope for the nation, it's through the witness and darkness arrayed against us. But fear and work of churches. Our congregations have the withdrawal make no sense for the church. We press opportunity to live transformed lives as a on as we always have. transformed culture through a transformed politics in their own fellowships right now—all for God's Yet, if I'm going to have any hope for the nation, I glory and our neighbors' good. And we will cannot place it in the nation. I will place it in become such heavenly outposts when we focus first healthy churches. not on the public square, but on preaching the People often extol the genius of the American Word and making disciples. Together those founders and the wisdom of the Constitution. And disciples must grow up to maturity, into Christ, as let's give honor where honor is due. Unless you each part does its work (Eph. 4:13-16). The count the tiny republic of San Marino whose resonant effects in the home, the marketplace, the documents apparently go back to 1600, America public square, and the rest of life then follow. possesses the oldest written constitution in the world. God does not intend to display his own justice and It has needed some fixing along the way, righteousness and wisdom through the wise, noble, particularly after the Civil War. But it's generally and powerful things of this world, but through the proven more durable than anything found in the foolish, weak, and despised things. He means to old and great nations of Russia, China, Germany, magnify himself not primarily through the US Egypt, or elsewhere. Not only that, America has Congress, the New York Times editorial page, or arguably proven to be among the most prosperous, Ivy League philosophy departments, but through strong, and free nations in history. Brother Bob, Sister Sue, and Deacon Darnell down Yet it seems to me we should give as much credit to at Bumblestew Baptist. the childhood pastors and Christian parents of the Oh, nations of the earth, watch those three American founders as to the men themselves. gathered in Jesus' name to see the way of God's Nearly every founder was weaned on the moral justice and mercy. They are God's salt and light for virtues of Christianity, even if many of them you. Do you sense something distinct in them? See eventually rejected its doctrines. They inconsistently something bright? They are far from perfect, to be applied the lessons, but they were taught to regard sure. But their King is perfect. And their lives human beings as created in God's image, each together should offer you the first taste of his person worthy of dignity and respect. They kingdom. <> inherited an understanding of rights and the conscience and equality from a faith that, yes, they variously kept at arm's length. They took the flowers, even if they cut them from the roots. Bibliography

God's common grace grants many a nation better than it deserves, but I have little confidence that Christianity in the Second Century: Themes and America will long remain strong, prosperous, and Developments edited by James Carleton Paget free without any concept of God's righteousness and Judith Lieu [University of Cambridge Press, and justice somewhere in the background. That's not 9781107165229] because I believe in a civil prosperity gospel: obey A Companion to Second-Century Christian 'Heretics' God and the nation will be blessed as his chosen edited by Petri Luomanen and Antti Marjanen people. It's because I believe the way of God's [Supplements to Vigiliae Christianae, Brill Academic righteousness and justice is the way of wisdom. And Publishing, 9789004144644] It also includes a prosperity and flourishing ordinarily come to the paperback edition. wise. The nation can be strong apart from God's righteousness, like a totalitarian state is strong. Or 91 | Page spotlight|©authors|or|wordtrade.com

The Origin of Divine Christology by Andrew Ter Ern [After Christendom, Cascade Books, Loke [Society for New Testament Studies 9781532617300] Monograph Series, Cambridge University Press, The Schism of '68: Catholicism, Contraception and 9781107199262] Humanae Vitae in Europe, 1945-1975 edited by A Companion to Religion in Late Antiquity by Josef Alana Harris [Palgrave Macmillan, Lössl and Nicholas J. Baker-Brian [Blackwell 9783319708102] Companions to the Ancient World, Wiley- How the Nations Rage: Rethinking Faith and Politics , 9781118968109] Blackwell in a Divided Age by Jonathan Leeman [Thomas Beatific Enjoyment in Medieval Scholastic Debates: Nelson, 9781400207640] The Complex Legacy of Saint Augustine and Peter Human Dependency and Christian Ethics by Sandra Lombard by Severin Valentinov Kitanov [Lexington Sullivan-Dunbar [New Studies in Christian Ethics, Books, 9781498556484] Cambridge University Press, 9781107168893] Augustine: Conversions to Confessions by Robin ‘Two Scrubby Travellers’: A psychoanalytic view of Lane Fox [Basic Books, 9780465022274] flourishing and constraint in religion through the Augustine in Context edited by Tarmo Toom lives of John and Charles Wesley by Pauline [Cambridge University Press, 9781107139107] Watson [Routledge, 9781138241046] Augustine and Kierkegaard edited by Kim Paffenroth and John Doody [Augustine in Conversation: Tradition and Innovation, Lexington Books, 9781498561846] Leontius of Byzantium: Complete Works edited and translated, with an Introduction by Brian E. Daley, SJ [Oxford Early Christian Texts, Oxford, 9780199645237] Sulpicius Severus' Vita Martini by Philip Burton [Oxford University Press, 9780199676224] Sulpicius Severus by Richard J. Goodrich [Ancient Christian Writers, Paulist Press, 9780809106202] Maximus the Confessor as a European Philosopher edited by Sotiris Mitralexis, Georgios Steiris, Marcin Podbielski, Sebastian Lalla [Veritas, Cascade Books, 9781498295581] The Culture of the Incarnation: Essays in Catholic Theology by Tracey Rowland [Emmaus Academic, 9781945125171] The Culture of the Incarnation: Essays in Catholic Theology by Tracey Rowland [Emmaus Academic, 9781945125171] Post-Christendom: church and mission in a strange new world, Second edition by Stuart Murray [After Christendom Series, Cascade Books, 9781532617973] Theology after Christendom: forming prophets for a post-Christendom world by Joshua T. Searle

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Appendix: John Paul II and the authorship of Gaudium et Spes 22 §1 and 24 §3 See next page

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