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The Ribosomal Gene Loci—The Power Behind the Throne

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G C A T T A C G G C A T genes Review The Ribosomal Gene Loci—The Power behind the Throne Konstantin I. Panov 1,2, Katherine Hannan 2,3, Ross D. Hannan 2,3,4,5,6 and Nadine Hein 2,* 1 PGJCCR and School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University, Belfast BT9 5DL, UK; [email protected] 2 ACRF Department of Cancer Biology and Therapeutics, John Curtin School of Medical Research, Australian National University, Acton 2601, Australia; [email protected] (K.H.); [email protected] (R.D.H.) 3 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville 3010, Australia 4 Oncogenic Signalling and Growth Control Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Melbourne 3000, Australia 5 Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton 3800, Australia 6 School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia 4067, Australia * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Nucleoli form around actively transcribed ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes (rDNA), and the morphology and location of nucleolus-associated genomic domains (NADs) are linked to the RNA Polymerase I (Pol I) transcription status. The number of rDNA repeats (and the proportion of actively transcribed rRNA genes) is variable between cell types, individuals and disease state. Substantial changes in nucleolar morphology and size accompanied by concomitant changes in the Pol I tran- scription rate have long been documented during normal cell cycle progression, development and malignant transformation. This demonstrates how dynamic the nucleolar structure can be. Here, we will discuss how the structure of the rDNA loci, the nucleolus and the rate of Pol I transcription are important for dynamic regulation of global gene expression and genome stability, e.g., through the modulation of long-range genomic interactions with the suppressive NAD environment. These observations support an emerging paradigm whereby the rDNA repeats and the nucleolus play a key Citation: Panov, K.I.; Hannan, K.; regulatory role in cellular homeostasis during normal development as well as disease, independent Hannan, R.D.; Hein, N. The Ribosomal Gene Loci—The Power of their role in determining ribosome capacity and cellular growth rates. behind the Throne. Genes 2021, 12, 763. https://doi.org/10.3390/ Keywords: nucleolus; nucleolar associated domain (NAD); ribosomal genes; RNA polymerase I; genes12050763 transcription; heterochromatin; genome architecture; cell fate; differentiation; cancer Academic Editor: Kumiko Ui-Tei Received: 15 April 2021 1. Nucleoli and the rDNA Genes Accepted: 14 May 2021 Although genetic information is encoded in a linear DNA sequence, the transcription Published: 18 May 2021 of particular genes (or gene clusters) depends on the surrounding chromatin structure and higher-order chromosomal interactions. Eukaryotic chromatin is tightly packed into the Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral nucleus with a portion compressed into subnuclear domains, one of which is the nucleolus. with regard to jurisdictional claims in Nucleoli form around ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes (rDNA) and dictate the nucleolar published maps and institutional affil- morphology and the positioning of nucleolar-associated chromatin domains (NADs) within iations. the nucleus. rRNA genes were first visualized in yeast in the late 1960s by Miller and Beatty using Miller spreads, which provided structural details of actively transcribed rRNA genes, specifically showing a single rDNA repeat transcribed by a multitude of RNA Polymerase I (Pol I) complexes, which they described as the Christmas tree structure [1]. These Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. preparations further revealed that around 100 Pol I molecules simultaneously transcribe Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. one gene at a speed of approximately 95 nucleotides/second [2]. In higher eukaryotes, This article is an open access article the presence of histones in the transcribed region is a matter of debate, but it is widely distributed under the terms and accepted that the transcribed region is deprived of fully assembled nucleosomes [2,3], conditions of the Creative Commons which are replaced by upstream binding factor (UBTF). The transcribed 47S precursor Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ rRNA (pre-rRNA) is rapidly processed into the mature 28S, 5.8S and 18S rRNA, which 4.0/). assemble together with the 5S rRNA synthesized by RNA Polymerase III and approximately Genes 2021, 12, 763. https://doi.org/10.3390/genes12050763 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/genes Genes 2021, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 18 which assemble together with the 5S rRNA synthesized by RNA Polymerase III and ap- proximately 79 ribosomal proteins translated from mRNAs transcribed by RNA Polymer- ase II (Pol II) into the 40S and 60S ribosomal subunits. While the process of ribosome bio- Genes 2021, 12, 763 2 of 17 genesis (RiBi) has long been associated with the nucleolus, more recently other essential non-ribosomal cellular functions have been attributed to this nuclear subdomain. The nu- cleolus is now recognized as a plurifunctional hub coordinating the nucleolar surveillance pathway79 ribosomal in response proteins to translatedcellular stress from [4–8], mRNAs a modulator transcribed of bygenome RNA Polymerasearchitecture II[9–11] (Pol II) andinto a phase-separated the 40S and 60S ribosomalcompartment subunits. for protein While quality the process control of [12]. ribosome biogenesis (RiBi) has long been associated with the nucleolus, more recently other essential non-ribosomal 2. cellularCanonical functions and Non-Canonical have been attributed rDNA Repeats to this nuclear subdomain. The nucleolus is now recognized as a plurifunctional hub coordinating the nucleolar surveillance pathway in In humans, the rDNA genes are arranged in a head-to-tail orientation forming repeat response to cellular stress [4–8], a modulator of genome architecture [9–11] and a phase- arrays organized in the nucleolar organizer regions (NOR) at the short arm of the 5 acro- separated compartment for protein quality control [12]. centric chromosomes. The precise organization and exact number of repeats is species, cell2. type Canonical and age and dependent Non-Canonical [13,14]. rDNA Canonica Repeatsl repeats in human cells are 43–45 kb in length and composed of a core and spacer promoter, a transcribed region containing both In humans, the rDNA genes are arranged in a head-to-tail orientation forming repeat a 5′ and 3′ external transcribed spacer region (ETS), two internal transcribed spacer regions arrays organized in the nucleolar organizer regions (NOR) at the short arm of the 5 acro- (ITS) and the 18S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA coding regions, with each individual repeat sepa- centric chromosomes. The precise organization and exact number of repeats is species, cell rated by a non-coding intergenic spacer (IGS; ~30 kb) [15] (Figure 1). In higher eukaryotes, type and age dependent [13,14]. Canonical repeats in human cells are 43–45 kb in length the core promoter dictates transcription of the pre-47S rRNA [16,17], whereas the spacer and composed of a core and spacer promoter, a transcribed region containing both a 50 and promoter [18–21] mediates transcription of non-coding RNAs (see below). Transcription 30 external transcribed spacer region (ETS), two internal transcribed spacer regions (ITS) termination factor 1 (TTF-1) binds to the transcription terminator sites downstream of the and the 18S, 5.8S and 28S rRNA coding regions, with each individual repeat separated 28Sby coding a non-coding region and intergenic blocks Pol spacer I elongation (IGS; ~30 [22–24]. kb) [15 ] (Figure1). In higher eukaryotes, theThe core upstream promoter transcription dictates transcription enhancer ofelements the pre-47S (UTEEs), rRNA also [16, 17known], whereas as the the spacer spacer promoterpromoter enhancer [18–21] mediatesrepeat, are transcription another regulato of non-codingry element RNAs located (see in below).the IGS Transcription[25]. This is thetermination site of the factorformation 1 (TTF-1) of an binds enhancer to the boundary transcription complex terminator formed sites by downstreamCCCTC-binding of the factor28S coding(CTCF) region and cohesion and blocks [24]. Pol I elongation [22–24]. FigureFigure 1. rDNA 1. rDNA gene gene arrays arrays (purple) (purple) are located are located on the onshort the arms short of armsthe human of the acrocentric human acrocentric chro- mosomes.chromosomes. Organization Organization of a single of a singlerDNA rDNAgene: e gene:nhancer, enhancer, upstream upstream control control element element (UCE), (UCE), core core promoterpromoter (CORE), (CORE), 5′/3 50′/3 external0 external transcribed transcribed spacer spacer (ETS), (ETS), 18S, 18S, 5.8S, 5.8S, 28S, 28S, internal internal transcribed transcribed spacer spacer (ITS1/2),(ITS1/2), and and transcription transcription term terminatorinator factor factor 1 (TTF-1) 1 (TTF-1) site. site. UpstreamThe upstream the enhancer transcription boundary enhancer complex elements is flanked (UTEEs), by nucleosomes, also known while as the down- spacer streampromoter various enhancer components repeat, of are the another Pol I basal regulatory transcription element apparatus located inwere the found, IGS [25 includ-]. This is ingthe Pol site I, selectively of the formation factor -1 of (SL-1), an enhancer UBTF, boundaryRRN3, and complex TTF-1. The formed functional by CCCTC-binding significance of factorthese components (CTCF) and cohesionis unclear
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  • Shaping of the 3D Genome by the Atpase Machine Cohesin Yoori Kim1 and Hongtao Yu1,2

    Shaping of the 3D Genome by the Atpase Machine Cohesin Yoori Kim1 and Hongtao Yu1,2

    Kim and Yu Experimental & Molecular Medicine (2020) 52:1891–1897 https://doi.org/10.1038/s12276-020-00526-2 Experimental & Molecular Medicine REVIEW ARTICLE Open Access Shaping of the 3D genome by the ATPase machine cohesin Yoori Kim1 and Hongtao Yu1,2 Abstract The spatial organization of the genome is critical for fundamental biological processes, including transcription, genome replication, and segregation. Chromatin is compacted and organized with defined patterns and proper dynamics during the cell cycle. Aided by direct visualization and indirect genome reconstruction tools, recent discoveries have advanced our understanding of how interphase chromatin is dynamically folded at the molecular level. Here, we review the current understanding of interphase genome organization with a focus on the major regulator of genome structure, the cohesin complex. We further discuss how cohesin harnesses the energy of ATP hydrolysis to shape the genome by extruding chromatin loops. Introduction dynamic and preferentially form at certain genomic loci to The diploid human genome contains 46 chromosomes regulate gene expression and other DNA transactions. In and 6 billion nucleotides of DNA that, when fully exten- this article, we review our current understanding of the ded, span a length of over 2 m. The genomic DNA has to local and global landscapes of interphase chromatin and fi 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; 1234567890():,; be folded and con ned in the nucleus, which has a discuss how cohesin structures chromatin. dimension of ~10 μm. The compaction of genomic DNA also needs to be dynamic and orderly to allow myriad Local folding of interphase chromatin biochemical reactions that occur on the DNA template, Until recently, the dominant hypothesis for genome including DNA replication and repair, homologous packaging was the hierarchical folding model.