The War for Independence

Main Idea Reading Strategy Reading Objectives After a war lasting several years, the Sequencing As you read about the war • Describe the strategies behind the colonists finally won their independence for independence, complete a time line Northern Campaign. from Great Britain. similar to the one below to record the • Summarize the scope of the war at sea. major battles and their outcomes. Key Terms and Names Section Theme William Howe, guerrilla warfare, Nathan Global Connections Hostility between

Hale, Valley Forge, Marquis de Lafayette, 1776 1781 the French and British caused France to Saratoga, letters of marque, John Paul support the colonies. Jones, Charles Cornwallis, Battle of Kings Mountain

!1775 !1778 !1781 !1784

1776 1777 1777–1778 1781 1783 Battle of The British surrender Washington camps at Cornwallis surrenders Treaty of Paris Trenton at Saratoga Valley Forge for the winter at Yorktown signed

Colonel Henry Beckman Livingston could only watch helplessly the suffering around him. A veteran of several military campaigns, Livingston huddled with the rest of George Washington’s army at its winter quarters at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania. The winter of 1777 to 1778 was brutally cold, and the army lacked food, clothing, and other supplies. Huddled in small huts, soldiers wrapped themselves in blankets and survived on the smallest of rations. Livingston described the army’s plight in a letter to his brother, Robert: “Our troops are in general almost naked and very often in a starveing condition. All my men except 18 are unfit for duty for want of shoes, stockings, and shirts. . . . Poor Jack has been necessitated to make up his blanket into a vest and breeches. If I did not fear starveing with cold I should be tempted to do the same. ”

—adapted from A Salute to Courage The Opposing Sides The struggle at Valley Forge was a dark hour for the patriots. No one knew if they were strong enough to defeat the powerful British Empire. On the same day that the Continental Congress voted for independence, the British began landing troops in New York. By mid- August, they had assembled an estimated 32,000 men under the command of General William Howe. British officials did not expect the rebellion to last long. The British troops, called “redcoats” because of their uniforms, were disciplined, well trained, and well equipped.

138 CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution Compared to the British troops, the Continental Another problem for the British was that they were Army was inexperienced and poorly equipped. not united at home. Many merchants and members of Throughout the war, it struggled to keep its recruits Parliament opposed the war. The British had to win and pay their wages. Although over 230,000 men quickly and cheaply; otherwise, opinions in Parliament served in the , they rarely num- would shift against the war. The United States did not bered more than 20,000 at any one time. Many sol- have to defeat Britain—it simply had to survive until diers deserted or refused to reenlist when their term the British became tired of paying for the war. was up. Others left their posts and returned to their The European balance of power also hampered the farms at planting or harvest time. British. The French, Dutch, and Spanish were all Paying for the war was equally difficult. Lacking eager to exploit Britain’s problems. As a result, the power to tax, the Continental Congress issued Britain had to station much of its military elsewhere paper money. These “Continentals” were not backed in the world to defend its empire. The European bal- by gold or silver and became almost worthless very ance of power also meant that the Patriots might be quickly. Fortunately Robert Morris, a wealthy able to find allies against the British. Pennsylvania merchant and banker, personally Reading Check pledged large amounts of money for the war effort. Identifying What three major dis- Morris also set up an efficient method of buying advantages did the British face in the American Revolution? rations and uniforms, arranged for foreign loans, and convinced the Congress to create the Bank of North America to finance the military. The Northern Campaign The Continental Army was not the only force the The British knew that to end the war quickly, they British had to worry about. They also had to fight the not only had to win several battles but also had to con- local militias. The militias were poorly trained, but vince the American people that their cause was hope- they fought differently. They did not always line up less. At the same time, the British had to make it safe to for battle. They hid among trees and behind walls surrender. If the Patriots thought they would be and ambushed British troops and supply wagons, hanged for treason, they would never surrender. then disappeared. This kind of fighting is called General Howe’s strategy had two parts. The first guerrilla warfare, and it is very difficult to defeat. part was military. He began a massive buildup in New York, hoping to intimidate the Americans and capture . This would separate New Colonial hat The Opposing Sides Colonial Advantages British Advantages Fighting on home ground Well-trained, well-supplied army and navy

Good decisions by generals Wealth of resources

Fighting for their rights and freedoms Strong central government

French alliance: loans, navy, troops

Colonial Disadvantages British Disadvantages Untrained soldiers; small army Fighting in unfamiliar, hostile territory

Food and ammunition shortages Fighting far away from Britain and resources

Weak and divided central government Troops indifferent; halfhearted support at home

1. Interpreting Charts Why was fighting for their Colonial rifle rights and freedoms an advantage for the colonists? 2. Analyzing In what ways would a weak govern- ment be a disadvantage in war time? War for Independence, 1775–1777 Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge. Howe told them that anyone who put American forces down their arms and swore loyalty to the king would British forces be pardoned. The Americans quickly realized that American victory Howe had no authority to negotiate a compromise British victory and was only interested in talking them into surren- Fort dering. They refused to talk further, and the stage NOVA was set for the first major battle. 0 100 miles SCOTIA

0 100 kilometers Albers Conic Equal-Area projection Opening Moves Despite the size of the British . R e forces preparing to seize New York City, the c QUEBEC n 7 e 7 MAINE r 17 °N Continental Congress asked Washington to defend , 45 w e (Part of MASS.) a n L y the city. Congressional leaders feared that if New . o t g S r York fell without a fight, it would hurt American u Montreal B morale. Washington agreed with this assessment, and he moved much of his army to and 4 Burgoyne surrenders 7 Manhattan Island. 7 at Saratoga, 17 , er Ft. Ticonderoga Oct. 17, 1777 The inexperience of Washington’s troops became eg L July 6, 1777 t. obvious when British troops landed on Long Island in S N.H. e How the summer of 1776. Many American soldiers fled, and eral Saratoga Bennington Gen 776 Aug. 15, 1777 17, 1 another 1,500 became casualties. Fortunately, the March Oriskany MASS. British did not move quickly after their victory, and Albany Bemis Heights Aug. 6, 1777 Oct. 7, 1777 the surviving American troops escaped to Manhattan N.Y. R.I. Kingston CONN. Island where they joined the remainder of 1 British capture Washington’s army defending New York City. New York City, 1776 Ft. Montgomery Using their ships, the British could have landed °N 40 New York City Heights troops north of New York City and surrounded the PA. N.J. Aug. 27, 1776 76 American positions, but again, they moved too Princeton ly 17 Germantown Ge e, Ju 70 °W slowly. Washington abandoned the city and headed Oct. 4, 1777 neral How Trenton Brandywine Creek 2 Americans attack British to the northern end of Manhattan. The British then Sept. 11, 1777 Philadelphia at Trenton, Dec. 1776, captured New York and used it as their headquarters and Princeton, Jan. 1777 for the rest of the war.

7

DEL. 7 About this time, Washington sent Captain Nathan 7 3 1 Howe captures

, e Philadelphia, 1777 Hale to spy on the British. Although Hale was dis- w MD. o H guised as a Dutch schoolteacher, he was caught by l a N r e the British and hanged. Brave until the end, Hale’s n Atlantic e E VA. G Ocean W last words were: “I only regret that I have but one life S to lose for my country.” Shortly afterward, Chesapeake Washington moved most of his troops from Bay Manhattan to White Plains, New York, where the ° 35 N British once again engaged the Americans in battle. N.C. 75 °W 1. Interpreting Maps Name two sites of Crossing the Delaware At the Battle of White colonial victories in New Jersey. Plains in October 1776, the British forced Washington 2. Applying Geography Skills What was to retreat again. Then they surprised him. Instead of the role of the British Navy in the war? coming after the Continental Army, the British troops headed toward Philadelphia, where the Continental Congress was meeting. Washington’s troops received England from the Southern states and demonstrate word of this new plan. They had to move fast, but to Americans that they could not win. they managed to get there ahead of the British. The second part of Howe’s strategy was diplo- While this march was taking place, Thomas matic. He invited delegates from the Continental Paine wrote another pamphlet to help boost Congress to a peace conference. The Congress sent American morale. In The American Crisis, he

140 CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution reminded his fellow Americans that “the harder the Howe’s operation was a military success but a conflict, the more glorious the triumph”: political failure. On September 11, 1777, he defeated Washington at the Battle of Brandywine Creek and “These are the times that try men’s souls. The captured Philadelphia. To Howe’s frustration, how- summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will in this ever, the Continental Congress escaped. Howe crisis shrink from the service of their country; but he failed to destroy the Continental Army, which soon that stands it now deserves the love and thanks of took up winter quarters at Valley Forge. There, man and woman. the bitter cold and food shortages killed nearly ” 2,500 men. The American Crisis —from Even amidst the harsh conditions of Valley Forge, Washington managed to secure training for his army. By the time Washington reached Pennsylvania, Joining him at Valley Forge were two European mili- winter had begun. The British stopped their advance tary officers, the Marquis de Lafayette from France and dispersed into winter quarters in New Jersey. In and Baron Friedrich von Steuben from Prussia. These the 1700s, armies did not usually fight in the winter officers helped Washington improve discipline and because of the weather and scarce food supplies. boost morale among the weary troops. At this point, Washington tried something daring France Enters the War General Burgoyne did not and unexpected—a winter attack. On December 25, know Howe had gone south to attack Philadelphia. 1776, he led approximately 2,400 men across the icy In June 1777, he and an estimated 8,000 troops Delaware River. The army then attacked a group of marched south from Quebec into New York. From Hessians at Trenton in the middle of a sleet storm. the eastern end of Lake Ontario, another 900 troops They killed or captured almost 1,000 men. Several and over 1,000 Iroquois warriors headed east toward days later, at Princeton, Washington’s forces scat- Albany. The Iroquois had allied with the British hop- tered three British regiments. Having achieved two ing to keep American settlers off Iroquois lands. small victories, Washington headed into the hills of Despite some early victories, Burgoyne’s forces northern New Jersey for the winter. were not able to defeat the Americans defending upper New York. The British troops and Iroquois marching Philadelphia Falls In March 1777, King George III east from Lake Ontario were ambushed by militia and approved a plan developed by General John then driven back by American troops under General Burgoyne to isolate New England from the other Benedict Arnold. Meanwhile, Burgoyne’s own troops American states. Burgoyne proposed a three- could not drive off the militia. With his supplies dwin- pronged attack on New York. He would take a large dling, Burgoyne surrendered at Saratoga, New York. force south into New York from Montreal. Another The American victory at Saratoga was a turning point force would move from Montreal up the St. Lawrence River to Lake Ontario then head east into New York. A third force, led by General Howe, would march north from New York City up the Hudson River valley. The three forces would meet near Albany, then march east into New England. Unfortunately for the British, they did not coordinate the plan. By spring 1777, General Howe had made his own plans. He loaded about 13,000 men onto ships and moved them to Maryland. From there he attacked Philadelphia from the south. Howe believed that capturing Philadelphia and the History Through Art Continental Congress would crip- A Savage Winter William B.T. Trego painted The March to Valley Forge, depicting the difficult conditions ple the Revolution. soldiers faced during the winter of 1777 to 1778. What hardships did the troops face at Valley Forge?

CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution 141 in the war. It improved American morale and also con- While Clark fought the British in the West, Chief vinced France to commit troops to the American cause. Joseph Brant, also known as Thayendanegea, Both Spain and France had been secretly send- convinced four Iroquois nations to join the British. In ing arms and supplies to the United States well July 1778, British troops and Iroquois warriors before Saratoga. The Congress appreciated the attacked western Pennsylvania, burning towns and supplies but wanted the French to send troops too. killing over 200 militia. The following summer, In September 1776, the Congress sent Benjamin American troops defeated the British and Iroquois in Franklin, Arthur Lee, and Silas Deane to France to western New York. These battles destroyed the ask for troops. The French, however, were not will- power of the Iroquois people. ing to risk war until they believed the Americans Farther south, the Cherokee people suffered a simi- could win, and the victory at Saratoga assured lar fate. After the Revolution began, a delegation of them. Shortly afterward, they began negotiations Shawnee, Delaware, and Mohawk convinced the with the United States to create an alliance against Cherokee that the time had come to drive American Britain. settlers off Cherokee lands. The Cherokee attacked set- On February 6, 1778, the United States signed its tlers in Virginia and North Carolina, but the American first two treaties. In the first treaty, France became the militia units were too strong. By 1780 militia units had first country to recognize the United States as an burned down hundreds of Cherokee towns. independent nation. The second treaty was an Reading Check alliance between the United States and France. By Describing What was the effect of June 1778, Britain and France were at war. In 1779 the the war on the western frontier of the United States? Spanish entered the war as well, as an ally of France but not of the United States. The War at Sea Reading Check Summarizing What was General Americans fought the British at sea as well as on Howe’s two-part strategy for winning the war? land. Instead of attacking the British fleet directly, American warships attacked British merchant ships. To further disrupt British trade, the Congress began The War in the West issuing letters of marque, or licenses, to private ship Not all of the fighting in the Revolutionary War owners, authorizing them to attack British merchant took place in the East. In 1778, Patriot George Rogers ships. By the end of the war, millions of dollars of Clark took 175 troops down the Ohio River and cap- cargo had been seized, seriously harming Britain’s tured several towns. By February 1779, the British trade and economy. had surrendered, giving the Americans control of the Perhaps the most famous naval battle of the war region. involved the American naval officer, John Paul Jones.

The Turning Point: Saratoga

General ’s plan to capture upper New York and seal off New England from the rest of the United States began well. His troops easily seized Fort Ticonderoga with its large store of gunpowder and sup- plies. In response, the Continental Congress sent in a new commander, General Horatio Gates. After this early victory, Burgoyne’s march slowed to a crawl. The Americans felled trees in front of his army and removed crops and cattle from the region to deprive his troops of food. Militia forces staged ambushes and hit- and-run raids. These tactics exasperated Burgoyne. In des- peration, he retreated to Saratoga. An American army nearly three times the size of his own quickly surrounded his troops. On October 17, 1777, Burgoyne surrendered to General Gates.

142 CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution Jones commanded a ship named the Bonhomme Richard. While sailing near Britain in September 1779, Jones in History encountered a group of British mer- chant ships protected by the warships Bernardo de Gálvez Serapis and Countess of Scarborough. 1746–1786 Jones attacked the Serapis, but the Bernardo de Gálvez was born in heavier guns of the British ship nearly Malága, Spain, in 1746. Following fam- sank the Bonhomme Richard. With the ily tradition, he joined the military, and American ship in distress, the British at age 18 he traveled to America with his uncle, who had been sent by the commander called on Jones to surren- government to inspect New Spain. In der. Jones replied, “I have not yet 1769 Gálvez was placed in command of begun to fight.” He lashed his ship to Spanish forces on New Spain’s north- the Serapis so it could not sink, then ern frontier. During the next two years, boarded the British ship. The battle he led his forces in battle against the lasted more than three hours before Apache people in what is today west Texas. In 1777 he was appointed gover- American forces. When Spain declared the British surrendered. nor of Louisiana. war on Britain, Gálvez raised an army, Reading Check Summarizing Even before Spain entered the fought British troops near Baton Rouge What was the American strategy for attack- Revolutionary War, Gálvez took steps to and Natchez, and captured the British aid the United States. He exchanged let- forts at Mobile and Pensacola. His cam- ing the British at sea? ters with Patrick Henry and Thomas paigns were important to the U.S. vic- Jefferson, and he used his authority as tory because they tied down British governor to secure the Mississippi troops that might otherwise have been against the British, while allowing used against the Americans farther The Southern Campaign French, Spanish, and American ships to north. The city of Galveston, Texas, is After the British defeat at use the river to smuggle arms to the named in his honor. Saratoga, General Howe resigned and was replaced by Sir Henry Clinton. British officials told Clinton TURNING POINT to begin a campaign in the southern states where the British believed they had the strongest Loyalist The Patriots Rally After the battle of Camden, the support. The southern states were also valuable British began subduing the Carolina backcountry. At because they produced tobacco and rice. The first, everything went well for them. Many of the set- British hoped they could keep the South, even if tlers were Loyalists and agreed to fight for Britain. Two they lost the northern states. British cavalry officers, Banastre Tarleton and Patrick Ferguson, led many of the Loyalist forces in the region. The Fall of Savannah and Charles Town In These troops became known for their brutality. December 1778, 3,500 British troops captured Ferguson finally went too far when he tried to sub- Savannah, Georgia. They seized control of Georgia’s due the people living in the Appalachian Mountains. backcountry and returned the British royal governor Enraged at his tactics, the “overmountain” men, as to power. they were known, put together a militia force. They After defeating the American and French troops intercepted Ferguson at Kings Mountain on October trying to take Savannah, General Clinton attacked 7, 1780, and destroyed his army. The Battle of Kings Charles Town, South Carolina. Nearly 14,000 British Mountain was a turning point in the South. Southern troops surrounded the city, trapping the American farmers, furious with British treatment, began organ- forces. On May 12, 1780, the Americans surren- izing their own forces. dered. Nearly 5,500 American troops were taken The new American commander in the region, prisoner, the greatest American defeat in the war. General Nathaniel Greene, hoped to wear down the Clinton returned to New York, leaving General British in battle while militia destroyed their supplies. Charles Cornwallis in command. The Continental Greene organized the militia into small units to carry Congress then sent General Horatio Gates, the hero out hit-and-run raids against British camps and sup- of Saratoga, to defend the South Carolina backcoun- ply wagons. Francis Marion, who was known as the try. Gates attempted to destroy a British supply base “Swamp Fox,” led the most famous of these units. at Camden, South Carolina, but failed. Greene’s strategy worked. By late 1781, the British

CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution 143 War for Independence, 1778–1781

ME. °N (Part of 45 MASS.) Supe Lake rior

American and/or L a k allied forces e N.H.

L H 3 Washington and

a u British forces

k r Rochambeau rush o e N.Y. MASS. n toward Virginia,

M American victory August 1781 i West

c h Fort R.I. British victory i Point ° g N e 40 a Detroit ri CONN. n e E PA. Fort

ak New York City L Fort 1

Fort Valley Forge 8 7 N.J.

Pitt 1

N Miami , O T LT E I 5 E

Cornwallis is trapped; L AM MD. H the British surrender at DEL. F Vincennes H S Yorktown, 1781 I (Feb. 1779) IT 70 °W R K B Cahokia R 4 A French Admiral (1778) L VA. C CORNWALLIS De Grasse keeps r e Yorktown D British ships iv E R G away io R Kaskaskia Oh A S °N (July 1778) N.C. SE 35

Wilmington 0 r 8 e GREENE Kings Mt. 17 v , i T R Cowpens CORNW EE i AL MARION L p L F Atlantic I p 2 S H i British capture Charles Town Camden IS s IT s S.C. R i and Camden, but are B Ocean s s Charles Town 8 i 7 defeated at Kings Mountain 17 M in 1780 and at Cowpens T, EE N FL in 1781 GA. SH RITI E B W ° 0 200 miles Savannah 30 N S 1 British capture 0 200 kilometers Savannah, 1778 Albers Conic Equal-Area projection 80 °W 75 °W

1. Interpreting Maps How did the French help American forces? controlled very little territory in the South except for 2. Applying Geography Skills Where Savannah, Charles Town, and Wilmington. did the final battle of the war occur?

Reading Check Explaining Why was the Battle of Kings Mountain a turning point of the war in the South? The Battle of Yorktown In late April 1781, Cornwallis marched into Virginia, where he linked The War Is Won up with forces under the command of Benedict In the spring of 1781, General Cornwallis decided Arnold. Arnold had been an American commander to invade Virginia. As long as the Americans con- early in the war but had later sold military informa- trolled Virginia, he believed, new troops and supplies tion to the British. When his treason was discovered, could keep coming south. With more French troops Arnold fled to British-controlled New York City. on the way to America, the British knew they had There he was given command of British troops and very little time left to win the war. They had to secure ordered to begin raiding American positions in Virginia. Virginia.

144 CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution After Arnold’s forces joined those of Cornwallis, the British began to conquer Virginia. Their com- bined forces encountered very little resistance until June 1781, when a large American force led by America’s Flags On June 14, 1777, the Continental General Anthony Wayne arrived in Virginia. Congress declared the first Stars and Stripes the offi- Outnumbered and too far inland, Cornwallis cial flag. The Congress determined that “the Flag of the United States be 13 stripes, alternate red and retreated to the coastal town of Yorktown to protect white; that the Union be 13 stars, white in a blue his supplies and to maintain communications field representing a new constellation.” For by sea. Americans past and Cornwallis’s retreat created an opportunity for present, the color red the Americans and their French allies. The previous symbolizes courage; year, 6,000 French troops had arrived in New white, purity of ideals; England. With this support, Washington decided to and blue, strength and march on New York City. As the troops headed to unity of the states. New York, the French general Rochambeau learned that a French fleet commanded by Admiral Francois de Grasse was on its way north from the Caribbean. The Treaty of Paris When Lord North, the British When he learned of the French fleet, Washington prime minister, learned of the surrender at Yorktown, canceled the attack on New York. Instead, he and he knew the war was over. In March 1782, Parliament Rochambeau led their forces to Yorktown. As the voted to begin peace negotiations. John Adams, American and French troops raced south, Admiral de Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay conducted most of Grasse moved into Chesapeake Bay near Yorktown. the negotiations for the United States. With the French fleet nearby, Cornwallis could not The final settlement, known as the Treaty of Paris, escape by sea or receive supplies. was signed on September 3, 1783. In this treaty, On September 28, 1781, American and French Britain recognized the United States of America as a forces surrounded Yorktown and began to bombard new nation with the Mississippi River as its western it. On October 14, Washington’s aide, Alexander border. Britain also gave Florida back to Spain. Hamilton, led an attack that captured key British France received colonies in Africa and the Caribbean defenses. Three days later, Cornwallis began nego- that the British had seized from them in 1763. On tiations to surrender, and on October 19, 1781, November 24, 1783, the last British troops left New approximately 8,000 British troops marched out York City. The Revolutionary War was over. The cre- of Yorktown and laid down their weapons. During ation of a new nation was about to begin. the surrender, a British military band played a popular nursery tune, “The World Turn’d Upside Reading Check Describing How was the war won Down.” at Yorktown?

Checking for Understanding Critical Thinking Analyzing Visuals 1. Define: guerrilla warfare, letters of 4. Evaluating How did European coun- 6. Examining Art Study the painting on marque. tries aid the Americans in the war for page 141. How has the artist portrayed 2. Identify: William Howe, , independence? the condition of Washington’s army? Valley Forge, Marquis de Lafayette, 5. Categorizing Use a graphic organizer Saratoga, John Paul Jones, Charles similar to the one below to list the pro- Cornwallis, Battle of Kings Mountain. visions of the Treaty of Paris. Writing About History Provisions of 7. Persuasive Writing Imagine that you Reviewing Themes Treaty of Paris, 1783 3. Global Connections Why were the are a colonist during the Revolutionary French at first reluctant to sign an War. Write a letter to convince alliance with the colonies? European nations to support the Americans in the war.

CHAPTER 4 The American Revolution 145