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Africa Stretches Forth Her Hands Unto You F The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School College of the Liberal Arts “AFRICA STRETCHES FORTH HER HANDS UNTO YOU”: FEMALE COLONIZATION SUPPORTERS IN THE ANTEBELLUM UNITED STATES A Thesis in History by Karen Virginia Fisher Younger Copyright 2006 Karen Virginia Fisher Younger Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy December 2006 The thesis of Karen Virginia Fisher Younger was reviewed and approved* by the following: Lori D. Ginzberg Professor of History and Women’s Studies Thesis Advisor Chair of Committee Anne C. Rose Professor of History, Religious Studies and Jewish Studies Anthony Kaye Assistant Professor of History Stephen H. Browne Professor of Communication Arts and Sciences Matthew Restall Professor of Colonial Latin American History, Anthropology and Women's Studies Director of Graduate Studies, History *Signatures are on file in the Graduate School ABSTRACT The American Colonization Society (ACS), founded in 1818, initially gave little thought as to how women might contribute to the cause. Despite its posture as a religious and benevolent organization, the colonization society promoted itself as a political movement. So intent on securing federal funding, the society made only weak attempts to build local organizations and no appeals to women. However, in the early 1830s, while the ACS was in tremendous turmoil struggling to maintain its centrality in the nation’s political imagination, the movement recast itself as a benevolent organization and privileged volunteerism over politics. Leaders continued to recognize the importance of political activities but they also encouraged female participation even as they promoted the centrality of female values in the movement. For a brief but intense period in the 1830s and 1840s, the ACS came to rely on all types of female support. Women who joined colonization societies perceived their efforts to be part of the triumph of American, white evangelical Protestantism in the world and viewed colonization as an ideological middle ground between immediate abolition of slavery and perpetual bondage. These women were committed to ridding the United States of both slavery and African Americans. Female colonizationists believed that the United States was a specially blessed place and saw their own sex as exceptionally privileged. This status encouraged their willingness to act as the conscience of the nation in all places judged morally inferior. Just as benevolent women might extend their concern to the poor, the widow, and the orphan in America, so too, might women legitimately engage in moral and religious reform in locations outside America. On the one hand, female support for colonization reflected an extension of woman’s natural role as moral guide and guardian. At the same time, however, their actions brimmed with social, political and personal consequences. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements ………………………………………………….. vi Introduction ………………………………………………………….. 1 Chapter 1. “The Work of God” ……………………………………… 16 Origins of Colonization ………………………………………. 20 The Formation of the American Colonization Society ………. 25 Early Involvement of Women in the ACS …………………… 35 White Women and Colonization in Virginia in the 1820s …… 41 Conclusion ……………………………………………………. 51 Chapter 2. “Africa Stretches Forth Her Hands Unto You” ………….. 53 Lydia Huntley Sigourney …………………………………….. 55 Margaret Mercer ……………………………………………… 74 Conclusion ……………………………………………………. 87 Chapter 3. “God Bless You, Ladies” …………………………………. 88 Motivations for Female Colonization Support ……………….. 90 The Formation of Female Colonization Societies ……………. 106 Female Fundraising Efforts …………………………………… 114 Conclusion ……………………………………………………. 120 Chapter 4. “She Has Done What She Could” ………………………… 121 The Context …………………………………………………… 122 Colonization in the City: Philadelphia and New York City ….. 126 The Ladies’ Liberian Association of Philadelphia ……………. 135 The Female Society of the City of New York for the Support of Schools in Africa …………………………………… 140 The West: Greene County, Ohio ……………………………… 145 Conclusion …………………………………………………….. 158 iv Chapter 5. “That Bereaved Mother” ………………………………….. 161 The Context …………………………………………………… 162 Shaping An Image: The Press and Pulpit ……………………... 167 Shaping An Image: Male and Female Colonizationists ………. 182 Conclusion …………………………………………………….. 191 Chapter 6. “An Instrument in His Hands” ……………………………. 193 The Context …………………………………………………… 194 The First Female Missionaries ………………………………... 200 Similarities Between White and Black Female Missionaries … 207 Differences Between White and Black Female Missionaries … 215 Conclusion …………………………………………………….. 225 Conclusion …………………………………………………………….. 227 Appendix A: Freedom to Africa: Illustration from Uncle Tom’s Cabin ………………………….. 231 Appendix B: Female Colonization Society and Liberian Association by State ………………………………….. 232 Appendix C: Female Missionaries to Liberia ………………………….. 233 Appendix D: U.S. Commissioned Missionaries Length of Service, 1831-1861 …………………………………. 236 Bibliography …………………………………………………………… 237 v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS My deepest debt is to Lori Ginzberg, who has been the perfect adviser. I am fortunate to have had the benefit of her sage guidance ever since my search for an advisor led me to her door six years ago. She has graciously read and reread my numerous drafts, always providing just the right critique. Her excellent editorial skills and crucial insights have made my work more significant than I had first imagined, and her wit has kept me laughing along the way. Anne Rose, Tony Kaye, and Stephen Browne all provided indispensable criticisms of the entire manuscript, which have been essential in revising the dissertation. Without the help of these scholars, I could not have written this dissertation. I was able to research and write this dissertation because of the financial support of several libraries and fellowships. I especially need to thank the George and Ann Richards Civil War Era Center, whose generosity went far beyond my expectations. Also thanks to the Presbyterian Historical Society, The Episcopal Historical Society, and the Library Company of Philadelphia. For friendship and support, thanks to Barb Conner and Frank Conner, my children’s adopted grandparents, without whom I would not have persevered. For devotion, encouragement, and above all, unwavering confidence in me, thanks to my family, Billy, Olivia, and Lily. Finally, I need to thank my parents, Gloria Fisher and David Fisher, for their love and faith. This dissertation is dedicated to them. vi For my parents Gloria Fisher, who taught me to love and David Fisher, who dared me to believe. vii Introduction “I rise to plead the cause of a people,” Edward Dorr Griffin thundered in 1817, “who for ages have been crushed, and broken, and deserted.” A new age had commenced, explained Griffin, in which the glory of Africa and “the elevation of the African race is a part” of God’s larger plan to establish Christ’s millennial reign on earth. Redoubling his plea for Africa’s redemption, he insisted that America should play a central role. “The great work of bringing forward these events plainly belongs to us…We owe a greater atonement than any other nation to bleeding Africa…the work is laid on ourselves by the plain direction of heaven.” Griffin staked his triumphant prediction of Christianity’s march of conquest across Africa in a sermon preached before the Presbyterian synod of New York and New Jersey. As pastor of Park Street Church in Boston, the flagship of nineteenth century conservative Protestantism and the hub of evangelical missions, Griffin’s vision of a new age of evangelical world dominance is not unexpected. What is unusual is Griffin’s assertion that evangelical triumph was contingent on America’s obligation to African redemption.1 Griffin based his exhortation on an obscure verse in the book of Psalms, part of which says: “Ethiopia shall soon stretch out her hands unto God.”2 Leading his listeners through thirty-six pages of detailed exegesis of the historical and grammatical context, Griffin concluded that the term ‘Ethiopia’ must be understood as a reference to “the whole negro world,” and that the prophecy applied to his day. This interpretation rejected the traditional understanding of the text. Earlier scholars 1 Edward D. Griffin, A Plea for Africa (New York: Gould, 1817), 1, 31. 2 Psalm 68:31, King James Version. 1 construed the verse to be a general prophecy of “universal subjection to Christ,” and Ethiopia referred to “the whole world” or “all sinners.”3 As late as 1811, Oxford professor Richard Dixon, in “A New Interpretation of the Sixty-Eighth Psalm,” did not alter the traditional understanding of the verse in this regard. Even John Wesley, the foremost founder of modern evangelicalism and prominent English anti-slavery leader, understood Ethiopia as a general term used to denote all “ancient enemies of God and his people.”4 Griffin, on the other hand, pronounced that “I hear our text declare, that under the reign of Christ the whole negro race shall be converted to the true worship of God.”5 Griffin’s reinterpretation of Psalm 68 marked the beginning of a “ceaseless roundelay” chorused in sermons, essays, and orations that promoted African colonization. “Ethiopia shall stretch out her hands unto God” quickly became the colonization movement’s rallying cry and the Christianization of Africa its mission.6 Using a Bible verse as a mantra communicated a clear and firm belief in divine approval. More than
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