Report on Water Yield in Eastern Forest Complex (EFCOM)

SONGTAM SUKSAWANG THAMMANOON TEMCHAI National Parks Office

ค ำนิยม คุณชวัลญา จตุพิธพรจันทร์ เป็นนักศึกษาจากประเทศอังกฤษ ซึ่งมีความสนใจในด้าน สิ่งแวดล้อม จึงขอมาฝึกงานที่ส านักอุทยานแห่งชาติ ระหว่างนี้ ได้ช่วยแปลรายงานวิจัยฉบับนี้ เพื่อเผยแพร่ ส านักอุทยานแห่งชาติขอขอบคุณ คุณชวัลญา จตุพิธพรจันทร์ มา ณ ที่นี้ด้วย

ส านักอุทยานแห่งชาติ ธันวาคม ๒๕๖๐

Report on Water Yield in Eastern Forest Complex (EFCOM)

Foreword

There is an immense necessity in sustenance of ecosystem services and natural capital for the wellbeing of all living beings and maintaining economic livelihood for national, ultimately global, community as a whole. The problem lies with the intangible nature of the ecosystem services that leads to difficulties and challenges in valuing the real economic value of the natural capital. This applies even to the public facilities, such as running water or water used in industries. Since most misunderstood that the main sources are dams and irrigation systems, the assessments and compensations only end here.

In the present, however, it is widely accepted that the true source of these services are natural forests, which without these quality sources the irrigation systems would fail to operate to the efficient and satisfactory standard. Deforestation has adverse effects on natural water cycle and its balance. Trees absorb groundwater, which in turn is released into the atmosphere. Once parts of the forests are destroyed or removed, this vital function follows resulting in drier atmosphere and climate. In addition to effects on atmosphere humidity, deforestation leads to decrease in both hygroscopic water and groundwater reserves. (Wikipedia, 2015) Many researches are in support of higher forest density would lead to greater groundwater content.

This research aimed to clarify and reveal the true value of ecosystem services of conserved areas in Eastern Forest Complex as high quality water source and ecological balance keeper to the community, society, and different industries in Eastern . This research hopes to bring community awareness and economic action into sustainable management of ecosystems.

Objective

To study water yield in eastern ecosystems for the use of aiding Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) in .

Literature Review

Ecosystem

Ecosystem refers to the interaction and dynamism, or the ever-changing relationship between plants, animals and microorganisms, and their physical nonliving environment that has an interactive functional unit within including, desert, coral reef, wetland, rainforest, swamp forest, grassland, as well as man-made ecosystems such as farms and agricultural areas.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the various living organisms residing in the ecosystem, which are categorized according to different species, genetics, and ecosystems all around the globe. Different species are home to different parts of the world and its ecosystems.

Ecosystem Services

Pramote Insawang et al (n.d.) states ecosystem services refer to the beneficial services humans receive from ecosystems and biodiversity in improving quality of life for individuals and society as a whole. For instance, water and timber can aid in controlling climate, protection against natural disasters, control soil erosion, recreational use, and carbon absorption.

An ecosystem could provide multiple services such as forests could serve as food and energy source (provisioning services), prevent landslides, act as carbon sink, relief global warming and climate change (regulating services), recreational use for local and regional communities (cultural services), and act as habitat for living organisms, including plants and animals, that may be of medical use for human beings (supporting services).

It could be concluded that ecosystem services provide uncountable beneficial services: provision, regulate, cultural support, and influences vital natural capital and environment.

Jatuporn Tianma (2014) states that ecosystem services (ES) refer to benefits that nature provide for human beings. Most used ecosystem services would be food, clean water and natural capital used for manufacturing products and services. However, ecosystem services are not only limited to these, some less well known or understood, such as forest as carbon sink and relieving climate change, and water filtering function of wetlands. Therefore, by valuing ecosystems for its services, environment could be considered as “assets” vital to development and, thus, environmental sustenance is considered as “investment” in need. It is crucial to not deem nature conservation as “sunk costs” in which no benefits are returned. Ecosystem services also refer to benefits human beings receive from ecosystems, both from environment and biodiversity, in improving livelihoods and wellbeing for individuals and societies. For example, regulating climate, natural disasters protection, controlling soil erosion, recreational use and carbon sink.

Pramote et al (n.d.) states that the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA), whom assessed the current state of world’s ecosystems and their services, has divided ecosystem services into 4 categories as follow:

Provisioning services are the provision of resources and capital for productive usage, such as food, timber, minerals, plants, and animals.

Regulating services are the controlling of natural events and natural processes of the ecosystems, such as regulating climate, coastal erosion, flood prevention and soil erosion prevention.

Cultural services are the nonmaterial benefits derived towards sustaining social and cultural values, such as traditions, recreational use, spiritual enrichment, and aesthetics experiences.

P5 Supporting services are the natural processes that sustain other services such as acting as food source for primary production, creating nutrient cycle, and habitats for offspring.

The valuation of ecosystems should encompass both economic values, including land sale value, water charges, raw materials, and carbon credit trade and transactions, and non-market values, such as societal value. Measuring both market and non-market values gives greater accuracy of true worth of the ecosystem. For instance, in case of destruction of ecosystems due to deforestation or improvement due to water source purification. It is possible to value ecosystem services by quality and/or quantity and monetization. Monetization gives better comparable and understandable results, which means better conveyance of the true value of ecosystem services. However, relying solely on monetization values may lead to the disregard of benefits and costs of ecosystems since some of the benefits and costs may be intangible and unquantifiable. Therefore, values in some cases the quality may need to be tested and evaluated.

Valuation of ecosystem services should ranked according the importance of each service then quantification and monetization to present value of each service and the system as a whole. In some cases, it is sufficient to use only quality and quantity estimates for decision-making.

Qualitative evaluation explains the values and determines the level of each value bracket into, for instance, high, medium and low level. This allows comparability of all ecosystems within the assigned geographical area. For example a “medium level” may be a situation where economic repercussions impacted a lake’s supply of fishery resources, which in turn affected the livelihood of the local community. P6 Quantitative evaluation uses quantitative data in evaluating research or value, such as 40 local fishermen from 4 neighborhoods experienced decrease of 25% in harvest from average catch of 2 tons per year.

Monetary evaluation is the monetization, or changing the values into monetary terms, of the effect and use of ecosystems for comparability and aggregation of values. For example, aggregate effects on local fisheries may amount to loss of 5 million baht per year in profits with 200,000 baht loss to two neighborhoods and 50,000 to the other two.

Photo 1: Types of ecosystems Source: Gromko (2013)

Natural capital

Natural capital refers to world’s the natural recourses and natural ecosystem services, which aids and sustains human life. (Natural Capital Declaration, 2012, reference: Dempsey, n.d.) Ecosystem services from natural capital are vital to human economic activities, including food, water, and energy, and widely agreed on the crucial role in success of economic and sustainable developments. (Dempsey, n.d.)

P7 Kasetporpeang (2014) defines non-monetary capital as valuable goods or services that could not be converted into monetary terms. Non-monetary capital refers to those goods that are important in enriching human lives, further knowledge, wisdom and experience, societal capital, cultural values, and strengthen local community and traditions. Community Development Department divides “capital” into 2 categories, monetary and non-monetary capital. There are 4 types of non-monetary capital as follows:

1. Human Capital refers to the qualities of each individual within the community, all ages and genders, endowed with health, longevity, knowledge and intellect, skills, status, and household wealth.

2. Social Capital refers to the collective social resources exploited by members of the society in order to sustain their livelihood, including trust, acceptance, faith, and cultural inheritance.

3. Physical Capital refers to man-made goods that enhance human livelihood or one of the main factors of production, such as transport and facilities, electrical system, water supply, energy system, communication and telecommunication, ancient artifacts, antiquities, and constructions.

4. Natural Capital refers to the natural resources that determine human capabilities in maintaining livelihood and wellbeing within the community. For example, natural water sources include forests, soil, water, mountains, ocean, islands, animals, minerals energy, springs, and plants and grains.

Water Yield

P8 Water yield is on of the ecosystem services, which provides various welfares including hydro energy, one of the world’s most important sources for alternative energy. Hydro energy depends upon land use and land cover, which affect water cycle, evapotranspiration, water permeation and storage, and maintaining water balance. Niwat (2014) emphasizes the significance of streams and waterways in its relevance to human lives. Water in streams, waterways, called runoffs is key element for the water cycle. Information on water flows in streams or runoffs is fundamental in water management planning and architectural design. In addition to previous uses, it is vital to study impacts of human developments in the area on water flows in managing and preventing potential drought or water supply shortage, and against floods in rainy seasons. Therefore, it is imperative to attain, study and analyze information on water flows to aid water management.

Photo 2: Water cycle within ecosystem and water yield Source: Sharp et al. (2015)

P9 Eastern Forest Complex (EFCOM)

Eastern forest complex is one of Thailand’s main forest complexes, which serves as prominent water source for eastern Thailand. Moreover, as a major biodiversity hotspot the EFCOM situates in 2 botanical gardens, Indo-Chinese and Indo-Malaysian elements, allowing rich community of plants and animals to prosper biologically.

EFCOM spans a total area of 1,644,532 rai (1 rai = 1,600 sqm, 2,631,251,200 sqm, 2631 sqkm), covering 5 national parks and 3 wildlife sanctuaries. These include Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park, Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park, Khao Khitchakut National Park, Plio Waterfall National Park, Khlong Kaeo Waterfall National Park, Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, and Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary. The provisionary and supporting benefits integral to the daily functions of the local community depending upon food, medicinal herbs and plants, tourism, and more significantly natural water source for the ever-expanding industrial and agricultural use in Eastern Thailand. This calls for necessary and suitable intervention lest potential rapid resource degradation.

Conservation fund is one of the strategies taken to protect, conserve, manage, and preserve protected areas by facilitating monetary and non-monetary . Conservation fund is extensively adopted in the modern world, Thailand included. Thailand has set up various conservation fund projects and activities, such as business social and environmental responsibilities, conservation foundation, and conservation funds, though have yet to produce distinguishable success.

Photo 3 Protected areas in Eastern Forest Complex

P13 Protected Areas in Eastern Forest Complex

Protected areas of EFCOM consist of 5 national parks and 3 wildlife sanctuaries: Khlong Kaeo Waterfall, Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park, Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park, Khao Khitchakut National Park, Plio Waterfall National Park, National Park, Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, and Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary. The details on national parks, according to the Department of National Parks (2017), and on wildlife sanctuaries, attained from Wildlife Conservation Office, are as follows.

Khlong Kaeo Waterfall National Park

Background

On the 15th September 1997, the Royal Forest Department had received official report stating the resolution of Trat Provincial Forest Office’s 1/2538 sub-committee meeting on illegal forest activities prevention and enforcement in . The report proposed the designation of the following forest areas to be protected as national park, due to its rich and largely untouched condition, thus retaining diverse species of animals and plants: Khao Cha Om forest, Khao Khlong Puk, Khao Mapring. These three conserved areas situate within Khao Saming reserved forest (Khlong Yhai Forest-Khao Fai Mai) in Khao Saming District and , . In which on 10th January 1997, the Royal Forest Department gave a directive number 55/2540 for Mr. Prayoon Pongpan, National Forestry Officer 5, inspect the following areas and their perimeter. After close inspection and revision, came the conclusion of formation of Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park, including Khao Cha Om forest, Khao Khlong Puk, Khao Mapring, Khao Kaew, Khao Ta Bat, Khao Ta Chote, and Khao Gumpaeng.

Directive number 1746/2540 given by the Royal Forestry Department, dated 21st October 1997, designated Mr. Prayoon Pongpan as head of areas that constitute the Nam Tok Khlong Kaew Natural Park, Trat Province. After revision, the investigation was further extended to cover forest areas in Khao Por Mhai, Khao Beung Pa Wa Dum, Khao Ed, Khao Khlong Wang Pho, and Khao Khlong Poon. In total, Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park covers over 123,700 Rai or 197.92 squared kilometers, spanning over Chang Toon region, Bo Phloi region, Nonsi region, Dan Chumphon region, Bo Rai District, Trat Province. The findings were present in 4/2543 Illegal Forest Activities Suppression sub-committee meeting on 28th July 2000 and approved the formation of Nam Tok Khlong Kaew as a National Park in 30th October 2000 by the Protected Area Committee (PAC) in the 2/2543 board meeting.

P.14 Topography

Most of the areas within Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park are occupied by Khao Buntad Mountain Range, consisting of Khao Kaew, Khao Ta Bad, Khao Ta Chote, and Khao Gumpaeng. Its peaks mark the Thai- border with heights ranging from 100 to 836 meters above sea level. The highest mountain, topping at 836 meters, is Khao Ta Bad. Due to its topography, the mountain range is home to various water sources, for example, Khlong Leuk, Khlong Aeng Puk, Khlong Ta bad, Khlong Kaew, Khlong Hin Plerng, Khlong Leu, Khlong Ga Jai, andKhlong Malagor. The tributaries ultimately join Khlong Sator, which exits into the sea.

Climate

Climate in the area is influenced by southeasterly and northeasterly monsoon winds. These are tropical monsoon, coinciding with rich forest condition, allowing year round rainfall. The seasons are divided into summer, February-March, rainy season, May-October, and winter, November-January.

Flora and Fauna P.15 The general plant community in the area is tropical rainforest plant community with high humidity home to numerous river sources, thus dense in composition. Its optimal condition allows rich diversity of plants to prosper, from smaller species to large ones, towering 25-60 meters. Some of the noteworthy species are as follows: Dipterocarpus spp., Shorea hypochra Hance, Krabach tree (Anistera costata Korth.), Iron Wood (Hopea odorata Roxb.), Scaphium affine (Mast.) Pierre, Heritiera javanica (Blume) Kosterm., Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker., and Lagerstroemia calyculata Kurz As for shrubs and undergrowth, prevalent species are Zingiberaceae, Calamus spp., and Salacca wallichiana Mart. to name a few. Furthermore, the area houses beautiful Lysimachia pilosa H.R. Fletcher, a rare species of orchid.

Richness in biodiversity further extends to animal species as a result of its resource abundance. From observation and local survey prominent species are as follow: sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), tiger (Panthera tigris), barking deer (Muntiacus muntjak), wild boar (Sus scrofa), bear (Ursus spp.), greater mouse- deer (Tragulus napu), pileated gibbon (Hylobatess pileatusss), monkey (Macaca spp.), leaf-eating monkey (Trachypithetus phayrei), Finlayson’s squirrel (Callosciurus finlaysonii), civet (Viverricula spp.), masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), pheasant (Polyplectron bicalcaratum), red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), white-rumped shama (Copsychus malabaricus), common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), falcon (Accipitridae), bulbul (Pycnonotus spp.), white-crested laughingthrush (Gurrulax spp.), oriental pied hornbill (Anthracoceros albirotris), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), megalaimidae (Psilopogon spp.), Chinese water dragon (Physignathus cocincinus), eastern bent-toed gecko (Cyrtodactylus internedius), smooth-backed gliding gecko (Ptychozon lionotum), Blyth’s river frog (Limnonectes blythii), and spiny rock crab (Thalamita crenata). Aquatic species residing in the rivers and streams include Mahseer barb (Neolissochilus stracheyi), Siamese rock catfish (Leiocassis siamensis), Siamese mud carp (Henicorhynchus siamensis), and dwarf snakehead (Channa gachua).

Namtok Phlio National Park

Namtok Phlio National Park spans over Mueng District, , , and in . Natural landscape includes rich natural forest, mountain ranges serving as water source for streams, and its notable feature, Phlio waterfall, 14 kilometers away from Chanthaburi Province. Mantok Phlio National Park is a popular recreational and tourist destination, with nicely paved roads facilitating convenient access. The total area is 84,062.50 Rai or 134.50 squared kilometers.

P.16 Background

On the 7th of October 1959, Council of Ministers’ resolution designated Khao Srabab forest, Chanthaburi, and 14 other forests in various provinces as National Parks. The first procedure by the Royal Forest Department was definition of boundary limits of Nam Tok Plio forest and Khao Srabab as National Forests in 1962, according to The Protection and Reservations for Forests Act B.E, 2481 (1938), and signed on 6th of February 1961. In 1972, the maintenance and development of areas in Nam Tok Plio commenced for transition into Nam Tok Plio National Park, under the supervision of Chanthaburi Provincial Forest Office.

The PAC meeting 1/2517, on 22nd January 1974, ordered the acceleration of appointment of the areas mentioned above as National Park. Urgent paper 09/1401 from Chanthaburi, dated 31st January 1974, addressing the Royal Forest Department to request for officers to station at Nam Tok Plio Park for its maintenance and preservation. On March 1974, for National Park designation plans the Royal Forest Department gave out order number 360/2517, dated 28th March 1974, for Mr. Sinchai Buranarek, Forestry Technical Officer, and Mr. Prachum Tanyabut, Project Officer 2, to investigate Namtok Plio forest, Khao Srabab in Chanthaburi. The result observations according to investigation report ______, dated 28th June 1974, were mountainous topography, streams source, such as waterfalls, cliffs, and caves.

In the meeting 6/2517 on 26th of July 1974, the Royal Forest Department proposed to PAC, in which favoured for the designation of said areas to become National Park. With royal decree, Nomtok Plio forest, Khao Srabab, Plabpa region, Khlong Narai region, Khom Bang region, Mueng Chanthaburi district, Plio region, Laem Singh district, Makham region, Makham district, Mahb Pai region, Wang Saparod region, Trok Nong region, Seung region, Ta Pon region, Gwian Huk region, Khlung district, Chanthaburi district became Thailand’s 11th National Park following the announcement within Government Gazette volume 92, chapter 87, dated 2nd November 1975. The national park was named “Khao Srabab National Park”.

P17 On March 1, 1982 Mr. Pachon Thanamitramanee, Head of Khao Srabab National Park, requested name change from Khao Srabab National Park to Nam Tok Plio National Park to reflect the beauty and significance Plio Waterfall as the symbol of the National Park. The PAC, in meeting number 3/2525 on September 29, 1982 favoured name change to “Nam Tok Plio National Park”.

Topography

Mountain ranges occupied most of areas within Nam Tok Plio National Park, heights from 20-924 meters above sea level, slanting southwards. There are narrow flat passes in between mountains. The area is characterized by steep slopes, with high peak at Khao Maab Wa Grok at 924 meters above sea level. The area has rocky geography, mostly igneous rock belonging to granite family. The center areas covered with rich tropical rainforests, sourcing various year-round streams and waterways, such as Khlong Narai, Khlong Plio, Khlong Troknok, Khlong Makok, Khlong Seung, and Khlong Khoong scattered around the high mountain ranges in the center.

Climate

The general meteorology of Nam Tok Plio National Park, located in Eastern Thailand, is influenced by monsoon winds with seasonal cycles. The winds originated from China, called Northeasterly monsoon winds, from November to February, resulting in mild winter. The average annual temperature is 26.8 degrees Celsius, average highest temperature at 31.6 degrees Celsius, and average lowest as 23.2 degrees Celsius. Another type of monsoon winds affecting the area is Southeasterly monsoon winds from the ocean, carrying over humidity and water vapor, which creates the rainy season. The area experiences high humidity and heavy rainfall during rainy season, precipitation averaging at greater than 2,000 millimeters per year. March to April, monsoon transition months, is summer season, characterized by severe heat before transitioning into rainy season.

Flora and Fauna P18

Nam Tok Plio National Park harbors rich biodiversity in both plants and animals, due to its tropical rainforest conditions. Average precipitation is over 2,000 millimeters. The Nam Tok Plio National Park’s rainforest layer can be divided as follows:

The top canopy is the topmost layer in the rainforest. The woods are tall and large in size, covering approximately 60% of the area. These include, Scaphium affine (Mast.) Pierre, Shorea hentryna Pierre, S. hypochra Hance, Hopea ferrea Laness., and Dipterocarpus turbinatus C. F. Gaertn. The middle canopy layer has higher density than the top canopy, covering 95% of the area, height averaging at 19 meters. There are also greater variety of species of plants in this layer, such as Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume., Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lecomte, Archidendron quocense (Pierre) I. C. Nielsen, Prunus arborea Blume Kalkman var. montana Kalkman, Sandoricum koetjape (Burm.f.) Merr.

There are also epiphytes growing on the tree trunks and branches namely Platycerium grande (J. Sm. ex Fee) Kunze, Drynaria propinqua (Wall. ex Mett) J. Sm. ex Bedd., Aeschynanthus longicaulis Wall. ex R. Br., Hoya diversifolia Blume, and Dischidia imbricata (Blume) Steud. Furthermore, there are orchids such as the Dendrobium friedericksianum Rchb. f., which has beautiful and bright colors, originated from Chanthaburi. Another important group of plants are vines, such as Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau and Verginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch.

The over-topped layer has lower density, with less than 5 meters tall. Plant species are mostly fruits from the middle canopy approximately 36 species. Forest floor is covered with various types of plant species, which help reduce soil erosion, humidity and water storage. This results in year-round water streams.

P19 Animal Biodiversity Nam Tok Plio National Park is a very rich tropical rainforest, however, due to the flatness of the surrounding area with asphalt roads as local main road, the national park disconnects from other preserved forests. This limits the area biodiversity could prosper to only within the national park itself. There are a number of local bird species that are of importance, such as Lophura nythemmera levisi, and iconic tropical rainforest species, such as pileated gibbon (Hylobatess pileatuss). One protected species, according to the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E, 2535 (1992), is serow (Naemorhecus sumatraensis).

Mammals found in the area accounts for 9 orders, 22 families, 38 species, 12 species being protected species. Most prevalent species are Rodentias, where 8 species could be found. The second most prevalent are Chiroptera with 7 speacies. There are 11 species most studied Carnivora, though only 4 species were found. Only 4 species of even-toed ungulate in Artiodactyla order are found among herbivores and hooved species. There are 4 monkeys and leaf-eating monkeys species in Primate order directly observed. Other variety of mammals within scattered family could also be found, such as pangolins in Pholidota order, Tupaiidae family, and flying lemur in Dermoptera order, Cynocepphalida family.

There were 15 orders, 43 families, and 149 species founded, where most are protected species according to the Wild Animal Reservation and Protection Act B.E, 2535 (1992).

For reptiles, 2 orders, 13 families, 59 species were founded. Snakes category within Squamata order, Serpentes sub-order, accounts to most of the species, with 27 species and 25 families. Secondary to snakes are Squamata order, Sauria sub-order where 25 species were found in 5 families, such as gekkos, geckos, skinks, and lizards. Furthermore, there are large reptiles with large neck scales (monitors) in Varanidae family and Lacertidae family. Lastly, 7 species in 4 families were found in turtles Chelonia order, including tortoises, land turtles, turtles, and trionychidaes.

For amphibians, 19 species were founded in 1 order, 5 families and genus, such as frogs, tree frogs, bullfrogs, toads, and horned toads.

Khao Khitchakut National Park P20

The national park locates in Khao Khitchakut forest, also known as Khao Phra Bat, in Makham district and Khitchakut district, Chanthaburi province. The area includes scenic mountains speaking at 1000 meters that habors beautiful natural landforms, such as Krathing waterfall, and phenomenal landforms associating with Buddhist legends, most notably Buddhist belief about Buddha’s footprint on the top of Khao Khitchakut mountain, occupying 58.31 kilometer squared or 36,444.05 Rai.

In 1958, Mayor Niyompraisamakhom sent proposal to preserve Khao Khitchakut forest for maintenance of wildlife habitat as national park, Chanthaburi province, to Minister of Agriculture. The Royal Forestry Department in Sri Racha coordinated with Chanthaburi province and gave directive number 852/2517, signed July 30, 1974, for Mr. Sompol Wanakul, Forestry Officer, to go on expedition to conduct primary investigation in the area. According to expedition report dated June 16, 1959, the local geography is characterized by mountain ranges, beautiful natural scenery, including caves, waterfalls, and prosperous wildlife community, suitable for forming a national park.

Department of National Park and the Royal Forestry Department proposed to the PAC. In the meeting number 2/2518 on 22 October, 1959, agreed on published an Act to designate areas in Khao Khitchakut as a national park.

The Royal Forestry Department then commenced to withdraw Khao Khitchakut forest as national forest, to comply with the ministerial regulation Khao Khitchakut forest was designated as national forest in ministerial regulation number 49, in the Government Gazette volume 82, chapter 39, dated May 11, 1965. The withdrawal was announced in Government Gazette volume 93, chapter 108, dated September 7, 1960.

The Act includes areas of Khao Khitchakut within Takian Thong region, Chamun region, Pluang region and Wang Saem region in Makham district, Chanthaburi. The national park covers 58.70 kilometer squared or 36,687 Rai, announced in Government Gazette volume 94, chapter 38, dated May 4, 1961, as the 19th national park in Thailand.

P21 Topography

The general geography is high mountain ranges due to convergent tectonic plate collision of two continental plates. The base stone is igneous rock since Jurassic age, around 135-180 million years old. On the eastern side, the area has very steep slope with mountain ridges set from northwest to southeast. The mountains in southeast are flatter, highest peak at 1,085 meters above sea level on Khao Phrabat. There are few flat plains on the west. On the Khao Phrabat there are big rounded rocks scattered in all directions, especially in the area near Buddha’s footprints, where these rocks are notably larger, visible from outside the national park. The mountain ridges are sources of important waterways and streams sourcing the main river in Chanthaburi, such as Khlong Krathing, Khling Takien, Khlong Toongplae, and Khlong Pluang.

Climate

The climate condition in Khao Khitchakut National Park is influenced by Northeasterly monsoon winds and Southwesterly winds. From mid-October to mid-February the area experiences cold weather and clear skies. There is high humidity mid-May to mid-October causing clouds and heavy rains, averaging at 2,900 millimeters. Summer occurs from February to April, where it is the transition period from Northeasterly wind influences to Southwesterly winds. The average annual temperature is 27 degrees Celsius.

P22 Flora and Fauna

The biodiversity residing in Khao Khitchakut National Park can be divided into 2 categories, one being rainforest, covering majority of the national park. Plant species include Dipterocarpus turbinatus C. F. Gaertn, Anisoptera costata Korth., Archidendron quocense (Pierre) I. C. Nielsen, Castanopsis diversifolia (Kurz) King ex Hook. f., Mesua ferrea L., Parkis sumatrana Miq. subsp. streptocarpa (Hance) H. C. Hopkins, Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt & Hill, Diospyros sumatrana Miq., Baccaurea brevipes Hook. f., Barringtonia pauciflora King, Madhuca dongnaiensis (Pierre) Baehni, Lophopetalum wallichii Kurz, and Scaphium affine (Mast.), Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis. Another type is evergreen forest, over 800 meters above sea level high or could be found on only mountain peaks, such as Khao Phrabat Pluang. Plant species include Castanopsis diversifolia (Kurz) King ex Hook. f., Hopea helferi (Dyer) Brandis, Choerospondias axillaris (Roxb.) B. L. Burtt & Hill, Mesua ferrea L., Dehaasia candolleana (Meisn.) Kosterm.X, Xerospermum noronhianum (Blume) Blume, Shorea thorelii Pierre ex Laness., Garcinia hanburyi Hook. f., Diospyros areolata King & Gamble, Prunus ceylanica (Wight) Miq., Urobotrya siamensis Hiepko.

Due to being highly elevated and no hunting of animals in the surrounding areas of the national park since main income source is fruit farms, the wildlife community is prosperous. Some of the species are elephant (Elaphas maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), fishing cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus), sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), serow (Capricornis sumatraensis), wild boar (Sus scrofa), pileated gibbon (Hylobatess pileatusss), Malayan porcupine (Hystrix brachyuran), Asian palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphrodites), small Asian mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), Siamese hare (Lepus peguensis), Northern treeshrew (Tupaia belangeri), Finlayson’s squirrel (Callosciurus finlaysoni), Lyle’s flying fox (Pteropus lylei), Khalij pheasant (Lophura nycthemera lewisi), red junglefowl (Gallus gallus), white- breasted waterhen (Amaurornis phoenicurus), green pigeon (Treron curvirostra), greater coucal (Centropus sinensis), Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis), great hornbill (Buceros bicornis), black-crested bulbul (Pycnonotus flaviventris), black drongo (Dicrurus macrocercus), white-rumped shama (Copsychus malabalicus), olive-blacked sunbird (Nectarinia jugularis), elongated tortoise (Indotestuda elongate), common house gecko (Hemidactylus frenatus), and red-headed lizard (Calotes versicolor). Species found in steams are swamp barb (Puntius brevis), blackline rasbora (Rasbora borapetensis), lipped barb (Osteochilus hasseltii), Northern whiting (Sillago sihama), catfish (Oreoglantis siamensis), Cambodian catfish (Semibahrus nemurus), ponyfish (Parambassis siamensis), climbing perch (Anabas testudineus), marble goby (Oxyeleotris marmoratus), tire track eel (Mastacembelus armatus), and needlefish (Strongylurus strongylura).

Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park P23

Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park occupies Glaeng district and Khao Chamao district, , and Gaeng Hang Maew, Chanthaburi province and is one of the tourist destinations in Eastern Thailand. The rich rainforest sources Rayong’s streams and waterways and provide habitat for wildlife. There are a number of beautiful landmarks within the national park, such as waterfalls, cliffs, and caves. The national park covers 83.68 kilometer squared or 52,300 Rai.

Background

In the PAC meeting 5/2517, on July 10, 1974, the committee gave an order for the Royal Forestry Department to investigate Khao Chamao-Khao Wong in Chanthaburi province for its preparation to turn into national park. Doctor Boonsong Lakakul, the secretary-general of Association Conservation of Wildlife (ACW), wrote a document, dated July 17, 1974, and the Natural Capital Conservation Club in Srinakharinwirot University, Pathumwan also gave a document _____ number 020/2517, dated July 22, 1974. The documents requested the consideration of Khao Chamao, which sources streams and rivers in Rayong province and harbors various species of plants and animals, into a national park. Concurrently, Siamrath newspaper published on August 20, 1974, included an article “The Voice of Khao Chamao”, written by Mr. Paiboon Suksumek. The article called for the consideration of assignation of Khao Chamao-Khao Wong forests as park or national park to prevent trespasses and destruction.

The Royal Forestry Department gave a directive number 1017/2517, dated August 30, 1974, for officers to investigate the forest boundaries and areas within Khao Chamao-Khao Wong, Rayong province and Chanthaburi province. The report states that the area is rainforest, sourcing streams, and provides habitat for wildlife. Department of National Park, Royal Forestry Department proposed to PAC in the meeting on April 4, 1975. The meeting resulted in agreement to assign the concerned area as national park. The Act assigned Khao Chamao forest comprises of Toong Kwai Gin region, Glang district, Rayong province; Ghang Hang Maew region, Tha Mhai district, Chanthaburi province; and Khao Wong forest, Gong Din region, Glang district, Rayong province; and Nayai Am region, Tha Mhai district, Chanthaburi province as a national park. It was announced in Government’s Gazette volume 92, chapter 267, dated December 31, 1975.

Topography P24

Khao Chamao mostly comprises of mountain ranges with medium slope ridgetops, however the shoulders are steeply sloped. The highest peak is Khao Pantee at 1,024 meters above sea level and lowest at 51 meters above sea level. The topography in Khao Wong is Karst Topography, which has many peaks created by dissolution of limestones, characterized by underground drainage systems, sinkholes, and caves. The highest peak is 162 meters above sea level and lowest at 96 meters above sea level.

Climate

Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park experiences morning fogs, together with cold temperatures, in some areas. The temperature is mildly cold for the whole day due to winds.

Flora and Fauna

From the animal investigation report between December 2012 to March 2013 by National Park Innovation Institure, Phetchaburi and colleagues, there are 7 orders, 18 families, 28 species of mammals in the northern areas, excluding bats. There are 32 families and 107 species of birds.

P25 Along the biological corridor, one species of mammals was found, which is serow (Naemorhedus sumatraensis). As for the other 26 species (except black rat), are protect species most important as follow: wild elephant (Elephus maximus), gaur (Bos gaurus), banteng (B. javanicus), dhole (Cuon alpines), and clouded leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa).

According to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora: CITES), there are 7 species that is present in the list 1 as follow: Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), Malayan sun bear (Ursus malayanus), Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus), wild elephant (E. maximus), gaur (B. gaurus), serow (N. sumatraensis), and clouded leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa). There are 2 species in list 2 as follow: dhole (C. alphines), leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis), Sunda pangolin (Manis javanica), and Southern pig-tailed macaque (Macana menestrina).

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources or the World Conservation Union (IUCN) classifies wild elephant (E. maximus) and banteng (B. javanicus) under endangered species. Gaur (B. gaurus), serow (N. sumatraensis), dhole (C. alphines), clouded leopard (P. nebulosa), Asian black bear (U. thibetanus), and Southern pig-tailed macaque (M. nemestrina) under species with high potential of becoming endangered. Sunda pangolin (M. javanica) and pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus) are listed as vulnerable species. There are 10 big-sized mammals with high importance to the ecosystem, which are banteng (B. javanicus), wild elephant (E. maximus), dhole (C. alpinus), gaur (B. gaurus), serow (C. milneedwardsii), Asian black bear (U. thibetanus), Malayan sun bear (U. malayanus), wild boar (Sus scrofa), Northern muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), and Sambar deer (Cervus unicolor).

Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park

Background

In 1998, Chanthaburi province sent a document to the Royal Forestry Department suggesting the Khun Chong National Forest Reserve, Khun Chon region, Gaeng Hang Maew district, Chanthaburi province, as suitable for designation as a national park due to and to protect its rich and bountiful rainforest. The area is situated in-between Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary and Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, which is highly vulnerable to trespasses and illegal activities. The rich nature is suitable for educational, recreational, and tourism use and should be preserved as a national park for future generations, and to adhere to royal thought and project on preservation of forest and animals along the 5 provinces’ biological corridors (Eastern Thailand).

The Royal Forestry Department then gave a directive on June 9, 2000, for officers to survey and investigate the Khun Chong National Forest, Khun Chong, Gaeng Hang Maew district, Chanthaburi province. The team, including Mr. Chainarong Chantarasantool, Forestry Techincal Officer 7, Mr. Udomsak Suphanpong, Forestry Management Officer 6, Mr. Supachok Temsaard, Forestry Officer 5, and Chanthaburi’s forestry officers, reported that the subjected national forest covers 75,000 Rai or 120 kilometer squared. The notable characteristics are the flat and lowland forests, waterfalls, beautiful scenery, and rich biodiversity suitable for recreational, educational, scientific, and tourism use, and sufficient size to become a national park. The Royal Forestry Department then proceeded to order Mr. Winai Somanawat, Forestry Technical Officer 7, to investigate the Khun Chong National Forest to form a national park named “Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park”.

Topography

P27 The Khao Khun Chong forest is situated on the low flat lands, covering vast areas. The mountain ranges occupy from north to south, the eastern area adjacent to Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary. The highest peak is Khao Sip Ha Chun Mountain at 802 meters above sea level. In the center of the forest situate low mountain Khao Saton and another in the south Khao Saba. The northern forest connects to Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary. Numerous canals run through the whole forest. The main canal is Khlong Tanod, which is both deep and wide. The canal runs the whole length from north to sourth of the forest. In the northern part, there are smaller canals branching from Khlong Tanod, such as Khlong Dinsor, Khlong Sai, Khlong Khod, Khlong Ekek, Khlong Nam Pen, Khlong Saba, and Khlong Yang.

Climate

The climate is influenced by Northeasterly monsoon winds and Southwesterly monsoon winds prevail over Thailand, causing 3 main seasons, winter, summer, and rainy season. Winter starts from mid-October to February, influenced by Northeasterly monsoon winds causing dry and cold weather. The coldest month is January. Summer starts from February to mid-May, hottest month being April. The rainy season starts from mid-May to mid-October, influenced by Southwesterly winds. During rainy season the weather is high in humidity and heavy rainfall. The average annual precipitation is 3,059 millimeters. The month with greatest precipitation is September. The average annual temperature is approximately 28 degrees Celsius and average lowest temperature at 21 degrees Celsius.

Flora and Fauna

Khao Khun Chong National Forest was once given forestry concession, in which, from investigation conducted, habours 3 types of forest, rainforest, dry evergreen forest, and deciduous dipterocarp forest, the rarest of the three. The rainforest could be found on the valley and foothills. The rainforest is of high economic and ecological importance due to the prevalence of economic groups. The dry evergreen forests cover less area than the rainforest, also situating on foothills.

Important mammals habiting in the national park are wild elephant (Elephas maximus), Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), Indian muntjac (Muntiacus muntjak), banteng (Bos javanicus), gaur (Bos gaurus), tiger (Panthera tigris), P28 Malayan sun bear (Helarctos malayanus). Bird species include hornbill (Buceros spp.), common hill myna (Gracula religiosa ptilogenys), storm’s stork (Cinonia episcopus), Siamese fireback (Lophura diaradi), and silver pheasant (Lophura nycthemera).

Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary

Background

Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary is a part of Kaew Rabom-See Yud National Forest in close to provincial boundary with (now province), Chanthaburi province, Rayong province, and , under royal decree in 1977. The total area accounts to 67,562.5 Rai, announced in Government’s Gazette volume 94, chapter 95, dated October 11, 1977. There are 4 Forest Protection Unit for forest and animal conservation lest further direct and indirect natural resources destruction due to overpopulation and land price speculations. The forest provides water sources for the 5 provincial boundary. The Five Provinces Bordering Forest Preservation Foundation commenced under the royal decree to expand another 500,000 Rai Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary area, totaling at 643,750 Rai in 1992. This included the provincial boundary of Sa Kaeo province, Chanthaburi province, Rayong Province, and Chonburi province. The details were announced in Government’s Gazette volume 109, chapter 126, dated December 30, 1992. Currently, there are 16 permanent and 2 temporary Forest Protection Units and in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary. There are also other units from the Royal Forestry Department, which are 100 Botanical Garden, Wildlife Research Station Chachoengsao (Wildlife Research Center Puthai), 6 Watershed Management Units, and 3rd Fire Control Station in Central Region Chachoengsao (Forest Fire Control Unit Puthai).

Topography

The upper and middle areas of Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary are P29 mostly rolling plains, medium slopes, thus vulnerable to trespasses, cultivations and reclamations before evacuating from the areas. Southwest, northeast, and southeast areas are characterized by high mountains, from 30-802 meters above sea level. The highest peak locates in southeast, which is part of Khao Bantud Mountain and Chanthaburi mountain range. The mountain range includes Khao Ang Rue Nai, Khao Yhai, Khao Chamoon, and Khao Cha Om. The 5 provincial boundary sources streams that run to important rivers, such as Kaew Rabom-See Yud that in turn collide into Bang Pragong River, Bang Khla district, Chachoengsao province; Khlong Lum Praplerng Yhai and Khlong Satueng, from Khao Sip Ha Chun mountain, colliding into Prachinburi River; Khlong Tanod runs to Tha Mhai district, Chanthaburi province; and Khlong Prasae, from Yhai mountain range, Bor Thong district, Chonburi province, into the ocean in Rayong province.

Climate

Eastern Region of Thailand, especially the 5 provincial boundary, is influenced by monsoon trough, which causes heavy and continuous rainfall. The Buntud mountain range and Chanthaburi mountain range, locating in the southern part, cause greater rainfall in the south compared to the north. In addition to monsoon influences, there is influence from the sea. This results in savanna in the upper areas and tropical monsoon in the lower areas. The contrasting weather enables rich and diverse species of plants and animals to prosper, especially plants from 2 regions, Indo-China region and Indo-Malaya region.

Geology

South of Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary is a part of Buntud mountain range and Chanthaburi mountain range, formed by igneous rocks.

Forest Resources

Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, part of Eastern Forest Complex and P30 Five Provinces Bordering Forest, lowland evergreen forest closest to and is also transition zone between Central Region ecosystem and Northeastern Region ecosystem, thus very diverse in biodiversity. Most of the rainforests are dry evergreen forest. Dry evergreen forest occupies vast majority, if not all, the areas of Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, with exceptions at mountain ridges and areas with shallow soils. The rest of the areas are occupied by tropical rainforests, mixed deciduous forests, dry dipterocarp forests, grasslands and deserted farmlands. The canopy layers of dry evergreen forests are divided into 3 layers, the top canopy, middle canopy, and lower canopy. The top canopy towers over 20-40 meters. Significant plant species growing near water streams are as follow: Lagerstroemia calyculata Kurz, Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex A. W. Benn, Dipterocarpus turbinatus C. F. Gaertn, Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br, Hopea odorata Roxb., and Chionanthus eriorachis (Kerr) P. S. Green. The trees in middle canopy 15-25 meters tall, plant species include: Passiflora biflora Lam., Pterospermum diversifolium Blum, Sandoricum koetjape (Burm. f.) Merr., Carallia brachita (Lour.) Merr., Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker, Nephelium hypoleucum Kurz.

The bottom canopy’s height varies from 6-15 meters. Plant species include: Murraya paniculata (L.) Jack, Excoecaria oppositifolia Griff., Diospyros oblonga Wall. ex. G. Don, Diospyros vera (Lour.) A. Chev., Mansonia gagei J. R. Drumm. ex Prain, Diospyros buxifolia (Blume) Hiern, and Sageraea elliptica (A. DC.) Hook. f. & Thomson.

Plant community in mixed deciduous forest is characterized with sparse and sheer top canopy, low-density forest, and in dry season the shed leaves cover vast areas of the forest floor, especially limestone mountain ridges, shallow soils, or areas with frequent forest fires. The 3 layers of canopy are top canopy, middle canopy, and lower canopy. The top canopy height varies from 25-30 meters, the notable plant species are Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz, Bombax anceps Pierre, Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Merr., and Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Roxb. The height of middle canopy varies from 10-25 meters with plant species such as Vitex pinnata L., Terminalia nigrovenulosa Pierre, Cratoxylum formosum (Jacq.) P31 Benth. & Hook. f. ex Dyer subsp. pruniflorum (Kurz) Gogelein, Fernandoa adenophylla (Wall. ex G. Don Steenis), Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk., Holigarna albicans Hook. f., and Spondias pinna (L. f.) Kurz. The bottom canopy is 5-10 meters tall. The plant species are Premna rabakensis Moldenke, Antidesma ghaesembilla Gaertn., Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabb., Bridelia ovate Decne., Gardenia obtusifolia Roxb. ex Hook. f., and Canthium horridum Blume. Aftert timber and road development concessions, there were invasions that led to Old farmland and shifting cultivation areas. In 1988-89, the Royal Forestry Department and related departments evacuated the subjected citizens out of the Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, which results in abandoned farmlands for vegetation to naturally prosper. The prominent plant species can be divided into 2 groups, broadleaves and narrow leaves. Species with broadleaves, found on the narrow border between farmlands and the forest, are Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob., Trema orientalis (L.) Blume, Abelmoschus manihot Medil. Var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr., Peltophorum dasyrrhachis (Miq.) Kurz, and Neolamarckia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser. Narrow leaves species are dispersed all around, such as Arundo donax L., Imperata cyindrica (L.) Raeusch., Hemisorghum mekongense (A. Camus) C. E. Hubb., and Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br, mixed perennial plants. There are usually located on limestone outcrops mountain ridges, especially in the southern parts. In the southern areas of mountain ridges are mostly comprised with bushes and dwarf perennials, such as Abelmoschus manihot Medik. var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr., Vitex pinnata L., Erythrina subumbrans (Hassk.) Merr., Atalantia monophylla (L.) DC., and Dracaena cochinchinensis (Lour.) S. C. Chen.

Animals P32 From expedition in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, first animal species category is mammals, 64 species from 50 genus, 23 families were found. Most mammals found are small to medium sized, such as black giant squirrel, pileated gibbon, and barking deer. The large-sized mammals are, such as, elephants and gaur, though mostly only animal tracks could be found and with the sanctuary. However, currently due to cultivations, developments and human activities, stray elephants and gaurs come out to eat cassava peats in agricultural lands adjacent to the forests. Birds are commonly found in the whole sanctuary, with 246 species, 160 genus and 64 families. Birds that can be found within the forests are hornbills, wreathed hornbills, Siamese fireback, blue-winged pitta, scaly-breasted munia, spotted dove, streak-eared bulbul, common myna, and white falcon. There are 53 species, 40 genus, 16 families or reptiles, such as oriental whip snake, green cat snake, common forest skink, variabled skink, Bengal monitor, and mountain bronzeback. Furthermore, there are Siamese crocodiles and Chinese water dragons. As for amphibians, there are 18 species, 9 genus, and 5 families, such as Marten’s puddle frog, tree frog, common green frog, Asian grass frog, banded bullfrog, and Berdmore’s chorus frog. There are 23 species, 18 genus, and 13 families of fish, for example, Javean barb, silver rasbora, sheatfish, snakehead murrel, gouramis, and spiny eel. The most prevalent type of animals is insect. Protected species declared as rare are Bhutan glory, Kaiser butterfly family, Troides family, Nymphalidae family, Papilionidae family, banded peacock, brown gorgon, violin beetle, large ground beetle, giraffe stag beetle, and Cheirotonus parryi. There are 106 species, 76 genus, 12 families of insects found. Frequent sightings are as follow: Lime butterfly, Common Bluebottle, Blue Peacock, the Clipper Parthenos sylvia Cramer, the Great Mormon, Lurcher, Kokino butterfly, the Tufted Jungleking, and Giant Rhinoceros beetle.

Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary

Background

P33 Primarily, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary was named “Khao Soi Dao Forest Reserves. The name may originate from one of the mountains, 1,675 meters above sea level, where the peak so tall it seems as if the stars are reachable during the night. Later on, the sanctuary was vulnerable to illegal logging and illegal animal poaching and trade. However, Act of Parliament was not strict enough to punish those commit these acts. The Royal Forestry Department, in order to prevent further destruction, proceeded to designate the area as a wildlife sanctuary. In 1965, after expedition it was deemed suitable as wildlife sanctuary due to its diverse and rich biodiversity. The Royal Forestry Department then enacted an act to form a wildlife sanctuary. In 1971, the government gave 30-year concession to Sri Maha Racha Company Limited, despite the wildlife sanctuary act was underway. Due to this, the Conservation Club, Kasetsart University submitted a complaint letter to the Revolutionary Council, dated February 14, 1972. The executive council of the Revolutionary Council then repealed the areas within Khao Sao Dao from the concession, announced under Revolutionary Council Order edition 200, dated August 26, 1972. Khao Soi Dao was announced as a wildlife sanctuary in Government’s Gazette volume 89, chapter 132, dated September 4, 1972, covering 465,637 Rai. Later on, it was announced in the Government’s Gazette, on September 24, 1998, to withdraw parts of Khao Soi Dao, including Takien Thong region, , Makham district, Chanthaburi province, covering 35 Rai. This was requested by Department of Energy Development and Promotion under Ministry of Science and Techonology for construction of Khlong Toong Plae hydroelectricity dam, a royal project. The multi-purpose project goal was to store water to consumption, irrigation, and generate electricity. P34 Topography

The topography can be arranged as follow:

1) The hill and mountainous areas are characterized by mountain ranges, with highest peak being Khao Soi Dao Mountain at 1,675 meters above sea level. Over 30 percent of the areas are sloped, which sources many streams and waterways. This creates billows on the ground.

2) On the foothill slope, the topography is constant slope, less than 30 percent slope. There are numerous canals stemming from the mountains, creating billows.

3) The coalescing fan hills are formed close to mountain ranges, due to aggregation of sediments carried in canals on the foothills. The grounds are billowed with 1-3 percent slope.

4) The low terraces are once watershed areas that are now not flooded by the river due to the reduction in river water level.

Climate

The general climate is influenced by Northeasterly monsoon winds and Southwesterly monsoon winds that prevail over Thailand. This creates 3 main seasons, winter, summer, and rainy season.

P35 Winter starts from mid-October to mid-February, where prevailing winds are from Northeasterly direction. During winter, the area is cold and dry. The driest season is January.

Summer starts from mid-February to mid-May and is torridly hot. The hottest month is April.

Rainy season starts from mid-My to mid-October, during then Southwesterly monsoon winds prevails over Thailand. The weather is humid and rain falls the whole season. From Thailand’s 1961-1990 climate recordsby the Meteorological Department’s weather station in Chanthaburi, 3 meters above sea level, it was found that the average temperature is 26.8 degrees Celsius. The average highest temperature is 31.6 degrees Celsius, mostly occurring in April. The average lowest temperature is 23.3 degrees Celsius. The relative humidity influenced by the ocean that has high relative humidity year round, is cold and dry during winter, averaging at 80 percent. During rainy season, however, relative humidity reached 93 percent due to the Southwesterly monsoon winds bringing water vapor in. The average lowest relative humidity is 63 percent. The precipitation yield is excellent due to rainfall year round. The average precipitation is approximately 2.874 millimeters, on 169 days. The month with highest precipitation is August at approximately 524 millimeters. (The Meteorological Department, 1990.

Geology

The geology can be divided according to periods as follow:

1) Triassic period, from 180 to 230 million years ago. Rocks formed were mainly igneous rock, including granite, granodiorite, and diorite, which were most prevalent.

2) Carboniferous, Divonian, and Silurian period, roughly 310 million years ago. Significant rocks that could be found during these periods are sedimentary rocks and sandstone. Limestone and conglomerate rocks P36 were also mixed in.

3) From Quaternary period to the present day, approximately 2.5 million years, are the shortest period with notably slower geological evolution and transition. Rocks that could be found during this period are sediments that formed through accumulation along terraces and watershed. These sediments are not adhesive and consist of gravel, sand, clay, and silt. The thickness of accumulated sediments is varied, though usually less that 50 meters. As for rock groups there are Korat group and Ratchaburi group. The Korat group includes sedimentary rocks, mountain rubbles, sand gravels, hard sand, clay and laterite. There are also Pong Nam Ron rock unit, which is black and green greywacke, from fine to rough texture and bad layering. The layers can be thick, thin, parallel, with small gravels, such as shale and thin limestone, mixed in. Ratchaburi group includes igneous rock and hornblende biotitic granite rock, mostly medium-sized, filled with scratches, and rough. There also red and grey chert rock, with some radiolarian layers. The agronomic and soil characteristics are mainly Rayong resies (Ry) within great soil group regosols. The ground is considered flat or with little bumps, and has slope of 2-4 percent. It is also deep, poor in mineral content soil and has great drainage capacity. The physical riches are poor due to the rough sand soil condition that has lower water retention. Land usages are residential area construction, grove wood forest, and grazing. The renu series within great soul group hydromarphic gray poszolic soils are created through old sediments accumulating on lowland terraces at medium water levels. On alluvial fans are arounf 1-4 percent in slope, has deep, normal mineral content soils, and poor water drainage. Huai Yot series within great soil group lithesols, are fromed bue to the dissolution of fine rocks, including shale and phyllite. The ground is rippled, sloped at 8-30 percent, with medium mineral content, shallow, high in drainage capacity soils. Khlong Ting series within great soil group red yellow P37 podrolicklkj soils, are formed due to the dissolution of fine rocks, shale and phyllite, causing flat bellows and steep bellows. The slope is 2-16 percent and has medium-depth, medium drainage capacity, medium mineral content soils. Huai Yot and Khlong Tend series are found within same topography. Phakkat series, within great soil group Hydrommophic Noncalelic Brow Soil, are formed by sediments accumulating into alluvial fans and valleys. The slope is 3-5 percent, low to medium drainage, medium mineral content soils. Grass forest and rainforests cover vast areas. The slope complex are filled with a mixture of differentiated rocks, 35 percent slope, and has shallow soils.

Forest resources

There are 2 types of forest resources in Khao Soi Dao Forest Wildlife Sanctuary as follow:

1) Moist Evergreen Forests are rich in plant biodiversity owing to year- round rainfall. The canopy layer plants are large and high in economic value. The forest sources numerous streams. Important species are Hopea odorata Roxb., Afzelis xylocarpa (Kurz) Craib, Tetrameles nudiflora R. Br., Irvingia malayana Oliv. ex A. W. Benn., Lagerstroemia calyculata Kurz, Celtis tetrandra Roxb., Artocarpus chama Buch.-Ham., Anisoptera costata orth., Pterocarpus macrocarpus Kurz, to name a few. The plants in dense understory are, for example, Calamus spp., Amomun villosum Lour. Var. xanthiodes (Wall. ex Baker) T. L. Wu & S. J. Chen, Amomum testaceum Ridl., and Alpinia galangal (L.) Wild.

2) Decidous Forests habituate grasslands and plant species that feed P38 animals, such as Shorea obtuse Wall. ex Blume, Shorea siamensis Miq., Dipterocarpus tuberculatus Roxb., and Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) W. Theob. Var. xylocarpa.

Animals

Mammal species found in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary total at 122 species, 73 genus, and 27 families. Important large-sized mammals are elephants (Elephas maximus), gaurs (Bos gaurus), bantengs (Bos javanicus) and tigers (Panthera tigris).

There are at least 276 species of bird found belonging to 166 genus and 39 families. As for reptiles 88 species, 59 genus, 16 families were found. As for amphibians, 29 species, 12 genus, 6 families were found. Freshwater fish accounts to 47 species, 31 genus, and 17 families.

Within Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, extremely rare species, such as silver pheasant (Lophara nycthemera lewisi) that could be found only on mountain ranges of Khao Soi Dao. In 1971, 2 more species of bird were discovered, which are Marron Oriole (Oriolus traillii) and Silver Oriole (Oriolus mellainus), the first . Khao Soi Doi Wildlife Sanctuary has a special property, unique from other forests in Thailand in terms of animal species, which are the similarities between the species within Khao Sao Dao, Cambodia and Vietnam’s species. Therefore, the wildlife sanctuary is highly valuable in zoology and water sources for its inhabitants as wildlife depends upon the numerous streams and canals, such as Khlong Tarong, Khlong Patong, Khlong Tariw, Khlong Toongglaang, and Khlong Taruang.

Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary P39 Background

Due to document 0009/6231, dated March 23, 1995, by Chanthaburi province requesting the designation of Pong Nam Ron forest as a wildlife sanctuary, an expedition, ordered by the Royal Forest Department on June 14, 1995, for preparing its announcement commenced. The expedition covered Pong Nam Ron forest, ; Pattawee National forest, Makham district; Tok Prom National Forest, Khlung district, Chanthaburi province. From the expedition, it was reported that the forest type is rich and diverse tropical rainforest, provides abundant sources of water and nutrition for the wildlife. Parts of the areas were trespassed and exploited by nearby inhabitants, thus worth transforming into a wildlife sanctuary. Furthermore, Chanthaburi provincial authority proposed to the Royal Forest Department to name the wildlife sanctuary as “Kanchanapisek Wildlife Sanctuary”. After discussion and royal permission, the sanctuary was named “Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary”. It was officially announced in the Government’s Gazette volume 115, chapter 101, dated December 30, 1998, covering 165,795 Rai.

Topography

The topography of Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary consists of high mountain ranges, from 200-954 meters above sea level, thus provide many natural water sources for the wildlife. Streams and canals are, for example, Khlong Tachun, Khlong Takhong, Khlong Khrua Wai, Khlong Pong nam ron, and Khlong Tubsai. Afterwards, a reservoir was constructed, which is Khiri Than Reservoir, capacity of 76,000,000 cubic meters. The usage includes electricity generation and water storage for agricultural use during dry season. Some of the areas are flatland, especially in valleys, which is extremely vulnerable to trespasses for fruit farming.

Climate P40

There are 3 seasons in Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary as follow:

1) Rainy season from mid-May to October, with August having greatest rainfall up to 518 millimeters. December has the least rainfall, only at 12.2 millimeters. Annual precipitation is approximately 2,397.1 millimeters.

2) Winter starts from November to February, with January as coldest month at 12.5 degrees Celsius.

3) Summer starts from Feburary to May, April as the hottest month at 36.7 degrees Celsius. The average highest temperature is 31.5 degrees Celsius and the average lowest temperature is 23.1 degrees Celsius. The average annual relative humidity is 83%. September has the highest relative humidity at 87% and December lowest at 69%.

Geology

The soil in the area is rich due to the plant rotation year-round. The unique property of the soil found is the Khlong Chak series formed by the dissolution of fine sediments. The ground condition is billowed, slightly sloped hills and high drainage shallow soils. The soil is loose and tacky, low in nutrients. However, the area potential use is for rubber plantation and fruit farming. Another soil type is mountain series, which usually has greater than 35% slope and is unsuitable for human activities due to high risks in landslides. This is more appropriate for preservation of water sources. The rock types, from the expedition, consist of sedimentary rocks and various igneous rocks, with metamorphic rocks spotted in some areas.

Forest Resources P41

The wildlife sanctuary is generally made of tropical rainforest, high humidity, and densely populated by plant species provide rich natural food source for wildlife and highly valuable economically. The nutrition cycle rotates rapidly within the ecosystem. The canopy layer is dense and large in size, such as Schima wallichii (DC.) Korth., Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) R. Parker, Hopea odorata Roxb., Litchi chinensis Sonn., Anisoptera costata Korth., Parkia speciosa Hassk., Anisoptera costata Korth., Ceropegia arnottiana Wight, Celtis tetrandra Roxb., Syzygium attenuatum (Miq.) Merr. & L.M. Perry subsp. circumscissum (Gagnep.) Chantar. & J. Parn., and Dacrycarpus imbricatus (Blume) de Laub. The understory includes Diospyros areolata King & Gamble, Archidendron quocense (Pierre) I. C. Nielsen, Dillenia aurea Sm., Lindera ocyphylla Hook. f., and Memecylon garcinioides Blume. The bottem canopy includes Baccaurea brevipes Hook. f., Passiflora biflora Lam., Urobotrya siamensis Heipko, Baccaurea brevipes Hook. f., Morinda citrifolia L., and Mansonia gagei J. R. Drumm. ex Prain. The undergrowth layer includes Sindora echinocalyx Prain, Licuala paludosa Griff, and Calamus spp.

Animals From direct and indirect investigation it was found that there are over 150 animal species, varying in its quantity. Some species are close to extinction. Some of the species found are muntjac, Sambar deer (Rusa unicolor), mouse deer (Tragulus spp.), hog badger (Arctonyx collaris), ferret badger (Melongale personate), mongoose (Herpestes javanicus), Malayan sun beer (Ursus malayanus), Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus), hedgehog (Hystrix brachyuran), gibbon (Hylobates lar), leaf-eating monkey (Semnopithecus obscurus), slow loris (Nycticebus coucang), civet (Paradoxurus hermaphrodites), tiger (Panthera tigris), leopard (Panthera pardus), Malayan porcupine (Hystric brachyuran), Asiatic brush-tailed porcupine (Atherurus macrourus), and Southern pig-tailed macaque P42 (Macaca nemestrina).

Wing-animals or bird include Mountain hawk eagle (Spizaetus nipalensis), Green-legged partridge (Arborophila choloropus), Red-breasted parakeet (Psittacula alexandri), coucal (Centropus senegalensis), Red-billed blue magpie (Urocissa erythrorhyncha), Indian roller (Coracias benghalensis), Oriental magpie- robin (Copsychus saularis), White-rumped shama (Copsychus malabalicus), Oriole (Oriolus chinensis), Common emerald dove (Chacophaps indica), leafbird (Chloropsis spp.), Myna (Acridotheres spp.), Coppersmith barbet (Megalaima haemecephala), White-crested laughingrush (Garrulax laucolophus), Common hill myna (Gracula religiosa), Black-headed bulbul (Pycnonotus atriceps), Red- whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus), Woodpecker (Dinopium javanense), and Asian fairy bluebird (Irena puella).

Some species of reptiles are Tokay gecko (Gekko gecko), Red-headed lizard (Calotes versicolor), Valiablee skink (Varanus salvator), Bengal monitor (Varanus bengalensis), Chinese ratsnake (Ptyas korros), cobra (Naja kaouthia), King cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), Malayan pit viper (Calloselasma rhodostoma), and Sri Lankan pit viper (Trimeeresurus albolabris).

Amphibians habituating in the wildlife sanctuary are, for instance, Marten’s puddle frog (Occidoyzga martensii), Asian grass frog, Rhinoceros frog, capped frog (Limnonectes gyldenstolpel), and green-backed frog (Hylarana nigrovittata).

P43 Equipment and Methodology

This research adopts water yield model by INVEST (Integrated Valuation of Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs) developed by researchers from The Natural Capital Project in cooperation with the Stanford University, the University of Minnesota, the Nature Conservancy, and the World Wildlife Fund. (Sharp et al., 2015)

Sharp et al., (2015) states that the model bases upon Budyko curve and average precipitation, where annual water yield Y(x) in each grid of area x follows the equation:

When AET(x) is the annual average evaporation rate for grid x, P(x) is annual precipitation for grid x, and for each plant community or land use the ratio between evapotranspiration rate and total annual precipitation goes according to Budyko curve (Fu, 1981 and Zhang et al., 2004 ref: Sharp et al., 2015) as follows:

P44 When PET(x) is potential evapotranspiration and w(x) is the non-physical parameter influenced by natural soil climate, the equation follows:

When ETo(x) is the average annual reference evapotranspiration of grid x and Kc(lx) the coefficient of plant evapotranspiration in the land use (lx) at grid x. Furthermore, w(x) is the empirical parameter shown as AWC x N/P when N number of times occurred annually, and AWV as water volume usable by plants. The constructed equation is as follow, by Donohue et al. (2012) referenced by Sharp et al. (2015).

When AWC(x) is the water volume usable by plants (millimeters), in which the soil structure and root depth are used as determinants. AWC(x) that determines the manageable water and release into soils for plant usage, is estimated by resulting usable water by plants, root restricting layer depth and root depth. The equation is as follow:

AWC(x) = Min (soil depth, root depth) * PAWC

Z is the seasonal factor, which comes in form of precipitation volume and physical characteristics of river basin. This is related to the number of times rainfall occurs annually (N). The seasonal factor is at 1.25, which is the lowest value of w(x), found in open areas (0 depth).

As for land use on water surface, towns and wetlands, the real evapotranspiration rate is calculated by the potential evapotranspiration of grid x. the highest value depends upon the precipitation volume, according to the following equation:

From the equations stated, the values needed in the water yield model and the methodology of acquiring the data are explained below:

1) The Land use map: for satellite image from Landsat 8, downloaded from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) – https://www.usgs.gov/. Then used ArcGIS for visual interpretation.

2) Root restricting layer depth map: through expedition and mapping or soil depth by using gradient level and geological characteristics as determinants of depth. The equation for the relationship between soil depth and gradient is borrowed from root restricting layer depth equation by Thammanoon and Songtam (2015):

When y is the root restricting layer depth (millimeters) and x the gradient (degrees), then used instead of grid value data on gradient created by DEM.

3) Plant available water map (water usable by plant): by collecting soil samples in each plant community for structural analysis and organic matter quantity. Then calculated the plant water availability using FAO equation. The resulting value for each plant community is then mapped for the whole Eastern Forest Complex and adjusted according to Boer (2016) soil quality data.

4) Average annual reference evapotranspiration (ETo): using map by Trabucco and Zomer (2009), equation constructed on “modified Hagreaves” by Talaee (2014).

When ETo is the average annual reference evapotranspiration (millimeters P46 per day) Ta, Tmax, and Tmin is the average temperature, maximum temperature, and minimum temperature accordingly. P is the precipitation per month (millimeters) and Ra is the extraterrestrial radiation (mega Jules per meter squared per day). The climate data is taken from Hijimans et al. (2005); Worldclim – Global Climate Data (https://worldclin.org/).

5) Precipitation: data taken from Hijimans et al. (2005); Worldclim – Global Climate Data (https://worldclin.org/).

6) The plant water usage coefficient: The plant water usage coefficient (Kc) is calculated from the relationship between the evapotranspiration value (ETc) and the average annual reference evapotranspiration (ETo: millimeters per day) from FAO equation, which is:

When ETc is the evapotranspiration in millimeters and ETo the average annual reference evapotranspiration in millimeters. The information is from Trabucco and Zomer (2009).

7) Maximum root depth: within each ecosystem is taken from Canadall et al. (1996) as recommended by Sharp et al (2015).

8) Seasonal factor or Zhang constant: The seasonal factor (Z), which is the format of precipitation and physical characteristics of river basin. This is related to the number of rainfalls per year, where determined Z value used in InVEST application, version 3.3.2. In this study, the value is set at 0-20, z=0.2*N, when N is set as number of heavy rainfalls (continuously over 6 hours) per year according to the studies conducted by Donohue et al. (2012) referenced by Sharp et al. (2014). The study allows the substitution of number od days with over 24 millimeters of precipitation, according to the consideration of heavy rainfall. This refers to precipitation greater than 90 millimeters in 24 hours. (Sanya, 2012) Information provided on precipitation in 2017 by the Meteorological Department’s Automatic Weather Station in Chanthaburi.

9) The boundaries of watershed and sub-watershed: are created using DEM data. The boundaries in this study refer to the each conservation boundaries within the Eastern Forest Complex. The sub-watershed is determined through the sub-watershed boundaries that run into dams or reservoir in each areas.

Research Area

The study covers the area of Eastern Forest Complex and its periphery in Chonburi, Rayong, Chachoengsao, Sra Kaew, Chanthaburi and Trat, covering 737,203 Rai or 1,179 kilometer squared. This consists of 5 national parks and 3 wildlife sanctuaries as follow, Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park, Nam Tok Plio National Park, Khao Khitchakut National Park, Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park, Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park, Khao Ang Rua Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, and Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary.

Research length

October – November 2016

P48 Results and Review

1. Quantitative map data and parameter variables in modeling

1) Plant community and land use map: using satellite images from Landsat 8, dated January 5, 2016, downloaded from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS): https://www.usgs.gov/. Then used visual interpretation through ArcGIS. The results from interpretation, the plant community and land use can be grouped into 13 groups accordingly, hill evergreen forest, moist evergreen forest, dry evergreen forest, mixed deciduous forest, secondary forest, scrub forest, old clearing area, tree orchard, rotation agricultural area, urban area, official use zone, open area, and water body. An illustration is shown below.

Photo 4 Plant community and other land uses in EFCOM, 2016 P50 2) Root restricting layer depth map: From the expedition and mapping of soil depth, setting gradient and geological physics as determinants of depth, and using the equation on relationship between depth and gradient from Thammanoon and Songtam (2015), y=9854.7e-0.068x , when y is the root restricting layer depth (millimeters) and x the gradient (degrees), and input into DEM, the map is as follows.

Photo 5 The root restricting layer depth map

P51 3) Plant available water content: measured by collecting soil samples in each plant community and analyse its structure and organic matter quantity. Then the water content is calculated by using FAO equation and mapped for the EFCOM. The value was adjusted according to Boer (2016). The EFCOM values vary between 0.2088-0.3062.

Photo 6 Plant available water content: PAWC

P52 4) Averarage annual reference evapotranspiration (ETo): using the map by Trabucco and Zomer (2009) constructed using “modified Hagreaves” equation by Talaee (2014), it was found that the EFCOM average annual reference evapotranspiration is 1,404-1,753 millimeters per year.

Photo 7 The Average annual reference evapotranspiration

P53 5) Precipitation: using the average annual precipitation data from Worldclim – Global Climate Data (http://www.worldclim.org/), from 1960-1990, the resulting visual representation of EFCOM is shown below.

Photo 8 Annual Precipitation

P54 6) Plant water usage coefficient (Kc): calculated from the relationship between annual evapotranspiration (ETc) and average annual reference evapotranspiration (ETo, millimeters per day) from FAO equation (ETc=Kc x ETo), from Trabucco and Zomer (2009).

No. Plant community and Land Use Kc value 1 Hill evergreen forest 0.76 2 Moist evergreen forest 0.73 3 Dry evergreen forest 0.70 4 Mixed deciduous forest 0.70 5 Secondary forest 0.69 6 Scrub forest 0.70 7 Old clearing forest 0.70 8 Tree orchard 0.71 9 Rotational agricultural area 0.69 10 Urban area 0.80 11 Official use zone 0.70 12 Open area 0.80 13 Water body 0.70

Table 1 Plant water usage coefficient (Kc) in each ecosystem in EFCOM

P54 7) Maximum root depth: in each ecosystem, using data from Canadell et al. (1996) recommended by Sharp et al. (2015) for reference, the resulting data is as follows:

No. Plant Community and Land Use Maximum Root Depth 1 Hill evergreen forest 7,300 2 Most evergreen forest 7,300 3 Dry evergreen forest 7,300 4 Mixed deciduous forest 7,300 5 Secondary forest 3,700 6 Old clearing forest 2,600 7 Scrub forest 2,600 8 Official use zone 2,600 9 Tree orchard 1,000 10 Rotational agricultural area 2,600 11 Urban area 0 12 Open area 0 13 Water body 0

Table 2 Maximum root depth in each ecosystem 8) Seasonal factor or Zhang constant (Z): is the format of precipitation and the geological characteristics of watershed, which is related to the number of rainfalls per year. The Z value is set using InVEST program version 3.3.2. In this study, the value is set at 0-20, and z=0.2 x N. N is the number of heavy rainfall (6 hours continuous) in each year, according to study by Donohue et al. (2012) referenced by Sharp et al. (2014). This study allows substitution of number of days with greater than 24 millimeters precipitation, compromising with the criteria for heavy rainfall. This means that the precipitation is greater than 90 millimeters per 24 hours. (Sanya, 2012) The 2017 data is taken from Automatic Weather Station in Chanthaburi, belonging to the P56 Meteorological Department. It was found that number of days with 24 and above millimeters in Chanthaburi province is 47 days. Therefore, the seasonal factor is 9.4.

2. Water yield in EFCOM

2.1 Water yield in protected areas

The total water from the ecosystems in EFCOM totals at 1,756,086,836 cubic meters per year, with the Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary being the area with highest water yield (658,809,816 cubic meters per year). The ordinal water yield ranking are as follow, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Khlong Khrua Wildlife Sanctuary, Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park, Nam Tok Plio National Park, Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park, Khao Khitchakut National Park, and Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park. The water yield is directly related to the size, land use, precipitation, evapotranspiration rate, gradient, and restricting layer root depth in each area.

2.2 Irrigation potential of protected areas

From the study, the area with greatest irrigation potential per unit of area is Nam Tok Plio National Park, at 1,959 cubic meters per year. The irrigation potential of each area is as follow, Nam Tok Khlong Kaew (1,319 cubic meters per year), Khao Khitchakut National Park (1,206 cubic meters per year), Khao Chamao-Khao Wong (1,012 cubic meters per year), Khao Sip Ha Chun (977 cubic meters per year), Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary (950 cubic meters per year), Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary (904 cubic meters per year), and Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary (901 cubic meters per year) ordinally. (Table 3, Photo 9 and Photo 12)

2.3 Water value in protected areas

If calculated the value using tap water price (approximately 10 Baht per cubic meters), the value is as much as 17,560 million Baht per year. The values of each area are as follow, ordinally, Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary (6,588,098,160 million Baht per year), Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary (421,327,701 million Baht per year), Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary (174,201,136 million Baht per year), Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park (159,776,390 million Baht per year), Nam Tok Plio National Park (153,191,041 million Baht per year), Khao Sip Ha Chun (71,259,250 million Baht per year), Khao Khitchakut National Park (60,376,808 million Baht per year), and Khao P58 Chamao-Khao Wong National Park (57,144,694 million Baht per year). (Table 3 Photo 11)

The water yield stated has many other uses that utility, some is stored behind dams and reservoirs, extracted during its journey, some evaporate into the atmosphere once outside the forest’s boundaries, and some flow into the ocean and evaporate according to the water cycle.

Protected Area Size1 (Rai) Water Yield (cubic Value2 (million Baht meters) per year) Khao Chamao-Khao 56,473 57,144,6945 571 Wong National Park Namtok Plio 78,210 153,191,041 1,531 National Park Khao Sip Ha Chun 72,912 71,259,250 712 National Park Khao Khitchakut 50,082 60,376,808 603 National Park3 Namtok Khlong 121,107 159,776,390 1,596 Kaew National Park Khao Ang Rue Nai 730,947 658,809,816 6,588 Wildlife Sanctuary4 Khao Soi Dao 465,871 421,327,701 4,213 Wildlife Sanctuary Khlong Khrua Wai 183,276 175,201,1366 1,742 Wildlife Sanctuary Total 1,758,878 1,756,086,836 17,560

Notes 1Size according to numerical map used in this study 2Water value using water price at 10 Baht per cubic meter 3Include all areas in northern area adjacent to Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary in process of merging 4Including areas in process of merging 5Include areas of both Khao Chamao and Khao Wong 6Include 3 separated areas

Photo 9 Water yield in EFCOM ecosystems

Photo 10 Water yield per unit area in EFCOM ecosystems

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Photo 11 EFCOM ecosystems water yield value

Notes: translation of y-axis in order from top to bottom – Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary, Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park, Khao Khitchakut National Park, Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park, Nam Tok Plio National Park, Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park

Photo 9 x-axis: water yield in cubic meters per year Photo 10 x-axis: water yield per unit area in cubic meters per year Photo 11 x-axis: value (million Baht per year)

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Photo 12 Water yield in each EFCOM ecosystem

3. Amount of water that runs into dams or reservoir

It was found that the amount of water in in each river basin in protected areas are differentiated according to size of basin, precipitation, plant community, potential evapotranspiration, and restricting layer root depth.

3.1 Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park

The total amount of water from Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park is 57,144,694 cubic meters, including 7,650,978 cubic meters per year that runs to Khao Jook reservoir, from southeast of the national park. A total of 226,591 cubic meters per year run from west of the national park. The rest of a total of 8,722,115 (5,567,273 and 3,154,842) cubic meters per year run into Khlong Pakhaet in the east. Furthermore, 37,958,645 cubic meters per year runs into Khlong Plo in the west then runs through local residential and agricultural areas, and joining the ocean of Gulf of Thailand. (Photo 13)

Photo 13 Amount of water, sub-water group in Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park

P63 3.2 Nam Tok Plio National Park

From the study, it was found that the streams and canals in Nam Tok Plio National Park run in all direction. Ones which run to the west and north are Khlong Narai and Khlong Sabab that merge into Khlong Khlung, accounting to 40,712,102 cubic meters per year. Amount of water from Khlong Plio is 23,663,052 cubic meters per year. The streams and canals in the east are Khlong Khao Ang, Khlong Wangree, and Khlong Makok, merging into Khlong Wangree, all accounting to 48,157,432 cubic meters per year. The amount of water in Khlong Khlung, running to the south, is 13,183,435 cubic meters per year. The 4 smallest streams in sub-water group in the south amount of water are 5,655,051; 2,110,284; 5,309,303; and 4,122,560 cubic meters per year.

Photo 14 Amount of water from sub-water group in Nam Tok Plio National Park

P64 3.3 Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park

The water that runs pass Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park are formed through the merging of water in streams and canals, with Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary as the source of the total amount is 93,140,306 cubic meters per year. Total water quantity from Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park is 68,333,449 cubic meters per year and another 1,757,615 cubic meters per year from sub-water group in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary. The water runs into Prakhaet canal then merge in water that runs from eastern Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park. This passes through agricultural and residential areas into Gulf of Thailand.

Furthermore, the water quantity from streams in southeast, running into the same river, at 2,894,140 and 31,611, totalling at 2,935,801 cubic meters.

Photo 15 The amount of water of sub-water group in Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park

P65 3.4 Khao Khitchakut National Park

The total amount of water running in the south of 7,659,395 cubic meters per year into Kluang Dam, which locates in the southern border of the national park. The sub-water group in the east yields 20,043,299 cubic meters per year, running into Khlong Toong Plae passing Khlong Prue. Afterwards, there was a construction of Khlong Toong Plae Dam and water diversion tunnel into Pluang Dam. Furthermore, the sub- water group in southeast gives 2,658,990 cubic meters per year into Khlong Talad.

Northern areas of the national park gives 10,894,889 cubic meters per year. Another 14,113,797 cubic meters per year from right-side of Khlong Paiboon of Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary merges into Khlong Paiboon, one of the tourist attractions of Chanthaburi province, before runing into .

The sub-water group of Khao Khitchakut gives 19,120,235 cubic meters per year, running into Khlong Takien before into Chanthaburi river.

Photo 16 Amount of water from sub-water group in Khao Khitchakut National park 3.5 Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park

The 49,532,396 cubic meters per year runs into Khlong Son Reservoir, Borai district, Trat province and another 16,953,523+9,745,085+17,770,251 = 44,468,859 cubic meters per year into Khlong Huay Rang Reservoir, Muang district, Trat province. Another amount of 1,369,266 cubic meters per year into Khlong Pradao Reservoir.

Photo 17 Amount of water from sub-water group in Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park

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Photo 18 Amount of water running to Khlong Son Reservoir and Khlong Pradao Reservoir (Top) and Khlong Huay Rang Reservoir (Bottom) in Nam Tok Khlong Kaew National Park 3.6 Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary

The most of the water in the wildlife sanctuary runs to reservoirs located around the sanctuary. Important ones are:

Khlong Seeyud Reservoir in the southwestern side accounts to 101,428,271 cubic meters per year and northwest 232,902,239 cubic meters per year. The total amount of water from Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary into Khlogn Seeyud Reservoir is 28,562,032 cubic meters.

Baan Hin Dard Reservoir, despite being located a distance away from the protected areas, has a streams from southwest Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary running into the reservoir at 28,562,032 cubic meters.

Khlong Pra Satueng Reservoir receives water from eastern areas of the sanctuary at 25,971,657 cubic meters per year. (Most that runs into the reservoir is from Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary, Chanthaburi province)

Khlong Praek Ka Mhoo 1 Reservoir is a small-sized reservoir, receives water from the northeast of the wildlife sanctuary at 5,804,148 cubic meters per year,

Khlong Gutta Nao Yhai 2 Reservoir is a small-sized reservoir, located near Khlong Paew Ka Mhoo 1 Reservoir, receives water from the wildlife sanctuary at 8,604,558 cubic meters per year.

As for the sub-water group in southeast areas of the wildlif sanctuary, the total amount of water is 93,140,306 cubic meters per year running in south direction passing Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park. Another 73,971,817 cubic meters per year runs from the south and 27,020,603 cubic meters per year running from southwest. A total of 100,992,420 cubic meters per year running into Khlong Prakhaet and merge with water yielf of Khao Chamao-Khao Wong National Park and Khao Sip Ha Chun National Park.

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Photo 19 Amount of water from sub-water group in Khao Ang Rue Nai Wildlife Sanctuary

P71 3.7 Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary

Khlong Pra Saprueng Reservoir receives water from the Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary at 123,139,276 cubic meters per year. (Merges into water that received from eastern areas of Khao Ang Rue Nai for another 25,971,657 cubic meters per year)

Khlong Praput Reservoir received 22,298,401 cubic meters per year, running from eastern areas of Khao Soi Dao Reservoir merging with another 32,879,393 cubic meters per year from southeastern areas.

The rest of the water runs into natural canals and to the south heading for Gulf of Thailand.

Photo 20 Amount of water from sub-water group in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary P73

Photo 21 Amount of water from sub-water group in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary

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Photo 22 Amount of water from sub-water group in Khao Soi Dao Wildlife Sanctuary P76 3.8 Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary

Kiritan Dam locates on the southeast of the wildlife sanctuary and receives water from the forest areas of the sanctuary surrounding the dam. It receives 11,671,138 cubic meters per year from the forests in the southwest of the sanctuary (north of the dam) and receives 427,746 cubic meters per year from forests in southwest of the sanctuary (southwest of the dam).

Most of the water from Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary flows to northern areas, where 34,743,759 cubic meters per year run into Khlong Khrua Wai, 32,893,183 cubic meters per year run into Khlong Pong Nam Ron, 23,038,898 cubic meters per year into Khlong Pairin, and into the south Khlong Sator at 18,629,388 cubic meters per year. These canals are important sources of water for irrigation and consumption of local community.

Photo 23 Amount of water from sub-water group in Khlong Khrua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary

Photo 24 Zoomed photo of streams running into Kiritan Dam, Klong Krua Wai Wildlife Sanctuary

4. Amount of water from proected areas running into important reservoirs of Eastern Thailand

Summarising the water yield from the protected areas of the EFCOM, which passes thorugh irrigation systems, dams and reservoirs surrounding the areas. Some water usages are industrial use, energy source, consumption, and irrigation, and is a crucial driving force of Thailand’s economy.

P78 Table 4 Water quantity from dams and reservoirs that receive from EFCOM protected areas

Reservoirs Protected areas of water Water quantity received sources from protected areas (cubic meters per year) Kiritan Dam Khlong Khrua Wai WS 12,098,884 Khlong Praput Reservoir Khao Soi Dao WS 55,177,795 Pra Satueng Reservoir Khao Soi Dao WS 123,139,276 Khao Ang Rue Nai WS 25,971,657 Khlong Katta Nao Yhai 2 Khao Ang Rue Nai WS Reservoir Khlong Praek Ka Mhoo 1 Khao Ang Rue Nai WS Reservoir Khlong Seeyud Reservoir Khao Ang Rue Nai WS 334,330,510 Baan Hindad Reservoir Khao Ang Rue Nai WS 28,562,032 Khlong Son Reservoir Nam Tok Khlong Kaew NP 49,532,369 Khlong Pradao Reservoir Nam Tok Khlong Kaew NP 1,369,266 Khlong Huay Rang Nam Tok Khlong Kaew NP 44,468,859 Reservoir Pluang Dam Khao Khitchakut NO 7,659,395 Khao Khitchakut NP (Khlong N/A Toong Plae) Khao Jook Reservoir Khao Chamao-Khao Wong 226,591 NP

Conclusion

From the results from study conducted show that the water yield of ecosystems of Eastern Forest Complex (EFCOM), which is a total of approximately 1,756,086,836 cubic meters per year or in economic value of 17,560 million baht per year at market price of water. The immense monetary value still does not account for other ecosystem services, which call for further studies in the future.

However, economic pressure for opening up protected and non-protected areas for developmental use, which are vital parts of water cycle function for water purification and climate regulation. Therefore, developmental projects should put heavy consideration on environmental and society impacts.

For private sector who benefits immensely from water sales and consumption, whether be it from reservoirs or direct natural extraction, should have social responsibility and reinvest in the ecosystems sourcing water supply.

Despite the water yield results in this study is calculated through controlling a P79 number of factors for modelling, the deviations from the real value could still occur. For example, the average annual precipitation acquired from old data, which nowadays experience great climate irregularities. The seasonal factor used in the study for calculation is representative of Chanthaburi province, however, the EFCOM covers over many other provinces and water distribution is scattered all over.

Acknowledgements

This study would like to thank you World Wildlife Fund (WWF) for their sponsor in tools InVEST officers at the Research and Innovation Office, Department of National Parks, Petchaburi province, had used for acquiring data needed for this study. Furthermore, we would like to thank you _____ผู้อ ำนวยกำรส ำนักยริหำรพื้นที่อนุรักษ์ที่3______, Petchaburi branch and Mr. Hatairat Nukul for liaison and supporting this study.

Thank you directors and officers of the EFCOM for aiding for our collection on the field.