Disabled Women and Their Struggle to Organize by Janet Price

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Women within the Indigenous The Seeds of a Movement— Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: Disabled Women and their New Routes for Transforming Power Struggle to Organize By Marusia López Cruz By Janet Price

fromfrom Changing Changing Their Their World World 2nd 1st Editionedition Edited by Srilatha Batliwala Scholar Associate, AWID

Building Feminist Movements and Organizations

2008

This case study was produced by AWID’s Building Feminist Movements and Organizations (BEFMO) Initiative These publications can be found on the AWID website: www.awid.org

Changing their World 1st Edition Contains case studies: Women in the Indigenous Peoples’ Movements of Mexico: New Paths for Transforming Power by Marusia López Cruz Against All Odds: The Building of a Women’s Movement in the Islamic Republic of Iran By Homa Hoodfar The Dalit Women’s Movement in India: Dalit Mahila Samiti By Jahnvi Andharia with the ANANDI Collective Domestic Workers Organizing in the United States By Andrea Cristina Mercado and Ai-jen Poo Challenges Were Many: The One in Nine Campaign, South Africa By Jane Bennett Mothers as Movers and Shakers: The Network of Mother Centres in the Czech Republic By Suranjana Gupta The Demobilization of Women’s Movements: The Case of Palestine By Islah Jad The Piquetera/o Movement of Argentina By Andrea D’Atri and Celeste Escati GROOTS Kenya By Awino Okech The European Romani Women’s Movement—International Roma Women’s Network By Rita Izsak

Changing their World 2nd Edition Contains four new case studies: The Seeds of a Movement—Disabled Women and their Struggle to Organize By Janet Price GALANG: A Movement in the Making for the Rights of Poor LBTs in the Philippines By Anne Lim The VAMP/SANGRAM Sex Worker’s Movement in India’s Southwest By the SANGRAM/VAMP team Women Building Peace: The Sudanese Women Empowerment for Peace (SuWEP) in Sudan By Zaynab ElSawi

Strengthening Monitoring and Evaluation for Women’s Rights: Twelve Insights for Donors By Srilatha Batliwala

Capturing Change in Women’s Realities: A Critical Overview of Current Monitoring and Evaluation Frameworks and Approaches By Srilatha Batliwala and Alexandra Pittman The Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID) is an international feminist, membership organization committed to achieving gender equality, sustainable development and women’s human rights. AWID’s mission is to strengthen the voice, impact and influence of women’s rights advocates, organizations and movements internationally to effectively advance the rights of women.

Author: Marusia López Cruz Editor: Srilatha Batliwala Designer: Storm. Diseño + Comunicación

2008 This publication may be redistributed non-commercially in any media, unchanged and in whole, with credit given to AWID and the author. Published by AWID, Toronto, Mexico City, Cape Town.

This publication is available online at www.awid.org This publication is also available online in French and Spanish.

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AWID gratefully acknowledges the generous support of Cordaid, Hivos, Irish Aid, Levi Strauss Foundation, MDG3 Fund (Dutch Ministry of Foreign Affairs), Oxfam Novib, the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency (Sida), and the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). Introduction

Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Paths for Transforming Power By Marusia López Cruz

“We want a road that’s both parallel to the men’s road and one with it because we’re indigenous, too, we women and our male comrades--all of us are indigenous peoples.... That’s the right we were fighting for.... We want our voices, our feelings to be taken into account...because he can’t express the same thing I can... because they’re always the ones who make decisions” —Felícitas Martínez, Coordinator of the National Co- ordinating Committee of Indigenous Women

Introduction

The alarming conditions of marginalization imposed on indigenous peoples by the state, the cultural practices of some of indigenous peoples that hamper the full exercise of women’s rights, and the opportunities and contributions offered to women by their ethnic heritage, are key aspects of the personal and collective struggles undertaken by indigenous women. Understanding these aspects is fundamental in describing the construction, agenda, and strategies of the women within the indigenous movement in Mexico, particularly the National Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women (Coordinadora Nacional de Mujeres Indígenas, CNMI). Mexico is a pluriethnic, pluricultural country. According to data provided by the National Institute of Statistics and Geography (INEGI) and the National Commission for the Development of Indigenous Peoples (CDI): • The indigenous population numbers 12.7 million people,1 representing 13% of the national population. A total of 6, 011, 202 million people over the age of six speak one of the 62 indigenous languages registered in the country.2 • The states with the largest number of indigenous people are: Oaxaca (2.02 million), Veracruz (1.19 million), Chiapas (1.19), Yucatán (1.18 million), State of Mexico (1.17 million), and Puebla (1.06 million).3 The states with the highest percentage of indigenous people are Yucatán (59%), Oaxaca (48%), Quintana Roo (39%), Chiapas (28.5%), Campeche (27%), Hidalgo (24%), Puebla (19%), Guerrero (17%) and San Luis Potosí and Veracruz (15% each).4 The state, far from recognizing and protecting the rights of indigenous people, has maintained, tolerated, and even promoted xenophobia and the excessive exploitation of this population’s resources and labor, which not only undermines existing cultural diversity, but also puts the identity, sovereignty, and governability of the nation at risk. Socio-economic indexes reflect a high concentration of poverty in indigenous areas; as a matterof fact, 83% of all indigenous municipalities are found in categories of high and very high marginality.5 Furthermore, the extermination policy implemented or covered up by the state itself consists of the following aspects: increasing militarization as a method of social control in the indigenous communities, the dispossession of indigenous territories for the commercial exploitation of natural resources found there, the rejection by authorities of the peoples’ own organizational forms (very few states in the country

1 CDI: http://www.cdi.gob.mx/index.php?id seccion=3 2 INEGI: http://www.inegi.gob.mx/est/contenidos/espanol/rutinas/ept.asp?t=mlen01&s=est&c=5689 3 Patricia Fernández, Juan Enrique García and Diana Esther Ávila, “Estimaciones de la Población Indígena en Mexico,” La Situación Demográfica de Mexico (Mexico, CONAPO, 2002), p.174, http://www.conapo.gob.mx/ publicaciones/2002/13.pdf. 4 Ibid. 5 Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres, “Las mujeres indígenas de Mexico: su contexto socioeconómico, demográfico y de salud,” 2005. http://cedoc.inmujeres.gob.mx/documentos_download/100833.pdf

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 1 Introduction

effectively recognize the right to autonomy in have been maintained for generations, thus their legal framework), and a lack of educational impeding the full enjoyment of their human policies reflecting the multicultural nature of the rights. Some of these are: nation. Of the sum total of indigenous language 1. A strict, asymmetric sexual division of speakers in the country, women make up 50.77% labor that generates heavy work loads 6 (approximately 3, 052,138 million). As is the case and exploitation at very early ages. One in other sectors of the population of Mexico, the woman expressed this social reality in the historic marginalization and discrimination against following lines: all indigenous people particularly affects women. Despite regional and ethnic differences, in most We have to get up at three or four o’clock cases there are several factors in common: in the morning to make the fire and boil the Extreme poverty affects women in coffee....After that we have to do other jobs many ways. With regards to education, because we have animals to tend like pigs, for example, indigenous women are farther corral animals, chickens and all that. We behind than men; there are now 636,720 have to shell the corn, and after that we have to get the children up so they can eat monolingual women, compared to 371,083 breakfast and go to school. Then we’re men, and more than half of the women who alone in the house and have to sweep and 7 speak an indigenous language are illiterate. clean up. After that we start off for the river With regards to health, the number of to wash clothes for the children and the maternal deaths among indigenous women whole family. We get home late and begin is triple the national average; it is estimated washing the corn for making tortillas, we that 1,400 indigenous women die from such finish grinding and preparing it and then complications every year.8 Another alarming begin to pat out the tortillas. Sometimes situation that highlights their marginalization we’re still making them when our husbands is the malnutrition that affects around 40% of get home. We have to give them something all indigenous women.9 As for their economic to eat. When the children get home we give them their lunch...That’s what we do all day situation, the lack of public policies that long.11 guarantee subsistence and economic autonomy for indigenous women leaves 2. Preference given to males in education them completely vulnerable, especially when (based on the argument that women their husbands or fathers have to migrate. At get married and must take charge this time only 14% of all indigenous women of household work), the exclusion of have access to credit, plus the fact that an women from community spaces and increasingly larger number of indigenous decision-making positions (assemblies, women day workers are not included in any administration of community justice, etc.), 10 public health system. and access to land and resources (only Culture and the so-called “usos y 17% of the population with agrarian and costumbres” (traditional practices and communal property rights are women12). customs) of the indigenous peoples. 3. Arranged marriages and the sale of Indigenous customs are far from being a women for matrimony––customs that are static, precisely defined set of concepts and not practiced by all ethnic groups but that practices. Nevertheless, many aspects of still exist in some of them.13 these customs related to indigenous women

6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8. Lina Rosa Berrio, “Salud Sexual y Reproductiva, retos legislativos,” Coalición por la Salud de las Mujeres., 2007 9. Ibid. 10. Ludka de Gortari, “Comunidad como forma de tenencia de la tierra,” Estudios Agrarios, magazine of the Agrarian Prosecutor’s Office, n. 8, Mexico, July-September, 1997. 11 Alejandra Araiza Díaz, “Las mujeres indígenas en Mexico: un análisis desde la perspectiva de género,” http://www.icantropologia.org/quaderns-e/08/Araiza.htm 12 Ludka de Gortari, “Comunidad como forma de tenencia de la tierra.” 13 Interview with Felícitas Martinez, Coordinator of the National Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women, July 2006. 2 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power Introduction

4. Social and family tolerance of violence communities. Other highly prestigious women against women as a legitimate control in the indigenous communities are the healers mechanism.14 known as curanderas, who are renowned for their The social costs of the neoliberal extensive knowledge of the female body, among model. The neoliberal model dominant other things. in Mexico today has not only generated And lastly, the deep roots of indigenous women in profound transformations in the quality of the land and the community, even among those life for indigenous women, but has also who have had to migrate, is another element of modified the family dynamic. Both the social cohesion deemed positive. These roots not devastation of the rural economy and only come from a cosmovision encompassing migration has prompted many women the land and natural resources or from strong to become part of the labor market, ties between the economy and agricultural work, taking jobs as agricultural day workers but are also a medium for the development of or handicrafts merchants or vendors of the family, which is seen as a vital nucleus for other family products, at the same time the formation of emotional ties that guarantee that they continue to take responsibility the subsistence of the group, the appropriation for childcare and household work. All and exercise of culture, and the construction of this adds up to overly long work days solidarity networks among women sharing the (estimated at between 16 and 18 hours) same conditions. Furthermore, the community that seriously affect their health. Their new is the place where women develop a variety of jobs, however, have give them access to spaces for socialization, such as the church, the a minimal income that has not only turned mill, the market, the river, etc., to which many out to be a form of survival, but also a women in urban zones have no access, thereby means of gaining independence from a intensifying their situation of isolation. husband or father. Despite this terrible situation of marginalization and social exclusion, it would be a mistake to The Role of Women in characterize indigenous women based on these Indigenous Activism, indicators alone. As previously mentioned, being part of an ethnic group is highly important in the Zapatismo, and the Creation construction of women’s identity and the definition of the National Coordinating of their struggles, which makes it necessary to Committee of Indigenous identify elements that the indigenous women themselves consider as positive in this dimension Women of their identity. For indigenous women, their culture is a source In the 1970s an indigenous movement emerged of pride, and they play a particularly important that began to question the official line regarding a role in its transmission. The conservation of their homogenous, racially and culturally mixed nation; in language, the organization of rituals that relate conjunction with demands for access to land, other everyday life to the indigenous cosmovision, the political and cultural demands were also raised by knowledge and practice of traditional medicine, this movement.15 It was the armed uprising of the their oral history, art, etc. comprise a collective Zapatista Army of National Liberation (EZLN) in wisdom; in many cases, women are the 1994, however, and the promulgation of the First repositories of this wisdom. Declaration of the Lacandón Jungle that sparked Furthermore, the authority that comes with age the convergence and visibility of the struggles and leads to a high regard for mature women in their demands of indigenous peoples throughout the

14 Ibid. 15 Aída Hernández Castillo Salgado, “Mujeres indígenas y feminismos,” http://www.womenandlife.org/WLOE-sp/informaci%F3n/globalizaci%F3n/indigena.html#not

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 3 The role of women in indigenous activism

country. There were many joint efforts aimed at Many of these organizational efforts were supporting and fortifying the national character possible because attending to the needs shared of the Zapatista struggle, including the National by all women became a way for participants to Indigenous Convention formed in 1994––now overcome their isolation, weave ties of solidarity, the National Indigenous Congress (CNI)––and the analyze their own situation as women, and begin National Indigenous Plural Assembly for Autonomy to see themselves as political actors with the (ANIPA), whose first national assembly was held ability and the right to participate in the public life in 1995. In programmatic terms, a key process of their communities. was the dialogue between the Zapatistas and the Nevertheless, in most cases, women were federal government, resulting in the San Andrés excluded from all public decision-making spaces. Accords (1996), in which a minimal agenda was This was the case in the systems of community defined to achieve autonomy and respect for responsibility (religious, administration of justice, indigenous rights and culture. communal property), as well as in the leadership In this framework, indigenous women began of the organizations of the indigenous movement. to seek out spaces for coming together and This is why the participation and leadership expressing their own demands; this allowed for achieved by the Zapatista women (the existence more active participation in their own communities of women commanders and spokespeople in and in the national indigenous movement, with the ranks of the EZLN, the role they played in a voice of their own and a higher degree of the process of negotiating with the government, leadership. According to one report: among other things), represented the symbolic arrival of women into leadership spaces and to the Although the Zapatista movement was a cata- recognition of an agenda of their own.18 lyst in creating spaces for reflection and orga- The armed Zapatista uprising in Chiapas and the nization among indigenous women, thereby process of dialogue with the federal government making their demands more visible, it is impos- sible to understand the force of the indigenous fomented by the EZLN, created new networks women’s movements without considering their among indigenous women from different regions experiences in indigenous and farm worker of the country and feminists from several different struggles during the last three decades.16 organizations; their alliance bore concrete results that are fundamental touchstones to this day for Historically, indigenous women have had a indigenous women’s organizations throughout the significant presence among the organizational country. Two of these were the First Revolutionary bases of their peoples. They were in charge of Women’s Law and the inclusion of women’s issues logistics in many of the marches, encampments, in one of the five negotiating tables between the and meetings of the indigenous movement, and federal government and the EZLN. their participation was fundamental in turning The First Revolutionary Law represents one of mobilizations into mass events. Furthermore, the first and most important efforts of indigenous they were able to rely on their own previous women to define an agenda of their own. connections, some of which turned out to be particularly important in the process of building the [The] law consists of ten points, among which indigenous women’s movement. Some examples are the right of indigenous women to political are groups of women associated with the theology participation and leadership positions, the right of liberation, crafts collectives, and health groups to a life free of sexual and domestic violence, started by feminist and civil organizations working the right to decide how many children to have in indigenous communities.17 and to raise, the right to a fair salary, the right to choose a marriage partner, and the right to

good health and education services.19

16 Proyecto Colectivo, “Viejos y Nuevos Espacios de Poder: Mujeres Indígenas, Organización Colectiva y Resistencia Cotidiana,” CIESAS. www.ciesas.edu.mx/proyectos/pagina/t/proyectocolectivo.pdf 17 Ibid. 18 Interview with Felícitas Martinez, July 2006. 19 Aída Hernández Castillo Salgado, “Mujeres indígenas y feminismos.”

4 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power The role of women in indigenous activism

The inclusion in the San Andrés Accords of A proposal is hereby made to the federal Con- various matters specifically related to the rights gress for the recognition, in any derived con- of women was of tremendous importance. The stitutional and political reforms, of the right of Accords were signed in February of 1996 by the indigenous women to participate as equals with EZLN and the federal government and expressed men at all levels of government and in the development of indigenous peoples. the agreements reached at the negotiations table on Indigenous Rights and Culture convened A proposal is hereby made to the federal Con- during the peace negotiations between the two gress and the state legislatures that, in acknowl- sides. Zapatista women were not the only ones edging indigenous autonomy and in determin- who participated in formulating the demands; ing all of its levels, they take into consideration indigenous women comrades from other parts of the main rights that are the objects of this au- the country also participated, as did feminists who tonomy; establishing the forms required to en- were invited to the dialogue tables. sure its free exercise. Among these rights, the following may be emphasized: … to obtain the In several different sections of the San Andrés recognition of their internal normative systems Accords, there is explicit mention of indigenous for regulation and sanctions, insofar as they are women and their rights. When reference is made not contrary to constitutional guarantees and to the commitments of the federal government human rights, especially those of women.22 with regards to the “Constitutional and Legal Reforms,” for example, the following proclamation The fundamental nature of this initiative was is made: evident in the assembly constituting the National Indigenous Congress (CNI) in 1996, when These reforms must....Legislate on the rights of indigenous peoples to elect their own authori- indigenous women participants took on the task of ties and to exercise authority according to their forming a special women’s commission, through own internal norms within their spheres of au- which they could participate with a voice of their tonomy, guaranteeing the participation of wom- own in all the spaces of indigenous organization. en on equal terms.20 One year after the CNI was formed, the women comrades pushing for this commission coincided In the same vein, when the federal government on the need, not only to participate with a higher committed itself to the “satisfaction of basic degree of leadership in making internal decisions needs,” the text emphasized the following: in mixed organizations, but also to be able to count on a space of their own that would be national Social policy must establish priority programs in scope and serve for analysis and reflection. In for the improvement of health and nutrition lev- order to achieve this, an alliance was necessary els of children, as well as support programs, on between different women who already had exerted an egalitarian plane, for the training of women, strong leadership within their organizations or broadening their participation in the organi- communities, such as Commander Ramona of zation and development of the family and the the EZLN; Sofía Robles Hernández, of Oaxaca; community. Priority must be placed on the in- and Margarita Gutiérrez Romero, of Hidalgo, tervention of indigenous women in decisions re- as well as feminist organizations close to them. garding cultural, social, political, and economic One of the most important roles was played by development projects.21 K’inal Antzetik, an NGO based in the city of San Cristóbal de las Casas, Chiapas. The main result Moreover, with regards to the commitments of of this alliance was the formation of the National both federal and state legislatures to recognize Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women and establish features of self determination and in the framework of the First National Encounter autonomy for indigenous peoples, the following of Indigenous Women (Oaxaca 1997), which declaration is made: brought together more than 700 women from the

20 San Andrés Lairráinzar Accords, Document 2, Section V, paragraph 1e. 21 Ibid., paragraph 5. 22 Ibid., paragraph 1e

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 5 Membership and Organization Structure

country’s different indigenous peoples. According Organizations and groups can become part of the to one source: Coordinating Committee in two ways: by invitation or by submitting a written application. A pre- The National Coordinating Committee of Indige- requisite for participation is affinity with the goals nous Women has taken up gender demands as and agenda, but there is no restriction regarding its main axis. It is defined as an organization of affiliation with any political party. The Coordinating indigenous women who struggle against forms Committee has no predetermined membership of social domination and exclusion and who strategy; most of the member organizations stand for a community, gender-based identity have been drawn to this space through meetings and specific autonomous territories, where a de- and other activities of the national indigenous bate can be held regarding women’s and indigenous rights. At the current time, their reflections movement, previous contacts with Coordinating have mainly centered on two issues: the rights Committee members, or suggestions by civil of women and the rights of Indian peoples.23 organizations that have assisted or followed its processes. The Coordinating Committee is now the primary Out of the diverse groups that make up the expression of organized indigenous women in Coordinating Committee, most of the participants Mexico. Strictly speaking, however, it can’t be fall into two main categories: groups that have said that it is part of an indigenous women’s already worked on a particular issue (health, movement, given that its members have created human rights, etc.) or those that have come the Committee’s political identity as an integral together through productive activities. With part of the national indigenous movement. As a regards to the age of the participants, it should be matter of fact, one of the most important struggles noted that, at first, the majority were adults, older of the indigenous women’s organizations and their adults, and widows, but now there is much higher joint initiatives has been for the recognition of the participation of young women. role, leadership, and agenda of women within this The participation of the Coordinating Committee movement. of the Women of Guerrero has been particularly noteworthy, both for its broad scope and ethnic diversity (members include Mixteca, Amusga and Membership and Tlapaneca women) and for the leadership it has Organizational Structure assumed in leading the National Coordinating Committee. The National Coordinating Committee of The National Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women is led by a Coordinator Indigenous Women is a network with a presence elected every two years who is charged with in 14 states of Mexico: Baja California, Chiapas, representing the organization, facilitating the Chihuahua, Guerrero, Hidalgo, Michoacán, participation of its members in different events Morelos, Oaxaca, Puebla, Querétaro, Quintana to which they are invited, and implementing the Roo, Sonora, Tabasco, and Veracruz. Its decisions made in the assembly. The assembly is participants include the following ethnic groups: the maximum decision-making body and is made Amusgas, Mayas of the [Yucatán] Peninsula, up of representatives from all the states in Mexico Mazahuas, Mixtecas, Nahuas, Ñañhus, Triquis, that have a presence in the organization. In it, Puréphechas, and Tlapanecas among others. formative issues are defined, as well as events This makeup has varied over time. At first, the and joint work in which participation is considered women’s groups or commissions that were part important; participants are informed about the of a mixed organization were the most numerous, advances and limitations of each group; and the but now there are many more independent groups Coordinator is elected on a rotating basis. Most of and statewide women’s networks. the assemblies are held in Mexico City, the site of

23 Proyecto Colectivo, “Viejos y Nuevos Espacios de Poder: Mujeres Indígenas, Organización Colectiva y Resistencia Cotidiana.”

6 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power GOAL, AGENDA, STRATEGIES, AND RESULTS the Coordinating Committee offices. Assemblies The current agenda can best be described by are not held according to a fix schedule since they dividing it into four major issues: defense of the depend on obtaining the necessary resources. fundamental demands of the national indigenous Generally speaking, the training workshops have movement; the need for state policies that respond served as the primary means of securing enough to its demands; political participation; and the resources for convening the largest possible transformation of the traditional practices and number of state representatives. customs that limit its development and place its integrity at risk. Let’s look at each of these issues: Defense of the fundamental demands Goals, Agenda, Strategies, of the national indigenous movement. A common feature of the organizations and and Results joint projects of indigenous women, not only in Mexico but also in other places in Latin The initial goal of the CNMI was to provide a broad, América, is the adoption of the demands of inclusive space in which the voices of indigenous the national indigenous movement as their women could be heard, one in which they would own. The large majority of women assume feel comfortable and confident in expressing their that advancement of their own agenda thoughts and demands, one that would allow them depends on the resolution of the demands to gradually build and strengthen autonomous of their peoples. This point is made in the leadership and organizations. In order to do this, following declaration: they built a national group that would favor the creation, organization, participation, and abilities of We women say that autonomy for indig- the country’s varied indigenous women’s groups; enous peoples is the path towards initiat- these, in turn, would create a space for analysis, ing a new relationship among ourselves, to discussion, systematization, and training in the Mexican government, to other Mexican matters of common interest and in the defense of people, and between men and women…24 indigenous women’s rights, based on the demand for the self-determination of their peoples. The right to self-determination. The defense of the territory and national resources; and Even though the Coordinating Committee’s initial the defense of the language, cosmovision, goal is still in effect, the agenda has gradually been political organization, and other expressions transformed since the group was founded. This of indigenous culture are considered basic transformation has been the product of a process demands for improving the life of the of reflection on the reality of indigenous women (in people as a whole, and, moreover, the life the local, national, and Latin American spheres) and of indigenous women in particular. their priority demands; their increasing involvement and influence in the political life of their communities The need for state policies that respond and organizations; and dialogue with the feminist to movement demands. The agenda of movement. One of the most important changes is the national indigenous movement contains the priority now placed upon political participation, strong demands related to state policies that which is not only limited to their communities and have generated or permitted the worsening organizations, but also extends to the presence of poverty, xenophobia, expulsion from and leadership of indigenous women in political territories, militarization of their communities, parties, municipal presidencies, and local legislative and lack of access to basic services. bodies. Another significant change has been the Nevertheless, indigenous women have taking of stands on issues not traditionally dealt emphasized the impact that these policies with by indigenous women, such as sexual and have on the families and on the quality reproductive rights, stemming from the interchange of life itself. Two demands have been of and alliance with feminist organizations and women. particular interest for the organizations of

24 Laura Carlsen, “Las mujeres indígenas en el movimiento social,” Revista Chiapas, No. 8.1999. Quote from the document presented by the EZLN in the second phase of the dialogue and the Indigenous Rights and Culture table in the sub-group on women; the document was not accepted by the government.

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 7 GOAL, AGENDA, STRATEGIES, AND RESULTS

the Coordinating Committee: the sexual and against women and violate international human reproductive health of indigenous women rights laws. and the eradication of institutional violence, above all, that which is perpetrated by the Political participation. The full exercise Mexican Army. of the political rights of indigenous women is one of the central demands of the CNMI, With regards to the first point, on September especially in communities and organizations, 16, 2006, Domitila Hernández of the in elected office, and in the design and Coordinating Committee, speaking before evaluation of public policies. a million people in the main plaza of Mexico City, declared: Transformation of traditional practices and customs. With a perspective of We denounce...the critical situation in which in- respect and recognition of cultural identity digenous women suffer a higher rate of maternal as a fundamental element of their struggle, death due to lack of access to quality services indigenous women question some cultural and poor medical attention in the health sector. practices that limit the exercise of their rights. In particular, they denounce those The high maternal death rates in indigenous that tolerate or justify family violence, prohibit communities prompted the Coordinating or limit their participation in decision making, Committee to demand that the Mexican and infringe on women’s autonomy. govern-ment recognize the emergency A joint declaration of indigenous women’s existing in this area in states with a high organizations at the end of the Encounter indigenous presence (like Chiapas, Guerrero, “Indigenous Women and their Sexual and and Oaxaca). Another equally high priority Reproductive Health: A Space for Reflection demand is the elimination of birth control and Participation,” held in Oaxaca on May policies characterized by forced sterilization 18, 2001, contained the following lines: (often in exchange for granting social programs) or sterilization without informed We recognize the cultural wealth and diversity consent.25 of the indigenous people, yet traditional prac- With regards to the second point, the demand tices and customs exist that violate the rights to eradicate institutional and state violence of women, such as forced marriages, the de- against indigenous women has prompted mand for virginity, intra-family and sexual vio- an intense campaign to denounce such lence, and not being valued for the simple fact violence, both nationally and internationally. of having been born a woman. But we also A letter sent to the United Nations High affirm that traditional practices and customs are dynamic and can be modified to achieve Commissioner for Human Rights Mary respect for women. Robinson on November 27, 1999, stated: In synthesis, the agenda of the Coordinating With their physical presence, military forces Committee is characterized by its denunciation of control and rape women, occupy public spac- the economic oppression and racism that marks es (schools, communal land offices), and bring drugs and prostitution into the communities. the insertion of the Indian peoples into the national Their presence is a threat to the community. project, at the same time that it struggles within its We feel that we are under attack, subjected organizations and communities to change those to extreme suffering and deep fear....We de- elements that exclude and oppress women.26 mand the investigation, trial, and punishment of members of the police, security forces, armed forces, and others who commit acts of violence

25 Brigada Callejera de Apoyo a la Mujer Elisa Martínez A.C. The Other Campaign for sexual and reproductive health for indigenous and farmer-farm worker resistance in Mexico, 2006 26 Aída Hernández Castillo Salgado, “Mujeres indígenas y feminismos.”

8 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power GOAL, AGENDA, STRATEGIES, AND RESULTS

Strategies Network of Indigenous Women. The regional The main strategies of the Coordinating platform has made it possible for women to rely Committee are the strengthening of indigenous on a reference network that lends legitimacy to women’s organizations and the inclusion of their their national work and opens up opportunities for demands regarding public policy priorities and participation in a number of different international the agendas of social movements––particularly events. the indigenous and feminist movements. To carry Likewise, due to the second strategy, which is out these strategies, members develop training geared towards the inclusion of their demands in processes and promote the participation of public policy priorities and the agendas of social indigenous women. movements, the Coordinating Committee has With regards to their first strategy, the members made it possible for indigenous women to place of the Coordinating Committee themselves define their agenda in governmental spaces and in those training issues in order to assure that these occupied by the civil society, as well. In fact, it processes will be a means of strengthening the is the leadership, presence, and alliances built organization; this is done in periodically-held with different social movements that has largely assemblies. Ever since the formation of the allowed for interlocution with local and federal Coordinating Committee, recurrent issues that governments. have allowed for the ongoing definition of the Many of the Coordinating Committee’s efforts previously developed agenda include: leadership, have been geared towards strengthening their critical analysis of traditional practices and leadership and gaining recognition as part of the customs, and the rights of women. indigenous movement and its organizations. At It is very interesting that the training needs of the the current time, some of their strongest alliances women of the CNMI have gradually changed. At are with the following groups: the previously first, many of the workshops focused on productive mentioned National Plural Indigenous Assembly projects (the production and commercialization for Autonomy (ANIPA); the National Indigenous of handicrafts, gardens, etc.) or on the rights of Congress (CNI); and the Mexican Association women, while the demands are now centered of Women Organized in a Network (made up on instruments for political participation and of women farmers and farm workers). The international instruments for protecting the rights consolidation of these alliances is due to factors of women and those of indigenous peoples (the ranging from demanding a stronger presence and Convention on Biological Diversity, the Convention participation of indigenous women in movement on the Elimination of Discrimination against assemblies and meetings to actively participating Women, (CEDAW), the Convention 169 of the in solidarity with all the mobilization processes International Labor Organization (ILO), and the backed by the indigenous movement, including recently approved Declaration of the Rights of joining in marches and other acts of denunciation Indigenous Peoples), among others. and resistance and helping to organize them. Among the most recent indigenous mobilizations The alliance with feminists has been fundamental in which the Coordinating Committee had a strong in giving the training workshops. This is particularly presence were those convened by the Popular true of academic women, certain civil organizations Assembly of the Peoples of Oaxaca (APPO) and (among which the support offered by Catholics the National Democratic Convention (CND), a for the Right to Decide has been noteworthy), mass movement created due to the electoral and United Nations agencies (mainly UNIFEM fraud of 2006. and UNDP). Even though most of the training has been done in Mexico, participation in international The CNMI has also promoted the participation of training processes has also been encouraged, in indigenous women in diverse forums and meetings most cases those organized by the United Nations. of the feminist movement, both nationally and internationally, with the goal of ensuring that its Another fundamental strategy for strengthening demands are among the movement priorities. organization and leadership has been participation The tie with the feminist movement has been an in indigenous women’s Latin American initiatives; important factor in the analysis and questioning among the most important is the Continental of its positions with regards to indigenous women

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 9 GOAL, AGENDA, STRATEGIES, AND RESULTS

and has allowed the Coordinating Committee to And with respect to linking handicrafts commercial- weave an important network of alliances. ization projects to the struggle for intellectual Another significant alliance has been the one property, Felícitas said: forged with UNIFEM, making it possible for Coordinating Committee members to participate One project that’s underway is a crafts house, in numerous international forums and to make ties [the generation of] a market in which they sell their own handicrafts but also fight for the with indigenous women in other countries. United right of intellectual property...because all those Nations backing is one of the factors evaluated by blouses the comrades make in all different re- governments at the time that they open up spaces gions don’t have a brand name that says “made for communication with indigenous women and by a certain person”...That’s another thing we their organizations. have to fight for in the local Constitution, in the federal Constitution, at the same time that we New Strategies for the Future fight for training in productive projects and Three strategies that are not yet being implemented, handicrafts. but that are an example of the movement’s maturity, are indigenous women’s candidacies in Results elections for public office; the creation of a law office for legal defense in cases of the violation The images of wise women, repositories of a of their rights; and the linking of the struggle certain power (the healer––ilol or curandera––, for intellectual property with the fomentation of the midwife, the elders of the communities), are projects for commercializing handicrafts. broadened to include others—the insurgent, Regarding the first strategy, Coordinator Felícitas the commander, women who get organized 29 Martínez expresses the opinion shared by most and participate in workshops and meetings. CNMI members in the following words: The Coordinating Committee is the only national movement of indigenous women that has That’s the demand––political participation. They say we have to exert influence in the matter of consolidated itself as a fundamental touchstone laws, in reforms, because if we don’t, we’re not for the defense of their rights. The process of going to advance. We can have eighty thou- consolidating this Committee into an autonomous sand workshops, but as long as we don’t have organization with a national presence was the a voice in political legislation, we’ll never ad- result of its bet on building leadership with strong vance in women’s rights.27 roots in the community and with recognition from different social movements. With respect to the second strategy, the The strategies developed during ten years of Coordinator had this to say: existence have made an impact on the lives of women, their communities, and organizations of We’ve always dreamed of all us ex scholar- the indigenous movement in many ways. ship holders who went to courses in Geneva having a law office for the defense of women’s Women that participate in the Coordinating rights, [specializing] in the legal area of indig- Committee have been able to empower them- enous women...because if we went into the selves in different spheres of life. In their families prisons right now we’d find innocent indigenous they can now negotiate new arrangements women who don’t know how to speak Spanish, with regards to raising and caring for their who don’t know how to express themselves be- children because their increasing involvement cause there are variations in all the languages; in organizations and in the political life of their 28 interpreting is different than being a translator. communities requires that they lighten their excessive work load in the home and family.

27 Interview with Felícitas Martinez, July 2006. 28 Ibid 29 Márgara Millán, “Chiapas y sus mujeres indígenas, De su diversidad y resistencia,” Revista Chiapas, No. 4, 1997, Mexico: ERA-IIEc.

10 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power GOAL, AGENDA, STRATEGIES AND RESULTS

Many of these comrades have begun to exert joint initiatives of the indigenous and feminist more leadership in positions of community movements, both nationally and internationally. authority and in mixed organizations in the In the local arena, the member organizations of national indigenous movement. Two of the the Coordinating Committee are a reference point national coordinators have been, respectively, for municipal and state governments, which, the first woman to become a commissioner (the depending on their political will, recognize them highest rank in the community authority system as valid interlocutors. of many indigenous groups) and the first woman In conclusion, the following observations to become the national coordinator of ANIPA. have been made about the transformations Although it’s only just beginning, some members that have occurred in Mexico with respect to of the Coordinating Committee have even been indigenous women––transformations in which the called on by political parties to run for public office Coordinating Committee has played a leading role and to head popular mobilizations. This leadership in recent times: has been expressed during historic moments of mobilization in Mexico, such as the celebration of The new spaces for participation, the multiple the National Democratic Convention, the CND. dialogues established with various social actors, A representative of the Coordinating Committee and a new approach to the rights of women and was the spokesperson for indigenous women at the rights of indigenous peoples, have neces- the Convention and was the only woman who sarily upset gender roles....All these organiza- spoke before a rally of a million people in the main tional spaces––whether independent or gov- plaza of the country’s capital city on September ernmental–– may be conceived of as spaces 16, 2006. At the second assembly of the CND, a for the production of meaning, a process that leader of the Coordinating Committee also spoke has led indigenous women, intentionally or un- on behalf of the feminist movement. intentionally, to reflect on their condition, thereby producing an interchange between gender, In the international sphere, the leadership and ethnicity, and social class.30 presence of indigenous women has increased considerably from the time the Coordinating Committee was formed up until now. Due to its work in the Continental Network of Indigenous Women, for example, the next Encounter of this network will be held in Mexico in 2008. Despite the opposition of many male indigenous leaders, both the participation and the agenda of women in the Permanent Forum on Indigenous Affairs of the United Nations is now a consolidated reality. CNMI participation in the international sphere has also contributed to gaining a higher degree of legitimacy and respect in local organizations and has become an instrument of gaining legitimacy and negotiating with federal and local governments. Thanks to a diverse, consolidated network of alliances, the Coordinating Committee is assiduously called upon to participate in the initiatives of a variety of social movements. Most particularly, its members play a permanent and increasingly stronger leadership role in the

30 Proyecto Colectivo, “Viejos y Nuevos Espacios de Poder: Mujeres Indígenas, Organización Colectiva y Resistencia Cotidiana.”

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 11 CONTRIBUTIONS OF THE INDIGENOUS WOMEN’S MOVEMENT

Contributions of the different citizenship, and the goal of forming an inclusive society are all part of a profound femi- Indigenous Women’s nist discourse.31 Movement to the Building of the Feminist Movement The alliances woven between indigenous and mestiza women who identify themselves as feminists or share many of their views, can lead to The indigenous women’s movement in Mexico the participation of large numbers of women who and Latin America has many contributions to view feminism as something completely foreign make in strengthening the feminist movement in and who have not been able to benefit from its its different manifestations and in keeping it up to struggles. Many feminist groups in the region, date. The dialogue carried on in various meetings for example, are conscious of the low impact on and forums between the proponents of the feminist women’s everyday life of the amplified institutional agenda and activists who raise the demands of judicial framework for the protection and defense indigenous women has led to many advances. of the rights of women. On the other hand, the These include: broadening the comprehension of indigenous women’s movement, frequently pro- how to relate gender identity to other identities, tected by the most importantl human rights such as that of class and ethnicity; recognizing instruments won by feminists, has been working and understanding the resistance of many women with strong territorial roots, prioritizing the con- to controversial themes in the feminist movement, struction of a social base as a condition for such as sexuality; dismantling the view of indig- resolving the situation of the marginalization of enous women as a vulnerable group lacking the women. ability and power to bring about changes in their Furthermore, they have achieved an organic own condition; recognizing the need to create connection between women’s personal and family alliances with other social movements and to reflect demands and the defense of their culture and the on the role that men should have in the struggle rights of their peoples. Many of their strategies for gender equity; and recovering numerous forms integrate alternatives for facing the precarious of struggle and resistance that are innovative for conditions of indigenous life by fostering leadership the feminist movement, above all with a view to and political participation. It is important to note the construction of a broader social base, capable that indigenous women seldom lose the territorial of becoming a counterweight to de facto power. roots they had when they first began to participate. The critical analysis by indigenous women of The contribution of the leaders of the Coordinating traditional practices and customs has led to a Committee not only consists of the “translation” recognition in their communities and organizations of the strengths of the feminist movement into of questions raised historically about these indigenous languages and world views, but also practices by feminists with regards to their of local work done after being chosen for office damaging effects on women’s lives, and, on the in the organization. After complying with their other hand, to the need for feminists to discard mandates, all the coordinators of the National some of the stereotypes constructed around Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women indigenous cultures, to understand that they have returned to their communities to strengthen are not static realities, and to recognize their women’s local participation and organization. One contribution to the process of struggle against the woman, for example, upon concluding her term of ruling system. One commentator had this to say: office, went back to her home state of Guerrero, which has one of the highest maternal death The concepts that are at the heart of the in- rates in the country, to coordinate a sexual and digenous proposal for a multi-ethnic state are reproductive health project. in harmony with a feminist vision of society. Diversity as a positive value, autonomy, In other words, indigenous women’s activism has led them to directly attack problems that they face

31 Laura Carlsen, “Las mujeres indígenas en el movimiento social.”

12 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power 10TH ANIVERSARY CHALLENGES as members of poor, marginalized communities, projects and the internal organization. As taking on a struggle in the context of their own members have noted: territorial reality that could hardly be led by mestiza feminists. Therefore, the role of indigenous The UN…came up with the resources and women is indispensable in building a feminist administered them. We just did the work, movement that prioritizes the real needs of the but later we made the decision that we had masses and directly attends to their demands in to separate from it gradually because the the communities, as noted by the author of the National Coordinating Committee is some- following passage: thing else entirely, with a path of its own.... What we don’t have, however, are resources. There are organizations that have their At a time when the feminist movement…has own apartments, their small offices, but our concentrated on playing a more relevant role organization doesn’t.....There are only two in politics..., a theoretical and practical alli- of us running [our space] now.... We have a ance with the struggle of indigenous peoples is computer and a telephone but sometimes a guarantee that demands for social and eco- the office is empty because the other per- nomic justice will not get lost in the labyrinths of son has to leave or I have to go see about 32 institutional policy. other things....So then, we need another human resource, but she has to have some Another significant contribution of the indigenous [economic] support.33 women’s movement to the feminist movement has been the development of strategies that push Although the Coordinating Committee is now various social movements to recognize its agenda implementing a diverse, effective strategy for and take it on as their own. generating resources, it faces the stereotyping This is fundamental at a time when it is necessary of projects to be funded; such stereotyping to resist and propose alternatives to the alliances is practiced by many agencies and limits the forged by de facto powers in order to dismantle possibilities of obtaining resources to meet the social state and satisfy their own interests no the movement’s demands. As the current matter what the cost. Coordinator Felícitas Martínez explained:

…[our members said in the last Coordinat- ing Committee assembly] that they now 10th Anniversary want courses in political participation, but Challenges the funding agencies can’t provide resources when you say you’re going to train women in political participation because Celebrating ten years of existence, the National these agencies always impose the condi- Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women tion that they want to [do the training] be- has initiated an evaluation process that not only cause they have to hand in the results. takes note of the group’s strong points, but also identifies challenges for the future. Some of the This is complicated by the fact that many most significant are: of the organizations now participating in the Coordinating Committee have recently The consolidation of the Coordinating been created; they are still in the process of Committee as an autonomous entity. building their own projects and determining For a long time the Coordinating Committee the structure and most appropriate legal depended on resources provided by other framework for organizing. organizations or by United Nations agencies, which not only contributed economic resources but also defined many of the

32 Ibid. 33 Interview with Felícitas Martinez, July 2006.

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 13 10TH ANIVERSARY CHALLENGES

Overcoming adverse conditions for in keeping with different cultural realities. As building leadership. Indigenous women one commentator has observed: leaders, unlike their male peers, have gone through a difficult process of persuading Although building more equitable rela- their families and communities to accept and tionships between men and women has validate their participation and leadership, and become a central issue in the struggle of they are subjected to constant observation organized indigenous women, the con- and surveillance in their communities. cept of feminism has not been addressed Strongly condemned behavior includes being in their political discourse. This concept continues to be identified with liberal, in any emotional relationship with a man that urban feminism, which for many indig- is not in the framework of marriage; going enous women holds separatist connota- to parties that are part of political events in tions that distance them from their con- which women activists participate; or drinking cept of the need for a joint struggle with even one alcoholic beverage. There are also their male indigenous comrades.35 family responsibilities that must be attended to as women assume leadership roles. All Criticisms and exclusion that still these factors generate extreme pressure and come from some male militants in the leave women little space to attend to their indigenous movement. Although there has personal needs. For many, the cost of political been greater recognition of the participation participation is very high with regards to of women in the indigenous movement, health, family relations, and love relationships. there are still male comrades and leaders Felícitas Martínez summed it up this way: who minimize or criticize the demands of indigenous women. A recurrent criticism is Almost a full majority of women in the that their demands aren’t priorities and that movement are divorced....They have twice they divert attention from “important” matters the workload but that doesn’t mean they and that they can divide the people. Women let their children miss school....There are have also been criticized for their international women who say we’re “loose” and that all work based on diverse arguments that often we want to do is steal their husbands....If hide a strong suspicion of the international you go to a party or drink, people no lon- ger respect or appreciate you. You lose all presence achieved by indigenous women. credibility....You have to walk the straight Felícitas gave the following example: and narrow path.34 …There’s a rule that I can’t say I’m going Recovering feminism as political to travel internationally because this affects identity. There are many challenges to [certain people]. They say we’re going to 36 overcome in the relationship between sell the community police’s information. the indigenous women’s movement and Utilization by political parties. Recognition feminism. It’s true, however, that many of of cultural diversity and the participation of the ways in which militant feminists relate to indigenous peoples in the national political indigenous women continue to reproduce life, linked to recognition of the rights of stereotypes based on class prejudice and women and their role in the development low recognition of indigenous women as and consolidation of democracy has led to political actors. For this reason it is necessary the adoption of “politically correct” positions to carry on respectful dialogues that allow in which the political class sees opportunities for the creation of alliances and strategies for bolstering its credibility and power. Such

34 Ibid. 35 Aída Hernández Castillo Salgado, “Mujeres indígenas y feminismos.” 36 Interview with Felícitas Martinez, July 2006. 37 Ibid.

14 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power Conclusion

positions, however, haven’t gone any further than incorporating indigenous women into positions as public officeholders. They are not given any support and continue to be banished from decision-making spaces; and, they are often subjected to harassment and even violence by party members.37

Conclusion

The agenda, strategies, leadership, and alliances of indigenous women who have come together in the National Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women now present an opportunity for overcoming social polarization, reconstructing the social fabric from new bases of support, and advancing towards the construction of an inclusive, plural society and a state that guarantees human rights. The voice of the indigenous women of Mexico resounds more intensely day by day and there’s no doubt that these women have become a fundamental political actor in re-founding the nation. The tremendous opposition and obstacles that they face are undeniable, but although their presence is uncomfortable for some, it is a reality that no one can deny. Commander Esther of the Zapatista Army for National Liberation said as much in her address to the Congress of Mexico on March 23, 2001:

So here I am, an indigenous woman. No one needs to feel attacked, humiliated, or de- graded because I’m occupying this tribunal and speaking to you. Those who aren’t present already know that they refused to listen to what an indigenous woman came to tell them, and they refused to speak so that I could listen to them. My name is Esther, but that doesn’t matter now. I’m a Zapatista, but that doesn’t matter right now either. I’m indigenous and I’m a woman, and that’s all that matters right now.

*The initials of organizations and agencies are kept in their language of origin.

Changing their World: Concepts and Practices of Women’s Movements 15 References

References

Aída Hernández Castillo Salgado. Mujeres indígenas y feminismos. http://www.womenandlife.org/WLOE-sp/informaci%F3n/ globalizaci%F3n/indigena.html#not. Brigada Callejera de Apoyo a la Mujer Elisa Martínez A.C. La Otra Campaña de salud sexual y reproductiva para la resistencia indígena y campesina en Mexico. 2006 Alejandra Araiza Díaz. Las mujeres indígenas en Mexico: un análisis desde la perspectiva de género. http://www.icantropologia.org/quaderns-e/08/Araiza.htm Coordinadora Nacional de Mujeres Indígenas. Letter sent to the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights Mary Robinson on November 27, 1999. Coordinadora de Mujeres Indígenas. Speech given on September 16, 2006, at the National Indigenous Convention. Comandanta Esther. Ejército Zapatista de Liberación Nacional, EZLN. Speech given before the federal Congress on March 23, 2001. Interview with Felícitas Martinez, Coordinator of the National Coordinating Committee of Indigenous Women. Indígenas. July 2006 Instituto Nacional de las Mujeres. Las mujeres indígenas de Mexico: su contexto socioeconómico, demográfico y de salud. 2005. http://cedoc.inmujeres.gob.mx/documentos_download/100833.pdf Laura Carlsen. Las mujeres indígenas en el movimiento social. Revista Chiapas. No. 8.1999. Mexico: ERA-IIEc. Lina Rosa Berrio. Salud Sexual y Reproductiva, retos legislativos. Coalición por la Salud de las Mujeres. 2007 Ludka de Gortari, “Comunidad como forma de tenencia de la tierra,” Estudios Agrarios, magazine of the Agrarian Prosecutor’s Office, n. 8, Mexico, July-September, 1997. Márgara Millán. Chiapas y sus mujeres indígenas, De su diversidad y resistencia. Revista Chiapas. No. 4. 1997. Mexico: ERA-IIEc. Patricia Fernández, Juan Enrique García y Diana Esther Ávila. “Estimaciones de la población indígena en Mexico.” La situación demográfica de Mexico, 2002. CONAPO. www.conapo.gob.mx/publicaciones/2002/13.pdf Proyecto Colectivo. Viejos y Nuevos Espacios de Poder: Mujeres Indígenas, Organización Colectiva y Resistencia Cotidiana. CIESAS. www.ciesas.edu.mx/proyectos/pagina/t/proyectocolectivo.pdf

16 Women within the Indigenous Peoples’ Movement of Mexico: New Routes for Transforming Power Building Feminist Movements and Organizations