The Politics of Exclusion and Retribution in the Hungarian Film
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The Politics of Exclusion and Retribution in the Hungarian Film Industry, 1929-1947 by Susan M. Papp A dissertation submitted in conformity with the requirements For the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Department of History University of Toronto © Copyright by Susan M. Papp 2020 The Politics of Exclusion and Retribution in the Hungarian Film Industry, 1929-1947 Susan M. Papp Doctor of Philosophy University of Toronto 2020 Abstract This dissertation examines how the interwar and postwar governments in Hungary politicized and shaped the film industry to do their bidding and how filmmakers, actors and actresses reacted to those political pressures. The interwar conservative government of Miklós Horthy set out to mold the film industry to suit its ideals and ideas, while, at the same time, seeking to limit the number of Jews in the professions. This dissertation investigates the resulting conflicted political forces that brought about the creation of the Theatre and Film Arts Chamber. It examines the impact of the chamber, specifically how those working in the film industry were affected by these laws and new measures. The archival files of the postwar certification committees provide significant historical insight into the leadership and antisemitic narrative of the entertainment industry during the interwar era. In particular, these files illuminate the motivations of the individuals leading the Theatre and Film Arts Chamber. The certification committees established to investigate the wartime activities of those involved in the film industry played a significant role in creating a positive postwar identity. In 1945, this identity grew out of the belief that Hungary had been a victim of Nazi aggression. The postwar system of retribution sought to smooth the transition, and to salvage the once thriving film industry. After the Communist Party consolidated its hold on the government in ii May 1949, the regime recruited and rehabilitated famous Hungarian actors from the interwar era. The alleged crimes of these actors and actresses and their subsequent postwar convictions were no longer an issue of importance. The political trials that unfolded in the late 1940s served the position and power of the new elites more than anything else. By the early 1950s, the Cold War took precedence over retribution following the Second World War and the outcome of these trials seemed irrelevant. This dissertation notably adds to the research and discussion of how to shape, and for what purpose, a nation’s memory of the war and postwar years. This question is still being formed and framed in Hungary today, as it is in many European countries. iii Acknowledgements This dissertation represents seven years of work. Through fieldwork and countless hours of reviewing original sources in eleven archives in Canada, the United States and Hungary, as well as generating ideas, writing, rewriting and soliciting thoughtful feedback from my trusted committee, I was able to further hone my skills as a historian and writer. I wish to acknowledge all those who helped me on this journey, in particular, my very supportive advisor, Professor Andres Kasekamp, Professor Piotr Wróbel who has been consistently encouraging throughout this process, and Professor Julie MacArthur, who has been most helpful. All were very positive in shaping my dissertation. I am grateful to Professors Attila Pok, Thomas Lahusen and Kyle Smith who gave generously of their time in joining the committee for my defense. Professor Doris Bergen, the Chancellor Rose and Ray Wolfe Professor of Holocaust Studies at the University of Toronto, provided me with guidance and support throughout. In 2015, I was fortunate to become a Fellow at the Jack, Joseph and Morton Mandel Centre for Advanced Holocaust Studies at the United States Holocaust Museum and want to thank fellow colleagues and researchers at the Centre for their inspiration and encouragement in my research and writing. Special thanks also to Steve Feldman and Suzanne Brown-Fleming, as well as the researchers and historians who were forthcoming with their advice, particularly Vincent Slatt, Megan Lewis, and Elizabeth Anthony. Scholars who lent constructive guidance in foreign archives included Tibor Sándor, Márk Záhonyi-Ábel and Zoltán Csadi in Budapest. Professor Judit Némethy was generous in sharing her private collection of archival documents iv regarding the Hungarian actors who worked in the Argentine diaspora. Thanks also to Michael Reményi, who allowed access to the papers of Tibor Polgár. In addition, my archival work at the Library of Congress, New York Public Library for Performing Arts, and the Hoover Institution at Stanford University provided key insights. While writing my dissertation, I had the privilege to work with several distinguished scholars on academic publications, including Ferenc Laczó, László Csősz, and Professor Antony Polonsky. I gained valuable experience and tremendous insight through these projects and am grateful for their advice and counsel. Others who inspired me as co-presenters at conferences include Professors David Frey, János Kenyeres and Tamás Stark. Thanks also to Professor Anna Shternshis, Director of the Anne Tanenbaum Centre for Jewish Studies at the University of Toronto as well as to Professors Levente Diosady, László Endrényi, Adrienne Hood, and Professor Lynn Viola for their assistance and encouragement. My sister Professor Klara K. Papp, and Rod McQueen were tireless in their willingness to review chapters and provide feedback. I would also like to express my appreciation to Robert Austin, Ph.D., Tomasz Frydel, Nina Munk, Steve Penfold, Ph.D., Anna Porter, Eva Tomory, Ph.D, and Amanda Wagner of the Information Commons. I have had the privilege of working as a filmmaker and writer. Through this experience, I met and interviewed Yitzhak Livnat, also known as Suti, who was a survivor of the Holocaust in Hungary. Documenting the story of this remarkable man and his sister Hedy Weisz, in my book Outcasts, later a documentary, has deepened my knowledge of the Holocaust. I believe this v dissertation is a much more comprehensive and accessible work because of the insight and experience I gained from researching and writing their story. Although he is no longer with us, I will always be grateful to Suti for his kindness and generosity in sharing his past. Finally, I would like to honour my parents, Gábor and Katalin Papp, who were refugees to North America. They, as well as my grandfather who was formerly a Senator in the parliament of Czechoslovakia, instilled in me a great passion for life-long learning. They passed on the truism shared by all who are uprooted and are forced to establish themselves in another land, namely that, “it is only what is in your head that remains, all else can be taken away.” The sense of achievement I feel in completing this degree is combined with the sadness of knowing that my husband Béla is not able to celebrate this accomplishment with me, though his encouragement was instrumental in helping me to see this through. I will always be grateful for his ongoing, loving support. vi Table of Contents Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ....................................................................................................................... vii Chapter 1: Introduction ................................................................................................................1 Introduction & the Argument ................................................................................................1 Review of Literature ................................................................................................................9 Methodology and Sources ....................................................................................................25 Chapter 2: Setting the Stage (1914-1929) From optimism to energy to the near death of the film industry ....................................................................................................31 Hungarian Jews and the visual arts ....................................................................................31 The legal situation of Hungarian Jews ................................................................................34 Filmmaking nationalized (1919) ..........................................................................................37 The economic and political impact of Trianon (1920) .......................................................40 Numerus Clausus ...................................................................................................................44 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................51 Chapter 3: The creation of the Chamber System (1929-1939) ...............................................53 The revolution in the technology of film: the talkies ........................................................55 Exclusionary tactics in film ...................................................................................................62 Structure of the Theatre and Film Arts Chamber ..............................................................74 Conflicted push-pull influences ...........................................................................................80 Conclusion ...............................................................................................................................83