National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity
MENU Confinement and Ethnicity: Table of Contents
Abstract An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Acknowledgments
Introduction
Essay
Brief History
Gila River
Granada
Heart Mountain
Jerome
Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
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Rohwer by with an essay by Jeffery F. Burton Eleanor Roosevelt Topaz Mary M. Farrell Florence B. Lord cartography by Tule Lake Richard W. Lord Ronald J. Beckwith
Isolation Centers and a contribution by Irene J. Cohen Add'l Facilities
Assembly Centers Western Archeological and Conservation Center DoJ and US Army National Park Service Facilities U.S. Department of the Interior
Prisons Publications in Anthropology 74 1999 (rev. July 2000)
References
Appendix A Continued
Appendix B Cover illustrations: pencilled inscriptions at the Tule Lake stockade jail; Appendix C translation of Japanese text — Japanese Empire (left), Down with the United States (middle), Please be a second when I commit harakiri ... (right).
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Table of Contents
Abstract Cover
Acknowledgments Page 2
Abstract
Introduction Acknowledgments
Essay Project Summary Brief History Chapter 1 Gila River Sites of Shame: An Introduction
Granada Chapter 2 To Undo a Mistake is Always Harder Than Not to Create One Originally Heart Mountain by Eleanor Roosevelt
Chapter 3 Jerome A Brief History of Japanese American Relocation During World War II Manzanar Chapter 4 Gila River Relocation Center, Arizona Minidoka
Chapter 5 Poston Granada Relocation Center, Colorado Rohwer Chapter 6 Heart Mountain Relocation Center, Wyoming Topaz
Chapter 7 Tule Lake Jerome Relocation Center, Arkansas Isolation Centers Chapter 8 Manzanar Relocation Center, California Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers Chapter 9 Minidoka Relocation Center, Idaho DoJ and US Army Facilities Chapter 10 Poston Relocation Center, Arizona Prisons Chapter 11 Rohwer Relocation Center, Arkansas
References Chapter 12 Topaz Relocation Center, Utah Appendix A Chapter 13 Appendix B Tule Lake Relocation Center, California
Appendix C Chapter 14 Citizen Isolation Centers
Moab, Utah Leupp, Arizona
Chapter 15 Additional War Relocation Authority Facilities
Antelope Springs, Utah Cow Creek, Death Valley, California Tulelake, California
Chapter 16 Assembly Centers
Fresno, California Marysville, California Mayer, Arizona Merced, California Pinedale, California Pomona, California Portland, Oregon Puyallup, Washington Sacramento, California Salinas, California Santa Anita, California Stockton, California Tanforan, California Tulare, California Turlock, California
Chapter 17 Department of Justice and U.S. Army Facilities
Temporary Detention Stations Department of Justice Internment Camps
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Crystal City Internment Center, Texas Kenedy Internment Center, Texas Kooskia Work Camp, Idaho Fort Lincoln, North Dakota Fort Missoula, Montana Fort Stanton, New Mexico Santa Fe, New Mexico Segoville, Texas U.S. Army Facilities Camp Lordsburg, New Mexico Fort Sill, Oklahoma Stringtown, Oklahoma Alaska and Hawaii Other U.S. Army Sites
Chapter 18 Federal Bureau of Prisons
Catalina Federal Honor Camp, Arizona Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary, Kansas McNeil Island Federal Penitentiary, Washington
References Cited
Appendix A Relocation Center Drawings in Records Group 210, National Archives, Cartographic Division compiled by Irene J. Cohen
Appendix B Tule Lake Relocation Center Drawings at the Bureau of Reclamation, Klamath Falls Office
Appendix C Selected Relocation Center Blueprints
List of Figures
List of Tables
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Abstract Abstract
Acknowledgments This report provides an overview of the tangible remains currently left at the sites of the Japanese American internment during World War II. The main focus is on the War Project Summary Relocation Authority's relocation centers, but Department of Justice and U.S. Army facilities where Japanese Americans were interned are also considered. The goal of the study has been to provide information for the National Landmark Theme Study called for in the Manzanar National Historic Site enabling legislation. Archival research, field visits, and interviews with former internees provide preliminary documentation about the architectural remnants, the archeological features, and the artifacts remaining at the sites. The degree of preservation varies tremendously. At some locations, modern development has obscured many traces of the World War II-era buildings and features. At a few sites, relocation center buildings still stand, and some are still in use. Overall the physical remains at all the sites are evocative of this very significant, if shameful, episode in U.S. history, and all appear to merit National Register of Historic Places or National Historic Landmark status.
Acknowledgments
As would be expected with a project taking nearly six years to complete, the authors are indebted to many. Three of the authors (Mary, Dick, and Flo) volunteered hundreds of hours of their time. Funding for the senior author was provided by Manzanar National Historic Site. The support, encouragement, and patience of park superintendent Ross Hopkins is gratefully acknowledged. George Teague supervised the project. AutoCAD maps were drafted by Ron Beckwith. Uncredited photographs in the report were taken by the authors.
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Translations were furnished by Shoko Fujita-Ehrlich and a volunteer. Mary Blackburn, Roger Daniels, Susumu Toyoda, and Sue Wells pointed out some egregious errors in earlier printings. The authors would also like to thank the following persons and institutions for their help:
Joe Allman Archaeological Research Services Jane Beckwith Arizona Chapter of the Japanese Birt Bedeau American Tink Borum Citizens League James Bryant Arizona Daily Star Daniel Burton Bancroft Library Irene Cohen Coronado National Forest John Collins Crystal City Town Hall Phyllisa Eisentraut Eastern California Museum John Ellington Franklin D. Roosevelt Library Terry Hendricks Great Basin Museum Gerald Gates Heart Mountain Memorial Foundation Jane Goldstein Kenedy Chamber of Commerce Rosalie Gould Klamath National Wildlife Refuge Elizabeth Greathouse Lordsburg Information Center Farrell Hatch Los Angeles County Fairplex Gary Hathaway Los Angeles Times Dale Heckendorn Mack Alford Correctional Center Taro Hirama Manzanar Advisory Commission John Hopper Mayer Public Library Mas Inoshita Museum of Northern Arizona Kent Just North Dakota State Historical Society Erik Kreusch Prescott National Forest Jim Kubota Prescott Public Library Signa Larralde Puyallup Fair Frank Makamura Santa Anita Racetrack Nathan Mayo Seattle Times Jim McDonald Sharlott Hall Museum Lynne McDonald Topaz Museum Foundation Jim McKie Trans-Sierran Archaeological Research Angela Nava UCLA Special Collections Joe Norikane Tule Lake National Wildlife Refuge Tom Pittman Twin Falls Chamber of Commerce Garth Portillo United States National Archives Nicole Ramos University of Arizona Special Collections Mary Robertson Yuba County Library Roger Roper Ann King Smith Kenji Taguma James West
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Project Summary
WACC Project Number: MANZ 1944 B. Type of Project: Overview/survey. Project Team: Jeff Burton, Mary Farrell, Dick and Flo Lord. Field Work Dates: Intermittently 1994-1999. Person Days in Field: ~80. Project Location: Western United States. Project Scope: Field review of 35 sites associated with Japanese American internment during WW II. National Register Status: Seven of the visited sites are listed on the National Register (Granada 5/18/94; Heart Mtn. 12/19/85; Manzanar 7/39/79; Minidoka 7/10/79; Rohwer 7/30/74; Topaz 1/2/74; and Moab 5/2/94). Collections Accession Information: MANZ Acc. No. 00014, WACC Acc. No. 01252, WACC Photograph Acc. No. 94:17.
This report is number 74 in a continuing series, Publications in Anthropology, published by the Western Archaeological and Conservation Center, 1415 North Sixth Avenue, Tucson, Arizona 85705.
Reprinted with minor corrections July 2000
Table of Contents
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 1 Sites of Shame: An Introduction Abstract In 1942, almost 120,000 Japanese Americans were forced from their homes in California, Acknowledgments western Oregon and Washington, and southern Arizona in the single largest forced relocation in U.S. history. Many would spend the next 3 years in one of ten "relocation centers" across the country run by the newly-formed War Relocation Authority (WRA). Others would be held in facilities run by the Department of Justice and the U.S. Army Introduction (Figure 1.1). Since all Japanese Americans on the west coast were affected, including the elderly, women, and children, Federal officials attempted to conduct the massive Essay incarceration in a humane manner (Figure 1.2). However, by the time the last internees were released in 1946, the Japanese Americans had lost homes and businesses estimated to Brief History be worth, in 1999 values, 4 to 5 billion dollars. Deleterious effects on Japanese American individuals, their families, and their communities, were immeasurable. Gila River
Granada
Heart Mountain
Jerome
Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities Figure 1.1. Sites in the western U.S. associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II.
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Assembly Centers (click image for larger size (~75K) )
DoJ and US Army During World War II the relocation was Facilities justified as a "military necessity." However, some 40 years later, the United Prisons States government conceded that the relocation was based on racial bias rather than on any true threat to national security. President Ronald Reagan signed the Civil Liberties Act of 1988 which References provided redress for Japanese Americans. The following year President George Appendix A Bush issued a formal apology from the U. S. government. Many histories describe Appendix B the political, economic, legal, and social aspects of the relocation (see, for Appendix C example CWRIC 1982, Daniels 1989; Daniels et al. 1991; Irons 1983, 1989; Spicer et al. 1969.). This report, in contrast, provides an overview of the physical remains left at the sites of the Japanese American relocation. The main focus is on the architectural remnants, the Figure 1.2. In this obviously posed archeological features, and the artifacts government photograph armed military remaining at the relocation centers police lend a helping hand, Manzanar 1942. themselves, although other sites where (National Archives photograph) Japanese americans were held during World War II are also considered.
One of the relocation centers, Manzanar, was designated a National Historic Site in 1992 to "provide for the protection and interpretation of historic, cultural, and natural resources associated with the relocation of Japanese Americans during World War II" (Public Law 102-248). But there are nine other relocation centers, and numerous other facilities associated with the relocation and internment. Most of the Japanese Americans were first sent to one of 17 temporary "Assembly Centers," where they awaited shipment to a more permanent relocation center. Most of those relocated were American citizens by birth. Many were long-term U.S. residents, but not citizens, because of discriminatory naturalization laws. Thousands of these "aliens" were interned in Department of Justice and U.S. Army facilities.
Continued
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 2 To Undo a Mistake is Always Harder Abstract Than Not to Create One Originally
Acknowledgments Eleanor Roosevelt
This essay is a draft of an article that had been written for Collier's Magazine by Eleanor Roosevelt. Mrs. Roosevelt visited the Gila River Relocation Center in Arizona in 1943 in response to charges that the Introduction Japanese American evacuees there were being "coddled" (Figures 2.1 and 2.2). The manuscript, courtesy of the Franklin D. Roosevelt Library (Hyde Essay Park, New York), was published in a revised form October 10, 1943. It is reproduced here from the original draft with only minor editorial changes. Brief History We are at war with Japan, and yet we have American citizens, born and brought up in this Gila River country whose parents are Japanese. This is the essential problem. A good deal has already been written about it. One phase, however, I do not think as yet has been adequately Granada stressed. To really cover it, we must get the background straight first.
Heart Mountain In this nation of over one hundred and thirty million, we have 127,500 Japanese or Japanese Americans. Those who have lived for a long time in the Midwest or in the east Jerome and who have had their records checked by the FBI, have been allowed to go on about their business, whatever it may be, unmolested. The recent order removing aliens from strategic Manzanar areas, of course, affects those who were not citizens, just as it affects other citizens, however.
Minidoka 112,000 Japanese of the total 127,500 lived on the West Coast. Originally they were much needed on ranches, and on large truck and fruit farms, but as they came in greater numbers, Poston people began to discover that they were not only convenient workers, they were competitors in the labor field, and the people of California began to be afraid of their own Rohwer importation, so the Exclusion Act was passed in 1917. No people of the Oriental race could become citizens of the United States, and no quota was given to the Oriental nations in the Topaz Pacific. They were marked as different from other races and they were not treated on an equal basis. This happened because in one part of our country they were feared as Tule Lake competitors, and the rest of our country knew them so little and cared so little about them that they did not even think about the principle that we in this country believe in — that of Isolation Centers equal rights for all human beings.
Add'l Facilities We granted no citizenship to Orientals, so now we have a group of people, some of whom have been here as long as fifty years who have not been able to become citizens under our laws. Long before the war, an old Japanese man told me that he had great grand-children http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ce2.htm (1 of 5)5/3/2005 1:36:25 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Chapter 2)
Assembly Centers born in this country and that he had never been back to Japan, all that he cared about was here on the soil of the United States, and yet he could not become a citizen. DoJ and US Army Facilities The children of the Japanese born in this Prisons country, however, were citizens automatically and now we have about 42,500 native born References Japanese who are known as Issei, and about 85,000 native Appendix A born Japanese American citizens, Appendix B known as Nisei. Some of these Japanese Appendix C Americans have gone to our American schools and colleges and have never known any other country or Figure 2.1. Mrs. Eleanor Roosevelt, accompanied by WRA any other life than the National Director Dillon S. Myer, visits the Gila River life here in the United Relocation Center. States. Sometimes their (WRA photograph, Bancroft Library, University of parents have brought California, Berkeley) them up, as far as family life is concerned, in the old Japanese family tradition. Age has its privileges and the respect that is due the elders in a family is strongly emphasized in Oriental life. So for a young Japanese American to go against his parents is more serious than for other children. As a rule in the United States we do not lay undue emphasis upon the control of the older members of the family, or the respect and obedience that is due to mere age.
This large group of Japanese on the West Coast preserved those family traditions, because since they were feared they were also discriminated against. Japanese were not always welcome buyers of real estate. They were not always welcome neighbors, or participators in community undertakings. As always happens with groups that are discriminated against, they gather together and live among their own racial group. The younger ones made friends in school and college and became a part of the community life, and prejudices lessened against them. Their elders were not always sympathetic to the changes thus brought about in manners and customs.
There is another group in this number of American born Japanese called the Kibei. The parents of this group had kept complete loyalty to Japan and some of them were acting as agents of that government in this country. Some of them longed for the day when they could return and live at home in Japan, so they sent their children, born in this country, back to Japan for their education. Some of these young people returned to this country in 1938 and 1939. They saw war coming in Japan and apparently were not loyal enough to Japan to want to go to war on the Japanese side, and neither did they have enough loyalty to the United States, since they did not grow up here, to serve this country. They form a group which is given scant respect either by their elders who are loyal to Japan or from the Japanese who are loyal to the United States.
Enough for the background. Now we come to Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941. We see the
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problems which faced the Pacific coast from this date on. There was no time to investigate families, or to adhere strictly to the American rule that a man is innocent until he is proven guilty. These people were not convicted of any crime, but emotions ran too high, too many people wanted to reek vengeance on Oriental- looking people. Even the Chinese, our Allies, Figure 2.2. Representatives of Councils greet Mrs. Roosevelt, were not always safe on Gila River Relocation Center. the streets. A few of the (WRA photograph, Bancroft Library, University of Japanese had long been California, Berkeley) watched by the FBI and were apprehended on the outbreak of war and taken into custody.
In an effort to live up to the American idea of justice as far as possible, the Army laid down the rules for what they considered the safety of our West Coast. They demanded and they supervised the evacuation. A civil authority was set up, the War Relocation Authority, to establish permanent camps and take over the custody and maintenance of these people, both for their own safety and for the safety of the country.
To many young people this must have seemed strange treatment of American citizens, and one cannot be surprised at the reaction which manifests itself not only in young Japanese American, but in others who had known them well and been educated with them, and who bitterly ask: "What price American citizenship?"
Nevertheless most of them recognized the fact that this was a safety measure. The army carried out its evacuation on the whole with remarkable skill and kindness. The early situation in the camps was difficult. They were not ready for occupation. Sufficient water was not available, food was slow in arriving. The setting up of large communities meant an amount of organization which takes time, but the Japanese proved to be patient, adaptable and courageous for the most part.
Many difficulties have had to be met, but the War Relocation Authority and the Japanese themselves have coped with these remarkably well. There were unexpected problems and one by one these were discovered and an effort made to deal with them fairly. For instance, these people had property they had to dispose of, often at a loss. Sometimes they could not dispose of it and it remained unprotected, so as the months go by it is deteriorating in value. Some business difficulties have arisen which had to be handled through agents, since the Japanese could not leave the camps.
In reading the various accounts which have been written it struck me that practically no one has recognized what a tremendous variety of things the War Relocation Authority has had to develop to meet the innumerable problems created by the removal of a great group of
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people from one small section of the country and their temporary location in other parts of the country. When I read the accusations against the Authority for acquiring quantities of canned goods, and laying in stocks of food, I realized there was a lack of understanding of one basic fact, namely, that government authorities such as this have to live up to the law, and if it is the law of the land that we are rationed, we are rationed everywhere — in prisons, in hospitals, in camps, wherever we may be, individuals are rationed and even the War Relocation Authority cannot buy more than is allowed for the number of people they have to feed.
Figure 2.3. Residential area at the Gila River Relocation Center. (WRA photograph, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley)
The Armed Services in camp here in this country are probably exempt, but even they are now being put on short rations and I have had many complaints from boys that they were given field rations, which probably comes nearer to approximating the civilian ration. It is logical that in the Armed Forces, men who are undergoing training, physical and mental, should require more food that the civilian population. It is for that reason that civilian goods grow scarcer and we accept rationing in a desire to see that all civilian goods are more equitably distributed to all of us.
But no government authority dealing with civilians is free from the laws of the country as a whole. I think that is something that should be borne in mind when we read attacks as to the manner in which the relocation camps are run, and then see the government officials obliged to deny or explain how they happened to have a certain amount of this or that on hand. If you have a city of 14,000 people living in a camp such as the one I went to in Arizona, even in these days, you have to have more on hand than the average small community (Figures 2.3-2.5).
Continued
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 3 A Brief History of Japanese American Abstract Relocation During World War II
Acknowledgments On December 7, 1941, the United States entered World War II when Japan attacked the U. S. naval base at Pearl Harbor. At that time, nearly 113,000 people of Japanese ancestry, two-thirds of them American citizens, were living in California, Washington, and Oregon. On February 19, 1942, President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed Executive Order No. 9066 Introduction empowering the U.S. Army to designate areas from which "any or all persons may be excluded." No person of Japanese ancestry living in the United States was ever convicted Essay of any serious act of espionage or sabotage during the war. Yet these innocent people were removed from their homes and placed in relocation centers, many for the duration of the Brief History war (Davis 1982:27). In contrast, between 1942 and 1944, 18 Caucasians were tried for spying for Japan; at least ten were convicted in court (Uyeda 1995:66). Gila River To understand why the United States government decided to remove Japanese Americans Granada from the West Coast in the largest single forced relocation in U.S. history, one must consider many factors. Prejudice, wartime hysteria, and politics all contributed to this Heart Mountain decision (CWRIC 1982; Hirabayashi and Hirabayashi 1984).
Jerome West Coast Anti-Asian Prejudice
Manzanar Anti-Asian prejudices, especially in California, began Minidoka as anti-Chinese feelings. The cultural and economic forces Poston that led to the anti-Japanese feelings are discussed in detail Rohwer by Daniels (1989:2-25), and summarized here. Chinese Topaz immigration to the U.S. began about the same time as the Tule Lake California gold rush of 1849. During the initial phases of the economic boom that Isolation Centers accompanied the gold rush, Chinese labor was needed and Figure 3.1. Japanese American family harvesting Add'l Facilities welcomed. However, soon white their strawberry field near San Jose, April 5, 1942. workingmen began to consider (Dorothea Lange photograph, Bancroft Library, http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ce3.htm (1 of 3)5/3/2005 1:36:27 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Chapter 3)
Assembly Centers the Chinese, who in 1870 University of California, Berkeley) comprised about 10 percent of DoJ and US Army California's population, as competitors. This economic competition increased after the Facilities completion of the trans-continental Union-Central Pacific Railroad in 1869, which had employed around 10,000 Chinese laborers. Chinese labor was cheap labor, and this Prisons economic grievance became an ideology of Asian inferiority similar to existing American racial prejudices. Discrimination became legislated at both the state and federal level, including a Chinese immigration exclusion bill passed in 1882 by the U.S. Congress.
The experiences of Chinese immigrants foreshadowed those of Japanese immigrants, who References began arriving about the same time the Chinese exclusion bill was passed. Japanese immigrants were called Issei, from the combination of the Japanese words for "one" and Appendix A "generation;" their children, the American-born second generation, are Nisei, and the third generation are Sansei. Nisei and Sansei who were educated in Japan are called Kibei. The Appendix B Issei mostly came from the Japanese countryside, and they generally arrived, either in Hawaii or the mainland West Coast, with very little money. Approximately half became Appendix C farmers, while others went to the coastal urban centers and worked in small commercial establishments, usually for themselves or for other Issei (Figures 3.1 and 3.2).
Anti-Japanese movements began shortly after Japanese immigration began, arising from existing anti-Asian prejudices. However, the anti-Japanese movement became widespread around 1905, due both to increasing immigration and the Japanese victory over Russia, the first defeat of a western nation by an Asian nation in modern times. Both the Issei and Japan began to be perceived as threats. Discrimination included the formation of anti-Japanese organizations, such as the Asiatic Exclusion League, attempts at school segregation (which eventually affected Nisei Figure 3.2. Japanese store, Penryn, California. under the doctrine of "separate (Francis Stewart photograph, Bancroft Library, but equal"), and a growing University of California, Berkeley) number of violent attacks upon individuals and businesses.
The Japanese government subsequently protested this treatment of its citizens. To maintain the Japanese-American friendship President Theodore Roosevelt attempted to negotiate a compromise, convincing the San Francisco school board to revoke the segregationist order, restraining the California Legislature from passing more anti-Japanese legislation and working out what was known as the "Gentlemen's Agreement" with the Japanese government. In this, the Japanese government agreed to limit emigration to the continental United States to laborers who had already been to the United States before and to the parents, wives, and children of laborers already there.
In 1913, California passed the Alien Land Law which prohibited the ownership of agricultural land by "aliens ineligible to citizenship." In 1920, a stronger Alien Land Act
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prohibited leasing and sharecropping as well. Both laws were based on the presumption that Asians were aliens ineligible for citizenship, which in turn stemmed from a narrow interpretation of the naturalization statute. The statute had been rewritten after the Fourteenth Amendment to the constitution to permit naturalization of "white persons" and "aliens of African descent." This exclusionism, clearly the intent of Congress, was legitimized by the Supreme Court in 1921, when Takao Ozawa was denied citizenship. However, the Nisei were citizens by birth, and therefore parents would often transfer title to their children. The Immigration Act of 1924 prohibited all further Japanese immigration, with the side effect of making a very distinct generation gap between the Issei and Nisei.
Many of the anti-Japanese fears arose from economic factors combined with envy, since many of the Issei farmers had become very successful at raising fruits and vegetables in soil that most people had considered infertile. Other fears were military in nature; the Russo-Japanese War proved that the Japanese were a force to be reckoned with, and stimulated fears of Asian conquest — "the Yellow Peril." These factors, plus the perception of "otherness" and "Asian inscrutability" that typified American racial stereotypes, greatly influenced the events following Pearl Harbor.
Continued
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 4 Gila River Relocation Center Abstract The Gila River Relocation Center was located about 50 miles south of Phoenix and 9 miles west Acknowledgments of Sacaton in Pinal County, Arizona. The site is on the Gila River Indian Reservation, and access to the site today is restricted. The post office designation for the center was Rivers, named after Jim Rivers, the first Pima Indian killed in action during World War I. The relocation center included two separate camps located 3-1/2 miles apart, Canal Camp (originally called Camp No. Introduction 1) in the eastern half of the Relocation Center reserve, and Butte Camp (Camp No. 2) in the western half. When the Gila River Relocation Center was in operation it was the fourth largest Essay city in Arizona, after Phoenix, Tucson, and the relocation center at Poston.
Brief History The Gila Relocation Center lies within the broad Gila River Valley, and the Gila River flows southeast to northwest about 4 miles northeast of the reserve boundary. Just 3 miles south of the reserve, the rocky Sacaton Mountains rise 700 feet above the valley floor. Two main irrigation Gila River canals roughly follow the contours of the Sacaton Mountains' north and east bajada, and most of the relocation center reserve lies between these two canals (Figure 4.1). The South Side Canal, at Granada about 1350 feet elevation, is near the southern boundary; the Casa Blanca Canal, at about 1225 feet elevation, forms the northern boundary. Interstate 10 now cuts through the eastern portion of Heart Mountain what once were farm fields of the reserve. Most of the relocation center is on flat or very gently sloping sandy alluvial loam, but the rocky outcroppings of Sacaton Butte are just west and north Jerome of Butte Camp. The Sonoran desert vegetation of the area is dominated by mesquite trees, creosote and bursage bushes, and cactus. Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 4.1 Gila River Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~72K) )
Before the Gila River site was chosen for a relocation center, other potential sites in Arizona were considered, including Cortaro Farms near Tucson, Fort Mohave on the Colorado River, and Beardsley near Phoenix. These sites were rejected as either too costly to build or too close to sensitive military areas. The Gila River site was approved, in spite of objections by the Gila River Indian tribe, on March 18, 1942. Plans were soon expanded to accommodate 14,000 instead of 10,000 at Gila River to make up for a relocation center site in Nebraska which was rejected at the last minute (Madden 1969). The construction of brand-new cities for 10,000 people would, of course, require a prodigious amount of resources even during peace time. The copper necessary for the transmission line that would had to be constructed for the Nebraska relocation center simply was in short supply during the war, and it was more feasible to expand other centers.
The WRA leased the 16,500 acres for the relocation center reserve from the Bureau of Indian Affairs under a five-year permit. Under the terms of the permit, the WRA agreed to develop agricultural lands and build roads to connect the relocation center with state highways to the north and south. Construction of the relocation center began on May 1, 1942, with 125 workers; by June over 1,250 were employed (Weik 1992). On July 10, the first advance group of 500 Japanese Americans arrived to help set up the relocation center. Groups of 500 Japanese American started to arrive each day the following week. By August the evacuee population was over 8,000. The maximum population, 13,348, was reached in November 1942 even before major construction was completed, which was not until December 1, 1942.
The evacuees at Gila River were mainly from the Tulare, Turlock, Stockton, and Fresno assembly centers, but nearly 3,000 were sent directly from Military Area 2 (southern San Joaquin Valley) without first staying in an assembly center. Canal Camp housed mostly rural people from the Turlock Assembly Center and Military Area 2, while Butte Camp housed mostly urban people from the Tulare and Santa Anita Assembly Centers.
The evacuee barracks at the two camps were constructed of wood frame and sheathed with
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lightweight white "beaverboard." Roofs were double, to provide protection from the heat of the desert, with the top roofs sheathed with red fireproof shingles (Figure 4.2). Another extra feature to help deal with the heat at the Gila River Relocation Center was the use of evaporative coolers. Clearly the Gila River Relocation Center was a showplace. Soon after his arrival at the center anthropologist Robert F. Spencer noted "The center is rather attractive as compared with the others. The Figure 4.2. Typical barracks at the Gila River white houses with their red roofs can Relocation Center. be seen from miles away" (Spencer (National Archives photograph) 1942). In April 1943, Eleanor Roosevelt, along with WRA director Dillon Meyer, made a surprise visit to the Gila River Relocation Center, spending 6 hours inspecting facilities (see Chapter 2; Figure 4.3).
Figure 4.3. Eleanor Roosevelt at Figure 4.4. Model ship building shop. the Gila River Relocation Center, (National Archives photograph) April 23, 1943. (Francis Stewart photograph, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley)
However, in spite of the model appearance of the camps, there were problems with the infrastructure. There were chronic water shortages, and for a time parts of Butte Camp ran out of water by nightfall. Use of evaporative coolers was curtailed and other water conservation measures were enforced. An existing natural gas line just east of Canal Camp provided fuel to heat the mess halls and hospital, but barracks were heated with fuel oil due to a limited supply of natural gas (Madden 1969).
Only one watch tower was ever erected at the Gila River Relocation Center. Located at Canal Camp, it was reportedly torn down because staffing it would have imposed a serious burden on the small military police detachment (Madden 1969). Within 6 months the perimeter barbed wire fences around each camp were removed as well. At Butte Camp a camouflage net factory run by Southern California Glass Company employed 500 evacuees. But, the factory was discontinued after 5 months. A model ship building shop at Canal Camp provided models for use in military
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training (Figure 4.4).
Supplies for the relocation center were originally shipped by train to Casa Grande and transported the last 17 miles to the camps by truck. In 1943 a loading and warehouse facility for the center was built at a railroad siding at Serape, only 11 miles away.
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 5 Granada Relocation Center Abstract The Granada Relocation Center was located in southeastern Colorado 140 miles east of Pueblo. Acknowledgments The relocation center site is 16 miles east of the town of Lamar and 15 miles west of the Kansas border. The relocation center's common name was derived from the small town of Granada, less than a mile away. However, the postal designation was Amache, after a Cheyenne woman who was married to John W. Prowers, a nineteenth century rancher for whom the county is named. Introduction Averaging about 3,600 feet in elevation, the relocation center is on a wind-swept prairie that Essay slopes gently from south to north toward the Arkansas River, 2-1/2 miles north. Cottonwoods grow along the river, but without irrigation, the land is fairly arid, with wild grasses, sagebrush, Brief History and prickly pear cactus common.
Gila River
Granada
Heart Mountain
Jerome
Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz Figure 5.1 Granada Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~68K) ) Tule Lake
Isolation Centers The 10,500 acres of the relocation center reserve had been 18 privately owned farms and ranches, acquired by the WRA through purchase or condemnation (Figure 5.1). The largest Add'l Facilities parcels included the former company town of Koen, owned by the American Crystal Sugar Company, and the XY Ranch, founded by Fred Harvey in 1889 (Figure 5.2). For the planned agricultural projects, the WRA also purchased water rights to parts of the Lamar, Manvel, and
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Assembly Centers XY canals, which flowed through the reserve and fed existing irrigation DoJ and US Army ditches. The Wolf Creek drainage Facilities flows northeast to the river just west of the developed part of the relocation Prisons center, but the creek bed is currently dry most of the year.
Construction of the relocation center References began June 12, 1942, with a crew of up to 1,000 hired workers and 50 evacuee volunteers; the general Appendix A contractor was Lambie, Moss, Little, and James of Amarillo, Texas. The Figure 5.2 XY Ranch lands today. Appendix B center was in operation by the end of August 1942, and reached the maximum population of 7,318 by October. Although Granada had Appendix C the smallest population of the ten relocation centers, it was the tenth largest city in Colorado when it was occupied. Evacuees were from the Merced and Santa Anita assembly centers. There were over 560 buildings, including a few composed of sections of former Civilian Conservation Corps buildings transported to the site (Simmons and Simmons 1993).
The central or developed portion of the relocation enter was located on a low bluff overlooking the flood plain and farmlands, which extended to the north and east all the way to the Arkansas River. Like most of the relocation centers, buildings and streets were laid out on a north-south grid within an area about one mile square (Figure 5.3). East-west roads were consecutively numbered from 1st on the north to 12th Street on the south. North-south roads extended from "D" Street on the west to "L" Street on the east (I and J were not used). Shorter roads at a slight angle to the grid in the coal storage area were designated "A" and "B" Streets; "C" Street ran adjacent and parallel to A and B Streets before continuing due south next to the residential area.
Figure 5.3 Granada Relocation Center central area. (from Simmons and Simmons 1993) (click image for larger size (~180K) )
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The entire developed area was surrounded by a four-strand barbed wire fence, with six watch towers along the perimeter. Equipped with searchlights and staffed by military police guards as were the guard towers at other relocation centers, the six at Granada were unique in their octagonal lookout enclosures (Figure 5.4). The only gate in the perimeter fence was at "G" Street, near the center of the north side, approximately one-half mile south of U.S. Highway 50. On the east side of the entrance was the Military Police compound, which included an administration building with a flagpole out front, a guardhouse, four barracks buildings, an officers quarters building, a mess hall, two recreation buildings, a dispensary, a post exchange, a garage, storage house, and a tool house. In the later stages of the center's operation when the military police detachment was greatly reduced in number, the WRA used some of the buildings in this area for staff housing and offices (Simmons and Simmons 1993).
A visitor center was located south of the Military Police compound at the southeast corner of 4th and "G" Streets. The motor pool area, which included an office, Figure 5.4 Watch tower at Granada. storage building, gas station, and one other (Joe McClelland photograph, Bancroft Library, building, was just to the south of the visitor University of California, Berkeley) center. Farther to the east was the hospital complex, with 17 buildings including an administration building, mess hall, doctors' and nurses' quarters, wards, storehouse, laundry, and heating plant.
On the west side of the entrance were the administration and warehouse areas. The administration area included several office buildings, a warehouse, a garage, a shop, a post office, a store, and a recreation building. A staff housing area, to the southwest of the administration area, included a mess hall, four dormitories, and ten staff apartment buildings (Figure 5.5). The center's water reservoir, a pump station, a well house, and the fire station were located east of the staff housing area, on the west side of "G" Street. The warehouse area (Figure 5.6), in the northwest corner of the developed area, included fifteen large warehouses, a butcher shop, two latrines, a storage building, and a lumber yard.
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Figure 5.5. Staff housing area at Granada. Figure 5.6. Warehouse area at Granada. (Joe McClelland photograph, Bancroft (Joe McClelland photograph, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley) Library, University of California, Berkeley)
Domestic water was supplied by four 800-foot-deep wells and stored in a 200,000-gallon concrete reservoir located south of the staff housing area. To provide water pressure, water was then pumped to a 72-foot-high 25,000-gallon water tower in the southeast corner of Block 12K, in the evacuee residential area.
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 6 Heart Mountain Relocation Center Abstract The Heart Mountain Relocation Center was located in Park County, in northwest Acknowledgments Wyoming, 12 miles northwest of the town of Cody. Situated on terraces of the Shoshone River, the relocation center lies at 4700 ft elevation, within open sagebrush desert. Heart Mountain, a detached limestone fault block rising to 8123 ft elevation 8 miles to the west, forms a dramatic backdrop to the relocation center. Introduction The relocation center reserve encompassed 46,000 acres (Figure 6.1). The adjacent Essay Vocation railroad siding and existing Bureau of Reclamation irrigation developments likely influenced the location choice; construction was begun June 15, 1942, with a crew of 2,000 Brief History workers. The first evacuees, from California, Oregon, and Washington, arrived August 11, 1942, and the center was in operation until November 10, 1945. With a maximum population of 10,767, the center was the third largest city in Wyoming. Local residents Gila River recall that it was one of only a few communities in the state to have electricity.
Granada
Heart Mountain
Jerome
Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 6.1. Heart Mountain Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~68K) )
The Heart Mountain Relocation Center was a major part of the largest single draft resistence movement in U.S. history. To protest the unconstitutional confinement of their families, 315 Japanese Americans from all ten relocation centers were imprisoned for resisting induction into the military. Heart Mountain had the highest rate of Figure 6.2. Oblique aerial view of the Heart resistance, with a total of 85 Mountain Relocation Center. men imprisoned for draft law (WRA photograph, National Archives) violations. The Heart Mountain total included seven leaders of the Heart Mountain Fair Play Committee who were convicted for conspiring to violate the Selective Service Act and for counseling other draft-age Nisei to resist military induction. In spite of substantial draft resistance at Heart Mountain, 700 men reported for their selective service physicals; of these, 385 were inducted, of whom eleven were killed and fifty-two wounded in battle.
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 7 Jerome Relocation Center Abstract The Jerome Relocation Center was located in Chicot and Drew Counties, Arkansas, 18 Acknowledgments miles south of McGehee and 120 miles southeast of Little Rock. It was one of two relocation centers in Arkansas — 27 miles north was the Rohwer Relocation Center. The relocation center was named after the town of Jerome, which was located one-half mile south. However, the official post office designation for the center was Denson. Introduction The relocation center site is located in the Mississippi River delta region about 12 miles Essay west of the river. At an elevation of 130 feet, the area is laced with cut-off meanders and bayous. Big and Crooked Bayous flow from north to south in the central and eastern part of Brief History the former relocation center reserve. Today the forests that once covered the area are now mostly gone, replaced by rice and soybean fields and fish farms. Gila River The relocation center reserve encompassed 10,000 acres of tax-delinquent lands purchased through a trust agreement in the late 1930s by the Farm Security Administration (Figure Granada 7.1). Plans had been to develop the lands by clearing trees and draining swampy areas so that they could provide subsistence for low-income farm families (Bearden 1989). Heart Mountain The roughly 500-acre central area of the relocation center was on the western edge of the Jerome reserve along U.S. Highway 165. Construction by A.J. Rife Construction Company of Dallas, Texas, began July 15, 1942, and the center was ready for use on October 6, 1942. Manzanar The maximum population, reached in November 1942, was 8,497. Internees were from California and Hawaii. Jerome was the last of the relocation centers to open and, in June Minidoka 1944, the first to close.
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 7.1. Jerome Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~60K) )
The closure of the Jerome Relocation Center was cited as a sign of the WRA's success in placing Japanese Americans in jobs and homes outside of the West Coast restricted zone. The overall population of the ten relocation centers declined in 1944 as over 18,000 evacuees moved out through the WRA leave process. Jerome was chosen for closure for three reasons: it was the least developed of the relocation centers, it had one of the smallest populations, and the nearby Rohwer Relocation Center could absorb most of the Jerome residents reducing the amount of transportation needed.
While across the country there were several instances of military police shooting relocation center residents, Jerome was the site of the only known shooting of evacuees by local civilians. A tenant farmer on horseback on his way home from deer hunting came across three Japanese Americans on a work detail in the woods. Thinking the Japanese Americans were trying to escape, he fired one round of buckshot, wounding two of them. Referring to the fact that a Caucasian engineer supervisor was present, the farmer explained he thought the supervisor was trying to aid the escape (Denison Tribune Communiqué 11/17/42).
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 8 Manzanar Relocation Center Abstract The Manzanar Relocation Center was Acknowledgments in east-central California, in southern Owens Valley. Located for the most part on the west side of U.S. Highway 395, it is 220 miles north of Los Introduction Angeles and 250 miles south of Reno, between the towns of Lone Pine and Essay Independence. The central portion of the relocation center site is now a Brief History National Historic Site administered by the National Park Service. Outlying portions of the relocation center are on Gila River city of Los Angeles land administered by the Department of Water and Granada Power and public land administered Figure 8.1. Manzanar with Mount Williamson in the by the Bureau of Land Management. background. Heart Mountain (Dorothea Lange photograph, National Archives) On the western edge of the Basin and Jerome Range province, the topography of the area is dramatic, with the steep Sierra Nevada to the west and the White-Inyo Range to the east. Manzanar Mount Williamson, the second highest peak in the Sierra Nevada at 14,375 feet, is 10 miles southwest. The National Historic Site itself is located where the Sierran bajada meets the valley Minidoka floor at 3900 feet elevation.
Poston The Owens Valley is in the rainshadow formed by the Sierra Nevada. Independence has a mean annual precipitation of just under 5 inches and Lone Pine approximately 6 inches. However, the valley is well-watered by Sierran streams and the relocation center site is located between two Rohwer perennial streams which flow east from the Sierra Nevada, Shepherd Creek on the north and George Creek on the south. The stream flow of Bairs Creek, which crosses the southwest corner Topaz of the relocation center central area, is intermittent.
Tule Lake Summers are hot and winters cold, and the natural vegetation in the vicinity is desert scrub (for example, rabbitbrush and sagebrush). Non-native trees, mostly black locust, cottonwood, Isolation Centers tamarisk, and fruit trees from abandoned ranches, farms, and the relocation center, form a band across the site. Add'l Facilities The Manzanar Relocation Center, established as the Owens Valley Reception Center, was first
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Assembly Centers run by the U.S. Army's Wartime Civilian Control Administration (WCCA). It later became the first relocation center to be operated by the War Relocation Authority (WRA). The center was DoJ and US Army located at the former farm and orchard community of Manzanar. Founded in 1910, the town was Facilities abandoned when the city of Los Angeles purchased the land in the late 1920s for its water rights. The Los Angeles aqueduct, which carries Owens Valley water to Los Angeles, is a mile east of Prisons Manzanar.
Begun in March of 1942, the relocation center was built by Los Angeles contractor Griffith and Company. Construction proceeded 10 hours a day 7 days a week; major construction was completed within six weeks. On March 21 the first 82 Japanese Americans made the 220-mile References trip by bus from Los Angeles. More volunteers soon followed to help build the relocation center: over the next few days 146 more Japanese Americans arrived in 140 cars and trucks under Appendix A military escort (Figure 8.2). Another 500 Japanese Americans, mostly older men, arrived from Los Angeles by train. By mid April, up to 1,000 Japanese Americans were arriving at Manzanar Appendix B a day and by mid May Manzanar had a population of over 7,000 (Figure 8.3). By July Manzanar's population was nearly 10,000. Over 90 percent of the evacuees were from the Los Appendix C Angeles area; others were from Stockton, California, and Bainbridge Island, Washington.
Figure 8.2. Confiscated evacuee Figure 8.3. Evacuees arriving at Manzanar. automobiles. (WRA photograph, National Archives) (Clem Albers photograph, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley)
The central developed portion of the relocation center covers an area of approximately 540 acres (Figure 8.4). Eight watchtowers were completed on the perimeter by August 1942, and a five- strand barbed wire fence around the central area was completed by the end of the year. A military police compound with 13 buildings was located beyond the southeast quarter of the relocation center central area, south of Bairs Creek and west of U.S. Highway 395.
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Figure 8.4. Manzanar Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~60K) )
Paved or oiled roads divided the central portion of the relocation center into 67 blocks, including 36 residential blocks, two staff housing blocks, an administrative block, two warehouse blocks, a garage block, and a hospital block (Figure 8.5). The 24 remaining blocks, located throughout the center, served as firebreaks. East-west roads were designated by numbers starting with 1st street at the relocation center entrance and proceeding north. The one road south of 1st Street was named Manzanar Street. North-south roads were designated by letters, starting with "A" street on the east and ending with "I" Street on the west. The evacuee residential blocks were designated 1 through 36; none of the other blocks were designated by number. The relocation center was aligned with U.S. Highway 395, rather than true north.
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Figure 8.5. Manzanar Relocation Center central area. (National Archives) (click image for larger size (~162K) )
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 9 Minidoka Relocation Center Abstract The Minidoka Relocation Center was Acknowledgments located in Jerome County, Idaho, 15 miles east of Jerome and 15 miles north of Twin Falls. The relocation center was also known as Hunt, after Introduction the official Post Office designation for the area, since there was already a Essay town of Minidoka in Idaho, 50 miles east. Brief History The relocation center lies within the Snake River Plain at an elevation of Gila River 4000 feet. The natural vegetation of this high desert area is dominated by Granada sagebrush and other shrubs. Figure 9.1. North Side Canal. Dominant geological features of the (Francis Stewart photograph, Bancroft Library, Heart Mountain area are thin basaltic lava flows and University of California, Berkeley) cinder cones overlying thick rhyolite Jerome ash. The most notable topographic feature at the site is the wide meandering man-made North Side Canal (Figure 9.1). For the most part, the canal formed the southern boundary Manzanar of the 33,000-acre relocation center reserve (Figure 9.2).
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 9.2. Minidoka Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~48K) )
Five miles of barbed wire fencing and eight watch towers surrounded the administrative and residential portions of the relocation center, which was located on 950 acres in the west- central portion of the reserve. Built by the Morrison-Knudsen Company, construction began June 5, 1942, and the relocation Figure 9.3. Residents of one barracks block. center was in operation from (from Minidoka Interlude 1943) August 10, 1942 to October 28, 1945. The maximum population was 7,318; evacuees were from Oregon, Washington, and Alaska (Figure 9.3). In early 1943, all of the Bainbridge Island (Washington) residents interned at the Manzanar Relocation Center under the authority of the first Civilian Exclusion Order were moved to Minidoka. The transfer was at their own request, not only to be closer to their original home, but also because they were often at odds with their new neighbors from Terminal Island in Los Angeles.
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 10 Poston Relocation Center Abstract The Poston or Colorado River Relocation Acknowledgments Center was located in La Paz County, Arizona, 12 miles south of the town of Parker. Poston was named after Charles Debrille Poston, the first Superintendent for Indian Affairs in Introduction Arizona. Poston was directly responsible for the establishment, in 1865, of the Colorado Essay River Reservation, where the center is located (Figure 10.1). La Paz County is a fairly recent Brief History political entity; during World War II the Poston area was part of Yuma County.
Gila River The Colorado River is about 2-1/2 miles west of the relocation center; this section of the Granada Colorado River Valley from the relocation center vicinity north to Parker Dam is known Heart Mountain as Parker Valley. At only 320 feet elevation, the area lies within the lower Sonoran desert. Jerome Summers are hot, and, because of the proximity of the river, humid; in the winter Manzanar days are cool and nights cold.
Minidoka The Colorado River Indian Reservation Tribal Council opposed the use of their land for a Poston relocation center, on the grounds that they did not want to participate in inflicting the same type of injustice as they had suffered. Rohwer However, the tribe was overruled by the Army and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA). In a Topaz verbal agreement the WRA turned over administration of the center to the BIA. The Tule Lake BIA considered the relocation center an opportunity to develop farm land on the Isolation Centers reservation with the benefit of military funds Figure 10.1. Colorado River Indian and a large labor pool. The WRA took did not Reservation. Add'l Facilities take full control of the center until December (National Archives) 1943. (click image for larger size (~68K) )
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Assembly Centers The Poston Relocation Center consisted of three separate cantonments at three-mile intervals. Known officially as Poston I, II, and III, the evacuees nicknamed them Roasten, Toasten, and DoJ and US Army Dustin. Construction on Poston I began March 27,1942, with the contractor Del Webb, later of Facilities Sun City fame. Del Webb had a large work force already mobilized for military contracts, and built Luke Air Force Base near Phoenix in March 1941. However, the relocation center was Del Prisons Webb's biggest challenge up to that time. Webb had a construction job in progress at Blythe, and when he got the contract to build the camps he diverted his crew to Parker. With equipment brought up from Blythe, the initial ground clearing was done in one day (Figure 10.2).
References Using 5,000 workers on a double work shift, Poston I was completed in less than three weeks (Figures 10.3-10.5). The pine specified for construction was in short supply, so heart redwood Appendix A was substituted. When the redwood shrunk much more than expected, millions of feet of thin wood strips had to be ordered to fill the cracks (Finnerty 1991). Because of the heat in Arizona, Appendix B the standard tarpaper barracks construction was modified so that the buildings had double roofs. A new contract was awarded to Webb to build Poston II and III within 120 days (Finnerty 1991). Guard towers were not constructed at Poston, as they were at the other relocation centers; here Appendix C they were considered unnecessary because of the isolated location, in the desert at the end of a road.
Figure 10.2. Poston site partially cleared. Figure 10.3. Rolls of roofing paper at the (Clem Albers photograph, Bancroft Poston site. Library, University of California, Berkeley) (Clem Albers photograph, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley)
Figure 10.4. Unloading lumber at the Figure 10.5. Construction underway at Poston site. Poston I. (Fred Clark photograph, Bancroft Library, (Fred Clark photograph, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley) University of California, Berkeley)
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 11 Rohwer Relocation Center Abstract The Rohwer Relocation Center was located in Desha County, Arkansas, 11 miles north of Acknowledgments McGehee and 110 miles southeast of Little Rock. It was one of two relocation centers in Arkansas — 27 miles south was the Jerome Relocation Center. The relocation center was named after the community of Rohwer, which was located one-half mile south.
Introduction Five miles west of the Mississippi River and at an Essay elevation of 140 feet, the relocation center area is Brief History intertwined with canals, bayous, creeks, and swampy areas. The forests that once covered the Gila River area are now gone, replaced with rice, soybean, and cotton Granada fields and dispersed housing. About 1 mile south of the Heart Mountain relocation center, on the east side of State Highway 1, there Jerome are Indian mounds, one with a Figure 11.1. Residence south of Rohwer on top of a residence on it (Figure 11.1). suspected Indian mound (another Indian mound is to Manzanar the left of the house). Several sources indicate the Minidoka relocation center reserve encompassed 10,161 acres, but a boundary map for the entire reserve could not be located for this report. However, the central area layout plan includes Poston a vicinity map which may provide clues to the boundary. Twenty full sections and four partial sections around the central area are numbered on the map, whereas the other sections depicted on the map are not numbered. While the total area of these sections Rohwer exceeds the reported 10,161 acre figure, the relocation center reserve was likely limited to lands within these sections (Figure 11.2). Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 11.2. Rohwer Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~70K) )
According to Bearden (1989), half of the relocation center reserve remained under swampy bayou water during the spring. The reserve was mostly on public land meant for subsistence homesteads under the Farm Security Administration; the balance was purchased from local farmers.
The roughly 500-acre central area of the relocation center was along the west side of State Highway 1 and the adjacent Missouri Pacific Railroad. Construction by the Linebarger- Senne Construction Company of Little Rock, Arkansas, began July 1, 1942, and the center was ready for use on September 18, 1942 (Figure 11.3). The maximum population, reached in November 1942, was 8,475. Figure 11.3. Construction underway at the Rohwer Evacuees were from California, Relocation Center. who endured a three-day train (WRA photograph, National Archives) ride from the assembly centers to reach Arkansas. The center closed November 30, 1944.
Rosalie Gould, the former Mayor of McGehee, grew up in the area, and recounts that the
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Arkansas relocation centers were located in very poverty-stricken areas, probably, she believes, at the insistence of some influential Arkansas senator. In spite of local expectations, the centers did not bring prosperity. Hence, as difficult as conditions were within the relocation center, some local residents envied the evacuees' access to regular meals and health care.
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 12 Topaz Relocation Center Abstract The Topaz or Central Utah Relocation Center was located in west-central Utah, in Millard Acknowledgments County near the town of Delta, 140 miles southwest of Salt Lake City. The relocation center named after Topaz Mountain, 9 miles northwest. The relocation center was briefly known as the "Abraham Relocation Center," after a nearby settlement (Figure 12.1).
Introduction
Essay
Brief History
Gila River Figure 12.1. Sign at the Great Basin Museum in Delta, Utah. Granada The extremely flat terrain of the relocation center lies within the Sevier Desert, part of the Heart Mountain Basin and Range province that was once covered by Pleistocene Lake Bonneville. An "Old River Bed" depicted on maps less than a mile west of the site drains northward to the Jerome Topaz Slough. The most prominent physical landmark in the vicinity is Smelter Knolls, 4 miles west. Elevation at the Topaz Relocation Center is about 4600 feet and the native Manzanar vegetation consists mainly of high desert brush.
Minidoka The 19,800-acre relocation center reserve was a mixture of public domain land, farms acquired by the county for non-payment of taxes, and several privately-held parcels purchased for a dollar an acre (Arrington 1962). Construction of the relocation center was Poston begun July 10, 1942, by the California firm Daley Brothers with a crew of 800.
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 12.2. Topaz Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~64K) )
The relocation center was in operation from September 11, 1942, to October 31, 1945. The maximum population was 8,130; most of the internees were from the San Francisco Bay area. A total of 623 buildings were constructed during the life of the relocation center (Powell 1972). The nucleus of the facility consisted of a one-square-mile area for residents, administrative personnel, and the military police (Figures 12.2-12.5). This "central area" included 42 blocks, eight for administration and 34 for residences. Each residential block had 12 barracks, a mess hall, a recreation hall, and a combination washroom, shower, toilet, and laundry building. The eight administration blocks included office buildings, staff housing, warehouses, a hospital, and a military police compound. Security features at Topaz included a sentry post at the entrance, a perimeter fence, seven watch towers, and a military police compound.
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Figure 12.3. Residential and administration area, Topaz Relocation Center. (National Archives) (click image for larger size (~148K) )
Figure 12.4. Administration area, hospital, and military police compound, Topaz Relocation Center. (National Archives) (click image for larger size (~88K) )
Some of the buildings at Topaz were imported, recycled from nearby Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps. For example, two buildings were moved from the Antelope Springs CCC camp to Topaz to be used as the Christian and Buddhist churches, and two garages and other buildings were moved from the Black Rock CCC camp (Kelsey 1996:99). During World War II the headquarters of the Buddhist Church of America was transferred to Topaz from San Francisco (Ulibarri 1972).
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In addition to the typical relocation center array of buildings and other developments, there were also sports fields and facilities, evacuee-constructed ponds and ornamental gardens, victory gardens to grow food, and trees and other vegetation. Over 7,500 trees and 10,000 shrubs were planted during the first 9 months, however nearly all died due to the heat, wind, and alkaline soil (Arrington 1962). Figure 12.5. Panorama view of the Topaz Relocation Center. A cemetery was built to the (Francis Stewart photograph, Bancroft Library, southeast of the central area, but University of California, Berkeley) was never used. The 144 persons who died at Topaz were instead sent to Salt Lake City for cremation and their ashes were held at the relocation center for burial in the San Francisco area after the war (Arrington 1962).
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 13 Tule Lake Relocation Center Abstract The Tule Lake Relocation Center is in Modoc County, California, 35 miles southeast of Acknowledgments Klamath Falls, Oregon, and about 10 miles from the town of Tulelake. The town is spelled as one word and the relocation center as two. The post office designation for the relocation center was Newell, the name of the post office, general store, and gas station at a nearby crossroads. Introduction The relocation center reserve, which encompassed 7,400 acres, is presently a mix of public, Essay state, and private land (Figures 13.1 and 13.2). Situated in the Klamath Valley, the Tule Lake Relocation Center was located within an underdeveloped federal reclamation district, Brief History authorized in 1905. The Modoc Project was begun in the Klamath Reclamation District in 1920 to drain Tule Lake for use as farm land. By 1941, 3,500 acres of former lake bed were under cultivation (Jacoby 1996). Large remnants of Tule Lake, now a National Wildlife Gila River Refuge, lie within a few miles of the relocation center site.
Granada
Heart Mountain
Jerome
Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 13.1. Land status, Tule Lake Relocation Center and vicinity. (click image for larger size (~181K) )
Figure 13.2. Tule Lake Relocation Center. (click image for larger size (~72K) )
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The lacustrine geology is evident: the relocation center site and surrounding area is flat and treeless, and the sandy loam soil is interspersed with the abundant remains of freshwater mollusks. To the south and west vulcanism is prominent: Tule Lake was just north of lava flows emanating from the Medicine Lake Highlands, the eastern-most promontory of the Cascade Range. An 800-foot- high bluff, called the Peninsula, Figure 13.3. Tule Lake and Mt. Shasta. is composed of volcanic tuff that was extruded within Pleistocene Tule Lake. The Peninsula lies just south of the developed central area of the relocation center, and there are other smaller bluffs to the north and east. Lava Beds National Monument includes two areas southwest of the relocation center, one just south of the Peninsula and another, much larger area at the northern end of the Medicine Lake Highlands. Fifty miles south on a clear day 14,000 foot Mt. Shasta is visible (Figure 13.3). At an elevation of 4,000 feet, the winters at Tule Lake are long and cold and the summers hot and dry. The vegetation consists of a sparse growth of grass, tules, and sagebrush.
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 14 Citizen Isolation Centers Abstract After the riot at the Manzanar Relocation Center in December 1942, the War Relocation Acknowledgments Authority (WRA) decided to remove so-called troublemakers from the relocation centers. An isolation center was established at an abandoned Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) Camp at Dalton Wells, near Moab, Utah, which had been vacant only 15 months (Figures 14.1 and 14.2). The Dalton Wells camp was used as-is, with no fence or other improvements. Like the relocation Introduction centers the isolation center was run by the WRA, headed by Ray Best, who would later be the director of the Tule Lake Segregation Center. Essay
Brief History
Gila River
Granada
Heart Mountain Figure 14.1. Dalton Wells CCC Cap in Figure 14.2. Administration building at the Jerome 1937. Dalton Wells CCC Camp. (from Louthan 1993) (from Louthan 1993) Manzanar
Minidoka On January 11, 1943, sixteen men from Manzanar were the first arrivals at Moab. Within a few months others from Manzanar Poston and the other relocation centers were also sent to the isolation center, for "crimes" as minor as Rohwer calling a Caucasian nurse an old maid (Drinnon 1987:104). No formal charges had to be made, Topaz transfer was purely at the discretion of the relocation center director (Myer 1971:65). This Tule Lake led to indiscriminate incarceration. For example, thirteen leaders of two separate Isolation Young People's Associations at the Gila River Centers Relocation center were sent to Moab. The administration was having troubles with one of Add'l Facilities the groups and sent the leaders of both on the
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mistaken assumption that they were related. Assembly Centers Conflict between those opposed to the DoJ and US Army relocation and sympathizers carried over from Facilities the relocation centers to the isolation center. Further, living conditions were much harsher Prisons than in the relocation centers so protests over treatment and conditions continued. To further segregate the population seven inmates at the isolation center were transferred to the Grand References County jail in Moab.
Appendix A At its peak the Moab facility held 49 men (Louthan and Pierson 1993). On April 27, Appendix B 1943, the inmates were moved to an abandoned Indian boarding school at Leupp, Arizona (Figures 14.3 and 14.4). The transfer to Leupp Appendix C was ostensibly "for the purpose of bringing together the families of those persons sent to [Moab]." However, "incorrigibles" were to be placed in an isolated, fenced area of the camp (WRA Report cited in Louthan et al. 1994), and no families were ever transferred to Leupp. Figure 14.3. Leupp Isolation Center. (Henry Ueno photograph from Drinnon Most of the Moab inmates were moved to 1987) Leupp by bus. Five of those held in the Grand County jail, however, were forced to make the 11-hour trip confined in a four by six foot box on the back of a flat-bed truck. On arrival at Leupp, four inmates were transferred to jail in the nearby town of Winslow for a few days before being placed in a jail occupied by six others at Leupp (Embrey et al. 1984). The prison atmosphere at Leupp was enforced by four guard towers, a cyclone fence topped with barbed wire, and the 150 military police who outnumbered the inmates by more than 2 to 1 (Negri 1985).
More evacuees were transferred to Leupp, for such infractions as drawing pictures that did not meet administration approval, leading a work walk-out, or trying to form a union. Francis Frederick, in charge of internal security at the isolation center, remarked in a letter to a friend "What [the WRA] call dangerous is certainly questionable" (Drinnon 1987).
When Ray Best transferred to Tule Figure 14.4. Mess hall at the Leupp Isolation Center. Lake and was replaced by Paul (Henry Ueno photograph from Embrey et al. 1986) Robertson, conditions at Leupp improved as the new director became aware of the injustice and illegality of the incarceration (Louthan and Pierson 1993; Negri 1985). On December 2, 1943, the Leupp facility was closed and the 71 inmates present were transferred by train to the segregation center at Tule Lake (Myer 1971:77). The transfer was to have taken place a month earlier, but it was delayed when the military police had to be called in to control demonstrations at Tule Lake.
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Moab, Utah | Leupp, Arizona
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 15 Additional War Relocation Authority Facilities Abstract In addition to the relocation centers and isolation centers, the War Relocation Authority Acknowledgments (WRA) used at least three other facilities, all former Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps. Antelope Springs, Utah, was used as a recreation area for the Topaz Relocation Center to make difficult conditions more bearable. Cow Creek and Tulelake, California, were emergency short-term housing used to defuse tense situations when conditions had Introduction already gotten out of hand.
Essay Antelope Springs, Utah | Cow Creek, Death Valley, California | Tulelake, California
Brief History Continued
Gila River
Granada
Heart Mountain
Jerome
Manzanar
Minidoka
Poston
Rohwer
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 16 Assembly Centers Abstract Although Executive Order 9066 authorized the evacuation of all persons of Japanese Acknowledgments ancestry from the West Coast, at the time it was signed there was no place for the Japanese Americans to go. When voluntary evacuation proved impractical, the military took over full responsibility for the evacuation: on April 9, 1942, the Wartime Civilian Control Agency (WCCA) was established by the military to coordinate the evacuation to inland Introduction relocation centers. However, the relocation centers were far from ready for large influxes of people. For some, there was still contention over the location; for most, their placement Essay in isolated undeveloped areas of the country exacerbated problems of building infrastructure and housing. Since the Japanese Americans who lived in the restricted zone Brief History were perceived to be too dangerous to go about their daily business, the military decided it was necessary to find temporary "assembly centers" to house the evacuees until the relocation centers could be completed. Gila River The assembly centers would require open space for housing, the immediate availability of Granada water and power, and a geographic context that would make it easy to confine and separate the evacuees from the general population. In addition, to expedite the evacuation and Heart Mountain eventual transfer to the relocation centers, facilities had to be centrally located with access to roads and railroads. Within 28 days, 17 assembly centers were prepared for use. Nine Jerome were at fairgrounds, two were at horse racetracks (Santa Anita and Tanforan, California), two were at migrant workers camps (Marysville and Sacramento, California), one was at a Manzanar livestock exposition hall (Portland, Oregon), one was at a mill site (Pinedale, California), and one was at an abandoned Civilian Conservation Corps camp (Mayer, Arizona). In Minidoka addition, the "reception centers" under construction near Parker Dam in Arizona (Poston) and in the Owens Valley of eastern California (Manzanar), originally set up to expedite the voluntary evacuation, were also employed as assembly centers. Both would later be Poston designated relocation centers as well.
Rohwer The assembly centers were surrounded by barbed wire fences. Armed military police, housed in a separate compound, patrolled the perimeter. Existing structures were adapted Topaz for use as offices, infirmaries, warehouses, and mess halls. At the racetracks, stables were cleaned out for use as living quarters and at the Portland Assembly Center over 3,800 Tule Lake evacuees were housed under one roof in a livestock pavilion subdivided into apartments. However, housing for the most of the evacuees consisted of hastily constructed "Theater of Isolation Centers Operations"-type barracks buildings grouped into blocks with separate communal bathrooms and dining halls. Add'l Facilities Most of the barracks were built directly on the ground or supported by wooden foundation
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Assembly Centers blocks; 2- by 4-inch floor joists supported wooden floors. In a few assembly centers, some barracks had concrete or asphalt floors. Walls were made of horizontal boards covered with DoJ and US Army 30 lb. felt or one-ply roofing paper. Gable roofs (or shed roofs as at the Puyallup Assembly Facilities Center) were constructed with 2- by 4-inch rafters sheathed with boards and a single layer of roofing. The barracks buildings were divided into 20 ft by 20 ft rooms with wooden Prisons partition walls extending from the floor to the top of the outside wall line, leaving open a space above the interior walls to the roof. Each room had one door and two or more windows (American Red Cross 1942).
Beginning May 26, 1942, some 500 evacuees a day were transferred from the assembly References centers to the relocation centers. Slowed by construction delays at the relocation centers and the lack of certain supplies (DeWitt 1943), transfers dragged on over a five-month Appendix A period and were not completed until October 30, 1942.
Appendix B Fresno, California | Marysville, California | Mayer, Arizona | Merced, California | Pinedale, California | Pomona, California | Portland, Oregon | Puyallup, Washington | Sacramento, Appendix C California | Salinas, California | Santa Anita, California | Stockton, California | Tanforan, California | Tulare, California | Turlock, California
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 17 Department of Justice and U.S. Army Facilities Abstract Most Japanese Americans interned during World War II were held in facilities run by the Acknowledgments War Relocation Authority (WRA) and Wartime Civilian Control Agency (WCCA) described in previous chapters. However, other facilities were also used to imprison Japanese Americans during the war. In all, over 7,000 Japanese Americans and Japanese from Latin America were held in internment camps run by the Department of Justice and Introduction the U.S. Army. Eight of these facilities were visited for this project.
Essay After the attack on Pearl Harbor and prior to Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, about 4,000 individuals from all over the U.S. were detained by the FBI. Over half of these Brief History were Japanese immigrants who were long-term U.S. residents denied U.S. citizenship by discriminatory laws. These Issei, now classified as "enemy aliens," were first sent to temporary detention stations, then transferred to locations known generally as "Justice Gila River Department Camps." The camps were run by the Immigration and Naturalization Service, part of the Department of Justice. After hearings, most of the Issei were then sent to U.S. Granada Army internment camps where they remained through May 1943. After that time the internees were returned to Department of Justice control for the duration of the war. Heart Mountain Published literature provides few details about the Japanese American experiences at these Jerome facilities. Weglyn (1976:176) notes that most of the U.S. Army and Department of Justice internment camps were considered temporary, and even a complete listing of the camps and Manzanar internees is not available. Weglyn collected information on the distribution of relief goods sent by the Japanese government through the Red Cross to estimate relative numbers of Minidoka persons of Japanese ancestry held at various locations. However, as Weglyn notes, these camps often included not only Japanese American Issei who were long-term residents of the Poston United States, but also persons of Japanese ancestry from Latin America.
Rohwer Continued
Topaz
Tule Lake
Isolation Centers
Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Chapter 18 Federal Bureau of Prisons Abstract No Japanese American was ever charged and convicted of sabotage or spying during World Acknowledgments War II. However, over a hundred Japanese Americans who sought to challenge the internment were convicted and sentenced to terms in federal prisons. These cases, highlighted in recent research (see, for example, work by Abe n.d.; Erickson 1998a, 1998b; Uyeda 1993), belie the perception that the Japanese American community passively Introduction accepted the relocation and internment.
Essay Gordon Hirabayashi, Minoru Yasui, and Fred Korematsu challenged the government's actions in court. Minoru Brief History Yasui had volunteered for military service after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and was rejected because of his Japanese ancestry. An attorney, he deliberately Gila River violated the curfew law of his native Portland, Oregon, stating that citizens have the duty to challenge Granada unconstitutional regulations. Gordon Hirabayashi, a student at the University of Washington, also deliberately Heart Mountain violated the curfew for Japanese Americans and disregarded the evacuation orders, claiming that the Jerome government was violating the 5th Amendment by restricting the freedom of innocent Japanese Americans Manzanar (Figure 18.1). Fred Korematsu changed his name, altered Figure 18.1. Gordon his facial features, and went into hiding. He was later Hirabayasi in 1942. Minidoka arrested for remaining in a restricted area (Davis (Seattle Times 1982:118). In court, Korematsu claimed the government photograph) could not imprison a group of people based solely on Poston ancestry.
Rohwer All three lost their cases and the Supreme Court upheld the convictions of Hirabayashi and Yasui in June of 1943 and that of Korematsu in December 1944. Yasui spent several Topaz months in jail and was then sent to the Minidoka Relocation Center. Korematsu was sent to the Topaz Relocation Center while awaiting trial. Hirabayashi refused bail since he then Tule Lake would have been sent to a relocation center; he therefore spent several months in the King County jail in Washington. After the Supreme Court decision Hirabayashi served the Isolation Centers remaining 3 months of his sentence at the Catalina Federal Honor Camp in Arizona.
Add'l Facilities Other protests by Japanese Americans were connected with military service. When the war began, many of the Japanese Americans who were in the military were dismissed, and U.S.
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Assembly Centers citizens of Japanese ancestry were classified as enemy aliens ineligible for military service. However in May 1942, the 100th Infantry Battalion was formed in Hawaii, where the DoJ and US Army majority of Japanese American residents were not interned. The prohibition against other Facilities Japanese Americans serving in the military was lifted in early 1943, and the draft was re- instated for Japanese Americans on January 20, 1944. The all-Nisei 442nd Regimental Prisons Combat Team joined the 100th Infantry Battalion in Europe in June 1944. Over 33,000 Nisei served in World War II, with over 6,000 of them in the Pacific Theater (NJAHS 1995:70, 77).
However, there were protests over the internment both within and outside the military. In References March 1944, 106 Nisei soldiers at Fort McClellan in Alabama refused to undergo combat training while their families were held behind barbed wire without trial. Twenty-eight were Appendix A court-martialed and sent to Leavenworth prison with sentences from 5 to 30 years (Nakagawa 1999; NJAHS 1995:76-77). Appendix B
Appendix C
Figure 18.2. Trial of 63 Japanese American draft resisters from the Heart Mountain Relocation Center. (from NJAHS 1995)
More than 300 internees refused to be drafted into the military until their constitutional rights as citizens were restored (Figures 18.2-18.4). The resisters did not object to the draft, in itself, but hoped that by defying the conscription orders they would clarify their citizenship status. If they were to share in the rights and duties of citizens, why did the government forcibly incarcerate them and their families? If their loyalty was in question, why were they being drafted?
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Figure 18.3. Draft resisters just released from McNeil Island wearing government-issued suits. (from Uyeda 1993)
Figure 18.4. Japanese Americans imprisoned at the Catalina Federal Honor Camp at their first reunion in 1946. (photograph courtesy of Kenji Taguma)
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At least two federal judges agreed with the resisters' position. Charges against 26 resisters from the Tule Lake Segregation Center were dismissed by Judge Louis Goodman, who said in his decision "It is shocking to the conscience that an American Citizen be confined on the grounds of disloyalty and then while so under duress and restraint, be compelled to serve in the Armed Forces or prosecuted for not yielding to such compulsion" (Associated Press 1944). Some 100 resisters from the Poston Relocation Center were fined 1 cent each, the judge deciding that the imprisonment of the relocation center itself was sufficient punishment (Weglyn 1976:303). However, other resisters were sentenced to up to 3 years in federal prisons. Young draft resisters from the Heart Mountain Relocation Center were sent to the McNeil Island Federal Penitentiary in Washington; older men were sent to the Leavenworth Federal Penitentiary in Kansas. Draft resisters from Granada and other relocation centers were sent to the Catalina Federal Honor Camp in Arizona. The draft resisters were pardoned in 1947 by President Harry S. Truman. However, the questions of whether citizens must "prove" loyalty when their rights have been revoked, and how citizens can best stand up for civil rights, have still not been resolved.
Catalina, Arizona | Leavenworth, Kansas | McNeil Island, Washington
Continued
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
MENU
Table of Contents References Cited
Abstract Abe, Frank
Acknowledgments n.d. Conscience and the Constitution: A Story of Japanese America. Video documentary in post production. Independent Television Service, San Francisco, California.
Introduction Adachi, Ken
Essay 1976 The Enemy that Never Was. McClelland and Stewart, Toronto.
Brief History American Red Cross
Gila River 1942 Report of the American Red Cross Survey of Assembly Centers in California, Oregon, and Washington. In Papers of the U.S. Commission on Granada Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians. Part 1, Numerical file archive, Reel 10. Heart Mountain Anonymous Jerome n.d. Mack Alford Correctional Center. MS on file, Mack Alford Correctional Center, Stringtown, Oklahoma. Manzanar Arrington, Leonard J. Minidoka 1962 The Price of Prejudice: The Japanese-American Relocation Center in Poston Utah During World War II. The Faculty Association, Utah state University, Logan. Rohwer Badger Challenge Topaz 1999 Badger Challenge, A Program Overview. http://www.badgerchallenge. Tule Lake com/program.htm.
Isolation Centers Bailey, Paul
Add'l Facilities 1971 City in the Sun: The Japanese Concentration Camp at Poston, Arizona. Westernlore Press, Los Angeles. http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ceb.htm (1 of 15)5/3/2005 1:37:24 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (References Cited)
Assembly Centers Baker, Lillian DoJ and US Army Facilities 1991 The Japanning of America: Redress and Reparations Demands by Japanese Americans. Webb Research Group, Medford, Oregon. Prisons 1994 Dishonoring America: The Falsification of World War II History. Webb Research Group, Medford, Oregon.
References Banks, Phyllis Eileen
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1997 Italian Boys at Fort Missoula, Montana, 1941-1943. Pictorial Histories, Missoula, Montana.
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Burton, Jeffery F.
1996 Three Farewells to Manzanar: The Archeology of Manzanar National Historic Site, California. Western Archeological and Conservation Center Publication in Anthropology 67. National Park Service, Tucson, Arizona.
Chuman, Frank
1976 The Bamboo People: The Law and Japanese Americans. Japanese American Research Project, Chicago, Illinois.
Cohen, Irene J.
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1982 Personal Justice Denied. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C.
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Conard, Joseph
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Conley, Curt
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Culley, John J.
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1989 Concentration Camps: North America, Japanese in the United States and Canada During World War II. Robert E. Krieger, Malabar, Florida.
1991 Introduction. In Japanese Americans From Relocation to Redress, Revised Edition, edited by Roger Daniels, Sandra C. Taylor, and Harry H.L. Kitano, pp. 132-133. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
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Daniels, Roger, Sandra C. Taylor, and Harry H.L. Kitano
1991 Japanese Americans From Relocation to Redress, Revised Edition. University of Washington Press, Seattle.
Davis, Daniel S.
1982 Behind Barbed Wire: The Imprisonment of Japanese Americans During World War II. E.P. Dutton, New York.
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Drinnon, Richard
1987 Keeper of Concentration Camps: Dillon S. Myer and American Racism. University of California Press, Berkeley.
Effland, Richard W., and Margerie Green
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1981 Pawns in a Triangle of Hate: The Peruvian Japanese and the United States. The University of Washington Press, Seattle.
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1994 Montana's Home Front During World War II. Pictorial Histories, Missoula, Montana.
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1985 Heart Mountain Relocation Center National Register of Historic Places — Nomination Form. Wyoming Recreation Commission, Cheyenne.
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1989 Views from Within: The Japanese American Evacuation and Resettlement Study. Asian American Studies Center, University of California, Los Angeles.
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1997 The Heart Mountain Story: Photographs by Hansel and Otto Hagel of the World War II Internment of Japanese Americans. Privately published, Mamoru Inouye, Los Gatos, California.
Iritani, Frank, and Joanne Iritani
1994 Ten Visits: Accounts of Visits to all the Japanese American Relocation Centers. Japanese American Curriculum Project, San Mateo, California.
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1945 The Governing of Men: General Principles and Recommendations Based on Experience at a Japanese Relocation Camp. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.
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1991 The Military History of Fort Missoula. Historical Museum at Fort Missoula.
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1969 A Physical History of the Japanese Relocation Camp Located at Rivers, Arizona. Master's Thesis, History Department, University of Arizona, Tucson.
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1944 Final Report. F:PT 6.115, JERS, Bancroft Library, University of California, Berkeley.
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History | Links to the Past | National Park Service | Search | Contact Top
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
MENU
Table of Contents Appendix A Relocation Center Drawings in Records Group 210, National Abstract Archives, Cartographic Division (Washington, D.C.)
Acknowledgments Complied by Irene J. Cohen
Gila River Relocation Center
Introduction Electrical Distribution and Telephone Lines — Butte Unit Electrical Distribution and Telephone Lines — Canal Unit Gila River Project Area Plan — Agricultural Development Essay Plan of Center Area — Canal Unit (1" = 200') Plan of Center Area — Butte Unit (1" = 200') Brief History Road System and Location Map (1" = 5,000') Sewer System Layout Gila River Title Page and Index W.R.A. Construction (Site Plans with Dates and Construction Costs) Granada Water and Gas Distribution — Butte Unit Water and Gas Distribution — Canal Unit Heart Mountain
Granada Relocation Center Jerome
Electrical Distribution System Layout Plan (1" = 200') Manzanar Granada Relocation Area Field Map (Crops) (3" = 1 Mile; Faded Blueline) Project Area (3" = 1 Mile) Minidoka Temporary Buildings Site Plan (1" = 200'; Contour Map) Utility System — Water Supply, Storage, and Distribution Layout (1942) Poston Utility System — Water Supply, Storage and Distribution (1942) Utility Systems — Sewers Rohwer
Topaz Heart Mountain Relocation Center
Tule Lake Plan of Center Area (1" = 400'; Includes Buildings) Area Map 1" = 5000' (Dark, Hard to Read) Map of Heart Mountain Relocation Project (1" = 2000') Isolation Centers Layout Plan (With Key to Roads and Buildings) Water Supply System General Plan Add'l Facilities Electrical Distribution System Sewer System — General Plan http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ceaa.htm (1 of 6)5/3/2005 1:37:26 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Appendix A)
Assembly Centers
DoJ and US Army Jerome Relocation Center — Folder 1 Facilities (General Including Evacuee Barracks)
Prisons Administration Headquarters for MP Group Administration Group Dormitory Administration Group Store Administration Building for Admin Group Administration Group Dormitory References Denson Cemetery Layout Plan (1" = 15') Drainage Layout Appendix A Evacuees Barracks Building — Foundation Plan, Floor Plans, Sections Evacuees Barracks Building — as Built (1/4" = 1') Appendix B Evacuees Mess Hall and Kitchen (Plan, Sections, Furnishings, Elevation) Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry (Elevation) Appendix C Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry (Plans, Details) Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry (Plumbing) Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry Evacuees Mess Hall and Kitchen Evacuees Mess Hall and Kitchen (Building Section, Long Elevation, Details) Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry Fire Station Framing — as Built Garages for Administration and MP Groups, Watch Towers, Well Pump Guard House for Military Police Group Plans, Elevation, Sections Kitchen and Mess Hall for Admin. Groups and MP Group Layout Plan (1" = 200'; W/building Schedule and Location Map) Map of Land Developed by WRA — Roads and Bridges, (1" = 1/2 Mile) Military Police Barracks Misc. Details: Typical Closet for Evacuee Barracks; Screened Ventilators, and Kitchen Store Room Officers Quarters and Dispensary for MP Group, Plans, Elevation, Lecture Room Piping Detail of Two Hot Water Tanks in Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry Post Exchange Post Office Post Office Vault and Interior Equipment Details Receiving Building Plans, Elevations Sections Recreation Building for Evacuees Blocks and for Admin. Group Refrigerated Warehouse Refrigerated Warehouse Refrigerated Warehouse Typical Details for All Buildings (Sections Mostly) Typical Details for All Buildings (Windows, Doors, Porches, Etc.) Typical Details for All Buildings Warehouse for Warehouse Group and Shop for Admin. Warehouse for Admin. Group
Jerome Relocation Center — Folder 2 (Hospital and Related)
Admin Building — Hospital Group Children's and Isolation Wards, Obstetrical Ward, Electrical Work Construction Details — Hospital Group http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ceaa.htm (2 of 6)5/3/2005 1:37:26 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Appendix A)
Covered Walks — Hospital Cross — Sectional Details of Piping for Sewage Treatment Plant Doctors and Nurses Quarters — Plumbing, Heating, and Electrical Doctors Quarters — Plans and Elevations Fire Stops and Covered Walk Ramp — Hospital Group Hospital Mess Plumbing and Heating Work Hospital Boiler House Equipment Foundations Hospital Mess Roof Truss Details Hospital Boiler House — Misc. Details Hospital Boiler House — Plans, Elevations Hospital Boiler House and Misc. Details Hospital Mess — Plans, Elevations, Etc. Hospital Mess Misc. Details Isolation and Children's Ward Plans, Elevations, Section, Hospital Group Isolation and Children's Ward Plumbing and Heating Laundry Building Hospital Group Mess Building Morgue and Disinfecting Building and Hosp. Warehouse 46 Nurses Quarters — Plans and Elevations Obstetrical Ward — Plumb and Heating Obstetrical Ward Plans and Elevations, Hospital Group Optional Roof Truss for Hosp. Mess Hall — Details, Elevation Outpatients Building — Plumb, Heating, Electrical Outpatients Building — Plans, Elevations, Section Sprinkler System for Standard Ward Building Sprinkler System for Isolation Ward, Children's Ward, Obstetrical Ward, Hospital Sprinkler System for Covered Walks — Hospital Group Standard Ward Building — Plumbing and Heating Plan Hospital Group Standard Ward Plans and Elevation Standard Ward Building — Plumbling and Heating Plan (Hospital Group) Standard Ward Plans and Elevations Standard Ward Building — Electrical Plan Standard Ward Building — Electrical Plan, Hospital Group Steam Distribution System. Surgery Building — Plumb, Heating, Electric Surgery Building — Hospital Group (Plans, Elevation) Well and Pump Line Installation Details
Jerome Relocation Center — Folder 3 (Water, Sewage, and Utilities)
Aerial Electrical Distribution System. Neutral Grid and Grounding System Aerial Electrical Distribution System. Pole Schedule Aerial Electrical Distribution System. 13.2 KV. Const. Det Aerial Electrical Distribution System — Sector No. 2 Aerial Electrical Distribution System. 13.2 KV. Constr. Det. Aerial Electrical Distribution System. Sector No. 4 Aerial Electrical Distribution System — Sector No. 3 Aerial Electrical Distribution System — Sector No. 1 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 1 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 2 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 3 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 4 http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ceaa.htm (3 of 6)5/3/2005 1:37:26 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Appendix A)
Fire Alarm and Tel System — Pole Lines Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 4 (1" = 100") Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 1 Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 3 Sanitary Sewers — General Layout Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout Sector No. 2 Sewage Treatment Plant Prelim. Sedimentation Tanks Sewage Treatment Plant Filter Beds Sewage Treatment Plant Final Sedimentation Tanks Sewage Treatment Plant Sludge Digester Sewage Treatment Plant Operation Diagram Sewage Treatment Plant — Sludge Drying Beds Sewage Treatment Plant — Sewage Pumping Station No. 1 Sewage Treatment Plant — General Layout Transformer Station — Location Layout Water Distribution System — Water Pumping Station Water Distribution System. — Water Reservoir Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 2 Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout, Sector No. 4 Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout, Sector No. 3 Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout, Sector No. 1 Water Distribution System — General Layout
Manzanar Relocation Center
Boundary Map (4" = 1 Mi.) Camp Layout (1" = 200', Incl. Building Legend) Construction Plot Plan (WRA Construction, Remodeling) Electrical System and Fire Alarm Telephone Irrigation Map Land Improvements (Roads, Airport, Etc; 1" = 100) Manzanar Relocation Area (1" = 2,000"; Small Sheet) Sanitary Sewer System Water Distribution System
Minidoka Relocation Center
Basic Construction by U.S. Engineers: Center Plan (1" =300'; Includes Building Key and Vicinity Map) Electrical Distribution — Detail Layout General Plan (1" = 200' Incl. Buildings, No Key) Lateral 21.3 Location and Farm Units Served by Lateral Minidoka Relocation Project (1" = 1/4 Mi) W.r.a. Construction and Remodeling (1" = 300', Includes Key)
Poston Relocation Center
Canal System (1" = 2000') Electrical Distribution Electrical Distribution System — Unit I Electrical Distribution System — Unit II
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Electrical Distribution System — Unit III Hog Farm Area Key Map — WRA Colorado River Indian Reservation Parker Warehouse Area Poston — Unit I (1" = 300') Poston — Unit II (1" = 300') and Typical Block (1" = 100') Poston — Unit III (1" = 300') and Typical Block (1" = 100') Roads and Land Improvements (1"= 2000') Sewer System — Unit I Sewer System — Unit II Sewer Layout — Unit III Telephone System Cables and Terminals — Unit I Telephone System Cables and Terminals — Unit II Telephone System Cables and Terminals Unit III and Typical Block (1" = 100') Water Distribution System — Unit I Water Distribution System — Unit II Water Distribution System — Unit III Water Distribution System Parker Warehouse Area
Rohwer Relocation Center
Aerial Electrical Distribution. System. — Sector No. 1 Aerial Electrical Distribution. System. — Sector No. 2 Aerial Electrical Distribution. System. — Sector No. 3 Aerial Electrical Distribution. System. — Sector No. 4 Aerial Electrical Distribution. System. — Neutral Grid and Grounding Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 1 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 2 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 3 Composite Plan — Utility Distribution — Sector No. 4 Layout Plan and Vicinity Map (1" = 200') Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 1 Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 2 Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 3 Sanitary Sewers — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 4 Sanitary Sewers — General Layout Sewage Treatment Plant — General Layout Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout Sector No. 1 Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout Sector No. 2 Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout Sector No. 3 Water Distribution System — Detailed Layout — Sector No. 4 Water Distribution System — General Layout
Topaz Relocation Center
Center Plot Plan — Buildings Planned Electrical Distribution in Topaz Hospital Water, Sewer and Sprinkler System (1" = 30') Land, Fencing, Irrigation and Drainage Other Investments by WRA (Structures, i.e. Playground Equipment, Flagpole) Plot Plans for Hog Farm, Poultry Farm, Cattle Ranch Project Map — Roads, Fences, Ditches, Bridges and Culverts (1'= 1,500') Project Map — (Small Sheet, No Scale) http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ceaa.htm (5 of 6)5/3/2005 1:37:26 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Appendix A)
Project Plot Plan — Water Lines Road Layout, Elevations, Typical Sections Sewer System Sketch of Irrigation System Showing Culverts in Center (Small Sheet) Staff Housing — Water, Oil and Sewer Lines (1" = 30') Streets, Parking Areas and Sidewalks, Hospital Block (1" = 10') Streets, Parking Areas and Sidewalks in Administration and Appointed Personnel Housing Areas (1"=30') Construction Buildings (Includes Key) Utility Area — Water, Sewer, and Road Layout WRA Construction Map Warehouse 109 (Large Scale) Warehouse and MP Areas, and Typical Telephone System Water Map (Including Detail of Water Tower)
Tule Lake Relocation Center
Camp Area Water Lines Electrical Distribution — Hog Farms and Deep Well Area Electrical Distribution System Master Plot Plan (1" = 300'; Includes Key to Buildings) Master Area Plot Plan (1" = 600'; Buildings, No Key) Sewer Lines and Manholes Utilities Layout
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
MENU
Table of Contents Appendix B Tule Lake Relocation Center Drawings at the Bureau of Abstract Reclamation, Klamath Falls (Oregon) Office
Acknowledgments 40' x 100' Mess Hall — Military Police Area Addition to Administration Building Additional Construction — Preliminary (1943) Additional Housing, Mess Hall, Combined Men's and Women's Introduction Latrine Building — Architectural, Plumbing Additional Housing, Mess Hall, Combined Men's and Women's Essay Latrine Building — Details Additional Housing, Plot Plan — Fence and Perimeter Road Brief History Additional Housing, Sewage Collection System — Plan Additional Housing, Water Distribution System — Plan Gila River Additional Housing — Building Location Plan and Streets Additional Housing — Notes and Lists of Drawings Granada Additional Housing — Recreation Building, Architectural and Electrical Plan, Electrical Plans Additional Housing, Family Barracks, Laundry and Ironing Building — Details Heart Mountain Additional Utilities, Bar Screen Chamber Additional Utilities, Changes and Additions to Protective Lighting Jerome Additional Utilities, Effluent and Sludge Beds Additional Utilities, Imhoff Tank — General Manzanar Additional Utilities, Imhoff Tank — Structural Details Additional Utilities, Pump Station Minidoka Additional Utilities, Pump Station — Installation Additional Utilities — General Plan Poston Administration Building and Turnstile Canopy — Plans, Elevations, and Details Auxiliary Power House and Electrical Details Rohwer Boiler House Boiler House — Plan and Details Building Location Plan, Building Notes, and List of Drawings Topaz Building Layout Camp Area, Sewer Line and Manholes Tule Lake Camp Area, Water Line Coal Unloading Platform Isolation Centers Cold Storage Warehouse, Revised Meat Storage Room — Plumbing, Electrical, and Refrigeration Add'l Facilities Coordinate Plot Plan Details — Buildings with Siding
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Assembly Centers Details — Evacuee Barracks Details — Hospital Buildings DoJ and US Army Details of Imhoff Tank Repairs Facilities Enlisted Men's Mess Hall Type M.P.T., Revision of Refrigerators Electrical Distribution System (1942) Prisons Electrical Distribution System (1943) Electrical Distribution — Military Police, Motor Pool, and Entrance Area Electrical Details Entrance Area — Gates and Turnstiles Evacuee Relocation Center (1942) References Evacuee Mess Halls Family Barracks, Laundry, and Ironing Building Details Appendix A Fire Stations Garages for Administration and M.P. Groups, Watch Towers, Well Pump Houses Appendix B Gasoline Storage and Dispensing System General Plot Plan (1" = 300') Appendix C General Plot Plan and Typical Block Plan General Plot Plan and Typical Block Plan — Water Distribution System General Plan Storage Distribution Guard House and Typical Barracks — Plans and Details Guard Tower — Plan and Details (1943) Headquarters Battalion and School High Pressure Feeder to New 2000,000 Gal. Water Storage Tank Hospital Group, Sprinkler System Piping — Doctors, Nurses, Children's, Isolation, and Obstetrics Hospital Group, Sprinkler System Piping — Plot Plan and Out-Patient Building Hospital Group, Sprinkler System Piping — Ward, Administration, and Operating Buildings Hospital Mess Hall Hospital Area — Heating Layout and Details Imhoff Tanks (two copies) Imhoff Tanks — Structural Details Industrial Building Conversion to Vegetable Storage Cellar— Truss and Column Detail Industrial Building Conversion to Vegetable Storage Cellar Key Drawings of Buildings (includes notes; three sheets) Latrines and Dispensary Laundry and Ironing Buildings Master Plot Plan (1" = 600'; includes buildings and key; four copies) Master Plot Plan Showing Location of Proposed Grandview School (1944) Mess Hall and Latrine Building Military, Motor Pool, and Entrance Areas — Paving Plan and Sections Miscellaneous Details (two sheets) Motor Repair Shop — Military Police Area Newell Townsite (May 1950) Out-Patient Building — Details Out-Patient Building — Electrical Work Out-Patient Building Out-Patient Building — Floor Plans, Elevations, and Framing Sections Out-Patient Building — Foundation, Plot Plan, Details Out-Patient Building — Mechanical Perimeter Road and Farm Area No. 1 — Plan and Sections Personnel Registration Building and Parcel Inspection Building — Plans and Details Plot Plan Farm Areas No. 1 and No. 2 Plot Plan — Buildings and Grounds (Military Area) Plot Plan — Military Area http://www.cr.nps.gov/history/online_books/anthropology74/ceab.htm (2 of 4)5/3/2005 1:37:28 PM National Park Service: Confinement and Ethnicity (Appendix B)
Plot Plans — Administration, Hospital, and Military Police Groups Post Office Vault, Sentry House, and Garage Door Recreation and Mess Hall — Administration Area Recreation and 20 x 100 Mess Hall — Military Police Area Residential Area External Security — Plan and Details Residential Area Protective Lighting and Details Residential Area (Military and Staff Areas) Protective Lighting — Plan Revised 160' Motor Repair Shop in Easterly Motor Pool Buildings No. 44 and 45 Revised Building Location Plan (Staff Area) Sanitary Sewer System Sewage Disposal System Sewage Pumping Station — Pipe Bridges Sewage Pumping Station — Pumping Plant Details (five sheets) Sewage Pumping Station — Structural Plans (revised) Sewage Pumping Station — Structural Plans Sewage Treatment and Disposal Plan Sewage Treatment Plant, Parshall Flume Sewerage Distribution — Typical Block Sewerage Distribution — Manhole Details Space and Water Heater Data Spur Warehouse and SD-17 Shed Stables, Corral, and Forage Shed — Modifications to Standard DrawingsStandard Family Barracks (1942) Steam Distribution — Hospital Temporary Sewage Disposal Timber Bridge — Plan and Details Tracts No. 1 and No. 2 External Security Plan and Detail Truss Details Utilities Layout — Area No. 9 Utilities Layout — Area No. 15 Utilities Layout — Area No. 16 Utilities Layout — Area No. 17 Utilities Layout — Area No. 20 Utilities Layout — Area No. 21 Utilities Layout — Area No. 22 Utilities Layout — Area No. 27 Utilities Layout — Area No. 28 Utilities Layout — Area No. 32 Utilities Layout — Area No. 33 Utility Yard and Shops — Key Drawings of Buildings (Military Police Area) Vicinity Map (1" = 4000') Warehouse Type WH-A-T (Military Police Area) Water Distribution — Standard Details Water Storage Tanks Water Distribution System Well Pump House and Sentry Towers (1942) Wooden Sewage Tanks
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
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Table of Contents Appendix C Selected Relocation Center Drawings Abstract This appendix contains a sample of Corps of Engineers construction plans for various Acknowledgments buildings in the relocation centers. (Web edition note: image sizes are quite large — please be patient while the figure downloads). Included are:
Figure C.1. Family Barracks, Laundry, and Ironing Building Details, Tule Lake Relocation Introduction Center.
Essay Figure C.2. Evacuees Barracks Bldg — Foundation Plan and Floor Plans and Sections, Jerome Relocation Center. Brief History Figure C.3. Evacuee Mess Halls, Tule Lake Relocation Center. Gila River Figure C.4. Additional Housing, Mess Hall, Combined Men's and Women's Latrine Granada Building — Architectural, Plumbing, Tule Lake Relocation Center.
Heart Mountain Figure C.5. Latrines and Dispensary, Tule Lake Relocation Center.
Jerome Figure C.6. Additional Housing — Recreation Building, Architectural and Electrical Plan, Electrical Plans, Tule Lake Relocation Center. Manzanar Figure C.7. Evacuees Lavatory and Laundry, Jerome Relocation Center. Minidoka Figure C.8. Laundry and Ironing Buildings, Tule Lake Relocation Center. Poston Figure C.9. Additional Housing, Family Barracks, Laundry and Ironing Building — Rohwer Details, Tule Lake Relocation Center.
Topaz Figure C.10. Garages for Administration and M.P. Groups, Watch Towers, Well Pump Houses, Tule Lake Relocation Center. Tule Lake Figure C.11. Well Pump House and Sentry Towers (1942), Tule Lake Relocation Center. Isolation Centers Figure C.12. Guard Tower — Plan and Details (1943), Tule Lake Relocation Center. Add'l Facilities
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Assembly Centers Figure C.13. Sewage Treatment Plant — General Layout, Tule Lake Relocation Center.
DoJ and US Army Figure C.14. Sewage Disposal System, Tule Lake Relocation Center. Facilities
Prisons
References
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C
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Confinement and Ethnicity:
An Overview of World War II Japanese American Relocation Sites Cover Page by J. Burton, M. Farrell, F. Lord, and R. Lord
Evacuee barracks at the Manzanar Relocation Center. (National Archives)
"Gradually it was disclosed to me that the line separating good and evil passes not through states, nor between classes, nor between political parties — but right through every human heart — and all human hearts."
Alexander Solzhenitsyn, The Gulag Archipelago, 1974 (U.C. Berkeley)
Continued
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