Can Digital Media Literacy Programmes Make a Difference?
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
AN EXPLORATORY STUDY ON NEW TECHNOLOGY AND ASSOCIATED PSYCHOSOCIAL RISKS IN ADOLESCENTS: CAN DIGITAL MEDIA LITERACY PROGRAMMES MAKE A DIFFERENCE? by PETRO VAN DER MERWE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject PSYCHOLOGY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA PROMOTER: PROF. J.A. NEL NOVEMBER 2012 DECLARATION I declare that “An exploratory study on new technology and associated psychosocial risks in adolescents: Can digital media literacy programmes make a difference?” is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. –––––––––––––––––––––––––– –––––––––––––––––––––––––– Petro van der Merwe Date i DEDICATION I dedicate this thesis to my late parents, Piet and Bettie du Toit. I hope this achievement will complete the dream they had for me all those years ago when they chose to give me the best education they could. ii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS With gratitude to Him who has inspired and guided me, I thank the following with sincerity: Prof. Juan Nel, my promoter, for his insightful and very helpful comments. His calming demeanour, the inspiration he radiates, and the time he contributed in providing assistance and guidance provided me with the confidence to complete this thesis. The Gauteng Department of Education, for the approval to conduct this research. The participating schools, teachers, parents and learners, who contributed their time and efforts to support this research project. My husband, Wynand, who, having walked this road with me, has supported, encouraged and helped me to keep focused on the ultimate goal. Thank you, also, for your invaluable help on the statistical side. My children, Wicus, Jacolien and Heidi. I extend my love and appreciation. My grandchildren, Ethan and Aiden, for keeping my feet on the ground. My sister Tienie Booyens, who did a marvellous job of drawing the illustrations. I am especially thankful for the spirit in which it was done. My other sisters, Heleen, Fiena and Babs, for all their encouragement. My housekeeper, Catherine, for her attentive and caring support. My colleagues, who have shown such interest in the study. I am particularly grateful to Dr. Erna Oliver, whose support was invaluable to me. Esté Botha and Ilze Holtzhauzen-de Beer for their deft editing expertise. iii SUMMARY AN EXPLORATORY STUDY ON NEW TECHNOLOGY AND ASSOCIATED PSYCHOSOCIAL RISKS IN ADOLESCENTS: CAN DIGITAL MEDIA LITERACY PROGRAMMES MAKE A DIFFERENCE? This study centres on the psychological effects new digital media, like the internet and cellphones, have on adolescents. Although the internet has enormous benefits, it also poses a host of risks that can make adolescents vulnerable to victimisation and/or developing associated psychosocial problems. Characterisations of adolescents’ social relationships in the internet medium, as well as the investigation of the continuity between digital media literacy and online social behaviours, carry high relevance for developmental psychology. It is during the adolescent period that peer interactions arguably hold the greatest importance for individuals’ social and behavioural functioning. Using a logic model for evaluation, the researcher conducted an exploratory research study on digital media use among adolescent learners aged 13 to 15 years to determine whether schools could guide them to think critically for themselves about the entire realm of these new media. The data were gathered from school principals, teachers, parents and learners from three secondary schools in Gauteng Province, which were purposely selected to represent different socio-economic circumstances. A total of 230 people (n=230) participated in the research. Mixed research methods were employed in this study. The quantitative research methods supported the qualitative research methods. The literature review suggested that current media literacy education, which forms part of the Life Orientation curriculum, does not enable learners to think critically or make informed choices about their behaviour in the digital world – because it incorporates neither ethics nor responsibility. One of the main aims of the study therefore was to investigate the importance of expanding existing media literacy education, namely by incorporating two additional learning categories in the curriculum: Digital Safety and Security, and Digital Citizenship. These additional learning categories were introduced in the form of lessons by the teachers participating in the study. A think aloud strategy was used whereby learners verbalise what they were doing and learning while engaging in the digital media literacy lesson activities. The learners’ verbalisations were used to ascertain what learning was occurring in the classroom. iv The experimental group demonstrated an increase in critical thinking from pre- to post- evaluation. This research therefore proposes that the signature element of intervention strategies for inappropriate online behaviour be to create a “culture of critical thinking”. This implies greatly reducing the risks cyberspace pose, and at the same time enhancing adolescents’ abilities to use it in ways that create and deepen healthy relationships – in the digital as well as the real world. Key terms: Digital media literacy programme; education model; adolescent learners; Life Orientation curriculum for secondary schools; internet; cyberspace; virtual world; cyberpsychology; cyberbullying; digital citizenship; psychosocial risks; critical thinking; ethical online behaviour. v TAble Of contents Page CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION, STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM, AIM AND SCOPE OF THE STUDY 2 1.1 INTRODUCTION 2 1.2 ANALYSIS OF THE PROBLEM 3 1.2.1 Awareness of the problem 3 1.2.2 Preliminary literature investigation 5 1.2.2.1 Schools in the digital age 6 1.2.2.2 The notion of the digital divide 8 1.2.2.3 Old media versus new media 11 1.3 SCOPE, DELIMITATION AND LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 12 1.4 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM 15 1.5 AIMS 16 1.5.1 The main aim 16 1.5.1.1 Research questions 16 1.5.2 Specific aims 18 1.5.3 Variables of interest 19 1.6 CLARIFICATION OF CONCEPTS 20 1.7 RESEARCH DESIGN 22 1.7.1 Research strategy 22 1.7.2 Method of research 24 1.7.3 Methodological orientation 24 1.7.4 How the results will be shared 26 1.7.5 Confidentiality 27 1.8 CHAPTER DIVISION 27 1.9 CONCLUSION 28 vi Page CHAPTER 2: CYBERBULLYING: DESCRIPTION, ANALYSIS AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTION 31 2.1 INTRODUCTION 31 2.2 UNDERSTANDING CYBERBULLYING 33 2.2.1 The differences between traditional bullying and cyberbullying 34 2.2.2 Emotional and psychological consequences 36 2.2.3 Should cyberbullying be taken seriously? 39 2.2.4 Who is most likely to be a cyberbully? 42 2.2.5 Who are the victims? 44 2.2.6 The basic signs to look for 45 2.2.7 Electronic dating violence 46 2.3 USE AND ABUSE OF NEW TECHNOLOGY 47 2.3.1 Modes of sexting technology 48 2.3.2 Modes of cyberbullying technology 48 2.3.2.1 Cellphones 49 2.3.2.2 Instant messaging 49 2.2.3.3 Chat rooms and message boards 49 2.3.2.4 Email 50 2.3.2.5 Webcams 51 2.3.2.6 Social networking sites 51 2.3.2.7 Video hosting sites 54 2.3.2.8 Virtual learning environments 54 2.3.2.9 Gaming sites, consoles and virtual worlds 55 2.4 SCHOOLS’ RESPONSIBILITY WITH REGARD TO CYBERBULLYING 55 2.5 THE PREVENTION OF AND RESPONSE TO CYBERBULLYING 57 2.5.1 The PEAS programme 57 2.6 CONCLUSION 60 CHAPTER 3: PSYCHOLOGICAL FEATURES OF CYBERSPACE: UNDERSTANDING HOW ADOLESCENTS REACT TO AND BEHAVE IN CYBERSPACE 62 4.1 INTRODUCTION 62 4.2 ONLINE SOCIAL INTERACTION: PROBLEMATIC INTERNET USE 64 vii Page 3.2.1 Online relationships 65 3.2.2 Extent of problems caused by excessive internet use 66 3.2.2.1 Addiction to computers and the internet 66 3.2.2.2 Loneliness, depression and anxiety can contribute to internet abuse 67 3.2.2.3 Types of internet addiction 67 3.2.2.4 Addicts versus non-addicts 68 3.2.2.5 Engaging in compulsive online activities can adversely affect real-life relationships 69 3.2.2.6 Risk factors for adolescent internet abuse 71 3.2.3 The positive side of internet “overuse” 74 3.2.4 Human-computer interaction 75 3.3 CONNECTING ONLINE BEHAVIOUR TO ADOLESCENT DEVELOPMENT 77 3.3.1 Avatars and graphical space 77 3.3.1.1 Avatars: the realism of digital human representations 78 3.3.2 Parasocial interaction in cyberspace 80 3.3.3 Socialising in cyberspace 83 3.3.4 Identity management in cyberspace 85 3.3.5 Identity and role confusion 87 3.3.6 Online disinhibition effect 91 3.3.7 Personality types in cyberspace 94 3.3.8 Presence in cyberspace 97 3.3.9 Transference in cyberspace 98 3.3.9.1 Player personality in online games 99 3.3.9.2 Regressive behaviour in cyberspace 100 3.3.10 What is the reality in virtual reality? 102 3.3.10.1 The advantages of virtual reality lie in training people 104 3.3.10.2 Avatars as an assistive, educational and therapeutic technology 105 3.4 UNDERSTANDING HOW ADOLESCENTS REACT TO, AND BEHAVE IN CYBERSPACE 106 3.4.1 Cyberspace makes adolescents more aggressive 108 3.5 CONCLUSION 109 viii Page CHAPTER 4: DIGITAL MEDIA LITERACY: EDUCATING ADOLESCENTS TO CREATE THEIR OWN FUTURE 111 4.1 INTRODUCTION 111 4.2 THE HERITAGE OF DIGITAL AND MEDIA LITERACY 111 4.2.1 Traditional definition of media literacy 112 4.2.2 Principles for new media literacy 112 4.2.3 In-service teachers and digital media literacy in school settings 115 4.2.4 Learning and teaching: what works 115 4.2.4.1 Role of the teacher 117 4.3 ISSUES TO CONSIDER WHEN IMPLEMENTING DIGITAL MEDIA LITERACY PROGRAMMES 117 4.3.1 Lifelong digital media literacy: modelling practices 120 4.4 AN SOUTH AFRICAN PERSPECTIVE: JUSTIFYING DIGITAL MEDIA LITERACY EDUCATION IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS 123 4.4.1 Purpose and scope of the Life Orientation learning area 124 4.5 CONCLUSION 128 4.6.