Higher Education in Sweden 2017 STATUS REPORT Introduction

REPORT 2017:9 HIRGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN:

The Swedish Higher Education Authority (UKÄ) is a government agency that deals with questions concerning higher education. UKÄ is responsible for the official statistics on higher education and also works with the quality assurance of higher education courses 2017 STATUS REPORT and programmes, monitoring and evaluating efficiency, legal supervision and leadership development in higher education.

You can read more on the web-site www.uka.se.

REPORT 2017:9 Higher education in Sweden 2017 STATUS REPORT Introduction

Higher education is Sweden’s largest public-sector served provider and the concern of many stakeholders. It is important for discussions about higher education and the decisions that affect the way it functions to be based on factual knowledge. Higher Education in Sweden – 2017 status report is a short English version of the annual statistical report on higher education institutions (HEIs) in Sweden published by the Swedish Higher Education Authority (Universitetskanslersämbetet, UKÄ). The ambition is to provide accurate information about the status of Sweden’s higher education. Here you will find answers to questions such as: • How well is Sweden doing from an international perspective? • How much does the Swedish state invest in higher education and the research undertaken at the country’s HEIs? • How many students are acquiring qualifications from higher education in Sweden?

This report is based on the statistical data continually reported by the HEIs to Statistics Sweden and the data reported directly to UKÄ in connection with the submission of their annual reports to the Government. Initially, the report summarises some indicators for Swedish higher education from an international perspective and, under the heading Facts about higher education in Sweden, provides a basic description of the structure of Swedish higher education and the regulatory framework. The report then outlines developments prior to and including the fiscal year of 2016 for public-sector and independent HEIs. The last chapter presents key data about students, staff and finance for each HEI.

Annika Pontén Acting Head of Authority Higher education in Sweden 2017 Status Report

Published by Swedish Higher Education Authority 2017 Report 2017:9

Editor: Andrea Amft

Sweden in an international perspective: Marie Kahlroth, Niklas Karlsson Facts about higher education in Sweden: Aija Sadurskis Trends and developments: Sofia Berlin Kolm, Helen Dryler, Tomas Egeltoft, Julia Elenäs, Johan Gribbe, Annika Haglund, Marie Kahlroth, Niklas Karlsson, Staffan Nilsson, Ingrid Pettersson, Aija Sadurskis, Jacob Severin, Fredrik Svensson, Anders Viberg Key figures for higher education institutions: Jan-Åke Engström, Eva-Marie Larsson

Translator: David Ordoubadian, Accent Språkservice

Graphic design and graphics: AB Typoform Cover: Yann Robardey/AB Typoform Print: TMG Tabergs, Växjö, June 2017

Swedish Higher Education Authority • Löjtnantsgatan 21 • Box 7703, SE-103 95 Stockholm phone +46 8 563 085 00 • fax +46 8 563 085 50 • e-mail [email protected] • www.uka.se Contents

Sweden in an international perspective...... 4

Facts about higher education in Sweden ...... 12 Higher education in Sweden...... 13 Admission to higher education...... 15 Cost of studying...... 16

Trends and developments...... 18 First and second-cycle courses and programmes...... 19 Third-cycle courses and programmes...... 33 International mobility...... 39 Education and employment...... 43 Teachers and researchers...... 49 Finance and research funding...... 55

Key figures for higher education institutions...... 60

Higher education institutions in Sweden 2016...... 68 Sweden in an international perspective Since the 1970s, international organisations Educational attainment have used the International Standard Classi- in OECD countries fication of Education (ISCED) to enable international comparison of education. Countries Within the OECD, overall the education level categorise their educational programmes is higher than for the European Union (EU) according to the ISCED framework, which is average in both the younger and the entire based mainly on the length and content of the adult population. This is because several of the educational programmes and where in the richer OECD countries outside the EU have country’s education system they are placed. long had well-developed tertiary education Tertiary education (post-secondary education systems. that is at least two years long) is classified at Among the Nordic countries, the propor- one of the ISCED 5–8 levels; see the fact box. tion of tertiary education was relatively high Higher education programmes (ISCED 6–8) in Finland, Denmark and Norway (33–35 per account for about three-quarters of the total cent) in 2005, while Sweden had a slightly amount of tertiary education in the Organisation lower number (30 per cent). for Economic Co-operation and Development Since then, the level of education has risen (OECD) countries on average. in many countries and the proportion of In Sweden, most tertiary education is tertiary educated in the adult population has offered in the form of higher education. This increased from 27 to 35 per cent for the OECD is because, on the whole, all tertiary education average (Table A1.3, Education at a Glance was incorporated into higher education in 2016). South Korea, United Kingdom and 1977, for example programmes in nursing and Ireland have seen the most rapid development, education. Higher vocational education pro- with the proportion of tertiary education grammes were later introduced (mainly ISCED increased by 14 percentage points between 5), but these still account for a relatively small 2005 and 2015. In Sweden, the proportion proportion of tertiary education in Sweden. with at least two years of tertiary education

Figure 1. Proportion of women and men in the adult population (25–64) with at least two years of tertiary education (ISCED 5–8) in 2005 and 2015. The data for France refer to 2005 and 2014, and the 2005 data for New Zealand are missing. The data for Japan are overestimated; some lower education is included (at most 5 per cent). The countries have been sorted based on the highest educational attainment level in 2015. Source: OECD.Stat.

Per cent 70 Women 2015 Men 2015 Women 2005 Men 2005 60

0 Italy USA Israel Spain Latvia Japan Turkey Ireland Poland France Austria Mexico Finland Iceland Greece Estonia Norway Canada Belgium Slovakia Portugal Sweden Hungary Slovenia Australia Denmark Germany Switzerland South Korea Netherlands Luxembourg New Zealand OECD average Czech Republic United Kingdom

SWEDEN IN AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 2016 STATUS REPORT 5 ISCED – INTERNATIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF EDUCATION AND EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT The structure of the educational systems 2011 vocational programmes could be in the different OECD countries differs and, considered to correspond to those at ISCED to enable international comparison since 6 level or higher, some reclassification has the 1970s, these countries have used the taken place. For example, Norway previously International Standard Classification of had no education at 5B, but with the Education (ISCED) to categorise their transition to ISCED 2011, its two-year educational programmes. The United ‘fagskoleutdanning’ (equivalent to Sweden’s Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural higher vocational education programme) Organization (UNESCO) is responsible for was reclassified from 4C to 5. ISCED, and, after a comprehensive revision First-cycle programmes in Sweden, such of the classifications, a new ISCED classi- as Bachelor’s programmes, are classified fication is used today (ISCED 2011) with in level 6, and second-cycle programmes, the levels 0–8. One important change in such as 60- and 120-credit Master’s ISCED 2011 is that tertiary education is now degrees, in level 7, while PhDs and licentiate divided according to the Bologna system. degrees are placed in ISCED 8. Some ISCED 2011 places tertiary education shorter higher education programmes and (higher education and other post-second- those offered within the framework of higher ary education of at least two years duration) vocational education that are longer than in levels 5–8. Level 5 corresponds to two years are classified as level 5. shorter periods of study (of at least two For educational attainment in Sweden, years) that are considerably more com- level 5 includes studies in freestanding plex than programmes at upper-secondary courses within higher education equal to level. Level 6 comprises longer (3–4 years) 2–3 years of study and higher vocational periods of study that often focus more education and shorter higher education on theory than those at level 5, such as courses and programmes. Level 6 includes Bachelor’s degree programmes. Level 7 at least three years of study in higher educa- courses and programmes (Master’s degree tion corresponding to a Bachelor’s degree programmes) are considerably more com- (without requiring the award of a qualifica- plex than those at level 6 and often more tion). Level 7 includes at least four years of specialised. The total period of study before study, corresponding to and leading to the the award of a level 7 qualification can vary award of a Master’s degree (although the between 5 and 8 years. Level 8 is devoted to award of a degree is not required for studies the doctoral level and own research, includ- outside Sweden). ing dissertations. The cumulative length of When comparing different countries, ISCED 8 is to be at least 7 years (Doctoral care should be taken in how the data is inter- degree). preted. OECD averages are affected, for The transition to ISCED 2011 has led instance, by an increase in the number of to a reclassification of courses and pro- OECD countries and also by the fact that grammes in a number of countries. This not all of these countries provide complete applies mainly to courses and programmes statistics. Education at a Glance also uses leading to the award of vocational and definitions that, to some extent, are differ- practice-based qualifications that had pre- ent from those normally used in Sweden. viously been classified as ISCED 5B (and in For this reason, there may be differences some cases 4C), which correspond to the compared to the figures noted in national current ISCED 5. Since some of the ISCED contexts.

6 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2017 STATUS REPORT has increased by 10 percentage points over the 12 per cent had a Master’s level education and same period, from 30 to 40 per cent. just over 1 per cent had a doctoral education. In many countries, however, men have Additionally, 10 per cent had a short-cycle lagged behind women in terms of educational tertiary education, which, in addition to attainment. In 2005, OECD countries on aver- education within the framework of vocational age had almost no difference between men higher education, shorter higher education and women in the proportion of the adult courses and programmes, and older tertiary population with at least two years of tertiary education, also includes 2–3 years of study education. Twenty-seven per cent of women in freestanding courses in higher education, and 26 per cent of men had attained this level without requiring a degree. of education. The attainment level in 2015 was 38 per cent for women and 32 per cent for men. Gender differences in educational attainment Investments in are even larger among the younger population. tertiary education In Sweden, women had already surpassed A prerequisite for raising education levels and men in educational attainment in 2005, and promoting quality education is investing in since then the gender gap has widened. In education. The OECD annually publishes a 2005, 34 per cent of women and 25 per cent of number of indicators on how much countries men had at least two years of tertiary educa- invest in education at different levels. Invest- tion. The attainment level in 2015 was 47 per ments are measured as expenditures, and here cent for women and 33 per cent for men, an we focus on the expenditures of education increase in the attainment gap from nine to providers for tertiary education. This provides 14 per cent. a picture of the countries’ investments in ter- The length of tertiary educations tiary education, but also includes educational providers’ expenditures for ancillary services The new ISCED 2011 classification has made and the research conducted within HEIs. it possible to more closely study the popu- There are large variations in expenditures, lation’s educational level using a structure depending on the way education systems agreed upon by a large number of countries are organised. In some countries, such as the known as the Bologna Process. United States, educational providers include The equivalent of a Bachelor’s degree is extensive expenditures for student housing the most common tertiary education among and other ancillary services. In other countries, OECD adult populations on average. By 2015, such as Sweden, Denmark and Switzerland, eight per cent of 25–64-year-olds had a tertiary research makes up a larger percentage of education equivalent to 2–3 years (ISCED 5), expenditures. In these three countries, 16 per cent had a Bachelor’s education (ISCED research expenditures represent more than 6), 12 per cent corresponding to Master’s half of the total expenditures by HEIs. (ISCED 7) and one per cent had a doctorate or Two often-used measurements of invest- equivalent (ISCED 8). In 2015, 35 per cent of ments in education are the total expenditures the adult population had at least two years of by education providers per student and as a tertiary education. percentage of gross domestic product (GDP). In 2014, 40 per cent of the adult Swedish However, these comparisons are complicated population (25–64) had at least two years of because they usually include total expenditures, tertiary education. Like the OECD average, the including student services and research education equivalent to Bachelor’s level was expenditures. The fact that research expendi- most common in Sweden (16 per cent), while

SWEDEN IN AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 2017 STATUS REPORT 7 Figure 2. Percentage of 25–64-year-olds in OECD countries with tertiary education, by level of tertiary education (2016). For Canada, Japan, South Korea and Chile, some education is included in other levels. Source: Table A 1.4 in EAG 2016.

Canada ISCED 5 - Short-cycle tertiary education Japan ISCED 6 - Bachelor’s or equivalent Israel ISCED 7 - Master’s or equivalent South Korea ISCED 8 - Doctoral or equivalent USA United Kingdom Australia Ireland Finland Norway Switzerland Luxembourg Sweden Iceland Estonia Denmark Belgium OECD average Netherlands Spain New Zealand France Latvia Austria Slovenia Greece Poland Germany Hungary Portugal Czech Republic Slovakia Chile Turkey Italy Mexico 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Per cent tures are included is also the reason that the United States and the United Kingdom still expenditure per student at the tertiary level have the highest expenditures per student, but in international comparison is relatively high both Sweden and Switzerland are significantly in Sweden. lower down the list. There are significant differences between Expenditure as share of GDP the countries. Expenditures range from USD 7,600 (purchasing power adjusted) in Mexico In 2015 OECD countries invested an average and Chile to over USD 25,000 in Luxembourg, of between 1.0 and 2.6 per cent of GDP on the United States, the United Kingdom and tertiary education and research in HEIs. The Switzerland. In Sweden, which is ranked fifth average was 1.6 per cent, of which 1.1 percent- in the list, the total expenditure per student age points were public funds. Measured in amounted to USD 23,200 (purchasing power this way, the United States, Canada, the Czech adjusted) in 2013, of which less than half was Republic and South Korea invested most in for education. tertiary education and research within their For the OECD average, research accounts university systems. In these countries, financing for 31 per cent of total expenditures. When is mainly through private funds. Looking at looking at expenditures for education alone, public funding only, the Nordic countries, the picture looks different. Luxembourg, the Estonia and Austria are at the top. Even these

8 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2017 STATUS REPORT Figure 3. Expenditure per student by area, USD adjusted for purchasing power. Expenditure by education providers for tertiary education (ISCED 5–8) and research in higher education in OECD countries in 2013. Data from Greece are lacking and data for Ireland, Canada, Luxembourg, Poland, Switzerland and Slovakia only include public HEIs. Data for Japan and Iceland are totals and not available based on area. Source: Table B1.2 in EAG 2016.

Luxembourg Education USA Student services United Kingdom Research Switzerland Total not speciﬁed Sverige Canada Norway Netherlands Australia Japan Finland Germany Austria Denmark France Belgium OECD average Israel New Zealand Ireland Spain Slovenia Estonia Iceland Italy Portugal Turkey Czech Republic Slovakia Hungary South Korea Poland Latvia Chile Mexico 0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000 30,000 35,000 40,000 45,000 USD

Figure 4. Expenditure on tertiary education as a share of GDP (2013). Percentage of GDP invested in tertiary education and research at universities for the countries that invest most and the OECD average. Source: Table B2.3 in EAG 2016.

USA Public funding Canada Private funding Czech Republic South Korea Estonia United Kingdom Finland New Zealand Austria Denmark Netherlands Sweden Turkey Australia Israel OECD average Norway 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 Per cent

SWEDEN IN AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 2017 STATUS REPORT 9 countries have some private funding, but to Finland, but the biggest increase has been in a much lesser extent. several eastern European countries. In 2013, Sweden invested 1.7 per cent of Gender differences in education level, GDP, of which 0.2 percentage points were however, are significant. While 39 per cent of private funding, on tertiary education and all 30–34-year-olds in the EU in 2016 had at research in HEIs. For Sweden, private funding least two years of tertiary education, only consists mainly of research funds. 34 per cent of men had reached this level. The corresponding level for women was Europa 2020’s educational targets 44 per cent in 2016. Women achieved the One of the two higher education targets in 40 per cent target in 2012 according to the European Union’s ten-year Europe 2020 Eurostat’s follow-up, while the level of educa- strategy is for 40 per cent of 30–34-year-olds to tion among men still falls below this target. have at least two years of tertiary education. For The national target of the Swedish Govern- Sweden, this includes higher education and ment is for 45–50 per cent of 30–34-year-olds education within the framework of vocational to have at least two years of tertiary education higher education; see the ISCED fact box. The by 2020. Overall, the target’s upper range was second target is to invest three per cent of GDP achieved by 2015 and 2016, when the propor- in research and development (R&D). tion of Sweden’s younger population with ter- Since 2006, the proportion of tertiary tiary education reached just under 51 per cent. educated among the EU’s younger population In Sweden, the gender gap is even greater has increased by 10 percentage points, reaching than for the EU average. It has also increased 39 per cent in 2016 according to Eurostat’s considerably since 2006. In 2005, 45 per cent preliminary data. Education levels have of women and 34 per cent of men had at least risen more or less in all EU countries, except two years of tertiary education. In 2016, this was 59 per cent for women and 43 per cent for Figure 5. Proportion of women and men men. The gender gap in education attainment (ages 30–34) with at least two years of tertiary education for Sweden and the EU average. has increased from 11 to 16 percentage points. Source: Eurostat. Targets for investment in R&D Per cent In its latest research policy proposition, the 70 Government introduced its new research

60 policy goals for Sweden. These include becoming a world leader in research and innovation 50 and a leading knowledge nation. Higher

40 education is included now as a means of achieving these goals. 30 One of the Government’s sub-goals for the 20 next ten-year period is for Sweden to become an attractive country for investments in R&D 10 and for public and private investments in R&D 0 to continue to exceed the EU’s target (3 per 2011 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 cent of GDP). Despite its somewhat cautious Men EU average wording, Sweden’s national goal remains for Women EU average public and private investment in R&D to total Swedish men Swedish women about 4 per cent of GDP by 2020. Target = 40%

10 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2017 STATUS REPORT Figure 6. R&D investments as a percentage of GDP for the five EU countries with the highest investments in R&D (2015) and the EU average (2015 data preliminary). Source: Eurostat.

Per cent 4.0

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.5

2011 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015

Sweden Austria Denmark Finland Germany EU (28 countries)

Since the bulk of publicly-funded research in Sweden is conducted at the country’s HEIs, this target is significant for them. When the state invests in research, this impacts its HEIs directly. According to Eurostat data, Sweden, Austria, Denmark, Finland and Germany are the EU countries that invested the most in R&D as a share of GDP in 2015, about 3 per cent. Other EU countries’ investments in R&D ranged between 0.5 and 2.5 per cent of GDP. Unlike other countries with high R&D investments, Sweden’s and Finland’s investments as a share of GDP have decreased compared with 2006, mainly due to business investments not having risen in line with growth in the economy. The EU average shows a slight increase over the period 2005–2015, but it has far to go before reaching the target of 3 per cent of GDP by 2020. By 2015, R&D investments in the EU totalled 2.0 per cent of GDP.

SWEDEN IN AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE 2017 STATUS REPORT 11 Facts about higher education in Sweden Higher education credits are attained after one academic year of full-time study. From this point, we refer to HE in Sweden credits simply as credits. Table 1. Structure of Swedish higher education The structure of higher qualifications. education and qualifications First-cycle qualifications Sweden is one of approximately 50 countries General qualifications collaborating in the Bologna Process, which Higher Education Diploma (120 HE credits) aims to ensure comparability in the standards Bachelor (180 HE credits) and quality of higher education qualifications. Qualifications in the fine, applied and performing arts This has led to changes in the structure of higher education in Sweden and these apply Higher Education Diploma (120 HE credits) to courses and programmes offered from Bachelor of Fine Arts (180 HE credits) 1 July 2007. Professional qualifications There are 32 different first-cycle professional Cycles qualifications, for example Bachelor of Science in Nursing (180 HE credits), Bachelor of All courses, programmes and qualifications are Science in Engineering (180 HE credits) and placed in one of three cycles: first, second or Higher Education Diploma in Dental Hygiene third. There is progression, that is to say, each (120 HE credits) cycle is based on the one before. The formal Second-cycle qualifications requirements that distinguish these cycles are General qualifications specified in the Higher Education Act. Master (60 HE credits) Master (120 HE credits) Courses and programmes Qualifications in the fine, All first- and second-cycle educational offer- applied and performing arts ings consist of courses that may be combined Master of Fine Arts (60 HE credits) to form programmes. In addition to pro- Master of Fine Arts (120 HE credits) grammes that lead to the award of qualifi- Professional qualifications cations, higher education in Sweden offers a There are 22 different second-cycle professional wide range of freestanding courses, many of qualifications, for example Master of Architecture them offered as distance learning. Students (300 HE credits), Postgraduate Diploma in Midwifery (90 HE credits) and Master of Science may select their own combination of these in Medicine (330 HE credits) courses. If these combinations meet stipulated Third-cycle qualifications requirements, a qualification may be awarded. General qualifications Higher education credits (HE credits) Licentiate degree (120 HE credits) An academic year that comprises 40 weeks Doctoral degree (240 HE credits) of full-time study can lead to the award of Qualifications in the fine, applied and performing arts 60 HE credits. The number of HE credits Licentiate degree in Fine Arts (120 HE credits) awarded for each course is determined by the amount of study normally required to attain Doctoral degree in Fine Arts (240 HE credits) its objectives. The HE credits awarded in higher education in Sweden may be compared to European Credit Transfer and Accumula- tion System (ECTS) credits, where 60 ECTS

FACTS ABOUT HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN 2016 STATUS REPORT 13 Categories of qualifications In Sweden, public HEIs have considerable There are three categories of qualifications autonomy within a system of management which all have the same academic status: by objectives. Overall responsibility for higher 1. general qualifications education and research rests with the Swedish 2. qualifications in the fine, applied Parliament (Riksdag) and the Government. and performing arts These decide on the regulations that apply 3. professional qualifications. to the higher education sector, primarily the Higher Education Act and the Higher Educa- Both general qualifications and qualifications tion Ordinance (see fact box). In addition to in the fine, applied and performing arts are laying down objectives and guidelines, they awarded within the first-, second- or third- also allocate resources to the HEIs. Within cycles. these parameters, the HEIs are relatively free Professional qualifications are awarded to decide on their own organisation, how they within the first and second cycles and mainly use resources and their course offerings. in the regulated professions. A majority of professional qualifications awarded in the Allocation of resources to second cycle do not require a previous, first- higher education institutions cycle qualification and the programmes lead- The Swedish Parliament decides on funding ing to their award cover both cycles. Swedish for the HEIs. Resources are allocated to the higher education differs from higher education institutions for first- and second-cycle courses in many other countries in this respect. and programmes on the basis of the number Teaching methods of students enrolled in each cycle (expressed in terms of full-time equivalents, FTEs) and Higher education normally consists of self- the number of credits attained by the students study, classroom instruction, seminars and (annual performance equivalents, APEs). The lectures, but many courses also include labora- funding per FTE and APE varies for different tory sessions or field studies. Students are disciplinary domains. Technology and engi- frequently asked to work in groups. neering, for example, receive more than social science. Every year the Government deter- Government funding but mines a funding cap for the HEIs which lays a high degree of autonomy down the maximum amount that can be paid to each HEI. The mission of the HEIs is to offer education Direct funding for research and third-cycle based on scholarship or artistic practice and courses and programmes is based mainly on on proven experience. They are also required past allocations, but, since 2009, a proportion to undertake research or artistic research of the funding and new resources has been and development work. Most of the publicly allocated on the basis of two quality indica- financed research in Sweden is undertaken tors. One of these takes publications and within higher education, which means that citations into account, the other research over half of the HEIs’ operations, in terms of funding from external sources. funding, comprises research and third-cycle programmes. In addition, the HEIs must inter- act with the surrounding community, provide information about their operations and act to ensure that benefits are derived from the findings of their research.

14 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Accreditation With the exception of independent higher and quality assurance education providers, who apply to the Govern- ment, applications for degree-awarding Higher education is offered by public-sector powers are appraised by UKÄ. These powers HEIs and (to a much smaller extent) by are granted indefinitely, unless there are independent education providers. There are grounds for revoking them. 31 public-sector HEIs and they account for approximately 90 per cent of the total num- Quality assurance ber of FTEs. The Swedish Parliament decides Responsibility for the quality of higher educa- on the establishment of public-sector HEIs tion is regulated in the Higher Education Act. while the Government decides whether a HEI HEIs are obliged to ensure that high standards has full university status. Those that lack full are attained in courses and programmes as well university status have only limited powers to as in research. Quality assurance procedures are award third-cycle qualifications and some- also the shared concern of staff and students. what limited powers to award second-cycle By evaluating the quality of studies lead- qualifications. There is no difference, however, ing to the award of qualifications and quality in the status of the qualifications awarded. assurance procedures, UKÄ ensures that HEIs Independent education providers are are accountable. These evaluations have been permitted to offer higher education courses performed in cycles of four or six years. One and programmes if they are granted cycle was completed in 2014 and a new cycle degree-awarding powers. There is no accred- commenced in 2016. These cycles will include itation of institutions. In Sweden there are appraisals of degree-awarding powers, audits of three independent HEIs entitled to award the HEIs’ internal quality assurance procedures, either all or some third-cycle qualifications. evaluation of studies leading to the award of There are also nine independent education qualifications, and thematic evaluations. Fail- providers entitled to award first-cycle, and in ure to meet quality standards may result in some cases second-cycle qualifications, as well degree-awarding powers being revoked. as four independent education providers entitled to award qualifications in psychotherapy. A complete list of HEIs in Sweden can be Admission to found on page 66. higher education Degree-awarding powers Sweden has a more uniform system of admis- In Sweden, accreditation of higher education sion to higher education than many other takes the form of granting degree-awarding countries. National admission regulations are powers. The regulations that apply vary laid down in the Higher Education Act and the depending on what types of HEI and qualifica- Higher Education Ordinance and in regulations tions they refer to: public-sector HEIs that issued by the Swedish Council for Higher lack full university status have less extensive Education. The vast majority of admissions powers but are not as restricted as the inde- are pooled. The Swedish Council for Higher pendent higher education providers, which Education is responsible for pooled admissions have to make separate applications for each on behalf of the HEIs, but the individual HEIs qualification they wish to award. However, all make the official decision to admit students. HEIs and independent higher education pro- There is one single joint official website for viders have to apply for entitlement to award applications to higher education institutions professional qualifications and qualifications in Sweden (www.antagning.se). Information in the fine, applied and performing arts.

FACTS ABOUT HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN 2016 STATUS REPORT 15 GOVERNMENT AGENCIES IN THE HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR A number of agencies are accountable to awarded abroad, and is responsible for the Ministry of Education and Research – pooled admissions on behalf of the HEIs. Universitetskanslersämbetet (the Swedish UHR also evaluates educational qualifica- Higher Education Authority (UKÄ), tions awarded outside Sweden and www.uka.se) exercises supervision of the brokers international exchanges. HEIs, which means ensuring their compli- цц Överklagandenämnden (the Higher ance with the statutes and regulations that Education Appeals Board, www.onh.se) apply to higher education. UKÄ also reviews can review decisions on admission to the quality of higher education and the higher education. efficiency and effectiveness of the use of цц Vetenskapsrådet (the Swedish Research resources and public funding at the HEIs. Council, www.vr.se) is the largest UKÄ is also responsible for the official funding agency for basic research, statistics on the higher education sector. in addition to being an advisor to the цц Universitets- och högskolerådet (the Government on research policy. Swedish Council for Higher Education цц Centrala studiestödsnämnden (CSN, (UHR), www.uhr.se) issues further www.csn.se) approves and distributes regulations, for example concerning state financial support for students, the admission of applicants with grades including both grants and loans.

about studying is also available on the website Test (högskoleprovet). The Higher Education www.studera.nu. Ordinance lists what selection criteria may be Detailed national regulations apply mainly invoked. It also contains regulations on the to the admission of HE entrants to first-cycle evaluation of final school grades. courses and programmes. There are also Applying for third-cycle studies leading to regulations on admission to second- and the award of a Licentiate degree or Doctoral third-cycle courses and programmes, but degree is more similar to applying for a posi- these are less comprehensive. Specific prior tion. Admission is only possible if the student knowledge is required for admission to higher has been appointed to a doctoral studentship education. There are general as well as specific or awarded a research grant, unless the student admission requirements. General require- has some other form of guaranteed funding for ments apply to all courses and programmes in the entire period of study. Normally, funding higher education: specific (additional) require- can only be provided for the official period of ments are also demanded for many courses study. This means that doctoral programmes and programmes. have to be completed in four full years, Fulfilment of the entry requirements does Licentiate programmes in two. not guarantee admission. If there are more applicants than places, selection criteria are used. All first-cycle courses and programmes, Cost of studying apart from those that lead to the award of qualifications in the fine, applied and perform- Tuition fees ing arts, use more or less the same criteria. For a long time, Sweden was one of the few These are based mainly on final school grades countries in Europe in which higher education or results from the Swedish Scholastic Aptitude was completely free of charge. In June 2010,

16 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT REGULATION OF THE HIGHER EDUCATION SECTOR Higher education in Sweden is governed by opportunity to influence their studies. The the Higher Education Act and the Higher Ordinance contains regulations on entrance Education Ordinance. qualifications and selection for courses and The Higher Education Act is enacted by programmes, as well as the appointment the Swedish Parliament and regulates the of teachers and doctoral students. It also HEIs’ operations. The Act contains basic includes regulations on course and pro- regulations about studies offered by HEIs. gramme syllabuses, grades and qualifica- For instance, it sets out what should charac- tions. terise courses and programmes at different Annex 2 to the Higher Education Ordi- levels and stipulates freedom of research. nance and annexes to the Ordinance for the It provides a framework for the organisa- Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences tion and governance of the HEIs, and states and the Ordinance for the Swedish National that every HEI must have a board of gover- Defence College are known as Qualifications nors and a vice-chancellor. It also contains Ordinances and contain the descriptors regulations about the duties of teachers as for all qualifications awarded in higher well as provisions about student influence. education in Sweden. In addition, HEIs must foster equality of In addition to legislation, the Govern- opportunity and broaden recruitment. ment exercises control of agencies in the Further provisions are laid down in the higher education sector through directives Higher Education Ordinance, issued by the which specify the tasks to be undertaken Government. For instance, the Ordinance and the reports it expects. states that students must be given the

the Swedish Parliament enacted a provision achieved for continued financial support. Stu- in the Higher Education Act to the effect that dent finance consists of a combination of study while higher education is free for Swedish cit- grants and study loans. In 2016, the grant por- izens and for citizens of the EU/EEA countries tion of student finance for an academic year of and Switzerland, citizens of other countries 40 weeks amounted to SEK 28,160 and the loan have to pay an application fee and tuition fees ceiling to SEK 70,880. The maximum total avail- for first- and second-cycle studies, unless they able Government-sponsored student finance are taking part in an exchange programme. for an individual student pursuing full-time In calculating tuition fees, the HEIs must studies thus amounted to SEK 99,040 in 2016. ensure that they cover the full cost of the Students may receive this financial support for a instruction provided as well as counselling, maximum of twelve semesters or six academic health services and other types of student years. Repayment of the loan element is based service. They do not have to cover accommo- on an annuity system and in normal cases the dation and living expenses. total debt should be repaid in 25 years or before the borrower reaches the age of 60. Financial support Residents who are not Swedish citizens are The majority of students in Sweden finance normally only entitled to financial support their studies with the help of financial for studies if they have moved to Sweden for support from the state to cover their living some other reason than to study here. Otherwise expenses. There are minimum performance they are considered to be international students requirements in terms of the number of credits and have to finance their studies themselves.

FACTS ABOUT HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN 2016 STATUS REPORT 17 Trends and developments Figure 7. Applicants and admitted students First- and second- without previous higher education experience cycle courses and acceptance ratio 2006–2016. Number Number of applicants per admitted and programmes 180,000 2.5

160,000 This section deals with first- and second-cycle 140,000 2.0 courses and programmes in higher education. 120,000 The statistics describe admissions, attendance 1.5 100,000 and the numbers graduating from HEIs. 80,000 Higher education is a complex process that 1.0 comprises a number of different populations: 60,000 applicants, those admitted, HE entrants, 40,000 0.5 registered students and graduates. 20,000 0 0

2011 Applications and admissions 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of applicants per admitted One way of measuring interest in higher Number of eligible ﬁrst-choice applicants Number of admitted education in the Swedish population is by studying the number of applicants who have number of applicants has been at a histori- never previously attended higher education. cally high level and increased further to above In addition to these, there are a large number 130,000 from the 2013 autumn semester. This of students with previous experience of higher trend has occurred even though the labour education. To be admitted to higher educa- market has improved in recent years. Interest tion, the individual must meet the eligibility in higher education is very high. requirements. UKÄ limits this examination The gender ratio of applicants without to qualified first-choice applicants, that is to previous higher education experience has say, applicants who are qualified for their long stayed about the same with only small first-choice course or programme. Most of the variations: 60 per cent women and 40 per cent application process occurs through a central men. In the 2016 autumn semester, this ratio admission system administered by the Swedish was 59 per cent women and 41 per cent men. Council for Higher Education on behalf of the HEIs. The majority of admitted students Number of admitted students fell enter in autumn semesters, and this is our and acceptance ratio increased primary focus, but some admission also occurs All eligible applicants are not admitted since in spring semesters. applicants compete with each other for the available places on many programmes. There Minor decline in number of applicants were 359,700 eligible first-choice applicants in The number of applicants for higher education autumn 2016, of which 236,000 were admitted. fell slightly for the second consecutive year, A little less than half of all applicants applied but remains at a historically high level. There to degree programmes. were 130,000 applicants for the autumn 2016 Of the applicants without previous higher semester with no previous higher education education experience, 54,000 were admitted experience. This number can be compared to the 2016 autumn semester, which is 3,000 with the early 2000s when there were around fewer than the previous autumn semester. 100,000 applicants which then decreased until There was a 5 per cent decrease in the number 2006, when 88,000 applied. Since 2009, the of admitted applicants between the autumn

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 19 2015 and autumn 2016, while the decrease HE entrants in Sweden in the number of applicants was considera- Of autumn 2016 applicants who lacked bly less, 1 per cent. This means that the num- previous higher education experience in ber of applicants increased from 2.3 to 2.4 per Sweden, less than half were admitted. How- admitted student between the 2015 and 2016 ever, not everyone who is admitted begins autumn semesters. The number of applicants their studies. At the latest follow-up with the per admitted student has risen steadily over 2015 autumn semester, just over three quar- the past ten years. In the 2006 autumn semester, ters of successful applicants also registered and there were 1.8 applicants per admitted student. thus became higher education entrants. The proportion of applicants without In the 2015/16 academic year, Swedish previous higher education experience that HEIs admitted a total of 86,000 students who were admitted for the 2016 autumn semester were beginning their studies in higher educa- decreased from 43 per cent to 42 per cent com- tion (HE entrants). Of these, 57 per cent were pared with the previous autumn semester. In women and 43 per cent men. After declining contrast, the proportion of admitted students several academic years in a row, the total between 2000 and 2011 varied, but always number of HE entrants remained unchanged exceeded 50 per cent. The 2001 autumn for the 2015/16 academic year compared semester had the highest instance of accepted with the previous academic year. However, students with no previous higher education, if we differentiate between Swedish and at 57 per cent. Since 2007, the proportion of foreign HE entrants, we see that the number admitted applicants with no previous higher of Swedish HE entrants continued to decline education has steadily decreased to today’s – for the sixth consecutive year – to 62,900. historically low level. Since the number of Swedish HE entrants Applications and admissions to is decreasing while the number of incoming international courses and programmes students (international students) is increas- International admissions involve international ing, the percentage of incoming students has courses and programmes (excluding 120-point increased among HE entrants in recent years. Master’s programmes) and international Mas- There was a two per cent increase in the ter’s programmes. However, it should be noted 2015/16 academic year. The proportion that approximately one third of applicants in Figure 8. Numbers of HE entrants 2005/06– the admission round to international Master’s 2015/16 academic years. programmes are from the Swedish population. Number The number of applicants for the admis- 120,000 sion round with international Master’s programmes increased sharply between the 2015 100,000 and 2016 autumn semesters, from 29,600 to 38,000. The increase is largely due to more 80,000 applicants who must pay tuition fees; these 60,000 increased from 10,300 to 17,900 from the previous autumn semester. 40,000 The number of applicants for international 20,000 courses and programmes increased slightly from 7,200 to 7,600. Of these, however, 0 the number of tuition fee paying students 2010/112011/122012/132013/142014/152015/16 declined, from 2,800 in autumn 2015 to 2,600 2005/062006/072007/082008/092009/10 in autumn 2016. Swedish Incoming All

20 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT of incoming HE entrants in the most recent teacher degree programmes together are academic year was 27 per cent, making up the largest with almost 15,800 HE entrants in a significant part of all HE entrants. the 2015/16 academic year. In the 2015/16 In 2015, 14 per cent of 19-year-olds (born academic year, the twelve largest programmes in 1996) and 43 per cent of 24-year-olds (born had over 80 per cent of the HE entrants on in 1991) began studying on a course or pro- programmes leading to professional quali- gramme. More 19-year-olds born in the 1990s fications. Of the major programmes leading began higher education than those born in the to professional qualifications, the number of 1980s. The proportion of individuals born in HE entrants in teacher education increased the 1980s and 1990s who began higher educa- the most. Programmes leading to a degree tion by the age of 24 has varied from 43 to in health care and medicine also had more 45 per cent. entrants in the 2015/16 academic year than in the previous academic year. More begin programmes leading to a professional qualification For several academic years, the number of HE The total student population entrants on programmes leading to a profes- in higher education in Sweden sional qualification has increased. In the most HE entrants form only part of the total stu- recent academic year, it increased by almost dent population. In addition to HE entrants, 2 per cent to 49,100. Of these, 44 per cent had the student population as a whole comprises previously studied in Swedish higher educa- those continuing from one year to the next tion. Incoming HE entrants accounted for only and those returning to higher education after a small percentage of entrants on programmes a period of absence. In total, 343,200 students leading to a professional qualification, only just took first- or second-cycle courses and pro- under 2 per cent in the 2015/16 academic year. grammes at some point during the 2016 The approximately 50 professional degree autumn semester. Of these, barely 28,000 programmes differ widely in size. Programmes were incoming students, which corresponds leading to a Master’s degree in engineering to 8 per cent. During the most recent autumn are the single largest of the professional pro- semesters, the total number of students has grammes with almost 7,100 HE entrants in the declined from a top of 365,000 in autumn 2010 2015/16 academic year. However, the different

WHO ARE DISTANCE STUDENTS? Distance learning is relatively flexible and while it was more common for female can suit many students. Distance students distance students to attend programmes study freestanding courses and study (32 per cent compared with 24 per cent part-time to a greater extent than students for men). It is more common for women to studying on campus. In the 2015/16 distance study full-time compared to men. academic year, 71 per cent of distance Distance students are generally older than students took freestanding courses and campus students. Of those who distance 74 per cent attended courses correspond- studied in the 2015/16 academic year, ing to part-time studies. Among distance 44 per cent were older than 34, while the students, it was more common among men corresponding percentage for those studying to take freestanding courses (76 per cent on campus was 12 per cent. compared with 68 per cent for women),

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 21 Figure 9. Number of students registered in academic year, as in previous years, was law first- and second-cycle courses and pro- and social science with 204,700 students. The grammes each autumn semester 1977–2016. second largest subject area was the humanities

Number and theology with 94,800 students. The smallest 400,000 number of students was within the fine, applied

350,000 and performing arts with 12,400 students. Health care and nursing continued to be 300,000 the most female-dominated subject area with 250,000 84 per cent women, while engineering contin- 200,000 ued to be the most male-dominated area with

150,000 66 per cent men. In both cases, the gender gap between men and women has decreased. 100,000 The gender distribution is most even within 50,000 the natural sciences, 45 per cent women and 0 55 per cent men. 1981 1977 1985 1989 1993 1997 2001 2005 2009 2013 2016 Participation in higher education Total number of students Swedish women Women and men Swedish men highest at the age of 22 The proportion of the Swedish population to 343,200 in autumn 2016, a decrease of just in higher education varies for different age under six per cent. However, compared with groups, but the highest participation rate is in the 2015 autumn semester, the number of the 21–23-year-old cohort. At all ages, partic- registered students was largely unchanged. ipation in higher education is higher among There are more female than male students. women than men. As in previous years, Before 1977, there were more men than participation was highest among 22-year-olds, women in higher education. The proportion of whom 26 per cent attended first- or second- of women increased in connection with the cycle courses and programmes. Among 1977 Higher Education Reform when wom- women, almost 32 per cent of 22-year-olds en-dominated programmes, such as teacher studied, compared with 21 per cent of men. education and health sciences, were incorporated into higher education. The proportion Figure 10. Percentage of the population at different ages registered at the first- has continued to increase, but the gender ratio or second-cycle courses or programmes, among Swedish students has been around autumn semester 2016. 38-40 per cent men and 60-62 per cent women since the beginning of the 21st century. Per cent The most common form of study is on- 35 Women Men campus study. In autumn 2016, 79 per cent 30 of students only attended on-campus courses and programmes. 25 Majority of students 20 in law and social sciences 15 Higher education students are registered for 10 courses in different subject areas. Subject areas are an overall grouping of different subjects. 5 The single largest subject area in the 2015/16 0 19 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 20 50– 30–3940–49

22 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Number of students and 316,000, and in 2016 there were almost as measured in FTEs 294,000 FTEs at first- and second-cycle levels. In 2016, the number of full-time equivalents Continued decline in FTEs (FTEs) in first- and second-cycle courses and in freestanding courses programmes totalled 293,900, which is a In the 2015/16 academic year, programmes decrease of 0.2 per cent compared to 2015. The leading to professional qualifications number of FTEs has declined every year since accounted for 46 per cent of FTEs, while those it peaked in 2010. Two factors in particular leading to general qualifications accounted affect the number of FTEs: demand from for 30 per cent and programmes in the fine, students and the size of direct government applied and performing arts for 1 per cent. funding. The more that it costs to offer courses The remaining 23 per cent consisted of and programmes, the fewer that can be freestanding courses. Compared with the financed by direct government funding. previous academic year, both the total num- After a few years of lower demand for ber of FTEs and freestanding courses continued higher education, growth returned in 2008. to decrease. A number of temporary expansions of higher Since the 2008/09 academic year, however, education for a few years after 2010 ena- the number of FTEs on general programmes bled HEIs to admit more students and pro- has increased. An explanation for this change vide more courses and programmes than ever in the composition of programmes is likely before. As economic conditions have changed, that many previously freestanding courses HEIs have adjusted the number of courses and are now more clearly incorporated into the programmes offered, and this has led to structure of general programmes and thus no a reduction in the number of FTEs since 2010. longer taken as freestanding courses. Since Viewed from a longer perspective, however, the number of FTEs is high. In the early Figure 12. Number of FTEs in programmes 1990s, there were approximately 150,000 FTEs leading to a professional qualification, general in Swedish HEIs. The expansion in the 1990s programmes, fine, applied and performing arts resulted in a doubling to around 300,000 at the programmes, and freestanding courses. beginning of the 2000s. Over the past ten years, Number the number of FTEs varied between 276,000 160,000

140,000 Figure 11. Number of FTEs 1990–2016. 120,000 Number 350,000 100,000

80,000 300,000 60,000 250,000 40,000 200,000 20,000

150,000 0

100,000 2010/112011/122012/132013/142014/152015/16 2004/052005/062006/072007/082008/092009/10

50,000 Freestanding course Programme leading to a general qualiﬁcation 0 Fine, applied and performing arts programme Programme leading to a professional qualiﬁcation 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010 2015

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 23 2010/11, this trend has become stronger with Figure 13. Number of graduates for 1991/92– a sharp decrease in the number of FTEs in free- 2015/16 academic years, total and divided by gender. The large number of degrees in the standing courses. When significant shifts in the 2010/11 academic year resulted from the intro- number of FTEs occur, the change is usually duction of a teacher certification. greatest for freestanding courses, as they are significantly easier than programme courses Number to start and to terminate. 80,000 70,000 The largest subject area 60,000 is law and social science 50,000 Law and social sciences is by far the largest 40,000 subject area, both in terms of number of stu- 30,000 dents and number of FTEs. In 2015/16, there were just over 121,790 FTEs studying law and 20,000 social sciences, which corresponds to 41 per 10,000 cent of the total number of FTEs. Engineering 0 had about 15 per cent of FTEs, the humanities 2011/12 1991/921993/941995/961997/981999/002001/02 2009/10 2013/142015/16 and theology had 14 per cent and the natural 2003/042005/062007/08 sciences had 10 per cent. All the other subject Total Women Men areas together accounted for less than 20 per cent of FTEs. In 2015/16, 58 per cent of degrees were received at the first cycle and 42 per cent at the second cycle. The split between first- and Graduates second-cycle degrees varied between HEIs. The number of graduates was essentially A total of 33,260 professional degrees were unchanged in the 2015/16 academic year com- awarded in 2015/16, of which 69 per cent went pared with the previous academic year. This to women and 31 per cent to men. They were was true for both women and men. In 2015/16, awarded within 59 different programmes 68,170 students graduated, of whom 43,560 leading to professional qualifications, but were women and 24,610 men. 12 programmes accounted for 80 per cent of In a longer perspective, the number of grad- the 33,260 professional degrees since most uates has increased significantly over many programmes were small. years. During the 1990s, there were approxi- Increased number of mately 33,000 graduates annually. This num- young people with degrees ber began to increase in the late 1990s and The proportion of the population with a growth continued through 2005/06, when higher education, defined as graduated with approximately 53,300 students graduated. at least three years of education, has risen over After a few years with fewer graduates, the many years. Cohorts born between 1948 and number increased sharply after 2009/10 until 1991 have been followed up at different ages. it reached the current level in 2014/15, approx- Depending on their birth year, they have been imately 68,000 graduates per academic year. monitored at the age of 25, 30, 35 and 40, and The gender ratio has been roughly the same after the age of 40, that is, at the age of the throughout this period, with just under two follow-up year. The youngest cohorts that have thirds of graduates being women and just over been followed up are those born 1987–1991, a third being men. which were followed up at the age of 25. Incom- ing students are not included in this data.

24 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Figure 14a. Percentage of women born between 1948 and 1991 who, at 25, 30, 35 and 40 years of age or later, had obtained a degree after at least three years of higher education at follow-up Perin 2016. cent From the 1977 cohort, full follow-up has not been possible. 40 Per cent 4035

3035

3025

2025

2015

1015

105

1952 1954 1958 1962 1972 1974 1976 1978 1982 0 1948 1950 1956 1960 1964 1966 1968 1970 1980 1984 1986 1988 1990

1948 At1950 25 years1952 1954 At1956 30 years1958 1960 At1962 35 years1964 1966At1968 40 years1970 1972After1974 401976 years1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

At 25 years At 30 years At 35 years At 40 years After 40 years

Figure 14b. Percentage of men born between 1948 and 1991 who, at 25, 30, 35 and 40 years of age or later, had obtained a degree after at least three years of higher education at follow-up in 2016. From the 1977 cohort, full follow-up has not been possible.

Per cent 40 Per cent 4035

3035

3025

2025

2015

1015

105

0 1948 1950 1952 1954 1956 1958 1960 1962 1964 1966 1968 1970 1972 1974 1976 1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

1948 At1950 25 years1952 1954 At1956 30 years1958 1960 At1962 35 years1964 1966At1968 40 years1970 1972After1974 401976 years1978 1980 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990

At 25 years At 30 years At 35 years At 40 years After 40 years

Of the cohorts born in the late 1940s and early have been followed up were born 1987–1991 1950s, approximately 13 per cent had a higher and were followed up at the age of 25. They education as defined above. The level then had the highest education level noted at this increased to about 16 per cent among those age, which may indicate that more people born in the mid-1950s. From those born in the receive a degree at a younger age. mid-1960s, the proportion with a higher edu- Significant differences are visible when cation increased with each cohort, and in the gender is reported separately. From the cohort last cohort that could be followed to born in 1950, women had a higher level of at least 40 years of age (born 1975), 30 per cent education than men. The difference increased had at least a three-year degree in the follow- from 1 percentage point for those born in 1950 up year 2015/16. The youngest cohorts that to 6.5 percentage points eight years later (born

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 25 RECOGNITION AND EVALUATION OF QUALIFICATIONS AWARDED OUTSIDE SWEDEN In addition to those who graduate from HEIs degrees in engineering and just over 300 to in Sweden, graduates who have immigrated Master’s degrees. The applications for recog- to Sweden and/or studied in another nition and evaluation submitted during 2016 country also enter the Swedish labour mar- involved qualifications awarded in 149 dif- ket. The Swedish Council for Higher Edu- ferent countries. By far the most had been cation (UHR) has the task of evaluating awarded in Syria (3,284). This was followed most of the higher education programmes by Iraq (573), Iran (484), the United King- offered abroad. Individuals with foreign dom (350), Poland (315), Russia (311) degrees from programmes that do not lead and India (307). to a regulated profession may have their REGISTRATION REQUIRED qualifications evaluated and recognised FOR SOME PROFESSIONS by UHR with a certificate. The evaluation If a qualification awarded abroad is for involves making a comparison with quali- a healthcare practitioner, a licence is fications in the Swedish System of Qualifi- required, in which case the National Board cations. In addition, the Swedish National of Health and Welfare is the evaluat- Board of Health and Welfare, the Swedish ing authority that ultimately determines National Agency for Education and other whether to issue a licence. In 2015, the appropriate authorities evaluate pro- National Board of Health and Welfare issued grammes offered abroad that provide 2,730 licenses for individuals with foreign admission to regulated professions, qualifications, of which about 1,500 were for example those that require registration licences for physicians. In the same year the with a regulatory body. National Board of Health and Welfare issued In 2016, UHR issued just over 7,400 of about 10,300 licences to individuals with these certificates. Most frequently these qualifications awarded in Sweden. involved comparisons with Bachelor’s The National Agency for Education degrees. About 260 programmes were con- conducts similar evaluations for certification sidered equivalent to a Swedish higher educa- as a teacher. In 2016, the Agency issued tion qualification, approximately 4,670 Bach- certificates to 5,640 individuals with qualifi- elor’s degrees, approximately 1,470 Master’s cations in teaching or pre-school education degrees (60 and 120 credits) and 125 Doc- awarded abroad. toral degrees. Most of the certificates relat- ing to professional qualifications concerned SOURCES: Swedish Council for Higher Education, the programmes in engineering: just over 1,000 Swedish National Board of Health and Welfare, and the Swedish National Agency for Education. were considered to correspond to Bachelor’s

1958). The gender gap was fairly constant for Student completion rates the following four cohorts, then increased While the number of graduates is one way annually to 15.5 percentage points for the of measuring outcome and is useful for esti- 1975 cohort. As a result, while 37.6 per cent of mating the supply of graduates to the labour women born in 1975 had a higher education market, other statistics are needed to describe at age 40, only 22.1 per cent of men born in the student completion rates for different courses same year had a higher education. and programmes. Three of these are retention rates in the second year, graduation rates and

26 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT performance indicators. These measurements greater degree than graduation rate. It is based are used in part to highlight different aspects. on whether a programme entrant was regis- Retention rate for the second year of study is tered on the same programme in one of the a good measure of what is happening at the year-two semesters. By design, the measure beginning of longer courses and programmes. cannot rule out that some of students classi- Graduation rate shows what percentage of fied as ‘not remaining’ may in fact simply be students in a degree programme graduate. For taking a longer break in their studies. How- those on freestanding courses, these two meas- ever, when comparing larger programmes, ures work poorly, so the completion rate for such details should not be significant. students on freestanding courses is tracked by The figure shows the percentage of stu- looking at performance indicators. dents remaining in year two for those who began a larger degree programme in autumn Retention rate for degree 2013. In total, 77 per cent remained in their programme in year two respective initial programme in the second For degree programme students, the retention year of study. This percentage, however, var- rate in year two is an early and clear indication ies widely between the different programmes. of completion rate and ultimately graduation The figure shows the programmes that had at rate. This measure also has the advantage of least 200 entrants in autumn 2013. The reten- requiring a relatively short follow-up time and tion rate varied between 59 and 89 per cent for allows us to describe the current situation to a these programmes. The medical programme

Figure 15. Retention rate year two for new students, autumn semester 2013. Programmes with at least 200 entrants.

BA/MA in Education teaching qualiﬁcation Higher Education Diploma MA/MSc in Secondary/Upper-Secondary Education BSc in Biomedical Laboratory Science Higher Education Diploma in Dental Hygiene BSc in Diagnostic Radiology Nursing Master’s degree (120 credits) Bachelor’s degree BA/MA in Primary Education BSc in Study and Career Guidance BSc in Engineering BSc in Occupational Therapy BSc in Pharmacy BSc in Pre-School Education BSc in Social Work MSc in Laws MSc in Business and Economics MSc in Dentistry MSc in Architecture BSc in Nursing MSc in Engineering MSc in Psychology BSc in Physiotherapy MA in Fine Arts (120 credits) BA in Fine Arts MSc in Medicine 0 20 40 60 80 100 Per cent

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 27 followed by the fine, applied and performing Figure 16. Average student performance arts Bachelor’s and Master’s programmes (120 indicators, total and by gender for 2004/05– 2013/14 academic years. Note the truncated credits) had the highest retention rate at the y-axis. end of the second academic year. The lowest retention rate was found among students who Per cent 100 began studying for the former teaching degree. 90

Performance indicators 80

Performance indicators measure the extent 70 to which students acquire the HE credits they 60 are registered for in a specific academic year. 50

To calculate performance indicators, com- 40 pleted credits for each course registration are 30 followed up during the registration period and 20 the three subsequent semesters. As such, the 20 monitoring period for performance indicators is four semesters. The latest performance 0 indicators presented here are for the 2013/14 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2004/052005/062006/072007/082008/092009/10 20113/14 academic year. Performance indicators can be used to Total Women Men measure student completion and, as opposed to graduation rate and retention rate, are an increase of approximately 3 percentage applicable to freestanding courses. This is points for both genders since 2009/10. because the two latter measurements generally require that students attend a degree Students attending campus-based programme since there is a clear start date programmes have high for the studies. Performance indicators thus performance indicators enable a comparison of completion rates in Students can attend freestanding courses or programmes and freestanding courses. courses associated with different degree programmes. Student performance varies signif- Student performance icantly between different study programmes indicators improving slightly (for example, general programmes or pro- The average student performance indicator for grammes leading to a professional qualifi- the 2013/14 academic year was 82 per cent, an cation) and for campus-based and distance increase of 0.7 percentage points from the pre- courses and programmes. These differences vious academic year and an increase of almost have been relatively stable over the academic 3 percentage points since the 2009/10 academic years studied. Student performance indica- year, when the performance indicator was at tors were highest for on-campus programmes, its lowest point for the ten-year period studied. with the highest performance indicators in the Women performed better than men in all fine, applied and performing arts programmes, studied academic years and, on average for where students attained an average of 93 per the ten-year period, achieved 83 per cent of cent of their registered credits in the 2013/14 the credits they registered for while men only academic year. Student performance indica- achieved 76 per cent. The average performance tors were also high on general programmes indicators of women and men were 84 and and programmes leading to a professional 79 per cent, respectively, in 2013/14, which is qualification, where they averaged 90 and

28 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT 87 per cent, respectively. Performance indica- Higher graduation rates in programmes tors for students attending on-campus free- leading to professional qualifications standing courses were lower, with 70 per cent than general programmes of registered credits being achieved in the Graduation rates are often higher for pro- 2013/14 the academic year. grammes leading to professional qualifications The performance indicators for distance than for those leading to general qualifica- students were on average lower than for stu- tions. The ten professional qualifications dents on campus. However, student perfor- with the highest graduation rates in 2013/14 mance indicators varied widely between dif- all offered admission to regulated professions, ferent subjects and between men and women. that is to say, those for which a degree is On freestanding distance courses in health- required to practice professionally. The highest care, female students achieved 66 per cent of graduation rate was for degrees in midwifery course credits they registered for while male (93 per cent) followed by medicine (88 per students achieved 57 per cent. Students who cent) and dentistry (85 per cent). studied courses in fine, applied and perform- The graduation rate for professional quali- ing arts, medicine and dentistry had relatively fications not linked to a registration are lower, high performance indicators. Both women and in some cases much lower. Of the nine and men had particularly low performance professional qualifications with the highest indicators for freestanding distance courses number of graduates in the 2015/16 academic within engineering and natural sciences. For year, the graduation rate in 2013/14 was low- freestanding natural science courses, men only est for Business and Economics (38 per cent), achieved 38 per cent of credits they were regis- followed by a BSc in Engineering (43 per cent) tered for and women only 46 per cent. and MSc in Engineering (50 per cent). Graduation rate for Graduation rate higher degree programme students at second-cycle level A common way of measuring student comple- Graduation rates can also be measured for tion is graduation rate, that is the percentage of general degrees, if the student follows a degree students who graduate within a certain period programme. Graduation rates for Bachelor’s of time. The percentage of students receiving degrees were monitored for the first time a degree is measured based on the nominal in the 2013/14 academic year, and focused programme length (normal time to complete on those students who began a general pro- the programme) plus three years. This should gramme in the 2008/09 academic year. The not be interpreted to mean that students take graduation rate was 45 per cent: 35 per cent this long to complete their studies – most com- achieved a Bachelor’s degree with their plete their studies much sooner. original specialisation (the specialisation The most recent figures available are for the student had when first beginning higher students who were followed up to and includ- education), 8 per cent received a Bachelor’s ing the 2013/14 academic year. Depending on degree in another specialisation and 2 per cent the nominal length of the programme, these another degree at first-cycle level. figures show the graduation rates of students General qualifications at second-cycle who began during the 2005/06–2009/10 aca- level, that is to say, 60 and 120 credit Master’s demic years. degrees, have a nominal study period of one and two years, respectively. Of those who started a 60-credit Master’s programme in 2010/11, 46 per cent had received a 60-credit

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 29 Master’s degree in their original specialisation Broadened recruitment at the 2013/14 follow up. Eight per cent had com- to higher education pleted another degree, half of which received a 60-credit Master’s degree with another spe- The Higher Education Act requires HEIs to cialisation and half a 120-credit Master’s degree. actively promote and broaden recruitment to The graduation rate was 54 per cent. higher education to increase accessibility for Of those who started a 120-credit Mas- all groups in society. The concept of broadened ter’s programme in 2009/10, 46 per cent recruitment refers to the actual recruitment had received a 120-credit Master’s degree in to higher education, that is, which students their original specialisation at the follow up begin studies, but may also include broadened 2013/14. A further seven per cent had received participation, that is to say, how well different a 120-credit Master’s degree in another spe- students take part in and complete their edu- cialisation while seven per cent received a cations, and how they establish themselves in 60-credit Master’s degree, which means that the labour market. This section, however, only the total graduation rate was 60 per cent. discusses actual recruitment. The graduation rate for Bachelor’s degrees No significant change in social bias was higher for women than for men, 40 and in recruitment between cohorts 30 per cent, respectively. The graduation rate The educational background of parents is for students who began a Bachelor’s pro- significant for an individual’s inclination to gramme, that is to say, the rate of receiving begin higher education. A total of 44 per cent some form of degree after studies, was 52 of those born in 1991 had begun higher educa- per cent for women and 38 per cent for men. tion by the age of 25 (that is to say, up to and Women consistently had a higher graduation including 2016). If at least one parent had a rate across all specialisations. There was, how- third-cycle qualification (Licentiate degree or ever, no or very little gender difference in com- PhD), however, the individual was consider- pletion rates for 60-credit Master’s degrees. ably more likely to go on to higher education The graduation rate for 120-credit Master’s (85 per cent). The same was true for the group degrees was 3 percentage points higher for having at least one parent with a substantial men than for women, which can be explained period of higher education – at least three by the large number of men specialising in years – but not a third-cycle qualification engineering and manufacturing, which have (69 per cent). In comparison, only 22 per cent high student completion rates. of the group with parents who only had less

Table 2. The twelve most-awarded professional degrees in 2015/16. Total number and the number and percentage of women and men, respectively. Degree Total Women Men Total Women Men MSc in Engineering 4 450 1 440 3 010 50% 59% 47% BSc in Nursing 4 210 3 670 540 77% 78% 66% BA/MA in Education teaching qualification 2 840 1 950 890 63% 68% 49% BSc in Engineering 2 380 660 1 720 43% 48% 41% Postgraduate diploma in specialist nursing 2 220 1 920 300 79% 79% 77% BSc in Social Work 2 190 1 890 300 71% 72% 62% Master of laws 1 630 990 640 66% 74% 55% MSc in Medicine 1 170 650 520 88% 90% 85% MSc in Business and Economics 1 010 550 460 38% 46% 32%

30 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Figure 17. Percentage of population who have Immigrants who arrived after start begun higher education in Sweden by the age of of school are underrepresented 25 among individuals born 1981–1991 with in higher education parents’ educational backgrounds (as a measurement of social background). Data on enrolment also allow the study of possible social bias in recruitment connected Per cent with whether the students have a Swedish or 100 foreign background. Individuals are consid- 90 ered Swedish if they are born in Sweden and 80 have at least one parent who is also born here. 70 Those with foreign backgrounds are either 60 born abroad or born in Sweden but with 50 two parents who are born abroad. Incoming 40 students who come to Sweden to study are 30 not included in the Swedish population and 20 are, therefore, not included in this study. 10 The same applies to newly arrived immigrants 0 who have not yet been given residence 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 permits and become part of the Swedish Research education population. Post-secondary education ≥3 years Post-secondary education <3 years In a comparison of individuals born in Upper-secondary education >2 years 1990, 44 per cent of those with Swedish back- Upper-secondary education ≤2 years Pre-secondary education grounds and 42 per cent of those with foreign backgrounds had begun higher education than an upper-secondary education had gone by the age of 25, that is to say, by 2015. Since on to higher education. The remaining groups about the same proportions of these two are distributed between these social groups. groups go on to higher education, there This social bias in recruitment means that the is no bias in recruitment. The picture changes more highly educated parents are, the greater if we also consider whether students with the probability of their children beginning foreign backgrounds were born in Sweden higher education. This situation has been and at what age they arrived in Sweden. Only more or less unchanged among those born 31 per cent of those born in 1990 who arrived between 1981 and 1991. between 7 and 18 years of age, in other words The social background of HE entrants is after the start of compulsory education in determined partly by the social bias in recruit- Sweden, had begun higher education by the ment and partly by the social diversity of the age of 25 (those who immigrated after 18 years population as a whole in the entrants’ cohort, of age are not included in this cohort follow- since this is the group that the entrants are up). The proportions of those continuing to recruited from. Among all 19–34-year-olds in higher education in the two other groups with the population (data from 2015), the propor- foreign backgrounds (those who immigrated tion of highly educated parents was 26 per before 7 years of age and those born in Sweden cent. As the proportion of highly educated par- with two foreign parents) were in fact some- ents among HE entrants was 13 percentage what larger than for those with Swedish back- points higher (39 per cent compared to 26 per grounds: 48 per cent for those born abroad cent), entrants with highly educated parents but who had immigrated before 7 years of age were overrepresented compared to the popu- and 47 per cent among those born in Sweden lation in general. with both parents being foreign-born. In the

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 31

Figure 18. Percentage who have begun higher Students with Swedish and education in Sweden by the age of 25 among foreign backgrounds often study individuals born 1981 and 1990 with Swedish on different programmes or foreign backgrounds (three different categories are shown). Note the truncated HE entrants with Swedish and foreign back- y-axis. grounds attend programmes that lead to a general or professional qualification to a sim- Per cent ilar extent. In the 2015/16 academic year, stu- 55 dents with a Swedish background accounted for 78 per cent in these two degree catego- 50 ries and students with a foreign background

45 accounted for 22 per cent in each category. However, the student composition looked 40 different in a number of individual degree programmes. Within agriculture and for- 35 estry, there were several programmes lead-

30 ing to a professional qualification where all HE entrants had Swedish backgrounds, such as forestry and the forest management pro- 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 grammes that lead to a Bachelor’s degree or Swedish background a Higher Education Diploma. In the 2015/16 Born in Sweden with two foreign born parents Immigrated before 7 years of age academic year, there were fewer than 100 Immigrated between the ages of 7 and 18 HE entrants on all agriculture and forestry programmes. The proportions varied slightly group with foreign backgrounds, only those between the programmes, but for the field who immigrated after the start of compulsory in total, 94 per cent of HE entrants had a school are underrepresented, while there is no Swedish background. In the physiotherapist recruitment bias for those born in Sweden to programme, the percentage with Swedish two foreign-born parents and for those who background was 94 per cent and on the immigrated before school start. psychologist, vocational teacher and business This applies to both genders. Since more administration and economics programmes, women begin higher education than men, the percentage with a Swedish background men who arrived in Sweden between the ages was close to 90 per cent. of 7 and 18 are least likely to continue to higher HE entrants with a foreign background education. In the cohort born in 1990, only were well represented on some other pro- 25 per cent went on to higher education, while grammes leading to a professional qualifica- the figure for women who had arrived in tion, above all the programmes for prescrip- Sweden within the same age range was 39 per tionists (74 per cent had foreign backgrounds) cent. This is a 2-percentage point decrease for and pharmacists (68 per cent). The pro- men compared to the 1989 cohort, but there grammes with a large and small proportion was no change for women. of individuals with foreign backgrounds were similar to the 2014/15 academic year.

32 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Table 3. Proportion of population that began Third-cycle courses third-cycle education no later than 30 years of age in the 1970–1986 cohorts, divided by and programmes gender and in per cent.

Over the last 20 years, the number of new Percentage entrants to third-cycle courses and pro- Year of birth Total Women Men grammes has varied between 3,000 and 4,000. 1970 1,3 1,1 1,6 The total number of third-cycle students (doc- 1971 1,4 1,2 1,6 toral students) has varied between 16,600 1972 1,5 1,3 1,7 and 20,000 since 1996. Third-cycle education 1973 1,5 1,3 1,6 has not expanded significantly, even though 1974 1,5 1,4 1,5 the number of Doctoral degrees awarded has 1975 1,6 1,5 1,7 almost doubled during this time. This is partly 1976 1,6 1,5 1,7 an effect of the postgraduate education reform 1977 1,6 1,5 1,6 instituted in 1998 which led to the requiring of 1978 1,6 1,5 1,7 funding for doctoral students, thus leading to increased student completion rates. 1979 1,5 1,5 1,4 1980 1,3 1,3 1,3 Lower proportion of population 1981 1,3 1,3 1,3 begins third-cycle education 1982 1,2 1,2 1,2 The proportion of Swedes beginning a 1983 1,1 1,1 1,1 third-cycle education at a certain age can be 1984 1,1 1 1,1 measured for different cohorts. The table 1985 1,0 1,0 1, shows the proportion of the 1970–1986 1986 0,8 0,7 0,9 cohorts that began a third-cycle course or

Figure 19. New entrants, third-cycle students and degrees awarded in third-cycle programmes 1996–2016. This diagram shows the number of third-cycle students on the right axis while new entrants and degrees awarded are shown on the left axis.

Number of third-cycle new entrants and degrees awarded Number of third-cycle students 5,000 25,000 4,500 4,000 20,000 3,500 3,000 15,000 2,500 2,000 10,000 1,500 1,000 5,000 500 0 0

2011 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

Third-cycle students (höger axel) New entrants PhDs Licentiate degree

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 33 ENTITLEMENT TO AWARD THIRD-CYCLE QUALIFICATIONS All HEIs with full university status are entitled Licentiate degrees and PhDs in the fine, to award general qualifications at third- applied and performing arts were intro- cycle level, and since 1 January 2010 the duced as qualifications in their own right on other HEIs have also been able to apply for 1 January 2010. All of the HEIs, including entitlement to award third-cycle qualifica- those with full university status, have tions. These applications are made for enti- to apply for entitlement to award these tlement to award qualifications in separate qualifications. Applications are appraised research domains and are appraised and and approved by UKÄ. Four HEIs (Lund approved by UKÄ. Research domains University, the University of Gothenburg, can include one or several third-cycle the University of Borås and Stockholm subject areas and are, generally speaking, University of the Arts) have been granted more restricted than the earlier disciplinary entitlement to award third-cycle qualifi- research domains were. Since 2010, cations in the fine, applied and performing entitlement to award third-cycle qualifica- arts. tions has been granted to 13 HEIs.

programme no later than 30 years of age. The The number of new entrants has varied proportion grew in previous cohorts, but for during the period 2006-2016, but in general, the last few years it has fallen. The propor- it increased until 2012, then declined signifi- tion of men who began a third-cycle educa- cantly in 2013 and has continued to decline. tion by the age of 30 was somewhat higher for The number of both Swedish and interna- the 1970–1978 cohorts than for women in the tional third-cycle new entrants has declined same cohorts, but for cohorts from 1979 and since 2013. younger, the gender ratio has been even except for the 1986 cohort. Figure 20. Numbers of new entrants to third-cycle programmes 2006–2016 in total and divided into women and men.

New entrants Number In 2016, the number of new entrants to 4,500 third-cycle programmes totalled 2,930, slightly 4,000 less than the previous year’s 3,010. This num- 3,500 ber also includes those admitted to pro- 3,000 grammes leading to the award of Licentiate 2,500 degrees. Women dominate among new entrants 2,000 in the first and second cycles, but among 1,500 third-cycle new entrants, the gender ratio is 1,000 considerably more even, which has been the 500 case for the last ten years. In autumn 2016, 0 46 per cent were women and 54 per cent 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 men. Over time, the percentage of women has 2006 2007 2008 2009 increased. In autumn 1996, 40 per cent were Total Men women and 60 per cent men. Women

34 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Continued high proportion of of new entrants from countries belonging to international third-cycle new entrants the EU/EEA has been around 400 since 2012. Of the 2,930 third-cycle new entrants in 2016, As previously mentioned, the gender distri- 1,150 were international students, represent- bution was relatively even in 2016 among new ing 39 per cent. The number of international entrants as a whole, but among international new entrants remained unchanged from the new entrants, men made up 60 per cent. Men previous year, while the number of Swedish have been in the majority of international new entrants decreased slightly. An interna- new entrants since data first began being tional third-cycle student is someone who collected in 1997. Among Swedish new has come to Sweden to attend a third-cycle entrants, the proportion of women has been programme. higher over the past ten years and varied Between 2006 and 2012, the number between 50 and 54 per cent. of international third-cycle new entrants Number of new entrants with doctoral increased sharply, from 740 to 1,560. As the studentships doubled in ten years number of Swedish new entrants did not Regulations stipulate that third-cycle students increase to the same extent, the proportion must be able to guarantee that they can sup- of international third-cycle new entrants port themselves throughout their programme. increased from 25 to 40 per cent. Most inter- Funding may take the form of doctoral student- national third-cycle new entrants come from ships, other employment at the HEI, employ- countries outside the EU/EEA and Switzerland. ment outside the HEI, doctoral grants and However, since 2012, which was one year after scholarships. the introduction of tuition fees for students It was concluded that the social conditions outside the EU/EEA, the number has decreased for third-cycle students with doctoral grants significantly from 1,000 to 600. The number

Figure 21. The numbers of international Figure 22. Funding types for new entrants and Swedish new entrants to third-cycle on third-cycle programmes 2006, 2015 and programmes 2006–2016. 2016, full-year students.

Number Percentage 4,500 70 2006 2015 2016 4,000 60 3,500 50 3,000 40 2,500 30 2,000 20 1,500

1,000 10

500 0

0 Doctoral studentship within HEI 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 EmploymentScholarships 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Doctoral grant Other funding the HEI includingdoctoral student Employmentexternally outside employed Total number third-cycle new entrants Medical doctor position Swedish third-cycle new entrants International third-cycle new entrants

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 35 FUNDING TYPES Funding types for third-cycle students differ The HEIs have gradually replaced doctoral in terms of social security and often even grants with doctoral studentships, and by income levels. Different types of employ- the end of 2016 doctoral grants had largely ment (doctoral studentship or other been phased out. Doctoral grants contrib- employment within or outside the HEI) are ute to an individual’s pension, but do not usually the most advantageous forms of entitle the individual to the social security funding for the students, but most expen- system that employment offers. The sive for the HEIs. These types of positions Government has decided that doctoral give full access to the social insurance system, grants will be completely discontinued at that is to say, health insurance, parental the end of June 2017. insurance and unemployment insurance.

and scholarships needed improving and that Clear social recruitment imbalance instead they should be offered employment For the 2014/15 academic year, 59 per cent as doctoral students. Several HEIs phased of third-cycle new entrants had highly edu- out doctoral grants and decided that third- cated parents (three-year tertiary education cycle students were to be appointed to doctoral or longer), more than 30 per cent had parents studentships or offered some other form of with a medium-high education (three-year employment at the HEI. In recent years, this upper-secondary education or tertiary educa- change in the forms of employment has had tion less than three years) and approximately a clear impact through an increase in the pro- 11 per cent had parents with a low education portion of new entrants with doctoral stu- (maximum two-year upper-secondary edu- dentships and a reduction in the proportion of cation). This social composition was similar doctoral grants. In 2016, the proportion of new among women and men. entrants appointed to doctoral studentships The social composition is more skewed rose significantly to 70 per cent compared to at the third-cycle level than at first- and sec- 66 per cent in 2015. At the same time, the ond-cycle levels. In 2015/16, about 39 per cent number of third-cycle new entrants receiving of HE entrants and 59 per cent of third-cycle doctoral grants declined from 5 per cent to new entrants had highly educated parents. 1 per cent. A significantly higher proportion of international new entrants had scholarships Third-cycle students than Swedish new entrants, 16 and 3 per The number of third-cycle students in autumn cent, respectively. Swedish new entrants had 2016 was 18,010, which is 640 fewer than in employment as a medical doctor to a greater 2015. In autumn 2016, 47 per cent were women extent than international new entrants, 9 and and 53 per cent men. International students 1 per cent, respectively, as well as other employ- accounted for 35 per cent of the total number ment outside the university, 6 and 2 per cent, of third-cycle students in autumn 2016, which respectively. Otherwise, ways of funding are is the same proportion as in 2015. The number similar for Swedish and international new of third-cycle students decreased in all fields of entrants. research between autumn 2015 and autumn 2016. In absolute terms, the decrease was

36 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT highest in the medical and health sciences, Figure 23. Number of third-cycle graduates which had one third of all third-cycle students 2006–2016 in autumn 2016. Number Doctoral studentships are the most com- 4,000 mon form of funding among third-cycle stu- 3,500 dents; 68 per cent had such funding in autumn 2016. In addition, 4 per cent of third-cycle 3,000 students had another type of employment 2,500 at the HEI and a few third-cycle students had 2,000 doctoral grants. 1,500 In total, 72 per cent of third-cycle students were funded by the HEI. In addition, 16 per 1,000 cent had a position outside the HEI within 500 which they engaged in third-cycle studies; 0 as a physician (6%), an externally employed 2011 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 doctoral student (5%) or other employment Total (5%). In addition, 7 per cent had scholarships PhD and 5 per cent had other sources of funding. Licentiate degree In autumn 2016, 57 per cent were full-time third-cycle students. Full time as used here demic year. Over the past ten years, this num- refers to students whose degree of activity was ber has varied, but in 2016 it approached the between 80 and 100 per cent during a com- same level as ten years ago. plete semester, as third-cycle students reg- The majority of third-cycle degrees ularly combine their studies with part-time awarded are PhDs. Of these, 46 per cent were teaching in first- and second-cycle courses and to women and 54 per cent to men. Over the programmes or work at another HEI. More past decade, gender distribution has been men than women studied full time, 61 per cent relatively even, with between 46 and 51 per compared with 53 per cent of women. cent women. Previously, however, there was a significantly smaller proportion of women than men among third-cycle graduates. Qualifications and graduates Among those who graduate with Licenti- Third-cycle degrees are divided into general ate degrees, however, men dominate. One rea- qualifications and qualifications in the fine, son for this is that almost half of all Licentiate applied and performing arts, and in each degrees are in engineering and technology, category either a Licentiate degree (which where men are in majority. In 2016, this ratio corresponds to two years of full-time study) was 63 per cent men and 37 per cent women. or a PhD (corresponding to four years of full- The median age among those who gradu- time study) may be awarded. ated at the third-cycle level in 2016 was Third-cycle qualifications in the fine, applied 34 years for those receiving PhDs and 31 for and performing arts were introduced in 2010, Licentiate graduates. Women are usually and as of the end of 2016, 27 PhDs have been older than men when they graduate. Among awarded in these fields and 8 Licentiate degrees. the graduates with PhDs, the median age for During 2016, a total of 3,670 third-cycle women was 35 years, while men were qualifications were awarded, that is to say, 33 years old and among the licentiate graduates, both Licentiate degrees and PhDs. This is an women were 32 years of age and men 31 years. increase of 2 per cent over the previous aca-

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 37 Most third-cycle degrees than women (44 per cent) and within eight in the medical and health sciences years (76 and 73 per cent, respectively). The number of third-cycle degrees varies Another way of measuring student com- between different fields of research. Most pletion rates is to compare the gross period third-cycle degrees in 2016 were in the medical of study with the net period of study. Net and health sciences. With 980 degrees in the period of study measures the amount of field, these made up just over one third of all time third-cycle students actively devote third-cycle degrees. The natural sciences and to their studies. Gross period of study indi- engineering and technology follow with cates the total time spent in third-cycle pro- 24 and 20 per cent, respectively, of all third- grammes without taking levels of activity, such cycle degrees awarded in 2016. The social as parental leave and time off, into account. sciences had 14 per cent, and the humanities The median net period of study for students and agricultural science had 6 and 3 per cent, awarded PhDs during 2016 was 8.4 semes- respectively. Almost half of Licentiate degrees ters while the gross period of study averaged were awarded in engineering and technology 11 semesters. The net period of study for stu- and one third in the natural sciences. dents awarded Licentiate degrees in the same year was 5.5 semesters and the gross period of study seven semesters. Student completion rates This means that third-cycle students com- Student completion rates in third-cycle plete their programmes in just over the time programmes indicate the extent to which new they are intended to take – eight semesters entrants complete their studies and graduate, for a PhD and four semesters for a Licentiate and also how quickly they do so. One degree. The gross period of study is longer than measurement of student completion rates is the net period of study, which is explained by graduation rates, which reveal how large a the fact that many students teach in parallel proportion of a specific year’s new entrants with their studies. Many students also take to third-cycle programmes graduate after breaks in their studies, such as for parental a specific number of years. The most recent leave. cohort that can be studied within five years of The net period of study in 2016 was approx- beginning their third-cycle programmes began imately the same for men and women among in 2011, and 48 per cent had been awarded a those who received a PhD or a Licentiate PhD by 2016 (within five years). degree. On the other hand, gross period of The graduation rate among third-cycle study was slightly longer for women than new entrants has increased considerably over men, 12 and 11 semesters, respectively, for a longer period of time. For example, the PhDs and 8 and 7 semesters, respectively, for proportion of third-cycle new entrants who Licentiate degrees. completed a doctorate within five years was 40 per cent among new entrants in 1998, compared to 48 per cent among new entrants in 2011. The increase in graduation rates likely coincided with the postgraduate education reforms instituted in 1998, which require that funding be secured during the period of study as a way of improving student completion rates. A larger proportion of men were awarded degrees within five years (51 per cent)

38 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT International mobility Fee-paying students autumn 2016 Since 1 July 2011, students from countries out- This section discusses international stu- side the EU/EEA and Switzerland who are not dent mobility in first- and second-cycle pro- taking part in exchange programmes must grammes in higher education. International pay application and tuition fees to study in mobility includes both international students Sweden. This means that free movers can be that come to Sweden to study and Swedish divided into fee-paying and non-fee-paying students who travel abroad to do so. The two students. After the introduction of application groups are referred to here as incoming and and tuition fees, there was initially a marked outgoing students. decline in the number of free movers. In the autumn semester of 2016, there were 2,740 new incoming students who paid tuition fees Increase in new incoming and this was a rise of 23 per cent compared entrants autumn 2016 to the autumn semester of 2015. As in pre- The most recent data about international vious years, most of the paying students are student mobility show that 17,190 incoming from Asia – more than 60 per cent in the 2016 students (new incoming entrants) studied for autumn semester. the first time at a Swedish HEI in the autumn semester 2016. Exchange students accounted New incoming students for 51 per cent of this number while 49 per cent were free movers. Exchange students academic year 2015/16 attend Swedish HEIs within the framework We now examine the new incoming students of an exchange agreement and usually study in more detail using data from the latest a shorter period in Sweden as part of their academic years. The most recent is academic studies in their home countries. Free-mover year 2015/16, when there were 23,110 new students have arranged their studies in incoming students. Compared to 2014/15, the Sweden on their own and usually attend an number of new incoming students rose by six entire academic programme. per cent.

Figure 24. Different groups of students within international student mobility from a Swedish perspective.

International student mobility

Incoming Outgoing students students

Exchange Exchange Language Free movers Free movers students students students

Fee-paying Free of charge

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 39 Table 4. Numbers of new incoming students who had not previously studied in Sweden, divided by area of origin and student category, autumn 2011 to autumn 2016, with percentage and numerical changes between autumn 2015 and autumn 2016. Change from autumn Autumn semester semester 2015 in Areas Student of origin category 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 per cent number Total Free-mover 4 800 5 660 6 130 7 030 7 740 8 500 10 760 Exchange 9 770 9 620 8 880 8 520 8 770 8 690 -1 -80 Total 14 570 15 280 15 010 15 550 16 510 17 190 4 680 EU/EEA Free-mover 1 860 2 390 2 400 2 160 2 290 2 470 8 180 and Switzerland Exchange 7 180 7 190 6 480 5 990 6 200 6 170 0 -30 Total 9 030 9 580 8 870 8 110 8 410 8 640 3 230 Non-EU/EEA Free-mover 1 460 1 570 1 800 2 690 2 710 3 190 18 480 and Switzerland (third-country of which paying 910 1 110 1 360 2 100 2 220 2 740 23 520 students) Exchange 2 600 2 430 2 390 2 530 2 570 2 510 -2 -60 Total 4 060 3 990 4 190 5 170 5 220 5 700 9 480 Unidentified Free-mover 1 490 1 700 1 920 2 180 2 740 2 840 4 100 country of which paying 100 130 180 200 280 290 4 10 Total 1 490 1 720 1 940 2 270 2 880 2 840 -1 -40

As in previous years, there were more new per cent to 9,360. This was the fourth consec- incoming exchange students than there were utive year that the number of new free-mover new incoming free movers. The number of students increased. Of the 9,360 free movers, new incoming exchange students increased about a third paid tuition. by four per cent to 13,750 in 2015/16, while As in previous academic years, there were the new free-mover students increased nine more women (53 per cent) than men (47 per cent) among the new incoming students. This Figure 25. Total number of new incoming gender difference was somewhat larger among students 1997/98–2015/16, divided by free exchange students (of whom 55 per cent were movers and exchange students. women) than among free movers Number (49 per cent women). Among paying students, 35,000 the proportion of women was lower, but for

30,000 the first time since tuition fees were introduced, the proportion of women among paying stu- 25 000 dents increased, from 38 per cent to 41 per cent 20,000 since 2014/15. This can be compared with 54 per cent of women from the EU/EEA and Swit- 15,000 zerland. 10,000 For 2014/15, the number of new incoming

5,000 students was still lower than in 2010/11, the year before tuition fees were introduced. 0 During 2015/16, the new incoming students

2011/122013/142015/16 still accounted for a considerable proportion 1997/981999/002001/022003/042005/062007/082009/10 of all new HE entrants in Sweden, when about New incoming students total Exchange students one-fourth of new HE entrants were incom- Free-mover students ing students.

40 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Most new incoming students incoming students at Swedish HEIs. Free- still come from Europe movers accounted for 60 per cent of these Half of the 23,110 new incoming students in students while 40 per cent were exchange 2015/16 came from countries within the EU/ students. For the second academic year in a EES and Switzerland while 34 per cent came row, the total number of incoming students from countries outside the EU/EEA and Swit- increased, with a six per cent increase in zerland. The countries of 16 per cent of stu- 2015/16. Free movers increased by seven per dents could not be determined. In terms of cent to 21,220 compared to 2014/15. Exchange individual countries, the largest group of new students increased by four per cent to 13,990 incoming students in 2015/16 came from Ger- students. Most incoming students come from many, followed by France and China. This countries in the EU/EEA and Switzerland. applies both to the entire group of new incom- This applies to both free movers and exchange ing students and to new exchange students. students. India was the country of origin for most One-fifth of paying students financed free movers that came to study in Sweden, entire tuition fee with scholarships followed by Finland and China. When tuition fees were first introduced, two Most new incoming exchange students state scholarship programmes were created came through EU programmes that are administered by the Swedish Council As in previous years, almost all the 13,750 new for Higher Education (UHR) and the Swedish incoming exchange students took freestanding Institute (SI). Reports from the HEIs to UKÄ courses in 2015/16. This can be explained by indicate that a total of 5,220 of the registered exchange students studying a shorter period in students paid tuition fees to an HEI in the Sweden as part of their studies in their home autumn of 2016. Of these, 40 per cent were country. women and 60 per cent men. In total, 31 per Exchange programmes are divided into cent of paying students have financed their EU programmes, Nordplus and bilateral pro- tuition completely or in part with Swedish grammes. EU programmes enable studies both scholarships. For 20 per cent, scholarships in Europe and in countries outside Europe, covered the entire tuition fee while 11 per cent such as the United States, Canada, Japan and paid only a part of their tuition with scholar- Australia. The Erasmus programme is the largest ships. A slightly larger proportion of men EU programme. Nordplus is a framework pro- had scholarships, 55 per cent compared with gramme established by the Nordic Council of 45 per cent for women. In 2016, HEIs took in a Ministers to promote cooperation and mobil- total of SEK 580 million from application and ity between the Nordic and Baltic countries tuition fees. These students paid 68 per cent and the autonomous territories of Greenland, of their costs themselves while scholarships the Faroe Islands and Åland. Finally, bilateral covered 32 per cent of the tuition fees. State programmes are established between individ- scholarships (the scholarships from UHR and ual Swedish and foreign HEIs. SI) accounted for 23 per cent of HE income from application and tuition fees, equal to Total number of incoming students SEK 133 million. academic year 2015/16 Many incoming students study more than one Most free-mover students starting a academic year at a Swedish HEI, which means Master’s programme receive a degree that the total number of students in attendance In 2015/16, 5,800 incoming students received is greater than the number of new students. their first Swedish degree, of which 5,400 were During 2015/16, there were a total of 35,130 free movers. Most degrees were awarded at the

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 41 second-cycle level, 85 per cent in 2015/16. In The number of outgoing free-mover students recent years, many of the free-mover students decreased by four per cent. On the other hand, have studied Master’s programmes and, of the number of outgoing exchange students those who started a Master’s programme increased slightly by one per cent. In 2015/16, in 2013/14, nearly 60 per cent had received 58 per cent of outgoing students were women a degree by spring 2016. Almost the same and 42 per cent were men. The gender distri- proportion of the paying (57 per cent) as non- bution was about the same for free-mover paying (59 per cent) free movers had com- students and for exchange students. pleted a degree during the period (spring The US and the UK are the largest single 2016). There is no significant difference in the destinations for outgoing students percentage of paying and non-paying incoming free-mover students that receive a degree Europe was still the destination for most from a Master’s programme. outgoing students in the 2015/16 academic On the other hand, the performance indica- year. Fifty-eight per cent of the 26,440 out- tor varied between paying and non-paying stu- going students attended HEIs in the EU/EEA dents. Simply put, the performance indicator is and Switzerland and most of these studied in the percentage of credits earned in relation to the United Kingdom, followed by Poland and the number of credits registered in a particular Denmark. The United States was the single academic year. The performance indicator for most popular country for outgoing students, the incoming free-mover students who did not attracting 20 per cent of the total number. pay tuition fees was 82 per cent and thus the The second largest recipient country outside same as for Swedish students. In comparison, the EU/EEA and Switzerland was Australia. the performance indicator for free-mover Many Swedes study medicine abroad students who paid tuition fees was 88 per cent, Many Swedish students attend medical school six percentage points higher than for non- in other countries since there is a relatively paying students. Like previous academic years, high number of applicants per place at Swedish most incoming students who received degrees universities. Medical programmes were by far came from EU or Asian countries. the largest individual degree programme for outgoing free-mover students in 2015/16. Outgoing students According to CSN, 2,740 students attended medical studies outside of Sweden in 2015/16. Students who leave Sweden to study abroad By comparison, in the same academic year, are referred to as outgoing students. This 7,730 students attended medical studies in group is normally divided into three catego- Sweden. ries: free movers, exchange students and students on language courses. The total number Difference in number of of outgoing students increased for a long time incoming and outgoing students but decreased in the 2015/16 academic year In 2015/16, there were a total of 26,440 out- and totalled 26,440. Free movers accounted going students and 35,130 incoming students, for 70 per cent of the outgoing students, which means there were 8,690 more incom- 27 per cent were exchange students and three ing than outgoing students. The number of per cent were language course students. incoming students has been larger than the Compared to the previous academic year, the number of outgoing students since 2005/06. number of outgoing students decreased by nine per cent.

42 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Measuring establishment Education on the labour market and employment UKÄ measures establishment on the labour market as a way of following up the position of UKÄ regularly publishes reports aimed at different groups. Labour market establishment informing Swedish HEIs and prospective stu- is a variable derived from statistics on income, dents about the future needs of the labour occupation, unemployment and labour market and as a way of following and report- market policy measures. Statistics Sweden ing on how different groups of graduates have (SCB) provides these statistics. established themselves in the labour market Significantly more than having a job is after graduation. One way of following up required to be defined as established on the how well the supply of graduates matches the labour market in Sweden. The individual demand from the labour market in different needs to fulfil all the following criteria: areas and for different groups is to track how well individuals succeed in establishing them- • Employed in Sweden in the month of selves within their chosen field. November in the relevant follow-up year, Overall, the Swedish labour market has in accordance with the definition used developed strongly in recent years. This is by Statistics Sweden in the employment expected to continue. Employment in Sweden register. is expected to continue to increase through • The aggregate income from employment 2018, and unemployment is also expected during the year is to exceed a certain level to fall next year, according to the Swedish that is adjusted annually with the labour Employment Agency’s forecasts. One reason market’s average salary increase. In 2014, for the increased growth is an increase of this was SEK 218,200. immigrants to Sweden. In recent years, the • There are not to be any indications of employment rate has increased both among unemployment (at full time or part time) native Swedes and foreign born. The increase or that the person has been the subject in the employment rate is expected to be larg- of labour market policy measures. est among foreign-born workers; two out of three new jobs are expected to go to this • The individual may not be defined as group. However, unemployment among the studying. Swedish-born population was still significantly lower (4 per cent) than among foreign-born Establishment 2014 (15 per cent) in the fourth quarter of 2016. for 2012/13 graduates The higher an education a person has, the In 2014, 80 per cent of 2012/13 graduates were better the job prospects. Generally, the risk of established on the labour market, 1–1.5 years unemployment is less and the chance of get- after graduation. The proportion of estab- ting a job and becoming established on the lished men and women was about equal. labour market is greater for those with ter- This is the first time since 2002 that female tiary education than those with no more than graduates were established at the same level upper-secondary education or lower. The abil- as male graduates. Over the past decade, there ity to establish oneself on the labour market have generally been more established men today is generally good for university grad- than established women. uates in Sweden, and this is not expected to change in the future.

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 43 Figure 26. The percentage of established The labour market for different women and men (and total) one year after types of education varies graduation 2002–2014. Established refers to Those with a professional qualification had percentage of established of all graduates, excluding those who continued to study or had the highest establishment rate. Of the 27,000 left the population. who received a professional qualification in academic year 2012/13, 87 per cent were estab- Per cent One year after graduation lished by 2014. Of the 16,000 who received 100 a general qualification in 2012/13, 72 per

90 cent were established in 2014. Of those who received a qualification in the fine, applied and 80 performing arts in 2012/13, 33 per cent were

70 established in 2014. It should be noted that some professional 60 programmes are continued studies for individuals who are already active in their

2011 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 professions. For example, this is the case for

Men Women Total

Figure 27. Per cent of graduates in academic year 2012/13 established on the labour market in 2014 for programmes leading to a professional qualification with at least 100 graduates and where there were more than ten men or ten women.

BA/MA in Education (7 823) Women Men BSc in Nursing (3 452) MSc in Engineering (2684) BSc in Social Work (2201) Postgraduate Dip. in Specialist Nursing (1766) BSc in Engineering (1725) Master of Laws (1165) MSc in Medicine (953) MSc in Business and Economics (943) MSc in sychology (464) BSc in Occupational Therapy (309) Postgraduate Dip. in Special Educational Needs (299) BSc in Biomedical Laboratory Science (262) BSc in Physiotherapy (253) Postgraduate Dip. in Psychotherapy (232) MSc in Dental Surgery (187) Postgraduate Dip. in Special Needs Training (182) MSc in Pharmacy (166) BA in Study and Career Guidance (165) MSc in Speech and Language Pathology (146) BSc in Diagnostic Radiology Nursing (138) Masters of Architecture (137)

0 20 40 60 80 100 Per cent

44 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT programmes for psychotherapists, specialist Establishment after completed nurses and special needs teachers. The pro- bridging programmes for lawyers, portion of graduates established in the labour medical doctors, nurses and dentists market after having completed one of these The Government tasked UKÄ to follow up programmes was therefore high overall. There labour market establishment among indi- is also a significant demand from the labour viduals with foreign education who have market for individuals with degrees in den- completed bridging programmes in Sweden. tistry, medicine, engineering and nursing. Nearly 3,000 individuals were registered for a bridging programme between autumn 2007 Bridging programmes for individuals and autumn 2014, and this group was included with foreign qualifications in the base population. More than 80 per cent Bridging programmes is a collective term of those who began bridging programmes for different types of higher education pro- were women. Most of those who registered grammes aimed at easing establishment on the for a bridging programme during the period Swedish labour market. A bridging programme (nearly 2,100) attended teacher education. may comprise a maximum of 120 credits, Of graduates with a completed foreign equivalent to two years of full-time studies, education and who successfully completed a and is to be planned based on the student’s bridging programme for lawyers, doctors, previous education and work experience. The teachers, nurses or dentists in Sweden Government generally plans bridging pro- between autumn semester 2007 and spring grammes based on labour market demand, semester 2014, 66 per cent were established on and normally the programmes are aimed at the labour market 1–1.5 years after their final regulated professions, primarily within health semester. UKÄ has compared the percentage care and education. For example, there are of establishment among individuals who have bridging programmes for economics and busi- completed bridging programmes within these ness study graduates and for lawyers. professions with the results of UKÄ’s regular Bridging programmes for individuals with follow-up of individuals who have completed completed foreign studies have existed in the equivalent professional qualifications at various forms since the early 1990s. In recent Swedish HEIs, where there is an establishment years, the number of individuals who have rate of 85 per cent. This showed that the begun bridging programmes has steadily establishment rate about one year after com- increased. With an increased inflow to pletion of the programme was generally lower Sweden of people with foreign higher educa- among those who had completed bridging tion, there is an increasing need to facilitate programmes. However, three years after establishment on the labour market. In recent completion of programmes, there were only years, the Government has greatly expanded minor differences in establishment rates. the bridging programmes, both in terms of Among those who had completed bridging the number of programmes offered and the programmes, 79 per cent were established number of admissions. In total, the bridging after three years. Of those who had completed programmes initiative for individuals with equivalent professional programme in Sweden, completed foreign qualifications covers 85 per cent were established. 13 areas at 19 different HEIs.

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 45 These results suggest that it takes a bit longer over a ten-year period, which is in line with for individuals in the group that attended a the Government’s intentions. We can see bridging programme to become established an increased number of entrants in teacher than those who completed their entire educa- training, but these have not yet graduated. tion in Sweden. This could be because they do Swedish labour market from not have an equally well-developed network an international perspective of contacts. Over time, however, they achieve almost the same establishment rate. Most of International statistics follow the balance them are established in professions for which between supply and demand for individuals their education was relevant. with tertiary education through national key variables such as the employment rate and Women and men on the unemployment rate on a more overall level. Swedish labour market Tertiary education is not in itself a guarantee Women and men are partly established in dif- of establishment on the labour market, but ferent professions. Gender segregation in the it increases the chances of gaining employ- labour market is largely a result of the uneven ment and reduces the risk of becoming unem- gender distribution within tertiary education. ployed. Within all OECD countries, a larger The labour market will not become less percentage of individuals with tertiary educa- segregated in the future. Forecasts of future tion have jobs compared to those who only supply of and demand for graduates on the have an upper-secondary education or lower. labour market in 2035 show that the gen- Among these, in turn, a higher percentage was der-segregated labour market is expected to employed than among those who had only continue, and the difference will increase in a below upper-secondary education. more than half of the education groups. Within the OECD, in 2015 an average of 84 per cent of individuals with a tertiary edu- Forecast for labour shortages cation of working age (25–64-year-olds) were and expansion of higher education employed while 5 per cent were unemployed. It is difficult to forecast future needs for per- In Sweden, the equivalent number was 89 per sonnel in different professions because of cent employed and 4 per cent unemployed. so many unknown factors. Recent forecasts, Thus, the proportion of employed in Sweden however, are largely unanimous in calling for was 5 per cent higher than the OECD average. more professionals with tertiary education within health care and education. Around ten years ago, a future shortage In Education at a Glance (EAG), the was forecast for most professional categories OECD uses three broad classifications to in these areas. A growing shortage of nurses, define levels of educational attainment doctors, dentists and most teacher categories in the adult population. These are below was expected and has now become appar- upper-secondary, upper-secondary ent in most parts of the country. HEIs need or post-secondary non-tertiary and to train more people in these categories to tertiary. As only a limited number of address these shortages. On several occasions, post-secondary non-tertiary programmes the Government has increased resources or are offered in Sweden, the terms used in redistributed funding so that HEIs can expand this report are below upper-secondary, these programmes. The three healthcare pro- upper-secondary and tertiary. grammes (dentistry, medicine and nursing) have been expanded steadily and gradually

46 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Figure 28. Employment rate in the adult population (25–64 years old) per education level 2015 sorted by employment rate for tertiary education level.

Per cent 100 Tertiary Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Italy USA Chile Israel Spain Latvia Turkey Ireland Poland France Austria Mexico Finland Icel and Gr eece Estonia Norway Canada Belgium Slovakia Portugal Sweden Hungary Slovenia Australia Denmark Germany Switzerland South Korea Netherlands Luxembourg New Zealand OECD average Czech Republic United Kingdom

Figure 29. Unemployment rate in the adult population (25–64 years old) per education level 2015 sorted by unemployment rate for tertiary education level.

Per cent 40 Tertiary Below upper secondary Upper secondary or post-secondary non-tertiary 35

0 Italy USA Chile Israel Spain Latvia Turkey Ireland Poland France Austria Mexico Finland Iceland Gr eece Estonia Norway Canada Belgium Slovakia Portugal Sweden Hungary Slovenia Australia Denmark Germany Switzerland South Korea Netherlands Luxembourg New Zealand OECD average Czech Republic United Kingdom

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 47 Sweden also had one of the highest employ- Figure 30. Unemployment for tertiary-educated ment rates in the OECD and unemployment 25–34-year-olds in comparison with the OECD average over the period 2000–2014. was lower in Sweden than the OECD average by one percentage point. Per cent A comparison of 25–34-year-olds with 9 tertiary education in Sweden and OECD 8 countries over time shows that there are large 7 variations in unemployment patterns. The 6 2007–2008 global financial crisis seems to 5 have hit many other OECD countries consider- 4 ably harder than Sweden. After 2009, the 4 gap in unemployment rates for those with 3 tertiary education between Sweden and the 2 OECD average increased relatively sharply. 1 However, the average unemployment rate 0

2011 within the OECD has decreased somewhat 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 in recent years. Since Sweden has remained OECD average at a relatively even level, with a slight increase Sweden in unemployment since last year, the gap has fallen from almost three percentage points in 2014 to below two percentage points in 2015.

48 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Teachers and the number of employees without research and teaching duties decreased by 390 FTEs. researchers As such, core activities have increased slightly, although the total number of employees has In 2016, there were 74,900 employees at Swed- remained largely unchanged. ish HEIs, the equivalent of 60,600 FTEs. If Viewed from a longer perspective, however, third-cycle students with doctoral student- there has been a considerable increase in staff ships are excluded, the total number of FTEs at HEIs. In particular, research and teaching was 50,500. About 29 per cent of all govern- staff increased over the thirty-year period ment employees in Sweden work in higher studied (1986–2016), while the number of staff education. Calculated in terms of FTEs, this not researching and teaching remained largely figure is approximately 26 per cent. Doctoral unchanged. In 1986, researching and teach- students conduct a considerable amount of ing staff totalled 40 per cent of all employees the research and teaching at Swedish HEIs, but (FTEs, excluding doctoral students). In 2016, this report mainly considers them students researching and teaching staff totalled 58 per and they are not included in the following cent of all employees. description of research and teaching staff. In 2016, the number of employees increased Staff without research by 160 FTEs. The number of employees pri- or teaching duties marily researching and teaching increased by The number of employees that have other 240 FTEs, while the number of employees with duties than research and teaching totalled just other duties decreased by 80 FTEs. Over the over 21,100 FTEs in 2016, which is 80 fewer last three years, the number of research and than 2015. Compared to 2006, however, FTEs teaching staff has increased by 340 FTEs, while have increased by 12 per cent.

Figure 31. Number of staff at HEIs 1986–2016 Figure 32. Number of employees without (FTEs). research or teaching duties (FTEs) at HEIs 2006–2016. Number of FTEs 70,000 Number of FTEs 14,000 60,000 12,000 50,000 10,000 40,000 8,000 30,000 6,000 20,000 4,000 10,000 2,000 0

1991 2011 0 1986 1996 2001 2006 2016

2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Number of FTEs 2006 2007 2008 2009 Number of FTEs excluding doctoral students with positions Administrative staff Research and teaching staff Technical staff Non-research and non-teaching staff Hourly temporary staff Library staff

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 49 More than half of the employees without Figure 33. Percentage of different employment research and teaching duties consist of admin- categories among research and teaching staff 2016 (FTEs). istrative staff, approximately 11,700 FTEs in

2016. Compared to 2006, administrative staff Other research/ has increased by 26 per cent. In relative terms, teaching staff with a doctorate (11%) this increase is on par with the increase in Professors (17%) research and teaching staff, which has also Other research/ increased by 26 per cent in the same period. teaching staff without a The second largest category among employ- doctorate ees without research or teaching duties is tech- (14%) nical staff, totalling more than 6,800 FTEs in Senior 2016. Staff without research or teaching duties Lecturers (17%) lecturers also includes temporary employees totalling (30%) 1,400 FTEs in 2016 and the HEIs’ library staff, totalling 1,200 FTEs. The number of employees Career-development positions (11%) in these three groups has not changed significantly compared to 2006. Only the number of viduals). Primarily career development posi- administrative staff has increased. tions and senior lecturers increased. On the other hand, the number of employees in the Research and teaching staff category other research and teaching staff In 2016, HEIs had over 29,400 FTEs conduct- decreased. ing research or teaching (35,200 individuals). The single largest employment category Between 2015 and 2016, the size of research in 2016 was senior lecturers. Senior lecturers and teaching staff rose by 240 FTEs (320 indi- accounted for 30 per cent of research and

EMPLOYMENT CATEGORIES Research and teaching staff primarily senior lecturers, together with postdoctoral consist of categories that were previously positions, form their own employment regulated by the Swedish Higher Education category – career development positions. Act (1992:1434) and the Swedish Higher In addition to these positions, there are a Education Ordinance, namely professors, large number of other employees who also senior lecturers, postdoctoral research have research or teaching duties. These are fellows, associate senior lecturers and included in the category other employees lecturers. with research and teaching duties, where The Higher Education Act’s regulation researchers, research engineers and of teaching positions changed with the research assistants make up just over 60 autonomy reform (Bill 2009/10:149). per cent. Those included in the category Since 1 January 2011, the teaching cate- are, in turn, divided based on whether they gories professor and senior lecturer are still have a PhD or not. For example, researchers regulated and a fixed-term ‘employment for generally have a PhD while research assis- career development positions’ was added tants do not. The category other research in the Swedish Higher Education Ordinance and teaching staff without PhDs also (1993:100) on 15 August 2012. Post- includes individuals for whom data is lacking doctoral research fellows and associate on education level.

50 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Figure 34. Number of research and teaching staff Figure 35. Career development positions divided (FTEs) at HEIs 2006–2016 by employment by number of two-year postdoctoral positions category. and four-year positions as postdoctoral research fellows and associate senior lecturers Number of FTEs 2006–2016 (FTEs). 9,000 Number of FTEs 8,000 2,500 7,000

6,000 2,000 5,000

4,000 1,500

3,000

2,000 1,000

1,000 500 0

2011 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 0 Senior lecturers 2011 Professors 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 Lecturers Other research/teaching staff without a doctorate Postdoctoral fellows Other research/teaching staff with a doctorate Associate senior lecturers Career-development positions and postdoctoral research fellows Associate senior lecturers Postdoctoral research fellows teaching staff, while professors and lecturers Lecturers primarily teach at the first- and each accounted for 17 per cent. The category second-cycle levels and no requirements for other research and teaching staff without a PhD were specified when this employment PhDs accounted for 14 per cent, those with category was codified. Of the lecturers, how- PhDs for 11 per cent and career development ever, 16 per cent had third-cycle degrees (PhD positions for 11 per cent. or Licentiate or other third-cycle education) in 2016. The number of lecturers has continu- Continued increase in the number ously decreased for many years. In 2016, there of senior lecturers and career were 4,900 lecturers (FTEs), 1,230 fewer than development positions in 2006. This decrease is likely a consequence Over the past ten years, the number of senior of efforts by HEIs to employ mainly teachers lecturers has increased significantly, especially with PhDs to strengthen links with research the number of female senior lecturers. Between and expand research expertise in first- and 2006 and 2016, the number of senior lecturers second-cycle courses and programmes. increased from 6,220 to 8,820, an increase of The employment category other research 42 per cent. and teaching staff primarily includes employ- The number of professors has also ees who are mainly engaged in research. increased significantly in recent years. Since Employees in this category may have many 2006, it has grown by more than 1,130 FTEs, different job titles. The most common title which corresponds to an increase of 28 per among those with a PhD is researcher. In cent. In 2016, there were 5,120 professors 2016, over 60 per cent of employees in this (FTEs) employed at HEIs.

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 51 CAREER DEVELOPMENT POSITIONS After being awarded a PhD, graduates have but subsequently a central agreement has the possibility of obtaining qualifications for been signed). a continued career in research or another During 2011 and parts of 2012, the senior post through a fixed-term appoint- career development positions that existed ment. Specific regulations have enabled a in addition to postdoctoral positions, that number of career development positions is to say, postdoctoral research fellow- to be offered (postdoctoral research ships and associate senior lectureships, fellowships, associate senior lectureships were not subject to any centrally agreed and postdoctoral positions). As consider- terms or legislation. Since 15 August 2012, ably more PhDs are awarded than the num- however, the Higher Education Ordinance ber of appointments available, the chances (1993:100) contains provisions on ‘career of acquiring this kind of post are limited. development positions’. A teacher may be Postdoctoral positions in their current employed for up to four years to enable form have existed since the autumn of her or him to develop research autonomy 2008, when the Swedish Agency for and acquire the qualifications needed for Government Employers signed an agree- appointment in another teaching post that ment with representatives of the trade requires more advanced qualifications. unions on fixed-term postdoctoral posi- If there are special grounds for doing so, tions. This agreement allows the HEIs to fill a the appointment may be extended to a post-doctoral position, but for a maximum maximum of six years. of two years which can be extended if there Judging from the appointment proce- are special grounds for doing so. (Post- dures in place at the HEIs, positions of this doctoral positions already existed, however. kind are usually referred to as postdoctoral The terms on which these positions were research fellowships or associate senior offered were decided locally by the HEIs, lectureships.

employment category had this title. Research- FTEs (8 per cent) between 2015 and 2016, to ers, research engineers and research assistants a total of 3,140 FTEs. Since 2006, the number were the most common titles among other of career development positions has risen research and teaching staff without a PhD, and by about 1,970 FTEs. Two-year postdoctoral 40 per cent had one of these titles. positions accounted for the bulk of this Between 2015 and 2016, the number of increase. Career development positions have employees in the category other research primarily increased within medicine and the and teaching staff with PhDs decreased by health sciences. Since 2006, this number has about 150 FTE, while those with lower degrees more than tripled, from 330 to 1,150 FTEs, and decreased by just over 90 FTEs. In 2016, there the increase is mainly for postdoctoral positions. were just over 3,300 in the category with a Decrease in temporary appointments PhD, while 4,130 had a lower degree. Com- among research and teaching staff pared to 2006, however, the number of employees in both groups has increased. Several types of employment at HEIs are reg- The number with PhDs increased by 660 FTEs ulated as temporary appointments. As such, and those with lower degree by 940 FTEs. fixed-term employment is used more widely The number of employees with career with staff in higher education compared to development positions increased by 240 employees in other government sectors. An

52 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT example of this is that all career develop- from 70 to 28 per cent. Between 2015 and 2016, ment positions are limited to either two or the percentage with fixed-term employment four years. Fixed-term positions in some other decreased by five percentage points. Among employment categories are also relatively com- staff in the category other research and teach- mon because of the way regulations are for- ing staff without PhDs, the percentage of fixed- mulated. Among professors, for example, guest term employment decreased, but not by as professorships and adjunct professorships are much, from 69 per cent in 2008 to 51 per cent fixed-term positions. However, within the cat- in 2016. Between 2015 and 2016, the percent- egory other research and teaching staff, the age with fixed-term employment decreased high percentage of fixed-term employment by four percentage points. cannot be explained by regulations. More women had fixed-term appoint- Twenty-eight per cent of research and ments than men in 2016 among research and teaching staff had fixed-term employment teaching staff, 30 per cent and 27 per cent in 2016 (counted in FTEs). Compared to 2015, respectively. Compared to 2015, however, the proportion of fixed-term employment the proportion of women with fixed-term decreased by two percentage points. During employment decreased by two percentage the nine years in which it is possible to follow points. In most employment categories, it was trends, fixed-term employment has, on the somewhat more common for women to have whole, decreased by six percentage points. fixed-term appointments. The only excep- On the other hand, the proportion of fixed- tion is within the employment category other term employment has decreased significantly research and teaching staff without a PhD, for employees in the category other research where a higher proportion of men had a fixed- and teaching staff. Between 2008 and 2016, the term employment. percentage among those with PhDs decreased

Figure 36. Proportion of research and teaching Women and men staff with fixed-term appointments 2008– The gender ratio among research and teach- 2016 per employment category (FTEs). ing staff has evened out, generally speaking.

Per cent It went from 40 per cent women in 2006 to 100 45 per cent in 2016 (FTEs). Between 2015 and 90 2016, the proportion of female research and 80 teaching staff rose by 0.3 percentage points. 70 There are differences in the proportions of 60 women in different employment categories 50 but they all lie within what is considered the 40 equal range of 40–60 per cent, except for pro- 30 fessors. Among professors, the proportion of 20 women was 27 per cent in 2016, an increase 10 of about one percentage point compared 0 with the previous year. The proportion of

2011 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 women and men in the different staff groups Career-development positions is approximately the same if counting individ- Other research and teaching staff without doctorates uals and not FTEs. Other research and teaching staff with doctorates Total Lecturers Senior lecturers Professors

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 53 One of the objectives of the Government’s Figure 37. Gender ratio in management research policy bill (Bill 2016/17:50) is to functions 2017. increase equality at Swedish HEIs. This applies not least to the proportion of female profes- Vice-chancellor sors, which, according to the Government, Acting vice-chancellor should increase. To accelerate this increase, the Deputy vice-chancellor Government has set new recruitment targets for the period 2017–2019. The targets Chief administrative ofﬁcer are adapted for each HEI and have been calculated based on what the Government consid- Dean/Dean of Faculty ers to be the recruitment base, namely senior Chief librarians lecturers, postdoctoral research fellows and 0 20 40 60 80 100 associate senior lecturers, divided by field of Per cent Women Men research at the respective HEIs. The targets include those who have been promoted to professorships and visiting professorships, vice-chancellors, deputy vice-chancellors, chief but not adjunct professors. There have been administrative officers, deans and deans of similar targets since 1997, except for the period faculties were relatively even, even though 2009–2011. men dominate certain positions. The propor- The proportion of women among senior tion of women varied between 39 and 52 per lecturers has risen from 37 to 46 per cent since cent. 2006. As senior lecturers constitute a relatively large group, this has an overall impact on the Foreign background gender ratio among teachers and researchers. Senior lectureships often precede appoint- Like society at large, there is a growing impact ments to professorships, and it is reasonable to on the higher education sector from increased believe that the increase in women professors internationalisation and global recruitment. will continue. Thirty-two per cent of staff had foreign back- The proportion of women with career- grounds in 2016 (foreign born or born in development positions increased until 2008 Sweden to two foreign-born parents). The and since then has remained stable at around majority of these are foreign born. The pro- 44–46 per cent (44 per cent 2016). Among staff portion of foreign-born research and teaching in the category other research and teaching staff equals 29 per cent. Staff with a foreign staff with PhDs, the percentage of women background includes foreign visiting research- increased from 41 to 44 per cent between ers, that is to say, individuals who came to 2006 and 2016. Sweden for the purpose of working at a Swedish HEI. However, this definition of foreign background is broader than that used Relatively even gender ratio for students and doctoral students since it at management level in 2017 includes employees not registered as residents. Of Sweden’s population, 23 per cent UKÄ has conducted a survey of gender ratios had foreign backgrounds in 2016. With the for specific overall management functions broad definition used here, the proportion of at the HEIs. This survey was in the form of a employees with foreign backgrounds among questionnaire sent to 48 HEIs and responses teachers and researchers was almost 10 per- were received from 45 HEIs. It showed that the centage points higher. gender ratios among vice-chancellors, acting

54 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT Figure 38. Allocation of expenditures in the Finance and higher education sector in 2016. research funding Costs for Central student authorities, 1% ﬁnancing, In 2016, the total expenditures for operations 12% at Sweden’s HEIs amounted to SEK 69 billion, which is SEK 2 billion more than the previous year. This amount does not include the State’s HEIs, costs for student financing and the govern- 87% ment agencies that deal with different aspects of higher education. According to information from CSN, the cost of student financing for university studies was SEK 9.6 billion. Allo- cations to the government agencies totalled SEK 0.9 billion in 2016. This means that total expenditures for the higher education sector Figure 39. Total funding for first- and second- were SEK 79.4 billion, which corresponds to cycle courses and programmes and for research 1.81 per cent of Sweden’s GDP. and third-cycle courses and programmes 1997–2016, SEK billions at 2016 prices.

SEK billions Funding for the HEIs 70

The HEI’s operations are divided into two 60 areas: 1) first- and second-cycle education and 2) research and third-cycle education. As such, 50 all revenues and expenses are to be attributed 40 to one of these areas. Direct government funding has the same division of areas: the HEIs 30 receive one amount for first- and second-cycle 20 education and another amount for research 10 and third-cycle study education. The funding differs between the two areas. 0

2002 2010 2016 While direct government funding provides, 1998 2000 2004 2006 2008 2012 2014 by far, the largest share of funding to the HEIs Total for first- and second-cycle education (86 per Research and third-cycle courses and programmes cent), the percentage is significantly lower for First- and second-cycle programmes research and third-cycle education (44 per cent). However, for third-cycle education and become more research-driven as resources research, the state also channels significant have increased faster for research than for funds indirectly to the HEIs through research educational activities. In relative terms, in the councils and other agencies. period 1997–2006, funding grew at about the Most of the publicly funded research is same level for research and education. After conducted through HEIs. This is the reason 2006, however, the HEIs’ research funding has why the HEIs’ revenues for research and grown considerably faster than funding for third-cycle education have been larger than first- and second-cycle education. Between those for first- and second-cycle education. 2006 and 2016, funding for research and Over the last decade, however, HEIs have third-cycle education grew by SEK 11.6

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 55 billion (40 per cent) while funding for first-and Staff accounted for most second-cycle education grew by only SEK 1.9 of the HEIs’ cost increases billion (7 per cent). This means that the per- All in all, the HEIs showed a small surplus in centage of funding for third-cycle research and their operations for 2016. Total operating costs education increased by more than six percent- were SEK 69.0 billion, while operating revenue age points, from 52.4 to 58.8 per cent, between amounted to SEK 69.2 billion. 2006 and 2016. Staff costs represent the largest cost item This trend of long-term increase in funding on the HEIs’ income statements, and account continued in 2016. Funding for HEIs totalled for most of the cost increase between 2015 and SEK 69.2 billion. This was an increase of 2016. Staff costs increased by a total of SEK SEK 2.1 billion in fixed prices, equivalent to 1.4 billion in fixed prices, of which SEK 0.8 3.1 per cent, when compared to 2015. Most billion were in educational activities and SEK of this increase was in the form of funding for 0.6 billion were in research activities. A com- research and third-cycle education totalling parison between the HEIs’ income state- SEK 1.8 billion, while funding for first- and ments for 2006 and 2016 shows that staff costs second-cycle education rose just over SEK increased during this period from 60.2 to 0.3 billion. So the trend of HEIs becoming 62.9 per cent, while the share of premises costs more heavily focused on research continued in has fallen from 14.2 to 12.5 per cent. 2016. Funding for research and third-cycle education totalled SEK 40.7 billion while funding for first- and second-cycle education totalled Funding for first- and SEK 28.1 billion. second-cycle education First- and second-cycle education at Swedish Figure 40. Funding for first- and second-cycle HEIs are financed primarily through govern- education and for research and third-cycle ment funding that the Riksdag pays to the education in 2006 and 2016, per source of HEIs directly and there are no tuition fees for financing, in SEK billions in 2016 prices. most students. In 2016, direct government SEK billions funding totalled SEK 24.2 billion, which cor- responded to 86 per cent of the HEIs’ total funding for first- and second-cycle courses and programmes. Fee revenues to HEIs were just

over SEK 1.7 billion. Tuition fees from paying

students accounted for one-third of total fee revenues.

Ongoing adjustments

to size of education

For several years, relatively large changes have occurred to government funding of HEIs for first-cycle study education, partly due to First and second Research and thirdcycle cycle programmes courses and programmes expanding education and partly due to other

EU implemented reforms. A number of tempo- Foreign sources of funding (excl. EU) rary expansions have been implemented Other public sources of funding Private sources of funding during the period 2010–2015, and in 2015 a Other revenue and ﬁnancial revenues permanent expansion of first- and second- Government agencies Direct government funding cycle education began. This expansion, mainly

56 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES FOR FIRST- AND SECOND-CYCLE COURSES AND PROGRAMMES Government funding for the first- and the humanities, social sciences, law and second-cycle courses and programmes theology, domains which receive the lowest offered by the HEIs is based on the number funding. One-third were in engineering and of registered students (converted to FTEs) technology and in the natural sciences, so and the credits they attain (converted to most of the remaining disciplinary domains annual performance equivalents) in the dif- were small. Programmes in the fine, applied ferent disciplinary domains. The funding and performing arts, the domains that is the same for all HEIs covered by the sys- receive the highest per capita funding, only tem, but varies between different discipli- have a few per cent of the total number of nary domains. A funding cap establishes the students. maximum amount each HEI may receive The allocation system and funding cap and, together with the way in which courses apply to the public HEIs with the exception and programmes are divided among the of the Swedish University of Agricultural different disciplinary domains, sets the Sciences, the Swedish Defence University, limits for the number of students. Chalmers University of Technology and All first- and second-cycle education Jönköping University. These HEIs have 97 is in the form of courses, which are classi- per cent of the total number of students in fied as belonging to one or several discipli- terms of FTEs. HEIs may be assigned other nary domains. The Government determines tasks that are funded by direct government which disciplinary domains each HEI may funding, such as offering education in include in calculating FTEs and annual per- specific languages and teacher education in formance equivalents. The HEIs that include minority languages. For other tasks, such as FTE’s and annual performance equivalents supplementary programmes for individuals in the fine, applied and performing arts are who have graduated outside Sweden only allowed to do so for a limited number or qualifying programmes for teachers of students. Otherwise the HEIs decide for who lack certification, HEIs receive direct themselves how to classify the disciplinary government funding which is allocated by domain or domains that courses belong to. the Swedish Legal, Financial and Adminis- Resources are then allocated to the HEIs on trative Services Agency (Kammarkollegiet). the basis of these classifications. Independent education providers receive, In 2016, over 40 per cent of the entire with a few exceptions, indirect government number of students (total FTEs) were in funding for higher education programmes.

of medical and health sciences education and Revenues from tuition fees various teacher programmes, means the addi- continue to increase tion of SEK 1.1 billion in public funding when Since the 2011 autumn semester, incoming fully implemented in 2019. In addition, in 2017, students from outside the EU/EEA and an expansion of teacher and preschool teacher Switzerland who do not participate in education will begin. When the expansion is exchange programmes have to pay tuition fees fully implemented in 2021, it is estimated to in Sweden. The total amount of tuition fees add SEK 270 million to public funding. from paying students is still rather small but growing. In 2016, the HEIs received revenues

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 57 amounting to SEK 580 million from applica- Figure 41. HEIs’ revenues for research and third- tion and tuition fees. Compared to 2015, this cycle courses and programmes from direct government funding and external funding and was an increase of SEK 73 million in fixed financial revenues 2006–2016, SEK billions in prices, equivalent to 14 per cent. In relation to 2016 prices. government funding, revenues from activities with tuition fees accounted for approximately Per cent 2.5 per cent of the HEIs’ first-cycle education. 100 90 Unchanged revenue from 80 commissioned education 70 In addition to first- and second-cycle edu- 60 cation, HEIs also offer contract education 50 for public authorities, companies and other 40 organisations. Contract education is financed 30 with a fee from the client that needs to cover 20 all costs the HEI may have for the activity. 10 Total revenues for HEIs from contract educa- 0

2011 tion amounted to SEK 1.4 billion last year, and 2008 2009 2010 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 commissions came mainly from government Career-development positions agencies (64 per cent of revenues), municipali- Other research and teaching staff without doctorates Other research and teaching staff with doctorates ties and county councils (16 per cent) and Total companies in Sweden (9 per cent). There have Lecturers Senior lecturers been no major changes in the scope of con- Professors tract education in recent years.

research councils and other research-funding Funding for research agencies. In total, state funding made up 70 per and third-cycle courses cent of HEIs’ total revenues for research and third-cycle courses and programmes. and programmes Other public funding comes from munic- HEIs’ total revenues for research and third- ipalities and county councils and from pub- cycle education amounted to SEK 40.7 billion lic research foundations. These public funds in 2016. This was an increase of SEK 1.8 billion totalled SEK 2.6 billion in 2016, corresponding in fixed prices, equivalent to 4.6 per cent, from to just over 6 per cent of the research revenues 2015. SEK 17.8 billion of total revenues came for the HEIs. This means that 77 per cent of from direct government funding and SEK the HEIs’ research was financed with Swedish 22.8 billion from external funding, while public funding. Since Sweden also contributes financial revenues amounted to SEK 0.1 to the EU’s joint research budget, funds from billion. Research revenues for HEIs have the EU can also be considered public funding. increased for ten consecutive years; from 2006 Including EU funding, which amounted to to 2016, revenues increased by SEK 11.6 billion SEK 1.7 billion in 2016, 81 per cent of HEIs’ in fixed prices. research was financed from public funding. Direct government funding totalled SEK In an international perspective, Swedish 17.8 billion in 2016, but varied considerably in HEIs have a high percentage of external size between HEIs. In addition to the direct funding from private foundations and other government funding, a considerable amount non-profit organisations, and in 2016 these of research funding is channelled through the accounted for 12 per cent of the funding for

58 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT ALLOCATION OF RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH AND THIRD-CYCLE COURSES AND PROGRAMMES The current funding system specifies that status and one-third went to HEIs without new funding for research and third-cycle full university status. The effect was signif- courses and programmes as well as 20 per icantly greater relative increases in funding cent of the existing direct government fund- for the latter two types of HEIs. In the lat- ing is to be based on two quality indicators: est research policy bill (Bill 2016/17:50), external funding and research productivity the Government has proposed that collab- (publications and citations). oration with the surrounding community This allocation principle was introduced be added as a criterion for resource alloca- in 2009, when the proportion reallocated tions. totalled 10 per cent, but this was later In addition to its direct funding, the increased to 20 per cent in 2014. The Government channels resources for current Government modified the model for research through the research councils and the allocation of resources starting in 2016 other public agencies that fund research. so that one-third of the increased funding Although this funding is determined by went to more established HEIs, one-third political decisions, it is allocated competi- went to HEIs recently awarded full university tively.

Figure 42. HEIs’ revenues for research and Half of the research grants third-cycle courses and programmes from come from government authorities external sources in 2006, 2011 and 2016 per In 2016, half of research grants, SEK 9.6 billion, source of funding, SEK billions in 2016 prices. came from government funding through research councils and other public authori- Vice-chancellor ties. Compared to 2016, this was an increase Acting vice-chancellor of SEK 0.1 billion. Most government research grants, totalling SEK 6.3 billion, are chan- Deputy vice-chancellor nelled through the three research councils. Chief administrative ofﬁcer The Swedish Research Council’s contribution amounted to SEK 4.9 billion, an increase of Dean/Dean of Faculty 54 million since 2015. Chief librarians

0 20 40 60 80 100 Per cent Women Men research and third-cycle courses and programmes. Together with the 4 per cent of research revenue from companies in Sweden, the share of private funding in 2016 amounted to almost 16 per cent. The remaining just over 3 per cent of research revenues comes mainly from other countries (excluding EU) and financial revenues.

TRENDS AND DEVELOPMENTS 2016 STATUS REPORT 59 Key figures for higher education institutions Higher education is offered at about fifty Third-cycle courses HEIs that vary greatly in size and degree of and programmes specialisation. The accompanying tables present quantitative data to describe the Third-cycle entrants. New students in differences and similarities between the third-cycle studies, 2016. HEIs. The smallest non-state HEIs have been Total number of third-cycle students. The excluded. number of active third-cycle students, autumn semester 2015. Active students are those who First- and second-cycle have reported at least 1 per cent of full-time study activity. courses and programmes PhD degrees. The number of PhD degrees HE entrants to higher education at the insti- awarded, 2016. tution. These figures indicate the number of Licentiate degrees. The number of Licentiate individuals beginning to study for the first degrees awarded, 2016. time at the HEI in the 2015/16 academic year in Sweden. Median age of new entrants. Median age of Teaching and research staff new entrants at the HEIs and new entrants for Teaching and research staff. The number the first time in any HEI in the 2015/16 of teaching and research staff (in FTEs), 2016. academic year. The figures include professors, senior lectures, Proportion of women/men. The proportion of lecturers, post-doctoral research fellows, women and men among HE entrants in visiting lecturers, fixed-term part-time the 2015/16 academic year. lecturers and other research and teaching staff. Total number of students. Total number of Proportion of women/men. The proportion students, autumn semester 2016. of women and men among teaching and research staff, 2016. Education profile. The number of FTEs in some subject areas – humanities, theology, Teaching and research staff with PhDs. social science and technology – divided by all The proportion of the teaching and research FTEs in the 2015/16 academic year. staff with PhD degrees, 2016. The proportion of FTEs in second-cycle courses and programmes. The number of Funding FTEs studying in the second cycle divided by Total expenditure. Total expenditure (SEK all first- and second-cycle FTEs in the 2015/16 million), 2016. academic year. Proportion of first- and second-cycle courses Total number of qualifications awarded. and programmes. The proportion of expend- The total number of qualifications awarded iture for first- and second-cycle courses and in the 2015/16 academic year. programmes related to total expenditure, 2016.

KEY FIGURES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 2016 STATUS REPORT 61 FIRST, AND SECOND-CYCLE COURSES AND PROGRAMMES Total number HE entrants Proportion of students at the Median of women/ (autumn HEI institution age men semester 2016) Total 168 257 22,0 56/44 343 209 Uppsala University 14 130 21,5 56/44 28 808 Lund University 12 213 21,6 56/44 29 595 University of Gothenburg 12 273 22,1 64/36 30 574 Stockholm University 16 286 21,9 63/37 34 084 Umeå University 10 673 22,3 61/39 20 753 Linköping University 7 562 21,7 54/46 19 915 Karolinska Institutet 3 103 22,6 73/27 7 253 KTH Royal Institute of Technology 7 101 22,2 32/68 15 181 Chalmers University of Technology 3 123 21,9 30/70 9 669 Luleå University of Technology 5 127 21,8 44/56 9 309 Stockholm School of Economics 680 21,9 41/59 1 782 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 1 716 22,8 65/35 4 466 Karlstad University 5 084 21,9 59/41 10 265 Linnaeus University 12 832 22,5 60/40 18 448 Örebro University 5 046 21,6 59/41 10 981 Mid Sweden University 7 134 23,2 60/40 8 973 Blekinge Institute of Technology 2 640 21,4 33/67 3 941 Swedish Defence University 376 23,1 29/71 679 Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences 512 22,0 43/57 1 013 University of Borås 3 154 22,4 69/31 6 620 Dalarna University 7 110 23,7 57/43 8 946 University of Gävle 8 337 23,0 61/39 9 402 Halmstad University 3 914 22,1 54/46 6 679 Kristianstad University 6 587 22,6 67/33 8 058 University of Skövde 3 783 22,1 52/48 4 947 University West 3 523 22,2 61/39 6 296 Malmö University 7 165 22,6 66/34 14 600 Mälardalen University 5 160 22,3 62/38 10 353 Jönköping University 5 031 21,9 57/43 8 758 Södertörn University 4 216 21,9 67/33 7 259 University College of Arts, Crafts and Design 291 24,6 67/33 725 Royal Institute of Art 108 26,0 70/30 225 Royal College of Music in Stockholm 546 23,6 53/47 879 Stockholm University of the Arts 445 26,7 66/34 642

62 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT FIRST- AND SECOND-CYCLE COURSES AND PROGRAMMES Social Total Humanities/ siences / Second- number of theology law Technology cycle qualifications HEI (%) (%) (%) (%) awarded Total 14 41 15 20 81 169 Uppsala University 21 37 9 25 6 028 Lund University 16 38 16 27 8 685 University of Gothenburg 16 51 23 6 177 Stockholm University 24 62 19 6 237 Umeå University 14 41 7 21 4 628 Linköping University 11 35 21 24 5 330 Karolinska Institutet 1 11 40 2 752 KTH Royal Institute of Technology 3 1 71 41 3 983 Chalmers University of Technology 2 10 62 37 3 145 Luleå University of Technology 9 29 32 17 1 708 Stockholm School of Economics 2 98 58 670 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 14 23 34 1 052 Karlstad University 9 57 9 13 2 008 Linnaeus University 20 48 7 11 3 081 Örebro University 8 55 6 14 2 582 Mid Sweden University 16 46 14 8 1 687 Blekinge Institute of Technology 2 5 69 27 766 Swedish Defence University 9 51 9 9 98 Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences 13 16 113 University of Borås 9 50 16 14 1 883 Dalarna University 39 37 8 7 1 254 University of Gävle 13 44 19 7 1 478 Halmstad University 13 43 19 9 1 301 Kristianstad University 4 65 6 8 1 200 University of Skövde 13 23 32 6 1 052 University West 6 59 13 7 1 481 Malmö University 10 58 12 13 3 041 Mälardalen University 10 50 13 12 2 205 Jönköping University 11 43 21 14 2 479 Södertörn University 36 45 7 1 175 University College of Arts, Crafts and Design 1 11 34 110 Royal Institute of Art 64 40 Royal College of Music in Stockholm 10 24 158 Stockholm University of the Arts 16 24 106

KEY FIGURES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 2016 STATUS REPORT 63 THIRD-CYCLE COURSES AND PROGRAMMES Total number of third-cycle Third-cycle students (autumn PhD Licentiate HEI entrants semester 2016) degrees degrees Total 2 929 18 012 2 985 687 Uppsala University 335 2 117 389 77 Lund University 385 2 472 460 48 University of Gothenburg 253 1 526 250 15 Stockholm University 237 1 478 232 72 Umeå University 147 903 177 13 Linköping University 158 1 129 195 46 Karolinska Institutet 354 2 283 331 7 KTH Royal Institute of Technology 300 1 790 279 100 Chalmers University of Technology 199 1 138 204 152 Luleå University of Technology 81 504 78 43 Stockholm School of Economics 20 138 17 4 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 93 499 128 13 Karlstad University 30 229 25 12 Linnaeus University 31 251 36 3 Örebro University 99 404 66 8 Mid Sweden University 29 160 23 9 Blekinge Institute of Technology 16 88 9 10 Swedish Defence University Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences 4 17 2 University of Borås 10 54 7 3 Dalarna University 2 11 1 1 University of Gävle 12 37 Halmstad University 10 62 4 3 Kristianstad University University of Skövde 7 39 1 3 University West 8 50 4 5 Malmö University 26 184 17 2 Mälardalen University 33 206 25 27 Jönköping University 37 180 16 11 Södertörn University 9 74 9 University College of Arts, Crafts and Design Royal Institute of Art Royal College of Music in Stockholm Stockholm University of the Arts

64 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2016 STATUS REPORT TEACHING AND RESEARCH STAFF FUNDING Proportion Teaching of first- and Teaching and Proportion and research Total second-cycle research of women/ staff with expenditure courses and HEI staff (FTE) men PhDs (SEK million) programmes Total 29 420 45/55 58 68 954 41 Uppsala University 2 994 44/56 60 6 636 29 Lund University 2 961 39/61 67 7 993 30 University of Gothenburg 2 645 50/50 66 6 149 40 Stockholm University 2 403 46/54 57 4 924 42 Umeå University 1 923 47/53 63 4 227 41 Linköping University 1 580 40/60 65 3 762 43 Karolinska Institutet 2 071 52/48 59 6 578 16 KTH Royal Institute of Technology 1 543 24/76 55 4 445 31 Chalmers University of Technology 1 266 23/77 55 3 811 28 Luleå University of Technology 616 37/63 65 1 688 43 Stockholm School of Economics 98 23/77 73 427 65 Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences 1 362 47/53 58 3 246 17 Karlstad University 610 50/50 52 1 071 67 Linnaeus University 993 47/53 50 1 763 73 Örebro University 568 51/49 60 1 263 63 Mid Sweden University 494 46/54 50 937 62 Blekinge Institute of Technology 220 36/64 45 441 69 Swedish Defence University 197 27/73 29 495 76 Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences 62 42/58 52 140 73 University of Borås 342 54/46 49 646 80 Dalarna University 414 56/44 41 613 82 University of Gävle 381 51/49 44 618 78 Halmstad University 290 46/54 54 561 74 Kristianstad University 301 61/39 46 478 87 University of Skövde 284 39/61 45 463 73 University West 304 56/44 45 510 79 Malmö University 737 54/46 49 1 378 81 Mälardalen University 478 48/52 49 865 70 Jönköping University 381 55/45 45 896 72 Södertörn University 374 52/48 66 758 64 University College of Arts, Crafts and Design 69 59/41 21 177 91 Royal Institute of Art 27 60/40 78 93 Royal College of Music in Stockholm 73 29/71 9 177 95 Stockholm University of the Arts 89 59/41 5 266 77

KEY FIGURES FOR HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS 2016 STATUS REPORT 65 Higher Education Institutions in Sweden 2016

HEIs with entitlement to award first, HEIs entitled to award first and second and third-cycle qualifications second-cycle qualifications

Accountable to the Government Accountable to the Government Uppsala University Kristianstad University** Lund University University College of Arts, Crafts and Design** University of Gothenburg Royal Institute of Art** Stockholm University Royal College of Music in Stockholm** Umeå University Swedish Defence University** Linköping University Independent education providers Karolinska Institutet Beckman College of Design KTH Royal Institute of Technology Gammelkroppa School of Forestry Luleå University of Technology Johannelund Theological Seminary Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Newman Institute Karlstad University The Red Cross University College** Linnaeus University University College of Music Education in Stockholm Mid Sweden University Örebro School of Theology

Örebro University Independent course providers Blekinge Institute of Technology* Evidens University College** Dalarna University* Stockholm Academy for Psychotherapy Training** Halmstad University* The Erica Foundation** Malmö University* The Swedish Institute for CBT & Schema Therapy** Mälardalen University* **HEI entitled to award second-cycle qualifications. Södertörn University* The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences* University of Borås* University of Gävle* University of Skövde* University West*

Independent

Chalmers University of Technology

Ersta Sköndal Bräcke University College* Jönköping University* Sophiahemmet University* Stockholm School of Economics Stockholm School of Theology*

Stockholm University of Arts*

*HEI entitled to award third-cycle qualifications in only one or more specific research domains at the end of 2016.

66 HIGHER EDUCATION IN SWEDEN – 2017 STATUS REPORT