Anna Hägg Translating Swedish University Webpages Into English

Home , Education in Stockholm, Karolinska Institute, Konstfack, Royal Institute of Art

Estetisk-filosofiska fakulteten

Anna Hägg

Translating Swedish University Webpages into English A study of translation strategies

Engelska C-uppsats

Termin: Vårterminen 2011 Handledare: Elisabeth Wennö

Karlstads universitet 651 88 Karlstad Tfn 054-700 10 00 Fax 054-700 14 60 [email protected] www.kau.se

Abstract

Titel: Translating Swedish University Webpages into English. A study of translation strategies.

Författare: Anna Hägg

Antal sidor: 31

Abstract: The focus of this paper is on university webpages and the translation of these. With the help of existing translation strategies, it aims to map out the strategies used in Swedish webpages in English with a focus on names and words/expressions for which there are no direct equivalents in English. The study shows that the most common strategies regarding the translation of names were translating word for word and using the nearest equivalent. Regarding language-specific expressions, the most common strategies were using cultural equivalents and reduction. Not surprisingly, additions in the text were most often matters of importance to an international audience, and the most common omissions were matters that only had a local interest.

Nyckelord: University webpages, translation, translation strategies, Swedish, English

Table of Contents

1. Introduction and aims ...... 1

1.1. Introduction ...... 1

1.2. Aims ...... 1

2. Background ...... 2

2.1. What is translation? ...... 2

2.2. Problems in translation ...... 3

2.3. Translating webpages ...... 4

2.3.1. Translating culture-specific phenomena ...... 5

2.4. Translation strategies ...... 6

2.4.1. Translating names ...... 6

2.4.2. Translating language-specific expressions ...... 7

3. Method and materials ...... 8

4. Results and analysis ...... 10

4.1. Translating names ...... 10

4.2. Translating language-specific expressions ...... 15

5. Conclusion ...... 20

6. References ...... 22

6.1. Primary sources ...... 22

6.2. Secondary sources ...... 27

1. Introduction and aims

1.1. Introduction

Translating is an area in which many problems can arise. As we all know, there are differences between countries and cultures since we construct and experience the world differently. There are, for example, different types of food that we know of depending on where we live, differences in school systems, environments and landscapes and at work. This situation affects language and translation. If a certain type of food or natural phenomenon does not exist in a country, there is no need to have a word for it. Culture-specific phenomena, fixed expressions and names, for example, therefore pose a special challenge to translators.

If there is no corresponding word or expression in the language we translate into, one or more translation strategies must be used to overcome this problem. There is no clear rule as to when to use a particular strategy; the translator must make this choice while taking the possible effects on the translated text and the target audience into account. Translations into English that are aimed at an international audience rather than at a specific English-speaking language culture are even more problematic. My study will centre on a category of Internet texts of this kind in which English is used as a lingua franca to communicate information to a diverse lingual audience.

1.2. Aims

This study will examine the translation of the webpage in English that introduces a Swedish university, with a focus on names and words/expressions for which there are no direct equivalents in English. With reference to previous definitions in research, the strategies used to solve translation problems will be identified in the texts and exemplified. Is there a variation in strategic choice, or is the same type of solution predominant? I will also try to explain why a certain strategy is chosen.

2. Background

This section will define translation as such, the problems that can arise when translating and how these can be solved through different translation strategies.

2.1. What is translation?

Although translation as a practice has a long history, the academic field of translation studies is comparatively young. As Bassnett-McGuire points out, it was not until recently that translation became a field of its own and not only studied as part of foreign language teaching (1985: 1). Moreover, translation has long been perceived as something of secondary importance, more as a “mechanical” than a “creative” process, meaning that almost anyone with knowledge of the particular languages could translate. It has therefore been regarded as an occupation with rather low status (ibid, 1985: 2). In Sweden, translation studies became an academic subject as late as in the 1990s, some forty years after its establishment internationally (Lindqvist, 2005: 11).

Translation is defined as “The process or result of converting information from one language or language variety into another” (Hartmann & Stork 1972: 242), or “The action or process of turning from one language into another; also, the product of this; a version in a different language” (The Oxford English Dictionary 1991: translation). Depending on how close the languages are regarding grammar and other linguistic features, translations can be word-for word, literal (in which only a few adjustments are made on the phrase level), and free which reads like an original text (Hartmann & Stork 1972: 242).

But translation can also refer to a wider context. According to Jacobson (1959/2004: 139, quoted in Munday 2008: 5), there are three different translation categories, namely intralingual translation, interlingual translation, and intersemiotic translation. Intralingual translation is rephrasing or summarizing a text in the same language, interlingual translation is translation between two different verbal languages, and intersemiotic translation refers to translating a written text into, for example, music or film. Interlingual translation is the traditional focus of translation studies (ibid 2008: 5) and is also what this study will deal with.

There are many ways of translating texts because different types of texts require different approaches. Some texts types are complex (for example, a novel can contain a recipe) and

2 some are simple. A translator benefits from knowledge about the different text types when striving to produce pragmatically well-functioning translations. By comparing the different text types, translators will more easily be able to elucidate the differences in style and text types in the language or languages that they are translating. Some examples of different text types are: informative text (e.g. encyclopedia, diagrams, newspaper articles, historical texts), expressive text (e.g. lyrical poetry and drama), imperative or appealing text (e.g. recipes, instructions, warnings, suggestions), and convincing text (commercial, sermon, negotiation, discussion) (Ingo 2009: 216-218). The texts on university webpages are mostly informative but they also contain persuasive elements.

Who can translate what then? Do translators need to specialize in a few areas or can they have a general knowledge in many and nonetheless do a good job? There are of course different views on this subject, and of course it depends on the subject involved in the translation. According to Martin (2011), everyone in the translation industry seems to agree that a translator needs to specialize because of the expansion of knowledge, i.e., no one can have knowledge about everything because there is simply too much to have knowledge about. However, the Internet has enabled translators to deliver translations rapidly to customers anywhere, thus promoting their own special skills and services. The Internet has also made it easier for translators to find information on new and more specialized areas. Martin claims that there is no need for translators to specialize. He argues that there is no need for a degree in, for example, medicine or law to translate documents in the fields of medicine or law. Translators need not know, for example, the recommended medical procedure; this is what the author of the document needs to know, while the translator only needs general knowledge in the area, so that he can understand the underlying principles and find the right terms (and, if necessary, do research to find out what he does not understand). Translators, according to Martin, only need to specialize in two areas, namely the language/s/ he translates from/into and translation itself.

2.2. Problems in translation

Translation problems are often related to cultural differences in various systems. Measurements, for instance, can be a problem if the intended readers do not use the same measuring system, or if the text under translation is old and therefore contains obsolete

3 measurement words. In literature aimed at adult readers, measuring words are kept the same as in the source text (Sundström 2001: 4). Traditionally, road distance is given in miles in translations from English into Swedish, for example. Likewise, the words tum, fot and aln are no big problems for adult Swedish readers to understand. If the reader does not know exactly what the measuring words mean, this is often not so important unless it is crucial to the meaning of a text. If the general meaning is the main thing, however, tricky measuring words could instead be left out, which is very common and natural in all kinds of translation (Sundström 2001: 5). When it comes to weight, the standard practice is to keep the original measuring words and avoid translating them into kilo and hekto. The same goes for currency, which is nearly impossible to translate because it would be very hard to know which exchange rate to use. Only when translating children’s books, currency is changed into that of the target language (Sundström 2001: 6). As we shall see, higher education terminology does not present major problems related to cultural differences.

2.3. Translating webpages

With the birth of the Internet, a particular language arose, with a new and specific style that is different from other kinds of language that we hear or read (Liubiniene & Mykolaityte, 2007: 48). Internet language has therefore been called a third medium apart from written and spoken language. This new medium goes under the name of written speech. It is a kind of “written language which has been pulled some way in the direction of speech” (Crystal, 2001, quoted in Liubiniene & Mykolaityte, 2007: 48). This would imply that translating webpages might be different from translating other texts. However, this does not apply the webpage that introduces a Swedish university as this text in most cases conforms to the standards of formal or semi-formal writing.

Translating a webpage into the languages of the countries in which the users live could be invaluable. A translated webpage makes it possible to create new contacts, which otherwise would be impossible. If the webpage is translated, it also gives increased credibility because it shows the company’s desire to embrace other countries’ language and culture (SpråkGruppen). Nowadays webpages are the foremost interface with the world for a company, which therefore makes it important that texts in the native language as well as translations are correct. Some changes might be needed depending on what the target culture is, for example, some pictures and colours might need to be changed to be accepted in the

4 target culture, and the order of the information might also need to be changed because the way people are used to receive information differs from culture to culture. Very often, the original version of a webpage contains more information than the translated version because parts of the webpage might only have local meaning (Översättningsbyrå Scriba). Sometimes a translated summary of the webpage will suffice. A general summary could be used for translations into several languages (SpråkGruppen).

2.3.1. Translating culture-specific phenomena

The term “culture” can be divided into three different categories of human activity, namely “the personal”, whereby we as individuals think and function, “the collective”, whereby we function in a social context, and the “expressive”, whereby society expresses itself (Karamanian 2002). The university webpages belong to both the collective and the expressive categories.

There is cultural and lingual translation. Cultural translation transfers meaning from one cultural environment to another, whereas lingual translation transfers meaning from one language to another. Lingual and cultural translation are interconnected, because lingual translation has languages in focus but depends on the contexts of the cultures, and cultural translation has cultures in focus but depends on languages to communicate them (Svensson 2010: 31). Therefore, it cannot really be determined whether a university webpage (or any other) is only cultural or lingual, but one could probably say that it is more of a cultural translation, because it focuses mostly on the translation of the cultural environment, i.e., the school system, etc. However, since my study centres on the introductory “about-page” which typically conforms to a norm for official presentation and is remarkably free of phenomena specific to Swedish culture, the translation is to be regarded as a lingual rather than a cultural effort.

Translation involves transfer of thoughts expressed in one language by one language group into the appropriate expression of another group. This implies a process of cultural en-coding, de-coding, and re-coding. Translating across cultures has to end up with a credible text for the target reader. The success of the translation depends on the translator’s understanding of the cultures involved (Karamanian 2002). The webpages included in this study do not target only one specific culture; English on these webpages is used as a lingua franca to reach an

5 international English-speaking audience in general, in addition to those that have English as their first language.

It is not self-evident whether the translator should focus primarily on the source culture or the target culture, but nevertheless the communicative function of the target text is the most important (Karamanian 2002). This includes trying to find a term that maintains as much as possible of the content meaning and stylistic nuances while being functional in the target language. A category of words that can cause such problems are those related to culture. Most of them are found in the areas of manners and habits (femtioårskalas, trasmatta), institutions and organisations (Folkets Hus, Riksteatern), the educational system (grupparbete, roliga timmen), phenomena and people linked to media (Expressen, Ulf Elfving), dishes and beverages (blodpudding, falukorv) and brands (Ramlösa, Marabou) (Tegelberg 2005).

Regarding the translation of university webpages, it is obviously most important to make the target text understandable for an international audience, because the meaning of the text is to make people apply to the university, for which they need accurate information.

2.4. Translation strategies

2.4.1. Translating names

According to the traditional semantic approach, proper names do not have a meaning, but are only labels that identify individuals, and therefore do not need to be translated. In reality, names are not as uncomplicated as this (Ingo 2009: 137).

There are in principle three ways in which names can be handled in translations: transfer them (leave them untranslated, as merely a label), translate them (e.g. Nordiska rådet as the Nordic Council), or adapt them into the target language through the use of a meaningful counterpart (e.g. Globen as the Stockholm Globe) (Hinchliffe 2005: 6).

Unfortunately, it is not simply a matter of choosing one of the ways, because if for example all names are translated, problems arise when someone does not find the name Mid-Sweden University College instead of Mitthögskolan on the road signs, or the name Scania instead of Skåne on the map (Hinchliffe 2005: 7). The same goes for leaving them untranslated: an English-speaking person cannot understand what Riksdagen or Systembolaget is. It is often

6 essential to translate or explain names and descriptors such as Höga kusten and Miljöpartiet to give them meaning in the target language (Hinchliffe 2005: 9).

Hinchliffe expands on the three principal translation strategies above and suggests that the following methods can be used when translating names from Swedish proper names into English: 1. Leave the Swedish names as in the source language (this can be done when the name resembles English and could be understood without translation), e.g. Lenas café. 2. Use the official translation, e.g. Vänsterpartiet becomes The Left Party. 3. Translate word for word, e.g. Arjeplogs barnbibliotek becomes Arjeplog Children’s Library. 4. Use the nearest equivalent, e.g. Statsministern becomes The Prime Minister. 5. Use a general term to escape the limits of a certain English-speaking culture, e.g. Högsta Domstolen becomes The Supreme Court (of Sweden). 6. Add clarification. This can be done in several ways: a) Add a clarifying noun or adjective, e.g. Storsjön becomes The Lake Storsjön. b) Add quotation marks, e.g. Finnkampen becomes The ‘Finnkampen’ athletics meeting. c) Explain the source term in brackets. d) Put the target language version in brackets as a translation, e.g. Allemansrätten… becomes Allemansrätten (The right of public access)…. e) Add a footnote, as a last resource (Hinchliffe 2005: 12-13). Some of the strategies seem to overlap, e.g. strategies 4 and 5 and strategies 6c and 6d.

2.4.2. Translating language-specific expressions

Hariyanto (2000, in Liubiniene & Mykolaityte 2007: 48) defines thirteen translation strategies that can be used to translate culturally-bound words or expressions and these strategies also apply to any instance where there is no direct equivalent term in the source and target language: 1. Transference: Keeping the source language word. 2. Naturalization: Bringing the source language word into the target language and adjusting the writing to match the target language.

3. Using cultural equivalent: Replacing the source language word with the corresponding target language word. 4. Using synonym: Translating the source language word into a neutral target language word. 5. Using descriptive equivalent: Explaining the description or function of the idea in the source language word, usually resulting in long phrases. 6. Using recognized translation: Replacing the source language word with a previously recognized translation of the word. 7. Using componential analysis: Replacing the source language word with a more general word in the target language plus one or more sense components to complete the meaning which is not embodied by only the first target language word. Quite the same as a descriptive equivalent but much shorter and does not involve the function of the idea of the source language word. 8. Reduction: Replacing the source language word with a target language word that does not embrace part of the source language word meaning. 9. Expansion: Replacing the source language word with a target language word that covers the meaning of the source language word plus something else. 10. Addition and note: Adding an addition or note after the translation of the target language word, an addition which is clearly not a part of the translation. 11. Deletion: Deleting the source language word in the target language text. 12. Modulation: Translating the source language word into a target language word and this involves a change in the point of view. 13. Literal translation: Translating the source language word into the target language word without breaking the target language syntactic rules.

3. Method and materials

This paper is a descriptive study that focuses on the translation of Swedish university webpages, more specifically the about-pages. Because of the time limit of the study it does not include the entire webpages. The study will compare the Swedish and English versions of the webpages, identify translation problems in the areas of names and language-specific terms, and compare the solutions of similar problems in the English versions and relate them to existing categorisation of strategies, as defined above. It will also explain how these differences might affect the text and its readability.

To find a list of all Swedish universities and the addresses to their webpages, I used a list over all universities at studera.nu. All the primary material was collected on the same day except the pages from Mälardalens högskola, which were accessed 21 May, 2011, because when they first were accessed I happened to copy the English version twice which lead to my having no Swedish version.

My reason for choosing to analyze Swedish university webpages is that these are aimed at an international and defined audience. The webpage is often one of the first things a potential student or employee encounters, and the first impression can be the determinant reason whether a potential student or employee chooses to apply for an education or job at the particular university. The lack of previous research in this area also needs to be remedied.

Three of the 47 universities and university colleges were excluded from the study: Gammelkroppa skogsskola and Röda korsets högskola because there were no English webpages and Johannelunds teologiska högskola because there were no about-pages. This means I ended up with a total of 44 webpages (which is 94 per cent of all universities and university colleges in Sweden).

Chalmers tekniska högskola has several pages on their about-page, of which I chose to look at the Organisation page.

My reason for choosing the about-pages is that this is often the first item potential students and employees click on. At first I was thinking about analysing the universities’ start pages but, as it turned out, these were not translated but had different content in the Swedish and English versions, which is why I chose the about-pages instead.

I have chosen only to look at the main text, which means that I have not included such things as links or shorter paragraphs in the margin, pictures, etc. These things might also affect the reader, but because this study was conducted during a limited time period, I chose to disregard them. In some cases I also went back and looked at the page heading; this was when only the abbreviation of names were used in the main text.

4. Results and analysis

There were quite big differences between the universities regarding the translation of their webpages. Some of the webpages were translated in their entirety, for example those of Karlstad University and Karolinska Institutet, whereas some were translated partially, such as that of University of Gothenburg, and still other pages were almost totally different in Swedish and English, such as that of Stockholm Academy of Dramatic Arts, suggesting that it is probably not a real translation but instead a totally different version, written separately.

4.1. Translating names

Names of universities in Sweden are usually a combination of place and type of institution, such as Umeå University and Örebro School of Theology. This is especially true of the big and medium-sized universities with several education and research areas. The only exception in this group is the recently inaugurated Linnaeus University, which combines the categories person + type of institution. Other examples of person + institution are The Newman Institute and Sophiahemmet University College. Names of places are never translated or adapted except for the University of Gothenburg, which uses the officially adapted version of the city name. All institutions also capitalise letters to signal that it is to be seen as a proper name. When it comes to type of institution, the term chosen varies depending on when the institution was established (the structure of the educational system at the time), its form of organisation (public, private, foundation etc), and its profile (covering traditionally wide-ranging academic disciplines, of specialising in a major area, or of being exclusively vocational). The choice of one of the terms: university, university college, school, institute, academy reflects one or more of these factors.

In the following, I will consider Hinchliffe’s strategies for name translation (see section 2.4.1) one by one and comment on their employment:

Leaving the Swedish names This strategy was not so common in the texts I studied; it was used only by four of the universities:

Dans och Cirkushögskolan: DOCH Dans och Cirkushögskolan uses the abbreviation in the English version. It is not mentioned what it stands for.

Karolinska Institutet: Karolinska Institutet The name Karolinska Institutet is kept probably because it is so similar in Swedish and English. An alternative translation would be The Karolinska Institute, which would be a combination of retaining and word-for-word translation, or The Caroline Institute, which would be a proper word-for-word translation. However, in the page header the clarification “a medical university” is added.

KTH: KTH The meaning of KTH is not stated anywhere in the two texts, either in the Swedish or the English version, but the page is headed by “Welcome to KTH The Royal Institute of Technology”. Only the abbreviation is used throughout, however. This is probably because the abbreviation KTH is more well-known than the actual name (Kungliga tekniska högskolan) and has become an acronym in both Swedish and English. It is also stated in the Swedish version that it is a university and not a university college, but still the term for ‘university college’, högskola, is used in Swedish. This is probably also because the abbreviation KTH is so well-known that they do not want to change it into for example KTU (Kungliga tekniska universitetet).

SLU: SLU Precisely as KTH, SLU does not mention the meaning of their abbreviation in either text, but the full name is given in the page heading (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences). It is probably because of the same thing I discussed regarding KTH, that the abbreviation is the more used and well-known name.

Other names occurring in the texts that are kept are names of corporations: Chalmersinvest, Bräcke Diakoni, Chalmersfastigheter AB, Fribaptisterna, Helgelseförbundet, IT-universitetet i Göteborg AB, Telefonplan, Vinnova, Vita havet, Örebromissionen.

Because so few universities have chosen to keep the Swedish name in translated texts, this seems to indicate a general ambition to strive for internationalization and easy access.

Translation word for word This was one of the most common strategies. In 19 instances the university name was translated word for word. Some examples of this follow here: Ersta Sköndal högskola: Ersta Sköndal University College Karlstads universitet: Karlstad University Kungliga Teatern (Kungliga Operan): The Royal Opera Lunds universitet: Lund University Newmaninstitutet: The Newman Institute Sophiahemmet högskola: Sophiahemmet University College Stockholms universitet: Stockholm University Umeå universitet: Umeå University Örebro universitet: Örebro University

Other names included in the texts: Eight other names (apart from universities and university colleges) in the texts were also translated using the method of word-for-word translation, for instance: Artilleriläroverket Marieberg i Stockholm The Artillery College at Marieberg in Stockholm Here a preposition is used to indicate that Marieberg is a place, which could be helpful for non-Swedes. Chalmerskoncernen: The Chalmers Group Sahlgrenska universitetssjukhuset: Sahlgrenska University Hospital Öresundsregionen: The Öresund region

Using the nearest equivalent This strategy was used by 24 of the universities. Most often this was made by using university instead of university college. The terms högskola and universitet are nearly the same in Sweden. Traditionally, only universitet has had the right to award the doctor’s degree, but nowadays some högskolor also have this right. A högskola that does not have this right can apply to Högskoleverket to get this right in a certain area which the högskola itself defines (Högskoleverket). Because of the ambiguity of the terms, it is not really clear what term is the best to use.

Some examples of using the nearest equivalent are: Chalmers tekniska högskola: Chalmers University of Technology Högskolan Dalarna: Dalarna University Högskolan i Borås: Borås University Högskolan Väst: University West

Kungl. Konsthögskolan: The Royal Institute of Art Kungl. Konsthögskolan translates högskola into institute instead of university college. Kungliga musikhögskolan: The Royal College of Music Here högskola is translated into college instead of university college. Stockholms dramatiska högskola: Stockholm Academy of Dramatic Arts Here högskola is translated into academy instead of the more common university college. Dramatiska would be dramatic in English so for example Stockholm Dramatic Academy would also work. Stockholms Musikpedagogiska Institut: The Stockholm University College of Music Education Here institute is translated into university college, which would be högskola in Swedish. This is an example of a school that functions as a högskola but has another name. Because it functions as högskola it is translated into university college to increase the understandability for international readers. Teologiska högskolan Stockholm: Stockholm School of Theology Precisely as Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan, Teologiska högskolan Stockholm chooses to translate högskola into school, which is a common term for institutions that specialize in a specific area. Örebro Missionsskola: Örebro School of Theology Here mission is translated into the more general theology, which is a more adequate term for the content of the school today.

Adding clarification Adding clarification was used 18 times in the texts I studied. Some examples are: Bräcke: Bräcke in Gothenburg An explanation regarding where Bräcke is situated, is added. Campus i Kista: The Kista campus, in the northern part of Stockholm Clarification regarding where it is situated is added here to make it easier to find. Evangeliska Frikyrkan Evangeliska Frikyrkan (internationally known as Interact) Here the Swedish term is kept but clarification is added in parentheses. Försvarshögskolan: The Swedish National Defence College The English name of Försvarshögskolan also mentions that it is Swedish, something that does not have to be mentioned in the Swedish text because there is only one Försvarshögskolan in

Sweden. For international readers, it is important to make clear which National Defence College the name refers to. Försvarshögskolan also chooses to translate högskola into college instead of the more common university college. Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan: The Swedish School of Sport and Health Sciences Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan chooses to translate högskola into only school to emphasize its single area of education and adds Swedish for clarification, just as Försvarshögskolan: The Swedish National Defence College. Haninge, Flemingsberg och Södertälje Haninge, Flemingsberg and Södertälje in the southern metropolitan area An explanation is added regarding where in Stockholm to find the particular places. Linköping och Norrköping, mitt i Fjärde storstadsregionen: Linköping and Norrköping in southern Sweden Linköping and Norrköping together constitute a new metropolitan area, the fourth one in Sweden. Here Fjärde storstadsregionen is translated into in southern Sweden, which describes where it is, but does not explain what it is. The fact that it is a new metropolitan area could have been translated in order to maintain the meaning of the original text and also in order to attract prospective students who want to live in a metropolitan area and only know of Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö. In southern Sweden could be added as well as the translation of fjärde storstadsregionen and thus actually adding clarification and not only clarifying without translation, which is what has been done here. Småland: The Småland region of Sweden An explanation is added regarding that it is a region in Sweden. It does not say anything about where it is, though. Teaterhögskolan i Stockholm och Dramatiska institutet: The two academies Dramatiska institutet and Teaterhögskolan i Stockholm Because the names are not translated, there is a need to explain what they are. Världsarvsstaden Visby, mellan småbåtshamnen och Almedalen: The World Heritage city of Visby on the island of Gotland, a geologically and ecologically unique island that is surrounded by the Baltic Sea Here the Swedish version assumes some prior knowledge about Sweden and Gotland, for example, Almedalen, which is a park area in Visby mostly known for its politician week initiated by Olof Palme (Wikipedia). The English version, in contrast, pedagogically explains that the city of Visby is situated on an island that is called Gotland and is surrounded by the

Baltic Sea, just so the foreign reader should be able to find out where it is. Småbåtshamnen and Almedalen are local places that foreign readers supposedly do not know of, and do not need to know of either, in order to study at Gotland University. They could of course have been explained in order to maintain the original meaning of the text.

Omission Some names mentioned in the texts have been omitted because the whole paragraph/sentence in which they occur in the Swedish version has been omitted in the English version, while others have been omitted because they are not deemed important to international readers. Some examples of names that have been omitted are: Bibelinstitutet, Boulognerskogen, and Sydostasien.

Using the official translation The official translation of names for other items than universities was used in 5 instances: Carl von Linné: Carl Linnaeus Gustaf III: King Gustavus III Nobelförsamlingen: The Nobel Assembly Stiftelsen Stora Sköndal: The Stora Sköndal Foundation Östersjön: The Baltic Sea

4.2. Translating language-specific expressions

It is important to note that in many cases translating a Swedish term into English presents no problem since the two languages belong to the same language family with similar derivations from Greek and Latin, for example, student: student, arkitektur: architecture, professor: professor, and program: program/programme, or they have the same loanword.

In the following, I will refer to Hariyanto’s definitions of strategies (see section 2.4.2) and give examples of such solutions in the translated texts.

There were no examples of strategy no 1, transference (keeping the source language word), strategy no 2, naturalization (bringing the source language into the target language and adjusting the writing to match the target language), and strategy no 10, addition and note. I

15 have excluded strategy no 7, componential analysis, since it is difficult to distinguish from no 6, descriptive equivalent.

The most common strategy used was strategy no 3, cultural equivalent (i.e., replacing the source language word with the corresponding target language word). Using a cultural equivalent is a way to make the text easier to understand for an international audience as the words refer to something that is well-known in the target language. Here are some examples of this: forskning och utbildning: research and education doktorander: doctoral students Internationella masterutbildningar (MIMA): International Master programs (MIMA) sjuksköterskeprogrammet: the nursing study programme vård: health care handikappvetenskap: disability research utbytesavtal: exchange agreement kurser: single subject courses världsomspännande nätverk: worldwide networks

Strategy no 4, using synonym (i.e., translating the source language word into a neutral target language word) was also used often: videotek: video collection bärande idé: characterized by kurser på bred front: a variety of courses en lång rad företag: a variety of businesses rika utbildningsutbud: extensive range of education

Strategy no 5, using descriptive equivalent is exemplified by: arbetslivsnära utbildningar: education collaborating with work-life Descriptive equivalent seems to be used when there is no corresponding term in the target language and the source language word thus has to be described.

Strategy no 6, using previously recognized translation, is exemplified by: landsting: county council

This term denotes a Swedish-specific political phenomenon with no direct equivalent in English-speaking countries, which has previously been given this official translation.

Expansion (strategy no 8) was also used, for instance: toppskolor: leading institutions of higher education övriga samhället: other interested parts of society kunskapsbank: bank of knowledge and expertise utbilda: train and educate ledare: personnel in leading positions svara för den övergripande planeringen: responsible for the overall planning, co-ordination and follow-up omfattande samverkan: extensive programme of cooperative ventures It seems that expansion is used when there is no corresponding term in the target language and an expanded explanation has to be given in order to convey the whole meaning of a concept.

I found many examples of reduction (strategy no 9), a strategy that seems to be used to simplify the text where the exact meaning is not important, for instance: heltidsstuderande studenter: students fristående kurser: courses det svenska näringslivet och samhället: the business community integrerad vårdutveckling: health sciences hela vår verksamhet, d.v.s. samtliga program och vår forskning: our teaching and research in all fields miljöcertifierad enligt den internationella standarden ISO 14001: environmentally certified

Deletion (strategy no 11) was not very common but there were still a few examples of this strategy, for instance: hela vår verksamhet: - […] vilket betyder att hela vår verksamhet, d.v.s. samtliga program och vår forskning, är av högsta internationella klass: This means that our teaching and research in all fields have been found to meet the most rigorous international criteria.

17 arbetsvetenskap: - miljöteknik: - Utbildningen och forskningen täcker ett brett område – från naturvetenskap till alla grenar inom tekniken samt arkitektur, industriell ekonomi, samhällsplanering, arbetsvetenskap och miljöteknik: Education and research spans from natural sciences to all the branches of engineering and includes architecture, industrial management and urban planning. licentiat: - Vid KTH studerar man till arkitekt, civilingenjör, högskoleingenjör, kandidat, magister, licentiat eller doktor: The educational programmes lead to Bachelor, Master or PhD degrees in engineering, science, or architecture. It seems that this strategy is used when only an overall view of the source language sentence is needed, which might be the case on about-pages.

Modulation (strategy no 12) was also used, for instance: Svenska staten: the Swedish Government (Swedish meaning: regering) det omgivande samhället: the rest of the world around us medarbetare: employees näringslivet: trade and industry stå i kö: eagerly waiting for tre teman: three distinctive attributes Modulation seems to be used when the exact meaning of each word is not important but rather the overall meaning of the text.

Literal translation (strategy no 13) was common and testifies to kinship between the two languages, for instance: biblioteks- och informationsvetenskap: Library and Information Studies arbetsintegrerat lärande: work integrated learning fristående kurs: independent course professionell sökvägledning: professional search guidance

I will here give some examples of major additions and deletions, i.e. strategies 10 (except that no note is added) and 11. Most additions in the texts are explanatory and have to do with the adaptation to an international audience.

One of the most common additions in the texts concerns the language of instruction which is important to prospective foreign students. There are many examples of this in the texts, for instance:

We are proud to offer a new Masters programme in Film music composition, and in collaboration with other Nordic music colleges, Nordic Masters programmes in Jazz and Folk music, both with English as tuition language.

Another common addition is special information for international students, such as:

The next application period opens in December 2011, this is for all international students, and is for studies beginning in the Autumn 2012.

One thing that is not mentioned by many is the national governance of higher education. Blekinge Institute of Technology chooses to inform about this, for example:

In Sweden the state is responsible for the provision of higher education. The Swedish parliament and the Government decide on regulations and the allocation of national resources. All higher education in Sweden is provided by state-run universities, university colleges and institutions of higher education, or by independent programme providers who have contact with the state.

As for additions, deletions also have to do with the adaption to an international audience. Things that are deleted in the target texts are often about local matters, things that international readers are not familiar with and do not have to know in order to study at the university, for example:

Linnéuniversitetet är ett modernt, internationellt universitet. Men grunden finns i Småland. Flera forskarmiljöer bygger på Smålands kulturella och geografiska förutsättningar. Även många utbildningar har utvecklats i samarbete med regionen. Linnéuniversitetet ska vara en drivkraft för och bidra till regionens utveckling och kompetensförsörjning.

Another thing that is sometimes deleted is parts about research, for instance:

Här bedrivs stark forskning inom flera områden – många forskare tillhör världseliten.

It can be that the about-pages are mostly aimed at giving exchange students and others a first glance, but those who are interested in research will have to go on looking at other parts of the webpages to find more information on this matter. Another example of things that are sometimes omitted is information about distance courses, for instance:

Hos oss finns även många kurser på distans, som innebär att du via Internet kan studera vid Högskolan Kristianstad oavsett var du bor eller vilka tider du vill läsa på.

It might be so that most exchange students take on-campus courses, or that this information is found elsewhere on the English webpages, for example where a list of courses can be found.

5. Conclusion

Translation is a complex area and there is not always one right strategy to choose; rather the translator has to use multiple strategies in any text. Regarding the translation of webpages, the translator also has to decide, together with the author of the original text, what parts are important for an international audience and what parts can be deleted because they only concern local readers. The text on a university webpage is generally designed to convey understandable information and an idea of the university in a short space. Because I only looked at the about-pages, it can be that the information omitted in the English version can be found elsewhere on the universities’ English webpages, and vice versa.

Regarding the translation of names, only four institutions of higher education have chosen to keep their Swedish name on the English webpage. Nineteen universities or university colleges chose to translate their names word for word. The most problematic term was högskola because the seemingly equivalent term university college is not equivalent and may also lead the reader to think about general colleges which provide education at a lower level than universities. Using the nearest equivalent was used by 22 institutions, which most often meant

20 translating högskola into university. Translating högskola into university might make it easier to understand for an international reader. Keeping the Swedish term and writing the English/international term in parentheses is found only once in my study, namely in the example Evangeliska Frikyrkan (internationally known as Interact).

Regarding language-specific expressions, the most commonly used of Hariyanto’s strategies are strategy no 3, using cultural equivalent, and no 9, reduction. Cultural equivalent is used when a corresponding word exists in the target language and it is thus easy to see why it is the most commonly used strategy. Reduction is used when the exact meaning of each word is not the most important, but rather the overall understandability of the text and it seems to be a common strategy on pages that give only an overall view such as the about-pages that this study looked at.

Some strategies are not used at all in the texts this study concerns, i.e. transference, naturalization, addition and note, and componential analysis. The reason for not using transference is probably that the source text did not contain any words that are the same in Swedish and English (e.g. loan words) that could be understood by an international audience. Addition and note is not needed because translation problems could be solved in other ways that do not result in long phrases.

There are many major additions in the texts, of which the most common are of importance for an international audience, for example language of instruction. Deletions are also common, mostly dealing with local matters that are not so important for a foreign audience.

If more time would have been given to the study, I would have included the entire webpages or at least the pages aimed at international students. Apart from the things this study concerned, I would also have looked at culture-specific expressions (which there were none on the about-pages but that might be found on other parts of the webpages).

6. References

6.1. Primary sources

Beckmans designhögskola. Om Beckmans. Available at: http://www.beckmans.se/om- beckmans/oversikt/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Beckmans designhögskola. Beckmans – the innovative college. Available at: http://www.beckmans.se/about-beckmans/beckmans-the-innovative-college/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Blekinge tekniska högskola. BTH – en ung utmanare. Available at: http://www.bth.se/ombth, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Blekinge tekniska högskola. About BTH. Available at: http://www.bth.se/eng/aboutbth, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Chalmers tekniska högskola. Organisation. Available at: http://www.chalmers.se/sv/om- chalmers/organisation/Sidor/default.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Chalmers tekniska högskola. Organisation. Available at: http://www.chalmers.se/en/about- chalmers/organisation/Pages/default.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Dans och Cirkushögskolan. Om Dans och Cirkushögskolan. Available at: http://www.doch.se/web/Om_Dans_och_Cirkushogskolan.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Dans och Cirkushögskolan. In English. Available at: http://www.doch.se/web/In_English.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Ersta Sköndal högskola. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.esh.se/hogskolan.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Ersta Sköndal högskola. About Ersta Sköndal university college. Available at: http://www.esh.se/en/hogskolan.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Försvarshögskolan. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.fhs.se/sv/om-forsvarshogskolan/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Försvarshögskolan. About the SNDC. Available at: http://www.fhs.se/en/about-the-sndc/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan. Om GIH. Available at: http://www.gih.se/OM-GIH/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Gymnastik- och idrottshögskolan. The Swedish school of sport and health sciences. Available at: http://www.gih.se/In-English/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Göteborgs universitet. Om universitetet. Available at: http://www.gu.se/omuniversitetet, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Göteborgs universitet. About the university. Available at: http://www.gu.se/english/about_the_university/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Handelshögskolan i Stockholm. En unik handelshögskola. Available at: http://www.hhs.se/SE/ABOUT/Pages/default.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Handelshögskolan i Stockholm. A unique business school. Available at: http://www.hhs.se/About/Pages/default.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan Dalarna. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.du.se/sv/Om-Hogskolan/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan Dalarna. About Dalarna university. Available at: http://www.du.se/en/About- Hogskolan-Dalarna/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Borås. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.hb.se/wps/portal/!ut/p/c1/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3hXX49QSydD RwMD10BzAyNjd_cwPx9PFzN3A6B8pFm8n79RqJuJp6GhhZmroYGRmYeJk0- Yp4G7izEB3eEg-_DrB8kb4ACOBvp- Hvm5qfoFuREGWSaOigCxVvhf/dl2/d1/L2dJQSEvUUt3QS9ZQnB3LzZfRU1IVTlCMUEw MEVRNzAyM0dHVk5MSURNRzY!/ , accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Borås. About UB. Available at: http://www.hb.se/wps/portal/!ut/p/c1/04_SB8K8xLLM9MSSzPy8xBz9CP0os3hXX49QSydD RwMD10BzAyNjd_cwPx9PFzN3A6B8pFm8n79RqJuJp6GhhZmroYGRmYeJk0- Yp4G7izEB3eEg-_DrB8kb4ACOBvp-Hvm5qfrBqXn6BbkRBlkmjooAdExv- A!!/dl2/d1/L2dJQSEvUUt3QS9ZQnB3LzZfRU1IVTlCMUEwMEVRNzAyM0dHVk5MSUR NRzY!/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Gävle. Om högskolan i Gävle. Available at: http://www.hig.se/Om- Hogskolan.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Gävle. About the university of Gävle. Available at: http://www.hig.se/Verktyg-i- hoger/In-English/About-the-University-of-Gavle.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Halmstad. Högskolan i Halmstad. Available at: http://www.hh.se/omhogskolan.10.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Halmstad. Halmstad university. Available at: http://www.hh.se/english/abouttheuniversity.10_en.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Jönköping. Om högskolan. Available at: http://hj.se/om-hogskolan.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Jönköping. About the university. Available at: http://hj.se/en/about-the- university.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Skövde. Högskolan i Skövde. Available at: http://www.his.se/hogskolan/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan i Skövde. University. Available at: http://www.his.se/english/university/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan Kristianstad. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.hkr.se/templates/Page____420.aspx, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan Kristianstad. Welcome to Kristianstad university. Available at: http://www.hkr.se/?epslanguage=EN, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan på Gotland. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.hgo.se/omhogskolan/79- hgo.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan på Gotland. About Gotland University. Available at: http://www.hgo.se/adm/about_en.nsf/%28$all%29/3070B1757E23E277C125711600478451? OpenDocument, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan Väst. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.hv.se/extra/pod/?module_instance=5, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Högskolan Väst. About University West. Available at: http://www.hv.se/extra/pod/?module_instance=12, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Karlstads unviersitet. Om universitetet. Available at: http://www.kau.se/om-universitetet, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Karlstads universitet. About the university. Available at: http://www.kau.se/about-university, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Karolinska institutet. Ett medicinskt institut. Available at: http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=600&l=sv, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Karolinska institutet. A medical university. Available at: http://ki.se/ki/jsp/polopoly.jsp?d=600&l=en, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Konstfack. Om Konstfack. Available at: http://www.konstfack.se/sv/Om-Konstfack/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Konstfack. About Konstfack. Available at: http://www.konstfack.se/en/About-Konstfack/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Kungliga Konsthögskolan. Om Kungl. Konsthögskolan. Available at: http://www.kkh.se/index.php/sv/om-kkh, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Kungliga Konsthögskolan. About The Royal Institute of Art. Available at: http://www.kkh.se/index.php/en/about-kkh, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Kungliga musikhögskolan. Om KMH. Available at: http://www.kmh.se/Visasida_sv.php?p=2&t=page, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Kungliga musikhögskolan. About KMH. Available at: http://www.kmh.se/Visasida_en.php?p=2&t=page, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Kungliga tekniska högskolan. Sveriges största tekniska universitet. Available at: http://www.kth.se/om/fakta, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Kungliga tekniska högskolan. This is KTH. Available at: http://www.kth.se/om/fakta?l=en_UK, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Linköpings universitet. Linköpings universitet vidgar verkligheten. Available at: http://www.liu.se/om-liu?l=sv, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Linköpings universitet. Linköping University – expanding reality. Available at: http://www.liu.se/om-liu?l=en, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Linnéuniversitetet. Ett modernt, internationellt universitet i Småland. Available at: http://lnu.se/om-lnu/detta-ar-linneuniversitetet, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Linnéuniversitetet. A modern, international university in the Småland region of Sweden. Available at: http://lnu.se/about-lnu/about-linnaeus-university?l=en, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Luleå tekniska universitet. Om Luleå tekniska universitet. Available at: http://www.ltu.se/omltu, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Luleå tekniska universitet. About Luleå University of Technology. Available at: http://www.ltu.se/omltu?l=en, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Lunds universitet. Om Lunds universitet. Available at: http://www.lu.se/om-lunds-universitet, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Lunds universitet. About Lund University. Available at: http://lunduniversity.lu.se/about-lunduniversity, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Malmö högskola. Om Malmö högskola. Available at: http://www.mah.se/Om-Malmo- hogskola, accessed 1 May 2011. Malmö högskola. About Malmö university. Available at: http://www.mah.se/About-Malmo- University, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Mittuniversitetet. Fakta om. Available at: http://www.miun.se/sv/universitetet/Om-oss/Fakta- om-/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Mittuniversitetet. Facts and figures. Available at: http://www.miun.se/en/University/About- us/Facts-and-figures/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Mälardalens högskola. Fakta om högskolan. Available at: http://www.mdh.se/aktuellt/siffror, accessed 21 May, 2011.

Mälardalens högskola. Facts and figures. Available at: http://www.mdh.se/university/about/facts, accessed 21 May, 2011.

Newmaninstitutet. Om oss. Available at: http://www.newman.se/om_oss, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Newmaninstitutet. Welcome to the Newman Institute. Available at: http://www.newman.se/english, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Operahögskolan i Stockholm. Om oss. Available at: http://www.operahogskolan.se/om- oss/om-oss.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Operahögskolan i Stockholm. Welcome. Available at: http://www.operahogskolan.se/english/in-english.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Sophiahemmet högskola. Om SHH. Available at: http://www.sophiahemmethogskola.se/visa_2008_.asp?sida=2, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Sophiahemmet högskola. Welcome to Sophiahemmet University College. Available at: http://www.sophiahemmethogskola.se/visa_2008_.asp?sida=114, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Stockholms dramatiska högskola. Stockholms dramatiska högskola. Available at: http://www.stdh.se/om-stdh, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Stockholms dramatiska högskola. Stockholm Academy of Dramatic Arts. Available at: http://www.stdh.se/in-english, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Stockholms musikpedagogiska institut. SMI utbildar dig som vill bli instrumental-, sång- eller röst- och talpedagog (logonom). Available at: http://www.smpi.se/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Stockholms musikpedagogiska institut. Stockholms musikpedagogiska institut. University college of music education in Stockholm. Available at: http://www.smpi.se/smi/eng.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Stockholms universitet. Universitetet i huvudstaden. Available at: http://www.su.se/om- universitetet, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Stockholms universitet. About Stockholm University. Available at: http://www.su.se/english/about, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet. SLU är Life Science. Available at: http://www.slu.se/sv/om- slu/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet. SLU concerns us all. Available at: http://www.slu.se/en/about- slu/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Södertörns högskola. Södertörns högskola. Available at: http://webappl.web.sh.se/C1256C8A0066623D/tmt.view/F1C873A3321A32BBC1256C8B00 159B57, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Södertörns högskola. Welcome to Södertörn University. Available at: http://webappl.web.sh.se/C1256C8A0066623D/tmt.view/472C6E80B755CC26C1256C8B00 15AEB5, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Teologiska högskolan Stockholm. Om högskolan. Available at: http://www.ths.se/site/index.php/om-hoegskolan.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Teologiska högskolan Stockholm. About THS. Available at: http://www.ths.se/site/index.php/in-english.html, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Umeå universitet. Om universitetet. Available at: http://www.umu.se/om-universitetet/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Umeå universitet. About Umeå University. Available at: http://www.umu.se/english/about- umu, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Uppsala universitet. Om Uppsala universitet. Available at: http://www.uu.se/node47, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Uppsala universitet. About Uppsala University. Available at: http://www.uu.se/en/node47, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Örebro missionsskola. Om Örebro missionsskola. Available at: http://www.orebromissionsskola.se/viewNavMenu.do?menuID=2, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Örebro missionsskola. Örebro School of Theology – An introduction. Available at: http://www.orebromissionsskola.se/viewText.do?textID=0160, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Örebro universitet. Presentation. Available at: http://www.oru.se/Om-universitetet/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

Örebro universitet. Presentation. Available at: http://www.oru.se/English/About-the- University/, accessed 1 May, 2011.

6.2. Secondary sources

Bassnett-McGuire, Susan. 1985. Translation studies. London: Methuen & Co., Ltd.

Hartmann, R.R.K. & F.C. Stork. 1972. Dictionary of language and linguistics. London: Applied Science Publishers Ltd.

Hinchliffe, Ian. Translating names. 2nd ed. 2005. Båstad: Swedish Association of Professional Translators.

Högskoleverket. Universitet eller högskola? Available at: http://www.hsv.se/densvenskahogskolan/universitetochhogskolor//universitetellerhogskola.4. 539a949110f3d5914ec800063518.html, accessed 25 June, 2011.

Ingo, Rune. 2009. Konsten att översätta. Lund: Studentlitteratur AB.

Karamanian, Alejandra Patricia. 2002. Translation and culture. In Translation Journal 1: 2002. Volume 6. Available at: http://translationjournal.net/journal/19culture2.htm, accessed 26 April, 2011.

Lindqvist, Yvonne. 2005. Högt och lågt I skönlitterär översättning till svenska. Uppsala: Hallgren & Fallgren Studieförlag AB.

Liubiniene, Vilmate & Indre Mykolaityte. 2007. Linguistic and cultural adaptation of English websites into Lithuanian. In Studies about language 2007: 10.

Martin, Charles. 2011. Specialization in translation. Myths and realities. In Translation Journal 2: 2011, volume 16. Available at: http://translationjournal.net/journal/56specialist.htm, accessed 26 April, 2011.

MLA. 1999, revised 2002. Minimal guidelines for authors of web pages. Available at: http://www.mla.org/web_guidelines, accessed 24 April, 2011.

Munday, Jeremy. 2008. Introducing translation studies. Theories and applications. 2nd edition. New York: Routledge.

SpråkGruppen. Översättning hemsida. Available at: http://www.sprakgruppen.se/index.php/erbjudanden/oversattning-hemsida, accessed 27 April, 2011.

Nuopponen, Anita & Nina Pilke. 2010. Ordning och reda: Terminologilära I teori och praktik. Stockholm: Norstedts,

Studera.nu. Available at: https://www.studera.nu/studera/644.html, accessed 30 April, 2011.

Sundström, Gun-Britt. 2001. Att översätta måttord. In Språkvård 2001:2. Stockholm: Svenska språknämnden.

Svensson, Anette. 2010. A translation of worlds. Aspects of cultural translation and Australian migration literature. Umeå: Umeå universitet.

The Oxford English Dictionary, vol. XVIII, 2nd edition. 1991. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

Wikipedia. 22 March, 2011. Almedalen. Available at: http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almedalen, accessed 23 May, 2011.

Översättningsbyrå Scriba. Översättning av hemsidor. Available at: http://www.scriba.ee/oversattningsbyra/oversattning-av-hemsidor.html, accessed 27 April, 2011.