Faculty of Social Sciences Stockholm University 1964

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Faculty of Social Sciences Stockholm University 1964 – 2014

Eds. Dahl and Danielson

Faculty of Social Sciences Stockholm University 1964 – 2014

Edited by Gudrun Dahl Mats Danielson Editors: Gudrun Dahl and Mats Danielson © 2014 Stockholm University, the chapter authors and photographers Production assistant: Andreas Bergfeldt Layout: Matador Print: Elanders Fälth & Hässler Second edition

Cover photos Middle left: Eva Wernlid Middle centre: Love Ekenberg Lower left: Gudrun Dahl Others: Mats Danielson

ISBN 978-91-637-7135-4

This is a print-on-demand publication distributed by Stockholm University Library. The full text is available for free on-line at su.diva-portal.org. Content Introduction Preface...... 5 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences...... 9 Departments Department of Child and Youth Studies ...... 27 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences ...... 45 Department of Criminology...... 69 Department of Economic History...... 91 Department of Economics...... 111 Department of Education ...... 125 Department of Human Geography ...... 145 Department of Political Science ...... 175 Department of Psychology...... 187 Department of Social Anthropology ...... 201 Department of Social Work ...... 229 Department of Sociology ...... 241 Department of Special Education ...... 259 Department of Statistics...... 271 Stockholm Business School...... 293 Former Department of Advertising and PR ...... 325 Research Institutes and Centres Centre for Health Equity Studies...... 339 Institute for International Economic Studies ...... 361 Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs...... 377 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research...... 389 Stress Research Institute...... 407 Swedish Institute for Social Research...... 419 Faculty of Social Sciences Current Research Themes...... 433 Deans and Deputy Deans...... 453 Professors...... 455 Panel discussion in Lantis at the 30 year jubilee. 5

Preface

The Faculty of Social Sciences at Stock- context. Rather than to try to compile a com- holm University, like its sister faculties at the prehensive history at the organizational level of other large universities in Sweden, celebrates the Faculty, we have therefore chosen to present its 50th birthday this year. The Swedish faculties histories of the different departments, some who of social science were established following a have been there all along, others who have governmental decision in 1964. Some of the se- more lately been welcomed into our communi- nior people still active at the Faculty of Social ty. Sciences in Stockholm were young teachers or The first chapter paints the picture of uni- students at the time, a couple of years before versities in Stockholm in general and the social the big student ‘population boom’ and the by sciences in particular in the years preceding the now legendary student revolution. birth of the Faculty of Social Sciences. In the The faculty has for most of this time been a following chapters, there is for each department, central part of the working machinery of the institute and centre a story of how it has been University, in charge of the oversight over to belong to the Faculty during the first 50 teaching and with independent responsibility years, or of the external roots of the unit before for the quality of research. For those who are it joined our academic community, or both. part of the Faculty Board or its different com- However, the stories told are certainly not the missions, or for the staff of the Faculty Office, only narratives that could have been offered – the Faculty shapes everyday life. Still, for most they are personal reflections of the author(s) of the staff and students within the Faculty, it is rather than a final,official departmental ver- a relatively anonymous entity. Life at the uni- sion of its history. In almost all cases, each au- versity is mainly lived within a departmental thor is however a senior member of the depart- 6 Preface

ment. The stories are personal reflections on history, selected among what is certainly many possible ones. There are always many stories to tell, and the selection should not be seen as final histories of the departments and institutes. We have also included a chapter on the former Department of Advertising and PR since its merger with the Stockholm Business School is of recent date. In all other cases, we have sorted the stories by the English names by which the units are known today, fully aware of that during their lives, name changes have sometimes been frequent. After the stories, a description of major current research areas of the Faculty plus a list of One of the meeting rooms of the Faculty Office still harbours the memory of the jubilee 20 the deans, deputy deans and current professors years ago. (Photo: Mats Danielson) conclude the book. Here, too, we have to say that the selection of research themes presented by no means exhaust the broad range of re- good article… And so on. It is drudgery and joy, search questions that the individual researchers either lonely or socializing in great company. at the Faculty pursue. Finally, our hope is that during the next 50 Life in an academic unit cannot be character- years, some instance at Stockholm University ized by faces of buildings, pieces of art or events will have the time and resources necessary and of celebration. It is rather characterized by find it fruitful to document life in our academic preparations of lectures, sitting at a seminar, world as it actually is, creating an archive for cursing the copying machine, marking examina- the future use of jubilee book editors and scien- tion papers, reading the results of a computer tific historians. run of data with surprise, joy or depression, checking the last figures of one’s budget propos- Happy reading! al, making an interview, debating the curriculum, hunting for a course-book in the book- Gudrun Dahl, former dean of the Faculty shop, or simply enjoying being absorbed in a Mats Danielson, dean of the Faculty Faculty of Social Sciences TheSTOCKHOLM present Faculty UNIVERSIT BoardY 7 gathered for a conference at Skepparholmen, autumn 2012. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Protocol from the very first meeting of the Board of the Faculty of Social Sciences. 9

History of the Faculty of Social Sciences Mats Danielson

The year is 1576. There are still 388 years higher institute of education in a 16th century before the Faculty of Social Sciences at Stock- sense. holm University will be formally constituted, The men – they were all men in these ancient but academic research and education relevant times – would carry out tasks in society that to and applicable to society are being planned are today to some extent done by professionals for and prepared this year in Stockholm. The trained by the Faculty of Social Sciences. Thus, scene is Gråmunkeholmen (today Riddarhol- the college is the earliest precursor to the Faculty men) in central Stockholm, a small island next of today, making the university history of to Stadsholmen. The main island, Stadshol- Stockholm go back all the way to the 16th cen- men, containing the Royal Palace, is what we tury. A few years prior, around 1570, it bothe nowadays call the Old Town. The devastating red the king that there was no active university fire of 1625 has yet to arrive, wiping out almost in Sweden. Uppsala University was mostly half of Stadsholmen’s buildings. At the nearby closed during the reformation and there were Gråmunkeholmen, connected to Stadsholmen no other universities in Sweden at that time. by the convenient Munkbron bridge, King The king wanted Sweden to have a higher edu- Johan III has requested that a higher educa- cational institution, and further he wanted to tional institute, a college, should be established. place it in Stockholm, the de facto capital at There are societal needs to be catered to in the that time. Planning begun for a higher academ- form of a shortage of priests, vicars and other ic institute and the search for suitable premises scholarly educated men. Parts of the societal came up with Gråmunkeholmen, named after structure are upheld by these occupations, and the old monastery Gråbrödraklostret which the establishment-to-be can be viewed as a had been established around 1270. The monas- 10 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

Collegium turned much less Catholic. Especially from 1583, when Protestant teachers were employed in subjects such as Greek and physics, Collegium regium turned more into a general academic institution of the same kind as contemporary universities. The Collegium was in

From Nordisk Familjebok, ed. 1906.

tery had been closed in 1527 by King Gustav Vasa during the reformation and was now available and identified as suitable for educational purposes. This was not met by enthu siasm, neither by the archbishop nor by propo- nents of the mostly dormant Uppsala University, but in August 1576, after some years of planning, the college, Collegium regium (‘King’s Col- lege’ a.k.a. Academia Stockholmiensis), was opened in the old monastery at Gråmunkeholmen with Laurentius Norvegus as rector. The teaching was initially targeted mostly at educating priests and vicars and the teachers were Jesuits, giving the teaching a Catholic direction. Sub- jects taught included theology, Latin, philosophy, mathematics and medicine. After an upris- ing, the rector was replaced in 1580 and the From Nordisk Familjebok, ed. 1885. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 11

effect the first “Stockholm University College”, the reestablishment of Uppsala University, not by name but in operations and character. there was now no longer an immediate need for a college of the same kind in Stockholm.

The Collegium was in effect th th the first “Stockholm University The 17 and 18 centuries In the decades following, Sweden began to ex- College”, not by name but in pand its territory in Northern Europe. The Era operations and character. of the Swedish Empire (stormaktstiden) is considered to consist of the time period between The Collegium flourished for a while, but 1611 and 1719. One way to consolidate the opposing powers made inroads to seal a different empire during that time was to open universi- fate. The opposition focused on the premises, ties in different parts of the empire, and a num- which according to them had to be allocated ber of universities were founded in short suc- for other, more pressing, needs. In 1589, some cession. Thus, in 1632, Sweden’s second national of the Collegium’s premises were already in use university was opened in Dorpat by Gustav II by the Royal Mint Authority (Kungl. Mynt Adolf.1 It was called Academia Gustaviana un- verket) and more were soon to be allocated to til 1665 and later Academia Gustavo-Carolina. the military for use as hospitals. This put some In 1640, Sweden’s third national university was doubt on the future of the Collegium and the founded in Turku, Finland. It was named Kungl. teachers felt that their positions were less than Akademien i Åbo (the Royal Academy of Turku) secure. At Johan III’s death in 1592, the Colle- and contained four faculties. All students had to gium was deteriorating, and in the following start with undergraduate studies at the Faculty year it was in principle closed as there was no of Philosophy and could then continue with teaching, even if it formally remained in exis- studies in one of the faculties of Medicine, Law, tence for a short while afterwards. or Theology, in a system akin to the ‘graduate The succeeding king, Sigismund, and later schools’ we can find today in some university on Karl IX and Gustav II Adolf, all decided to systems. The university was moved to Helsinki support Uppsala University instead, where in 1828.2 Another university, that of Greifswald, teaching in principle had ceased as early as became Swedish in 1648 due to efforts of war 1530 due to the reformation. It was reopened in 1595 and the teachers at Collegium regium were 1 Now called Tartu University in Tartu, Estonia, having 18,000 students. in 1593 transferred to Uppsala or laid off. With 2 Now called Helsinki University, having 38,000 students. 12 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

(Svenska Pommern). Greifswald, however, was Stockholm. A main reason cited was that a never really considered one of the national uni- university ought to interact with society by versities, as it was not founded by the Swedish being geographically close to a large city. The government. Rather, Lund University was to be- closed-wall university was seen as a medieval come the fourth national university. The peace reminiscence. Not least jurisdiction3 by the treaties of Roskilde in 1658 and Copenhagen university over the students ought to be in 1660 brought Sweden its now southern abolished. A committee was formed to investi parts permanently. To manifest this, a universi- gate the matter. In 1825, the committee ty was constituted in Lund in 1666, and by that reached the conclusion that a relocation was event, the need for Swedish universities was not to be recommended mainly because of saturated for the time being. As events unfold- costs, both for relocation of the university and ed, the Swedish Empire did not substantially for students, Stockholm being more expensive expand any further but rather declined, thus ef- for students to live in. It was also noted that fectively putting to an end for centuries the idea the university could be too close to the gov- of a university in Stockholm. ernment to ensure academic freedom, and fi- In Stockholm, meanwhile, more specific nally that the capital had many more big city academies were formed. In 1735, the Royal distractions for students than Uppsala. Thus, Academy of Fine Arts (Kungl. Akademien för Stockholm was once again left without a high- de fria konsterna) was established, followed in er academic institution. However, the need for 1739 by the Royal Swedish Academy of Science higher education in many sectors of society, (Kungl. Vetenskapsakademien). Some decades not least in the capital, continued to increase. later, in 1792, Karlberg Military College (Mili As a consequence, more specialised academies tärhögskolan Karlberg) was also founded. Poli were founded in Stockholm. Among them the ticians and parliamentarians in Stockholm con- Central Athletic Institute (Gymnastiska cen- tinually discussed the need for the capital to tralinstitutet, now Gymnastik- och idrotts have a higher academic institution, not least högskolan) in 1813, Kungl. Karolinska within what we now know as the social sciences. medico-chirurgiska institutet (now Karolins- ka Institutet) in 1816, the Technological Insti- The 19th century tute (Teknologiska institutet, now Kungl. In 1822, leading politicians once again pro- Tekniska högskolan, KTH) in 1827, the For- posed the establishment of such an institution, 3 Jurisdiction meant the right to prosecute and sentence crimi- this time by relocating Uppsala University to nal acts. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 13

estry Institute (Skogsinstitutet, later Skogs- sioned a scientific academy without faculties högskolan4) in 1828, and the Pharmaceutical or degrees, with the aim of professing pure Institute (Farmaceutiska institutet5) in 1837. science. His petitions did not result in any ac- None of these had, however, a particularly so- tions but planted some seeds for the decades cial science-based orientation. to come. In the new governmental university statu In 1861, Kungl. Karolinska medico-chirur- tes, ratified in 1852, the jurisdiction of the giska institutet was granted permission to universities was indeed abolished. This was award medical licentiate degrees, the first not only a reform on paper. In the years imme- graduate degree in a Stockholm institution. diately prior to the new statutes, universities The first result of Anckarswärd’s and others’ had sometimes sentenced students to severe efforts was that Riksdagen in 1862 granted a punishment, even execution. The governing yearly appropriation for open scientific lec- structures of Uppsala University and Lund tures in Stockholm. The lectures commenced University were made more isomorph by the in 1863 with the initial subjects being the gen- new statutes, making them an implicit norm eral and politic history of culture, general law, for how universities should be organised in constitutional law, political science, statistics, Sweden. Furthermore, in 1859, both universi- biology, physics and mineralogy, a set of sub- ties appointed the same person as chancellor, jects we would today consider a mix of all Gustaf Sparre. Earlier chancellors had mostly four current faculties of the University. Two been royalties and nobilities, and while Sparre, years later, the Stockholm City Council grant- too, was a count, his appointment still signi- ed a yearly appropriation of SEK 30,000 for fied a new role for the chancellor. The coming the creation of a higher academic educational chancellors were rather academics or politi- institution. This was paralleled by a fundrais- cians, among them two prime ministers to be. ing campaign directed at the general public. During the 1850s, Count Anckarswärd had The campaign only raised SEK 45,000 in four several times petitioned in the Parliament years, however, with the main counterargu- (Riksdagen) that a higher academic institution ment from the public being that there were should be established in Stockholm, but of a already a set of academies in the capital such different kind from the universities. He envi- as the Swedish Academy, the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, the Royal Swedish 4 Merged with the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences Academy of Letters, and more. What should (Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet) in 1977. 5 Moved to Uppsala in 1968 to merge with Uppsala University. we need this new academy for? 14 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

Stockholm University College to lead to “simple homework”, something that In 1869, the University College Association of was seen as indicative of lower school forms. Stockholm (Högskoleföreningen i Stockholm ) The same debate has been seen many times was founded. It was an association with the since, to this day. aim to establish a university college in Stock- The plans for an academic institution in holm. It remains in existence even today, albeit Stockholm grew firmer during the first part of with a modified aim. Funding was raised from the 1870s. Of the classic four faculties, philo the City Council and again from the general sophy was the one of most interest to the Asso- public. The fundraising went on for seven ciation. Plans were made for the subjects of years, with the motto to create a higher aca- philosophy, history, languages, literature, mathe demic educational institution without the matics and science. Of the other faculties, law traditional requirements to take a predefined was seen as too applied, medicine as already in set of subjects or courses; rather it was to have existence (at KI), and theology as of little inter- a free choice on which subjects to explore. est. Engineering was not seen as a possible faculty The year after, 1870, the government issued a at the time. Regardless, Teknologiska institutet new degree charter (examensordning), stating expanded and changed its name to Kungl. that there were three degree levels – bachelor Tekniska högskolan in 1877. They took steps (fil.kand.), licentiate, and doctorate (doktors- toward a more scientifically-based education by grad) levels. The bachelor’s degree needed to starting up research laboratories and introduc- consist only of five subjects (previously six, and ing mandatory thesis work. All graduates were prior to 1853 all subjects of the faculty). The called civilingenjörer (not translated as civil en- five subjects required for a bachelor (candidate) gineers, but rather as non-military engineers) as of philosophy degree were theoretical philo opposed to military engineers, further emphasis- sophy, Latin, history, Nordic languages, and ing the fulfilment of societal needs by engineers finally a choicebetween mathematics or science. and their importance to society. Also in 1870, the curricula at the universi- In the autumn of 1878, Stockholm Univer- ties were given a more structured form by the sity College could finally open its doors for government. Contents and goals had to be the first time. A total of 480 students attended explicitly written down. This met with opposi- lectures in mathematics, physics, chemistry tion from university teachers and created some and geology during the first semester. In the debate. The focus was thought to shift towards following semester, botany and zoology were examination, away from knowledge. It was felt added as subjects. Note the change of subjects Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 15

from the initial lectures a decade and a half College in particular, the romantic ideal of earlier funded by the parliament, which in- pure knowledge was being challenged by a cluded history of culture, law, political sci- more practical view of the need to educate civ- ence, and statistics. Social science subjects il servants and lower tier school teachers. The were now conspicuous by their absence. Even College Board, and its chairman the over-gov- though student attendance could be viewed as a ernor (överståthållaren), were more focused partial success, the numbers did not improve in on the practical and educational side of the the following years and the financial situation College. They wanted to educate the youth, to soon became strained. To counter the situa- apply for the right to award degrees, and to tion, admission fees were introduced already employ teachers in the same way as ordinary in 1881, dropping the number of enrol ments employees, not through peer-reviewed applica- from 500 to 100, an 80 % reduction very sim- tion procedures. The Teachers’ Council (lärar- ilar in number to what we have recently expe- rådet), on the other hand, wanted to empha- rienced with non-European student fees. sise research and debate, not education. They Professors at the College were directly ap- wanted a peer-reviewed employment process pointed to chairs, not recruited by rating app (akin to today’s procedures) and academic lications. Positions were not advertised and freedom. They asked for the College to be de- there was no competition for a chair. The clared a centre for higher cultural studies, not hand-picked elite were offered more time for re- a degree-awarding institution. Needless to say, search compared to the traditional universities. this led to clashes in the organisational struc- Among the first professors hired, some could ture of the College. be mentioned: Svante Arrhenius, physics, Hans The Stockholm City Council had a number von Euler-Chelpin, chemistry, Gösta Mittag- of seats on the College Board. In 1888, they Leffler and Sonja Kovalevsky, mathematics, proposed the establishment of a law pro- and Viktor Rydberg, cultural history. None of gramme. This would be more in line with the these professorships were, however, directly ambitions the City had with its engagement in related to the social sciences. the College, and it could also help counter the In 1883, the turnover of the College was very negative trend in the number of enrol- SEK 125,000 divided into 27,000 in tuition ments. The Teachers’ Council, however, were fees, 40,000 from the City Council and 58,000 reluctant. To emphasise its point, the City from return on investment funds. In Swedish Council withdrew its financial support of SEK universities in general at the time, and in the 40,000 and promised instead a conditional 16 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

support of 30,000 – on the condition that a law and doctor, thereby keeping the College’s profile programme was established. In the event that as a free research institution. The Board, how- such a programme was still not established, ever, turned down the compromise and applied there was a proposal of creating an external for all three levels regardless, which were sub- faculty of law, not connected to the College. In sequently granted by the government. This in- the same year, lectures in economics started creased the enrolment figures from an all-time with Johan Leffler as lecturer, offering a broader low of 47 in 1903 to 106 in 1904, still a far cry set of subjects to the students. from the 500 of the first years.Despite the all- In 1893, the Swedish Higher Education time low in 1903, course offerings were broad- Chancellor (universitetskanslersämbetet) was ened as teaching in statistics commenced that established. The chancellor primarily governed year by Gustav Sundbärg who was appointed the universities of Uppsala and Lund, plus Karo docent. The College did now have a full range linska Institutet. Docent Gustaf Gilljam from of degrees at its disposal. It was only, as a com- Uppsala University became the first chancellor parison, in 1927 that KTH started awarding (universitetskansler). But the Swedish Higher PhD degrees, having hitherto had a much greater Education Authority (ämbetsverket, what we emphasis on undergraduate education. colloquially refer to as UKÄ) was, however, not Finally, in 1907, the College Board decided to established until 1964 at which time the chancel- launch a law programme. The number of stu- lor also became the head of the Authority. dents immediately rose to 300, dramatically increasing the revenues but at the same time The 20th century twisting the demarcation line between market A decade later, in 1904, the first professor of forces and the ideal of pure knowledge. In the economics was appointed, Gustav Cassel. This same year, the government made changes to the was also the first professor in a subject that degree charter (examensordning) in which would 60 years later be included in the Faculty medicine, law and theology became bound of Social Sciences. In the same year, the College studies with a preselected set of courses with Board wanted to apply to the government to be pre-determined content. Only degrees in philo granted the rights to confer degrees of all the sophy kept some freedom in the subjects and (then) three levels: bachelor, licentiate, and courses included. Yet even one of them, the doctor. The Teachers’ Council opposed the more vocational of the philosophy degrees (fil. application for any degree, and the compro- ämbets-examen) was to a certain extent premise proposed was to apply only for licentiate determined. This was met with unhappy voices Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 17

at the College, as it was seen as counterproduc- 1938 with the City of Stockholm allowing the tive to the profile and direction of the College. head of its statistical office, Sten Wahlund, to Meanwhile, the philosophical studies at the serve as a part-time professor in statistics. College flourished. Six professors of law were The slow growth of the College was still a hired already in 1908, and between 1908 and problem. The total of 500 students in 1910 had 1918 four professors were hired in literature, risen to 1,200 by 1930, but this was still a art, history, and religion. Three of the latter small number, easily outnumbered by one of professors wrote to the Teachers’ Council ask- today’s larger upper secondary schools (gym- ing for a humanities division to be formed. nasieskolor). Financially, it was hard to find The arguments were to better be able to con- private funding, especially for education. It duct research and to allow only free studies – was a bit easier, but far from easy, to raise meaning much more focus on pure knowledge funds for research projects and professor and much less focus on exams or degrees. This chairs. The difficulties had been noticed by the was granted in 1919, and can be seen as an government, and in 1939 the chancellor pro- embryo to the faculties we have today at the posed conditional government funding of 25 University. professors at the College. The conditions were In 1935, Herbert Tingsten was appointed that the government should appoint all profes- the first holder of the Lars Hierta Chair of sors and that the College should cooperate with government. This was the second subject having Uppsala University. The Stockholm City Coun- a professor that would later be included in the cil, having increasing trouble to finance the Faculty of Social Sciences. Shortly after, in College, supported the government proposal 1937, David Katz was appointed to the Olof and pushed for even more government involve- Eneroth Chair in the combined subjects of edu- ment, especially concerning education. The cation and psychology. The College had already Council had noted that 35% of the students in 1934 decided to create the chair, but the pro- were not from the City, but were still partially cess took three years, making education and paid for by the City’s tax payers. The govern- psychology the third and fourth social science ment, on the other hand, was not altogether subjects to obtain a professorship. It was not happy with the position and expansion of the until 1953 that the Department of Education College. There were unnecessary overlaps between was split into units of Education and Psychology the College and Uppsala. With governmental with one organisation containing each. The control over professor appointments, better build-up of the social sciences continued in resource allocation could hopefully be achieved. 18 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

Before this was solved, however, other world vate institutions, such as the College, received a events interfered. proportionally much smaller amount due to During the Second World War, government the fact that the government had much less research funding was more clearly directed to- control. The traditionally largest sponsor of wards applications. In 1942, the Engineering the College, the Stockholm City Council, could Research Council (Tekniska forskningsrådet, by no means match the needs of the College or TFR) was formed to allocate research resources, the loss in government allocation for being pri- of which established public universities received vate. It began to become clear that the financial the most. Stockholm University College, being backing of a strong partner was necessary in a private university, did not receive any sub- order to secure continued growth in both vol- stantial amount of the resources. This led to ume and quality. Which other partners besides strategic discussion on the College Board. the government were there to think of in 1945? In 1944, the Stockholm Convent of Vice- Chancellors was inaugurated. The convent, Post-war development which still exists today, consisted of the vice- After the war, the major multi-faculty insti- chancellors of the eight largest universities and tutions (Gothenburg, Lund, Stockholm and university colleges in Stockholm. Its purpose Uppsala) were about equal in size. They had was to handle issues of mutual interest, of 1,500-3,000 students each with Stockholm which naturally cooperation of different kinds having the largest student population. This was of high priority, not least from the College’s was still not much more than the currently perspective. Issues could be of scientific, admini largest upper secondary school in Sweden strative, or financial kinds. A primary goal was (1,850 pupils) and of a much smaller scale to investigate if there was mutual interest in than the universities we have today. One pro- forming some kind of union (codenamed fessor was responsible for almost all teaching Stockholm University) of all or most higher in his or her subject with lectures as the pre- education institutions in Stockholm. dominant form of teaching. In theory, the The same year, the government formed the chancellor decided on all curricula, but in rea Science Research Committee (Naturvetenskap lity the professor in a subject was in charge of liga forskningskommittén) to look at the invest planning the teaching. ment needs in science (naturvetenskap) in the At this time, the vice-chancellor was the universities. The year after, in 1945, they pre- only full-time administrative manager at a uni- sented a proposal for investments where pri- versity. The deans were usually appointed on a Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 19

round-robin basis and the role consisted mostly was not allowed to accept donations without of being chairman for a collegial faculty board written consent from the chancellor. The City or similar. The professors were the only perma- Council and the government assumed joint nently employed teachers. The docents were responsibility in finding areas to expand the not employed by the university. Instead they College’s premises. All of these concessions were most commonly employed at an upper were made by the College to gain access to secondary school (läroverk) while they did governmental funding since it was deemed im- some teaching at a university. There were no possible to continue without government sup- senior lecturers (lektorer) at universities; they port. Despite the agreement, the timing was not existed only at upper secondary schools. In too good. Most of the funds from the 1945 1953, Stockholm had 48 professors while Upp committee still went to Uppsala and Lund. sala had 67 and Lund 54. There were also do- In 1953, the Stockholm Convent of Vice- cents and assistant teachers, fewer in Stock- Chancellors proposed joining the eight largest holm, bringing the teacher totals to 153 in academic institutions in Stockholm into ‘Stock- Stockholm with 282 and 261 in Uppsala and holm University’. At first, there were two alter- Lund, respectively. The number of new stu- natives put forward. The first alternative was a dents that year was 996, 690 and 534, respec- true union, joining the operations together un- tively. It is clear that the teaching load was der one administration governed by one vice- higher in Stockholm than in the two other major chancellor. The second alternative, which was universities despite the College’s vision. the one most strongly put forward by the Con- In 1948, the government made a renewed vent to the government, was of a federation in agreement with the College. It was still to remain which each joining party kept its organisation, a private university college but with a reformed budget, administration and vice-chancellor, board. Of the twelve members, the chairman with the Convent acting as a meta-board in and an additional three members were appoin control of the combined resources. The Con- ted by the government. Four came from the vent’s proposal, however, fared badly with the City Council and one from the Royal Academy boards of some of the supposedly joining uni- of Sciences. Only three, the vice-chancellor and versities, exposing the weaknesses of the pro- two members of the Teachers’ Council, were posal and indicating that the time was not ripe from the College itself. This meant markedly for such an endeavour. The chancellor, some- decreased power for the College and for its what satisfied with the attempt even though it Teachers’ Council. Furthermore, the College failed, recommended the government to give 20 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

the College some of the 1945 investment fund- students commenced. While it was a whisper ing in any case, but the government turned the compared to the explosion that was to come chancellor down and the investment plans during the 1960s, it still put some strain on the were put on hold. The same year, Torsten universities. From 2,600 students at Stockholm Husén was appointed professor of education at in 1950, the number rose to 3,900 in 1955 and the College. The Olof Eneroth Chair was then 7,600 in 1960. Similar trends were seen at other changed into a chair in psychology only, with universities in the country. In recognising the Gösta Ekman as incumbent. Like all other so- trend, the government launched the 1955 Uni- cial science professors at the time, these chairs versity Committee with the aim of proactively belonged to the Faculty of Humanities. investigating the long-term consequences of an In 1954, the Teachers’ Council gave up the expanding academic sector. The committee plans of a ‘Stockholm University’ federation, coined the term ‘research education’ (forskarut- but could the same year watch such a construc- bildning). Investigating how such education tion (in fact a union) succeed in Gothenburg, in was conducted, it found low efficiency through- the creation of the University of Gothenburg. out the nation with a median student age of The same year, the parliament finally decided 34-37 years at the completion of PhD studies. to grant the College funding for the 1945 Furthermore, they proposed scholarships for investments in science equipment despite the PhD students and a five semester structured edu Convent being unsuccessful in its work to join cation for licentiate degrees. For the time between Stockholm’s higher academic institutions into licentiate and PhD, a position as research assistant some kind of umbrella organisation. This un- (forskarassistent) was proposed. This was the dermined the efforts at the College to create a first step towards a formal PhD education rath- federation since one of the primary motives er than an apprenticeship. was now gone. The social sciences were further In 1956, there were new university statutes. strengthened when Gunnar Boalt became the Concerning central administration, they were first incumbent of the chair in sociology in quite similar to the older ones in prescribing a 1954. At the College, sociology had developed vice-chancellor as the head of administration, within philosophy and five years earlier, in an academic convent (akademiska församlingen) 1949, sociology was taught for the first time and two governing boards (stora och lilla kon- within the Department of Philosophy. sistoriet), the former for major decisions similar At around the same time, in the mid-1950s, to a university board today and the latter for a process of expansion regarding the number of more daily matters. A set of other concepts we Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 21

are familiar with today were introduced in the government did not. The government in essence new statutes. Departments (institutioner) are had only two locations to offer, both requiring mentioned for the first time as a unit of admini a total relocation of the College: Ursvik in stration. Electors appointed by the universities Sundbyberg (military grounds) or Frescati (an and university colleges were to elect the chan- experimental field for agriculture). A quick cellor, and the chancellor was seen as a bridge glance at the map rendered Ursvik almost im- between academia and government, in effect possible, yielding Frescati as the only viable op- being academia’s spokesperson to the govern- tion. And Frescati it became, eventually taking ment. The Faculty of Philosophy was at the until August 1970 before the first departments national central administration, the Chancel- moved to the new (and current) locations.6 lor’s office, divided into the Faculties of Humani In 1958, the 1955 University Committee ties and Mathematics and Science, a division proposed a new kind of teaching format at uni- that was made already in 1919 in Stockholm. versities called lessons (lektionsundervisning). The student unions were given the right to col- These were lectures in a smaller format, with lect mandatory membership fees. possibly more potential for questions and inter In the same year, 1956, David Hannerberg, action. To match this new lecture format, a then professor in Lund, was summoned by the new teaching position was proposed – senior College Board to take up the position as pro- lecturer (universitetslektor). It was purely a fessor in Human Geography in Stockholm. The teaching position (unlike today) but differed Stockholm City Council demanded to have more from the position of lecturer (lektor ) which was representatives on the College Board and influ- found in upper secondary schools (läroverk), ence over the employment of professors. The not universities. A requirement for being hired College, in need of premises for expansion, as a universitetslektor was a completed PhD, were prepared to agree to the terms if premises thereby creating a career path for PhDs in or real estate for expansion was provided. The many disciplines. Even more revolutionary was condition was not accepted by the City Council the suggestion that the universities should be and the government instead had to assume re- financially compensated according to volume, sponsibility for the College’s expansion. The i.e. to how many students they enrolled and College’s office space situation was dire. Much 6 The very first to move were some social science departments: of its premises were located around Odenplan Business Administration, Economic History, Economics, and other parts of East Vasastan where the City Political Science and Social Anthropology plus the Institute for International Economic Studies. Three of them are still held premises suitable for expansion while the located in Building A of Södra huset. 22 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

examined. This opened up a floodgate. The chancellor. The chancellor was now appointed expansion was now only constrained by the by the government rather than by electors from availability of premises and PhDs willing to the universities and also became the govern- teach, and, of course, by the attractiveness of ment’s spokesperson to the universities, instead the courses offered. of vice versa. From 1964, there was only one board (konsistorium) at each university instead Stockholm University of two. The term vice-chancellor’s office (rek- Meanwhile, since the breakdown of the at- torsämbetet) was introduced, implying a divi- tempts to bring the higher academic institu- sion of administrative labour between the tions in Stockholm together under a single vice-chancellor and the newly introduced uni- umbrella, negotiations with the government versity director (förvaltningschef). The former continued on the College’s part. It had become was still mainly responsible for all of the uni- more and more evident that the City could not versity while the latter was responsible for the be the strong partner needed, so there were few administration and finance. options available apart from seeking university Also in 1964, educational boards (utbild- status on its own. In 1960, finally, the private ningsnämnder) were mandated. They were sup- Stockholm University College became a state posed to act as the faculties’ work groups in ed- university, Stockholm University. This entailed ucational matters. Every department was from no dramatic changes except that the required 1964 required to have an appointed head number of teaching hours for a professor went (prefekt) who was responsible for the adminis- from two per week in the private College to an tration of the department. Every department exorbitant four a week at the University, caus- should also have a collegial assembly (kollegi- ing protests among the professors. As a natural um) where all the permanently employed teach- consequence of the change of ownership, the ers should be members and where the temporar- City Council lost its seats on the Board. ily employed teachers, as well as the students, A few years on, in 1964, the 1955 Universi- had the right to be present. Within the newly ty Committee was finally finished, having made formed Swedish Higher Education Authority seven different proposals during its lifetime. (UKÄ), the academic disciplines were divided The chancellor was appointed head of the new into five faculties – the Faculties of: Humanities Swedish Higher Education Authority (Universi- and Theology; Social Sciences and Law; Medi- tetskanslersämbetet). While this seemed like a cine, Odontology, and Pharmacy; Mathematics small change, it in effect reversed the role of the and Science; and Engineering. For the first time, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 23

there was a split-up between the humanities and modern university. The volume of students the social sciences at the central governmental prior to 1964 was small by today’s standards, level. This reflects the volume of the previous and the universities were quite small entities humanities (philosophical) faculty, which had of a fairly different kind organisationally. become proportionally very large, mostly due to Therefore, I propose that the year 1964 marks a large expansion of social science teaching and the birth of the modern Swedish universities research. While this division at UKÄ was not mandatory to follow, all four big universities at Therefore, I propose that the time (Gothenburg, Lund, Stockholm and the year 1964 marks Uppsala) decided to follow suit. This entailed the birth of the faculties of social sciences in all the birth of the modern four universities in 1964 – yielding all four Swedish universities as 50-year’s jubilees in 2014. we know them today. Further in 1964, the effects of the employment structure from 1958 came into full effect. In as we know them today. The development this year, after only six years in existence, the from 1964 and onwards consists of a long senior lecturers (lektorer) already outnumbered chain of adjustments and modifications to the professors. Many applicants to senior lec- what are essentially the basic ideas that were tureships were already competent at the profes- put in place in 1964. How that chain unfolded sor’s level. Regardless, the division of labour is another story to be told at another time, but dictated that senior lecturers taught the first in this sense, all of the major modern Swedish two semesters of a subject and professors above universities are of equal age – all being chil- that level. dren of the same academic and educational To sum up, in 1964 many of the important revolution and all obtaining their current for- changes that shaped the universities as we mat at the same time. Moreover, since the year know them today had been made. The first 1964 also happens to be the birth-year of the wave of expansion during the preceding ten Faculties of Social Sciences at our major uni- years drove the changes. The Swedish Higher versities, it gives us dual reasons to remember Education Authority was formed this year that year. and the chancellor was given a role we still Since 1964, Stockholm University has con recognise today. The organisation of universi- tinued to grow, now having over 71,000 stu- ties and departments began to look like the dents in 2014. In parallel, the Faculty of Social 24 History of the Faculty of Social Sciences

Sciences has grown from that same year to a Stockholm University 2014. Tänka fritt och situation where it in 2014 encompasses around skapa nytt (a historic promotional text), half of all students at the University. This bears Stockholm University. proof of the social sciences not only being the UKÄ 2014. Den svenska högskolans historia. youngest but also the most dynamic and http://www.uka.se/faktaomhogskolan/ expansive of the faculties. From the middle of densvenskahogskolanshistoria.html. the 20th century onwards, society has become increasingly complex, so it is no surprise to see the social sciences expand most rapidly in research as well as education during this time period. We should all be proud of our achievements so far and look forward to the next 50 years.

 • 

A main source, especially for details, is (Bedoire & Thullberg 1978). Other main sources include (Stockholm University 2014) and (HSV 2006). Some details in the earlier historical parts are from entries in Nordisk familjebok, editions 1885 and 1906, and from Nordisk tidskrift för bok- och biblioteksväsen, volume I, 1914. Fur- ther, university web-pages, other authorities’ web-pages (such as UKÄ 2014), NE (the Na- tional Encyclopaedia), Wikipedia and – not least – older colleagues have been consulted.

Bedoire, Fredric and Per Thullberg 1978. Stock holms universitet 1878-1978, Almqvist & Wiksell, Uppsala. HSV 2006. Rapport 2006:3 R Högre utbildning och forskning 1945-2005 – en översikt. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 25

Riddarholmen (Gråmunkeholmen) today. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Presently, the Department of Child and Youth Studies is housed in a building at the shore of Brunnsviken, an extension of Lake Mälaren. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 27

Department of Child and Youth Studies Karin Aronsson and Ann-Christin Cederborg

In 2008, the Department of Child and Youth cious offices with high ceilings. From 1995, this Studies (Barn- och ungdomsvetenskap, BUV) palace-style building, located in a park in central was inaugurated as a new department at Stock- Stockholm along with a number of newly erect- holm University. At the time, it housed a staff of ed buildings, had housed LHS. The new Depart- about 33 persons, including four new doctoral ment also included a smaller unit, ‘The Centre students starting their joint doctoral programme for the Studies of Children’s Culture’ (Centrum on 1 September that year. Due to the crowded för Barnkulturforskning), housed on the main situation that had arisen when Stockholm Uni- campus. In 2010, the major part of the Depart- versity took over the teachers’ training, the De- ment was able to move to its present location at partment could not initially be located on the Frescati Hage. main campus of the University. It was instead Several scholars at the Department have located in central Stockholm, in the main build- worked within child development or within ing of the former Stockholm Institute of Educa- critical approaches to developmental models. tion (Lärarhögskolan, LHS), which was a teach- Below, we will sketch part of BUV’s own er’s training college. On this campus, the development, that is, its biography or brief his- Department received a couple of hallways in tory. This is followed by a section with a spe- what was 1861–1986 the Konradsberg mental cial focus on the Department’s ways of work- hospital (popularly called ‘the palace of fools’, ing with ‘children’s perspectives’, a core notion dårarnas palats). Designed by the architect Al- for the development of the Department. The bert Törnqvist, it is a stately building with a chapter is written by two of the successive clock tower and a chapel of its own (restored as chairs, but it is not an exhaustive representa- a beautiful lecture hall) and a number of spa- tion of all research that has taken place during 28 Department of Child and Youth Studies

Törnqvist’s palace-like mental hospital building, rebuilt for academic use, was the first home of the Department of Child and Youth Studies. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

the past seven years. Instead, it is a presentation said that nothing is more practical than a good of a specific research paradigm – children’s per- theory. The Department of Child and Youth spectives and child perspectives, and of some Studies has a history of applied work on child ways in which such perspectives may change ren and youth. A Swedish pioneer of such work our views of children and childhood. was professor Stina Sandels (1908–1990), working at the Stockholm Institute of Educa- Some historical roots and the tion (LHS) from 1969. She started out her pro- planning of the Department fessional career as a preschool teacher, but then Kurt Lewin, a leading social psychologist with moved on to various leading roles in the Swed- a focus on the phenomenology of groups, once ish preschool movement, along with two sis- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 29

ters, Ellen and Maria Moberg, pioneers of the hetsverket). More on Stina Sandels can, for in- Fröbel Kindergarten movement and its focus stance, be found in Engdahl (1990) and, of on exploration and play for learning, fore- course, in Sandels (1970, 1975). grounding growth metaphors of childhood and In 2004, ‘Child and Youth Studies’ was development. Simultaneously, Sandels started approved as a PhD discipline by the Board of research on children in traffic (publishing, for the Faculty of Social Sciences. In 2007, it was instance, in 1975, ‘Children in Traffic’). She decided that all the activities and assignments also undertook work on children as witnesses, of LHS would be taken over by Stockholm working together with Professor Arne Trankell University. The different disciplines taught at at the Department of Education, Stockholm the basic and doctorate levels had to be distri University. Her work on children’s own think- buted over the four faculties of the university. ing concerning traffic was partly inspired by The dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences, Pro- Jean Piaget’s (cf. e.g. 1932) earlier work on the fessor Gudrun Dahl, had the task of finding a meaning making of children. It can be noted suitable organizational site for child and youth that Piaget was one of the directors of UNICEF studies, a discipline which was small and quite during the 1950s, and deeply involved in issues ‘stepmotherly’ treated at its former organiza- concerning children’s rights. Sandels’ work on tional site. The representatives of the former traffic has had an important impact on Swedish LHS argued that the subject would most pro lives. It is seen as one of many factors that have perly be placed under special education. The reduced the number of deaths in traffic from Faculty, however, were looking for a setup about 1,500 a year to 500 a year. For instance, which would give a proper research base for she published work that showed that children teachers’ courses in the subject, and also be under 12 are often quite impulsive in traffic attractive to the multidisciplinary set of child and that some traffic signs (e.g. of running and youth researchers already found in the children) were read as an encouragement to various departments of the University. The Fac- run (not walk) rather than as signs telling driv- ulty considered that the focus on formal educa- ers to drive slowly. After the publication of tion within the teachers’ education needed to some of Sandels’ work, these traffic signs were be supplemented by a holistic perspective that substituted by novel ones. Moreover, she wrote spanned aspects of the child’s inherent physical booklets on children and traffic that were pro- and psychological development, as well as its duced and distributed to the population at situation as a family member and citizen, and large by The Road Safety Office (Trafiksäker- as object of cultural interpretation. At the time, 30 Department of Child and Youth Studies

in wider academic debate, ethics of recognition ary network of researchers. They were active- had become more widespread. There was also, ly preparing for a programme of master’s among many researchers on children’s issues, a courses on childhood issues, beginning with a growing dissatisfaction with deterministic mod- course dealing with children and human els of children’s development. There was there- rights. The participants of this shifting group fore an ambition to give proper recognition to came from many different disciplines: law, the inherent capacities of even a very small child history, philosophy, literature studies, linguis- and at looking at the variation in developmental tics, Scandinavian languages, education, an- paths of different individuals. This occurred at thropology and education. the same time that the socially based structural The Board of the Faculty of Social Sciences vulnerabilities affecting childhood and youth thus initiated discussions about a new depart were given attention. ment in 2007. In the autumn of 2007, Profes- The dean had a particular interest in the sor Gunilla Preisler, from the Department of Psy- subject. She had in the 1980s offered an influ chology at Stockholm University, was appointed ential PhD course on the anthropology of as head (prefekt) for a year, with Docent Peg childhood, showing the advantage of holistic Lindstrand from LHS as her co-head. Karin approaches to children and childhood. As one Aronsson, at the time professor at the Depart- of the expert committee members for the child ment of Child Studies (Tema Barn) at Linköping and childhood research unit at Linköping University, was recruited as head of the Depart- University, together with a historian, a psychi- ment from its official start in the autumn of atrist and a social psychologist, she endorsed 2008. In 2011, BUV got its second and present the advantages of multidisciplinary approach- head, Professor Ann-Christin Cederborg. es to childhood issues in a background vol- At the start of the Department, several of the ume at the foundation of that centre (cf. Ar- senior faculty members (professors, docents) of onsson et al. 1984). She was, however, not the the new department had a background in the only one at Stockholm University who took research environment of the prior LHS: Eva an interest in developing research on child- Berglund, Jane Brodin, Åsa Bäckström, Gunilla hood and youth issues. ‘The Centre for the Dahlberg, Ingrid Engdahl, Christina Gars, Studies of Children’s Culture’ (CBK) had been Bodil Halvars, Ann-Christin Kjellman, Suzanne operating in the Faculty of Human Sciences Kjällander, Peg Lindstrand, Ingrid Olsson, Anna for a long time, and had under the leadership Palmer, Karin Sandqvist, Kerstin Strander and of Karin Helander initiated an interdisciplin- Anna Westberg Broström. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 31

Since then, other academic fields have also prior to BUV, before outgrowing the premises become represented, for example: social psycho and moving north to a building behind the Mu- logy (Karin Aronsson), developmental psycho seum of Natural History. The Department con- logy (Ann-Christin Cederborg), sociology (Mats sists of three units that are presented below Börjesson, Nihad Bunar), social anthropology and education (Katarina Ayton, Sofia Franken • The Centre for the Studies of Children’s berg, Camilla Rindstedt), gender studies and Culture (CBK) education (Helena Bergström, Christian Eide- • The Unit for Child and Youth Science vald, Rickard Jonsson, Hillevi Lenz Taguchi, (BUVA) Helena Pedersen) and education (Margareta As- • The Unit for Preschool Education and pán, Maria Bergman, Ingela Elfström, Karin Research (FUFF) Hultman, Inge Johansson, Susanne Kjällander, Gunnar Åsén). The Department has both increased its size Today, some of the scholars above have retired through large research projects and through or left the department while others have recently two major fusions: the first with the unit of been recruited. preschool didactics (förskoledidaktik) and edu- Normally, both doctoral and other positions cation for preschool teachers-to-be (in 2010), are announced in the national press and, at times, and the second one (in 2011) with the unit for internationally (professorships). Most of the posi- education of teachers with recreation time tions announced at the Department have attracted orientation (fritidshem). In both cases, the at least 10 applicants per position and often more. fusions involved much work by both faculty members and administrative staff, during the BUV today year of the fusion, as well as also during the Today, the Department has around 120 staff immediately preceding year. Both these fusions members, including more than 30 doctoral stu- thus required substantial planning time and dents. It has thus increased its size about three time for anchoring various decisions, both with times. It is now housed on Frescati Hagväg, in the original staff members and with the staff the waterfront area of the main campus of members-to-be, and their prior departments Stockholm University in buildings built in during at least two years: that is to say, the pre- 1910–1917 for the College of Forestry (Skogs- ceding year and the year of the fusion. More- högskolan, architect Charles Lindholm). The over, as is often the case, hundreds and hund Department of Education used this building reds of hours have been invested in so called 32 Department of Child and Youth Studies

The entrance of Building 24 at Frescati Hage testifies to the rapid start of scientific production in this young department. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

förgäveskostnader (literally ‘costs in vain’), pains. By now though, things are, however, that is, investments that eventually did not lead more or less in place and the Department is one on to any advancement. For instance, negotia- of the largest departments in the Faculty of tions about recruitments that did not take place Social Sciences. or provisional planning for buildings that eventually did not form part of the expansion. The Centre for the Studies of Children’s Culture growth of the department was thus not a mat- The smallest, but most ‘ancient’ unit at Stock- ter of a smooth linear development, but rather a holm University among the three units is the jagged development in spurts and big leaps. All Centre for the Studies of Children’s Culture this, of course, also involved some growing (CBK), which was established at Stockholm Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 33

University already in 1980 as a special centre edited by Gunnar Berefelt, Anne Banér, and with the task of promoting knowledge in the then Karin Helander since the very first years of area of children’s culture. At first, the centre the Department. On a different note, it can be was led by Gunnar Berefelt, professor of art added that this unit was just reviewed by the history and writer/illustrator of children’s Swedish Higher Education Authority (Univer- books. After his retirement, Professor Karin sitetskanslerämbetet) for its bachelor of art Helander, theatre historian (but also a board (kandidatexamen) and master’s degrees and remember of Statens Kulturråd, child theatre cri- ceived excellent evaluations. tique and deputy dean of the Faculty of Hu- manities) took over the academic leadership. In Unit for Child and Youth Science 2008, the year that the Department was inau- The second unit, ‘Child and Youth Science’, is gurated, CBK simultaneously received the Uni- in charge of various courses, for example versity’s Prize for Best Teaching and part of the ‘Children’s Social Relations and Vulnerabili- motivation was that it had accomplished this ties’. It also features the master’s programme on a small budget: for many years, Helander ‘The Child’s Best Interests and Human Rights’ and her co-workers have managed to combine that emanated from the original transdisci- the presentation of novel research – including plinary network that preceded the Department. encounters with famous authors and illustra- It provides for the education of teachers with a tors of children’s books, actors, theatre pro- school-age educare and leisure orientation ducers and other actors in the children’s cultur- (fritidspedagoger). The latter education was in al arena – to the students. The core faculty of the consolidating reorganization transferred to the unit is very modest in size (around a hand- BUV from an initial unit, UTEP, the ‘Depart- ful of persons), but through a creative mix of ment for Educational Science with Emphasis on resources, this unit has for a long time offered Technical, Aesthetical and Practical Subjects’. unique teaching by combining invited guest The unit also houses two research pro- teachers from academia and the arts (at times grammes oriented toward the subject child around 40 persons) with the promotion of nov- and youth science (barn- och ungdoms- el research. Each year, the unit houses a sympo- vetenskap). The first is ‘Children and youth in sium which normally fills one of the lecture socially deprived situations’. This is an inter- halls with an audience of around 250–300 per- disciplinary research area, gathering researchers sons for three entire days. Moreover, this unit from the fields of sociology, psychology, legal publishes a yearly publication that has been studies and anthropology. The main focus is 34 Department of Child and Youth Studies

on how children and young people under Unit for Preschool Education and Research stand and cope with various social circum The unit for preschool education (förskole stances and predicaments in their daily lives. didaktik) and its research programme has Some of the research projects have, for in- recruited its staff from the Department of Edu- stance, explored the asylum process, the inte- cation, Stockholm University, from LHS, and gration of young refugees into the school sys- from other universities in Sweden. At the uni- tem, bullying, children as crime victims and versity takeover of teachers’ training, the pro- offenders. Theoretically, a basic premise of this gramme was at first placed in a separate depart programme is that the identities, cultural ment for ‘Didactics and Pedagogical Work’ forms and daily practices of young people can- (DOPA) before it was transferred to BUV at a not be understood without focusing on the second reorganization. The teachers are mainly effects of structural conditions. working within the preschool education pro- The second research area is ‘Social interac- gramme. This education of preschool teachers tion and discursive theory’. A common ground is in high demand, and it was one of the pro- for this research group is a focus on detailed grammes that received approval by the Swed- analyses of language use and language related ish Higher Education Authority (Högskolever- phenomena. It involves both alternative read- ket) to continue its work in 2010, when several ings of social and political documents, and the other universities temporarily had to stop this study of social interaction and meaning mak- programme due to poor evaluations. In the ing in mundane communication. These fields year that this unit started, a new research pro are explored through discourse analysis – in- gramme started simultaneously, financed by cluding narrative and rhetorical analysis – and the Swedish Research Council (through a through conversation analysis or linguistically national grant to Gunilla Dahlberg and Karin oriented ethnography. A shared methodologi- Aronsson, along with colleagues in Uppsala cal focus for this multi-disciplinary group is and Umeå) that supported another four PhD the study of discursive negotiations of various students at BUV. This programme has since kinds, not least the social categorizations that then been followed by another similar one. take place within different societal arenas e.g. Previously, the research has been focused on the legal, health, political, and computer medi- qualitative studies and on pedagogical docu- ated arenas. The group also looks at discourses mentation, illuminating the ways in which teach found in historical archives, as well as in schools ing can be done through interactivity (Lenz and other institutions for children and youth. Taguchi 2009), and in many different ways, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 35

and on the role of philosophical and post-modern Child perspectives and the United theorizing (e.g. Deleuze & Guattari 2004) in Nations Convention on the Rights conceptualizing the changes and challenges of of the Child contemporary educational arenas. Moreover, The notion of ‘child perspectives’ has been a core several researchers orient themselves toward notion in the formation of the Department that gender issues. was founded in 2008. In the following, we will Two main research areas are identified in cover the notion of child perspectives, as well as this new research unit. The first is ‘Learn- some developmental trends of the Department ing-brain-practice: transdisciplinary studies in itself: its start, expansion and growth. communication, language and literacy in pre- Sweden was one of the first countries to rati school’. The question is how we can produce fy the ‘United Nations Convention on the neuro-sensitive practices that enhance pre- Rights of the Child’, which in this year of jubi- school children’s communication, language lees celebrates 25 years. This means that Swe- and literacy skills. The transdisciplinary stud- den has to respect the rights and responsibili- ies in this field traverse various theories of ties spelled out by the convention: For instance, learning, child-development, linguistics, lit- children’s right to education or their right to be eracy, information and technology studies heard. Swedish authorities and official institu- (ICT), and the neurosciences. They address tions have to organize their work in such a way the emerging fields of educational neurosci- that children’s rights are respected. However, ence and preschool didactics in order to, the convention in its entirety is still not part of both critically and affirmatively, study, prob- Swedish law. lematize and learn from what Cunha and The notion of child perspectives (barnperspek- Heckman (2007) have called ‘the technolo- tiv) is about as old as the convention. In Sweden, gies of skill formation’. it was used in a number of texts around children The second research area is ‘Children, ethics and children’s conditions in the 1980s and 1990s and sustainability’. This research area addresses (e.g. Aronsson et al. 1984, Halldén 1991). ethical, social and ecological aspects of sustain- During the last 25 years, a novel research ability as integrated parts of pedagogical and arena has emerged: childhood sociology. In social relations, aiming to build a research basis various ways, researchers within this tradition for developing equality and solidarity across have foregrounded the importance of children’s gender, ethnicity, generational, religious, and agency and competences (Alanen 1988, James species boundaries. & Prout 1990, James et al. 1998, Prout 2005, 36 Department of Child and Youth Studies

The corridors of the present premises in a prefunctionalist building at Frescati Backe convey a relaxed and cosy atmosphere that stands in contrast to the more industrial style that dominates Södra huset. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

Quortrup 1990). Within childhood sociology, incompetent competent a number of scholars have made us aware of passive active the fact that children are often treated as inferior Figure 1. Dichotomous categorizations of children beings, less worthy than adults or ”real” per- and adults sons, and often positioned in terms of a number of the more or less fixed dichotomies (Prout Normally, such dichotomies surface as implicit 2005) as observed in the Levi-Straussian tradi- features in reasoning about children and child- tion of structuralism: hood (in media debates or as part and parcel of child caregiver institutional practices) rather than something small big explicit. What is common for these dichotomies weak strong is that children, to a high degree, are presented Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 37

as ‘becomings’ rather than as ‘beings’, that is, expression of children’s increased visibility. persons in their own right (Prout 2005). In the Through foregrounding children’s rights, child child, the observer therefore often sees but a pale ren are made visible as inherently vulnerable in projection of a ‘real’ person, a potential for several ways. There is always something of an something more full-blown, the ultimate product inherent asymmetry in that children lack target of ambitious parents’ long-term projects for a experiences (including full mastery of lan- proper upbringing (Halldén 1991). As men- guage(s), a completed education, etc.), as well tioned above, many of the researchers at BUV as material resources that adults have at their have wished to rectify this towards a more bal- disposal. Very young children have at times re- anced view of the child as a competent actor. stricted communicative resources for telling Simultaneously, several scholars have empha- about their lives, and older children are at least sized the need for a critical debate around chil- vulnerable through their material and emotional dren’s conditions. A view of the child built on dependency on the parental generation. More- the recognition of capabilities should not ob- over, children are at times more vulnerable scure children’s need for care and protection. through difficult life conditions that they share In society at large, children’s needs are often with adults, such as refugee status (Bunar & invisible, not least those of particularly vulner- Valenta 2010). able children (Quortrup 1990). Large groups of UNICEF publishes statistics yearly on a num children are more vulnerable than others during ber of indices that mark children’s wellbeing and their childhood: through illness, poverty, war, vulnerabilities. One such assessment is the nativi- family violence or through repeated separa- ty index. In order to reproduce themselves, tions and family break-ups (for global overviews, grown-up women of fertile age in a given society see the yearly report of e.g. UNICEF 2011). have to show a nativity index of around 2.0 children. It is, for instance, striking that both Italy Welfare and children’s visibility and Russia relatively recently reported nativity Departing from a child perspective, several indices close to 1.0 (UNICEF 2011). Such figures, scholars have problematized to what degree in part, mirror if a society is child-friendly and if children and young people are visible in society, having children is promoted or facilitated. An- for instance, when and if children are included in other related figure is child mortality. High mor- different types of register data, such as when tality rates tend to reflect poverty, but they might measuring poverty. The UN Convention, which also reflect to what degree child health is priori- has come of age some years ago, is in itself an tized in the national policies. Globally, a high in- 38 Department of Child and Youth Studies

fant mortality tends to be linked to poverty but it With respect to the UN convention, children’s also exists in modern Western nations, e.g. the US perspectives on the other hand are close to the (see UNICEF 2011). principle of children’s right to be heard (§12). Some scholars primarily emphasize children’s Child perspectives and children’s own voices, or the democratic and political as- perspectives pects of what is in the child’s best interest, particu Contemporary work on childhood and children’s larly how children themselves talk about their lives best interests differentiates between ‘child per- in interviews or through texts, images or other spectives’ that is, what is seen as the child’s view- documentations of their situation. In conversa- point or best interest, and ‘children’s perspec- tion analysis (Sachs 1992), this is what is called tives’, that is, what children themselves say about “the participants’ own perspectives”. Ulrich Beck their lives. (1997) has discussed how, increasingly, the mod- With respect to the UN convention, child per- ern child has more of a say in society. In family spectives are close to the core paragraph about life, as in school, care and treatment contexts, the child’s best interest (§3). Regardless if chil- adults are expected to listen to the modern child. dren themselves are aware of their interests, it is, The traditional divide between the two genera- for instance, in the child’s best interest that peo- tions, children and parents, has decreased and par ple in their environment do not smoke heavily, ticularly in the Northern countries, like Sweden drive recklessly or neglect necessary medication. and its neighbours, democracy has become an im Much can be child friendly or in the child’s best portant principle in children’s lives; children interest that the participants themselves (the are not expected to obey mechanically, instead children) are not aware of with respect to the they are to negotiate about their conditions (Beck child’s right to health, education, or many other 1997). aspects that might be relevant for an assessment of what is in the child’s best interest (§3). School Children as citizens: rights and size, segregation, abuse and processes of exclu- responsibilities in different age classes sion might invoke child perspectives, even if the Bourdieu (1984, 2001) shows that we can see children themselves do not voice any discontent. ‘child’ as a class category, rather than as a bio- However, the notion of child perspectives and logical category. To be a child of a given age is the child’s best interest can of course – in its turn to belong to an age category with specific class – invoke the principle of the child’s right to be attributes: someone entitled to specific privileges, heard (§12). rights and obligations. A child allowed to go Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 39

around on a bike should also know the most school, marry or vote (James & Prout 1990). important traffic rules. To have a watch of one’s There are sometimes major differences between own might also mean that the child should be how different societies regulate age limits and able to learn to be on time, and a cell phone of age classes (Ochs & Izquierdo 2009), and there his/her own might mean that the child is sup- are often ironic inconsistencies. In Sweden, a posed to call whenever s/he is expected to be young person might marry at the age of 18, but late in getting back home. Age hierarchies are cannot buy wine for the wedding until two intimately linked to rights and responsibilities years later. Age hierarchies also have implica- in cultural and historical contexts. A child in tions for our very view of children and child- Sweden today who cannot read at the age of 10 hood, for instance, in identifying persons seen or 15 might risk marginalization or discrimina- as capable of taking care of not only themselves tion, whereas a child who could not read in the but also others, or of the ways in which we 1600s at the same age was part of the ‘normal’ design narratives. Time perspectives are an im- illiterate majority. portant aspect of various types of narratives All such considerations aside, the UN con- (Blomberg & Börjesson 2013). vention categorizes anyone below 18 as a child. Different cultures view school age in different Below, we will primarily differentiate between ways (if a child should start at the age of 5, 6 or different generations. A child is thus a member perhaps 7 years), as well democratic rights, for of the younger generation, rather than some- instance, the right to vote. During the Roman one of the parental generation. This means that empire, young adult (males) were entitled to the social class of ‘children’ will also include vote, but only those who had turned at least 25 adolescents and other young people, who have were to be electable to the senate. The argu- not as yet come of age. ment was that young adults in their early 20s An important aspect of a society’s child per- are intellectually mature, but that they are still spective is how it treats children of different too easily influenced by impulses (Nygren 2004). ages as citizens with different rights and obliga- On a global scale, sibling caretaking is prob- tions. In traditional societies, as well as in ably the most common form of child day-care modern Western societies, there are often im- (Weisner & Gallimore 2007). But simulta plicit or explicit age hierarchies that regulate, neously, the reviews documenting this show for instance, when children should be able to that it is first around school age that children spend a day with caretakers other than their are allowed responsibility for preschool age parents, should start in school, should finish younger siblings. While young children are ini- 40 Department of Child and Youth Studies

The integration of the teachers’ training in 2008 implied a severe scarcity of offices and classrooms for the University. Here a temporary pavilion for teachers and researchers at the Department. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

tially given some responsibility for sibling care- obligations might clash with the UN conven- taking, they often have some adult as a kind of tion’s view of schooling as a right. back-up, for instance, an older relative. Never- One of several reasons for the US not ratifying theless, in some traditional societies, sibling the UN convention is that the US prefers to be caretaking is at times a responsibility that hin- able to deploy child soldiers in a war situation. ders school attendance. This means that local Children under the age of eighteen are mobilized Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 41

in wars, which is something that is not compati- (viii) analyses of social interaction and conver- ble with the UN convention, yet has become sational data more common in many conflict-ridden countries. (ix) analyses of educational documentation Nevertheless, regardless of what the young peo- (pedagogisk dokumentation) ple themselves think or wish, the convention has applied a child perspective, where one of the in- In the years 2008–2014, the Department has terpretations is that it is not in the best interest of grown in spurts: first from about 30 to about the child to engage in warfare below the age of 90 persons in 2010 when the preschool educa- eighteen. The concept of a ‘child perspective’ is tion was integrated into the Department, and thus broader than ‘children’s perspectives’. then in 2011 when the programme for teachers oriented towards school-age educare and leisure Methods for exploring child (fritidshemsinriktning) was integrated. More- perspectives over, there has been a successive growth of our Traditionally, children’s perspectives have often doctoral programme, with about 30 PhD stu- primarily been associated with interview metho dents today, due to successful research applica- dologies. Today, however, at the Department of tions. Today, the Department is the sixth largest Child and Youth Studies, there are a number of department in the Faculty of Social Sciences. methodological approaches for how to capture During its early development, it has had some a child perspective, including analyses of: bouts of growing pains. At large, however, it is a lively and active department, with an educa- (i) interview data and children’s perspectives tion that is in high demand. Its faculty mem- (ii) children as citizens; children’s rights and bers are highly visible on the national and inter obligations national arena: in peer review contexts, on (iii) demographic data and children’s visibility editorial boards, as authors of monographs, (iv) social categorizations of children in docu receivers of large grants and as the proud tutors ments with a bearing on youth and childhood of doctoral theses. (v) children’s welfare; integration/segregation; in- The prospect for the Department is bright, clusion/exclusion; poverty as we have two teacher training programmes (vi) agency and children’s resistance that students line up for and that the govern- (vii) children’s embodied perspectives (e.g. fail- ment supports with extra allocations. In addi- ure to thrive or anorexia as ways of giving tes- tion, as the Department keeps growing with its timony about troublesome experiences) highly competent teachers, professors, and other 42 Department of Child and Youth Studies

staff members, we will be able to continue to (eds.). Child Sexual Abuse: Disclosure, De- develop outstanding research that is noticed lay, and Denial. 159–173. Mahwah, New both nationally and internationally. Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum. Cunha, Flavio and James J. Heckman 2007.  •  The Technology of Skill formation. Discus- Alanen, Leena 1988. Rethinking childhood. sion Paper Series. IZA. Bonn: Institute for Acta Sociologica, 31(1), 53–67. the Study of Labor. Aronsson, Karin, Marianne Cederblad, Gudrun Deleuze, Gilles and Félix Guattari 2004. A Dahl, Lars Olsson and Bengt Sandin 1984. Thousand Plateaus: Capitalism and schizo Barn i tid och rum. [Children in time and phrenia. London: Continuum. [French space]. Lund: Gleerups. original 1987] Beck, Ulrich 1997. Democratization of the Engdahl, Ingrid 1990. Barnet, saken, kallet. family. Childhood, 4, 151–166. [The child, the task, the calling]. Lund: Stu- Blomberg, Helena and Mats Börjesson 2013. dentlitteratur. The chronological I – The use of time as a Halldén, Gunilla 1991. The child as project rhetorical resource when doing identity in and the child as being: Parents’ ideas as bullying narratives. Narrative Inquiry 23:2, frames of reference. Children & Society, 244–260. 5 (4), 334–346. Bourdieu, Pierre 1984. Distinction: A social James, Allison, Chris Jenks and Alan Prout critique of the judgment of taste. New 1998. Theorizing childhood. Oxford: Poli- York:Routledge. [original in French, 1979]. ty Press. Bunar, Nihad and Marko Valenta 2010. James, Allison and Alan Prout 1990. Repre- Assisted integration: immigrants and refu- senting childhood: Time and transition. In gees in Scandinavian welfare states – the Allison James and A. Prout (eds.). 1990 Swedish and Norwegian experience. Journal Constructing and reconstructing childhood. of Refugee Studies, 23:4, 463–483. Basingstoke: Falmer Press. Cederborg, Ann-Christin, Michael E. Lamb Lenz Taguchi, Hillevi 2009. Going beyond the and Ola Laurell 2007. Delay of disclosure, theory/practice divide in early childhood minimization, and denial of abuse when the education. London: Routledge. evidence is unambiguous: A multivictim Nygren, Rolf 2004. Något om att bygga barnrät- case. In Margaret E. Pipe, Michael. E. Lamb, tens ålderstrappa. (pp.11–18). In L. Olsen Yael Orbach & Ann-Christin Cederborg (ed.) Barns makt. Uppsala: Iustus. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 43

Ochs, Elinor and Carolina Izquierdo 2009. Re- sponsibility in childhood: Three develop mental trajectories, Ethos 37:4, 391–413. Prout, Alan 2005. The future of childhood. Lon- don: Routledge. Sandels, Stina 1970. Young children in traffic. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 40, 111–116. Sandels, Stina 1975. Children in traffic. London: Harper Collins. Sandin, Bengt and Gunilla Halldén. 2003. Bar- nets bästa: En antologi om barndomens inne börder och välfärdens organisering. Stock- holm: Symposion. UNCRC 2010. United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child. First printing, 1989. UNICEF 2011. The state of the world’s children. Weisner, Thomas and Ronald Gallimore 2008. Child and sibling care giving. In Robert LeVine and Rebecca S. New (eds.) Anthropology and child development: A cross-cultural reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. NOD, an exciting centre of academic and corporate activities in ICT situated in Kista, was inaugurated in October 2014. (Photo: Love Ekenberg) 45

Department of Computer and Systems Sciences Anita Kollerbaur and Love Ekenberg

The Department of Computer and Sys- tion in education and research – an evolution tems Sciences at Stockholm University (DSV) that has had a substantial impact on Swedish has been a pioneer in promoting research and society. education that combine aspects of computer During the last forty years or so, we have science with regard to the use of IT in diverse seen systematic shifts in the use of computers. areas, starting with its administrative use in Needless to say, this development has also organisations. DSV has continued to work on extensively affected DSV’s research and educa- the basic ideas from the 1960s of which Swe- tion. From having been used only in profes- den’s first professor of informatics, Börje sional settings in very limited numbers and re- Langefors, was the father. Later social sciences garded as unique artefacts that were powerful, and humanities were added to the aspects but primarily passive tools, the role of comput- covered by the Department and, most recently, ers has changed dramatically. Today, the focus arts sciences. DSV is the largest department at is on large groups of human communication the University, and the largest IT department in and collaboration, assisted by extensive net- Sweden. In 2006, DSV celebrated its 40th anni- works of fine-grained computational elements. versary. Its history was then documented in the These elements penetrate all human activities book (Kollerbaur et al. 2006). and are used by virtually everyone. They are Looking back, it is difficult to maintain a also rapidly becoming more and more embed- meta-perspective, since so much has happened ded in, and not distinguishable from, other ar- over the years. Here we will therefore concen- tefacts, and are typically more active in the col- trate on some of the most important events and laborative processes – in contrast to being the developments within this tremendous evolu- passive tools of yesterday. 46 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

DSV was initially located in Building F of Södra huset in Frescati. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

Over the years, DSV has been an important by Gunnar Hävermark, to investigate the need actor in the field, constantly trying to keep up for activities in a new academic discipline, ‘Ad- and running in front of this historical paradigm ministrative Data Processing’, and to suggest a shift. It has frequently been a dramatic but re- process for introducing it at Swedish universi- warding journey, having had a strong impact ties. The committee1 produced a report entitled on the development of information systems in Akademisk utbildning i administrativ databehand a societal setting. ling on November 25, 1964. It recommended three chairs to be created, starting in 1965, at The birth of an academic discipline the universities of Stockholm, Gothenburg and in the information age Lund. The report also presented course out- In the beginning of the 1960s, it became clear at lines for the first three semesters of academic a political level that the expansive development studies, corresponding to what is now 90 acade of computing would motivate increasing activi- mic credit points. It was understood that studies ties on several educational and research levels. On April 3, 1963, the Swedish Higher Edu 1 Other members of the committee were Olle Dopping (secretary), Carl-Erik Fröberg, Curt Kihlstedt, Björn Tel and cation Authority appointed a committee, chaired Christina Österberg. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 47

in administrative data processing should be the infological realm, focus was placed on the combined with studies in other disciplines, analysis of organisations including such aspects such as business administration, statistics or as objectives, processes, and information require- mathematics, in order to obtain a Bachelor of ments. Here, the aim was to study an informa- Science degree (180 credit points in total). tion system from an organisational viewpoint. The Ministry of Education decided to give This includes the analysis of information model- the new discipline the name ‘Informationsbe- ling and supply, as well as usability issues and handling, särskilt den administrativa databe human-computer interaction. In the datalogical handlingens metodik’ (Information processing realm, focus was placed on efficient storage, pro- specialising in methods for administrative data cessing and communication of data. Particular processing) 2. This corresponded reasonably well topics were data modelling, database manage- at that time to the discipline called ‘Information ment, data manipulation languages, and query Systems’ in some other countries such as the US. languages. The datalogical realm, in Langefors’ From July 1, 1965, the new discipline was view, also included CASE technology, method established at the Royal Institute of Technology engineering, and software engineering. Today, (KTH) in Stockholm. The subject was taught the subject is not explicitly grouped into these not only to students of engineering but also to two areas, but the perspectives are still valid. students at Stockholm University. The actual Langefors also claimed that Information Systems department was formed in 1966. Börje Lange- is a discipline with few fixed borders. Concep- fors was appointed acting professor in 1965 tions and views are continuously changing. This and full professor in 1967. means that new types of problems, infological as The academic discipline of computer and sys- well as datalogical, constantly emerge, while oth- tems sciences covers knowledge and skills neces- er kinds of problems become less relevant as sary to analyse, design, develop and maintain time passes. Many of these changes are triggered information systems in small and large organisa- by advances in computer programming as well as tions. According to Langefors, problems and computer and communication technology or by methods related to information systems belonged changing information demands. to the infological or to the datalogical realm. In Growth of the organisation

2 Twenty years later, in 1987, the name of the department was Many of the more specific areas of competence, changed to ‘Computer and Systems Sciences’, or in Swedish where DSV has contributed with pioneering ‘Data- och systemvetenskap’. In this chapter, ‘DSV’ will be used from now on also for the initial period. ideas like systems development, information 48 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

modelling, object-oriented programming, human- enthusiastic optimists to, in 2013, a large num- computer interaction, artificial intelligence, In- ber of full-time staff. All of them have contrib- ternet technology, decision support systems and uted to DSV’s development, in different roles information security were evidently not envi- as teachers and researchers, as administrators sioned in earlier times. This is not least the case and as teaching assistants.3 with applications such as computer-based edu- The same main organisation was kept, until cation, multi-modal communication and com- 1995, when research was reorganised into puter conferencing systems. three research laboratories. A third substantial The dynamic character of our subject has change in the organisation was made in 2003, also affected the organisational structure of when the activities began to be conducted DSV. For over 40 years, DSV was a joint within the framework of units. The activities department of KTH and Stockholm University, include research, postgraduate education, and but since 2010 it belongs solely to Stockholm furthermore, education and training, commis- University. Before that, all activities at the joint sioned education, and interaction with the department organisationally belonged either to community at large. To implement the new KTH (from 2009 within the School of Infor- organisation, the responsibilities, functions mation and Communication Technology), or and roles for different categories of personnel to Stockholm University (within the Faculty of were all carefully specified.4 Social Sciences). Both universities had graduate Besides the pioneering Börje Langefors, and undergraduate courses, research activities there are other names that merit special and external contacts within the Department. mention. The initial group of teachers and re- All courses and programmes, every research searchers who had a special role in the creation project, and every position in the Department of DSV were: Janis Bubenko Jr, Peter Bagge, were formally established at either Stockholm Rune Engman, Olle Källhammar, Nils Linde- University or KTH. However, almost all staff crantz, Mats Lundeberg, Tomas Ohlin and were engaged in activities at both universities. Kjell Samuelsson, as well as DSV´s head of Even after the split, there is cooperation in many areas of research and education. 3 Obviously we cannot present details on who led and participated in the many research projects, or who contributed An academic discipline matures through the to the internal development and administration. However, those who are not mentioned explicitly in this article should progress in research and education carried out know that they are all remembered, and that we are planning by its scholars. Since the start, DSV has deve to make as much historical material as possible available on the DSV website. loped from being a department with a few 4 The units are described into more detail later in the chapter. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 49

The Electrum building in Kista, home of the Department between the years 1990 and 2001. (Photo: Mats Danielson) department, Tord Dahl, who successfully led A number of political reforms pertaining to the Department during the long period from higher education have influenced DSV like all 1979 to 2002. From 2002 to 2008, the depart- other university departments. We want to men- ment head was Anita Kollerbaur and from tion particularly the importance for the devel- 2008 until the present, Professor Love Eken- opment of research and graduate education of berg. the promotion reform for professors, which dramatically increased their number. Empirical summary The growing department has moved physi From 1990 to 2013, DSV has grown substan- cally four times and, in 2014, it will move a tially. In 1990, the total turnover was 25 MSEK fifth time to the newly built NOD building in compared to 238 MSEK in 2013. In the same Kista. The first premises were hosted in the period, the number of professors has increased core part of the KTH campus, to be followed from 2 to 15 and the number of full-time equi by premises within the new SU campus at Fres- valent students from 750 to almost 2,000. cati from 1971 until 1990. Since then, DSV has 50 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

been located in Kista, first in the Electrum in systems availability. This was long before the building and then, from 2001, in the Forum PC, although the terminals at the time were building – both situated along Isafjordsgatan. somewhat awkward to handle practically, and Of course, to reside in one of the top five IT were naturally completely ‘unintelligent’. clusters in the world has been advantageous to Entirely through its own efforts, the Depart DSV, enabling numerous collaborations with ment turned to the computing industry, and industry and public society. was ultimately given the chance to try out a small local HP (Hewlett-Packard) system with The computational environment the agreement that usage experiences would IT access for students, teachers and researchers be collected and made available to HP. The was considered as a specialised service of an policy at DSV of providing modern, up-to- exclusive nature in the 1960s. Decisions about date IT environments for students and staff the general organisation for, and provision of, was introduced with the HP system. The sys- such services were concentrated to a central tem initially supported eight teletype terminals. public authority. The Department had to accept A specialised terminal room, available around this principle. The central authority even inven the clock, was set up at the Department. This ted a special currency, ‘computing coins’, which meant a fantastic increase in access possibili- were handed out to departments on a yearly ties for students. No longer did they have to basis. These virtual coins could be converted hand piles of punch cards to a centralised re- into computing resources, hours and minutes ception and, hopefully, receive the results the of runtime on various, mostly central, comput- morning after. Instead, compilations and test ing facilities. runs could be made on the spot. Access time Naturally, DSV worked hard to make avail- was counted in minutes instead of hours. In- able as large amounts of computing coins as teractive programming was introduced using possible. When access was insufficient, alterna- the BASIC language. tives were analysed. The Department was one of Over the years, users have naturally seen the first to try decentralised computing, when several shifts in DSV’s computing environment. technical development made such resources pos- In the mid-1970s, the first personal computers sible and ultimately available. appeared. At that time, the general opinion at Timesharing systems were introduced at the DSV was that personal computers could not be beginning of the 1970s. End-user access to com- a complete computing alternative for educa- puting resources meant a tremendous increase tion and research at university level. However, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 51

In the period 2001-2014, DSV was situated in the Forum building in Kista. (Photo: Mats Danielson) a few researchers started using personal com- 1990s, both for staff and for students. Since puters at an early date and developed a system 2001, when DSV moved to the Forum build- called GLAS (Graphic Low-cost Advanced Sys- ing, the workstation environment has been tem) for use in research of computer-based substituted with advanced personal computers. learning in the schools from 1980. Each GLAS The facilities for students in the new NOD computer had more computing capacity than building are very modern, with the latest ver- the HP system, as well as better functionality sions of wireless networks in all areas and access and technical performance than the first IBM to wired networks in most locations. They will, PC. With the first Macintosh system 1984, atti- for instance, have a large number of rooms for tudes started to change. IT supported group work, as well as access to In 1990, DSV had an environment with 30 four specially equipped laboratories for studies PCs with MS-DOS, 24 Macintosh systems and in multimedia, security, computer games and in- 32 ‘dumb’ terminals connected to the central teractions. Computer rooms will still be avail- computer systems. There was naturally an in- able, offering the latest versions of personal creased use of personal computers during the computers. 52 KapitelnamnDepartment of Computer and Systems Sciences

The administrative tools at the Department between research and higher education, on one have also undergone substantial change follow- hand, and undergraduate education on the other. ing the technical development. DSV has been a The first course block was offered in 1966, pioneer in the use of timesharing systems, per- with approximately 70 students enrolled at sonal computers, use of computer conferencing Stockholm University. In 2005, undergraduate systems and web technology. As early as the education had grown to approximately 1600 1970s, Professor Jacob Palme was working on student places per year. DSV’s undergraduate communication between people by means of education has grown significantly since 2000. computers, which led to the KOM system. This is interesting, since so many activities in KOM was introduced in the early 1980s at DSV. the ICT sector decreased in both quantity and DSV internally developed the administrative impact at the turn of century system Daisy, now supporting most of the main The content of DSV’s education mirrors the work processes and parts of internal informa- latest findings in research as well as the current tion for both students and employees. Daisy has needs in trade and industry, particularly within been in use since 2000. Since 2007, an increasing areas where DSV has special competence. number of distance courses have been devel- Single subject courses have been offered since oped. These courses utilise the platform Ilearn, the beginning. Many of these had joint student developed by DSV and based on the freeware groups from the University and KTH and were program Moodle. Ilearn supports all types of often given as sets of courses in the same aca- courses for distance education, blended learn- demic area, such as Security Informatics or ing, and campus courses. We have adapted the Artificial Intelligence. platform based on our research findings in the The first DSV programme was established in area of ‘Designs for Learning’. We have also 1977 as a consequence of a reform of Swedish developed the system SciPro for elaborated the- higher education, which initiated the design of a sis support. national curriculum for a three-year Applied Systems Science programme. Stockholm Uni- Undergraduate education versity was one of nine universities commis- Undergraduate education was historically the sioned to implement a local adaptation of the dominant activity at DSV, as a result of the need education plan (utbildningsplan). Initially, the for educated people within industry, academia programme was designed to meet the require- and society in general. This has changed over ments of the labour market, a major theme of the years. Currently, DSV has a good balance the 1977 reform. However, during the last two Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 53

years of the programme, DSV gave the pro- Programmes combining IT with other sub- gramme a strong research connection. In 1981, ject areas have since become one of the the Department started to argue for a one-year strengths of DSV. Four of the eleven bachelor’s extension of the programme. The commitment programmes we offer in 2014 are given in co- to a national programme was abandoned in operation with other departments at the Uni- 1988, and in 1993, to DSV’s great satisfaction, versity. Six master’s programmes will start in the Department was allowed to replace the 2014, including a distance-based one. The Mas- three-year programme by a four-year Computer ter in Health Informatics is given as a joint pro- and Systems Sciences programme. gramme together with Karolinska Institutet. The area continued to change rapidly. In The latter programme leads to a joint degree 2000, an extensive plan for redesigning the under from both universities. All master’s program graduate education was outlined. Experience mes are taught in English. had shown that students preferred longer edu- DSV started early with distance education. cational programmes. As part of this initiative, During 2014 we will give 12 such courses and DSV established and engaged itself in four new two complete master’s programmes: one in pro programmes, combining IT with other subject ject management and one in ICT for development. areas. The first two were the four-year ‘ICT To increase the quality of theses at both and Communication Sciences’ programme that basic and advanced levels, a unique process started in 2002, followed by the three-year with supporting tools was developed and intro- ‘Multimedia Education and Technology’ produced. During the process, the students are giv- gramme (in collaboration with the Department en increased and systematic support with spe- of Education at Stockholm University) from cial emphasis on methodological aspects. The 2004. The ‘Market Communication and ICT’ process is clear, and the students are systemati- programme (MarkIT) was established together cally taken through this. Firstly, the examina- with the GI/IHR (later the Department of tion criteria have been clarified, so that all Advertising and PR) from 2006, as well as the those engaged in the process have the same two-year master programme ICT for Develop- idea of what is required. A reviewer is allocated ment. By this strategy, DSV managed to avoid a early in the thesis work, who gives the supervi- decrease in undergraduate education, which sors and students feedback and support would otherwise have taken place. The volume throughout the process. The reviewers must at of applicants was no longer nine students per least be docents. They form a group, who col- course place as it was at beginning of the 1990s. laborate among themselves. This means that a 54 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

core of experienced people provides support The good relations and cooperation between for the large number of tutors and students in- the Department and students should be men- volved in graduate work. This increases the tioned. As required by the University, students quality assurance of all theses. The reviewers are organised in a departmental student com- are also mentors for less experienced tutors. mittee (Ämnesrådet, ÄR). In addition, students For all theses, the main examiner is a full pro- at DSV formed the students’ association DISK fessor giving the final grade to be awarded in February, 1990. Since 2008, this is an inde- based on written documentation from the su- pendent union at the University. At DSV, stu- pervisors and reviewers, as well as a personal dents are consulted early in all planning pro- assessment of the thesis. cesses, which is of great value to the Department. For supporting this process, DSV developed The Student Counselling Committee includes SciPro, an IT based administrative system, representatives from ÄR and DISK. From DSV, which has been in use since 2011. It includes these discussions include the head of depart- both functionality for the whole process, from ment, the director of studies, student counsel- the development of topics to grading, and lors and responsible administrators. serves as a container for information for the student. It has an FAQ function as well as dis- Graduate education cussion forums. SciPro furthermore contains Graduate education started in the late 1960s at examples of excellent thesis work. The results DSV. It has passed a number of stages and has of the new process, to increase the quality of been coupled with changes, particularly during DSV theses at basic and advanced levels, are the 1970s and the 1980s. The study pro- very positive. grammes for DSV’s graduate programme were The programmes and courses at SU have initially specified solely for a doctorate and a been successful in attracting female students. licentiate in Computer and Systems Sciences, The percentage of women varies. On average, either at KTH or SU. In the year 2000, a study DSV has had figures between 31 % and 48%, plan for the research area ‘Man-Machine Inter- with a peak in 1999, and with large differences action’ was added, making it easier for candi- between the programmes. In bachelor program dates with backgrounds in humanities, cogni- mes in 2013, the enrolment varied between tive sciences, medicine and communication 13% females in the Computer Science pro- sciences to enter a PhD programme at DSV. gramme, and 65% in the Marketing and IT This programme was generalised to become programme. the area of ‘Information Society’ in 2013. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 55

At the end of the 1970s, 67 students were enrolled as PhD or licentiate candidates. 18 of them were registered at KTH and 49 at Stock holm University. By the end of the 1980s, the financial side had improved in connection with increased external sources, but funding remained an issue. However, increased external funding during recent years has improved the situation considerably, though the limited faculty funding for PhD students is still a problem. Different models of organising PhD studies have been tested over the years. A research edu cation committee, consisting of all supervisors, was established for a period in order to stimulate and improve the whole graduate programme and to link the PhD students’ research closer to research at the laboratories. A PhD programme study director was appointed in 1995 and, in 2006, the programme was coordinated by a Staircase in the NOD building, leading up to the steering group and a group of senior researchers. student reception area. (Photo: Mats Danielson) In addition to ‘regular PhD students’ being admitted to the programme, DSV has commit- Women now constitute a growing share of ments with other universities and companies, in the PhD graduates. During the six years 2000– both Sweden and internationally, whose teachers, 2005, 25% of all DSV PhD degrees and 22% through grants for PhD studies, pursue their of all DSV Licentiate degrees were achieved by education with DSV support. DSV also has a women. In 2013, 25% of PhD degrees were number of SIDA funded PhD students5. In addi achieved by women. tion, there are several industrial PhD candidates whose companies fund their studies. Research Being a young department in a new scientific 5 SIDA PhD candidates pursue their PhD programme on a area, the Department had no research tradi- sandwich basis, meaning they spend half the time at DSV and the other half at their respective home country universities. tions to fall back on in the 1960s and 1970s. 56 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

After some years, research groups nevertheless programme for research in Software and Infor- started to emerge: mation Systems funded by STU. CADIS became SYSLAB, with one location in Stockholm and • CADIS (‘Computer-Aided Design of Informa one in Gothenburg, and the PRINCESS work tion Systems’) in the datalogical realm was was included in the centre CLEA (Computer- initiated in 1969 and led by Janis Bubenko. based LEArning environments). DSV also fun • ISAC (‘Information Systems and Analysis of ded several large projects from the STU pro- Change’) performed research in the info gram in 1987–92. logical realm during the period 1970–1980, In 1995, the number of projects and research- initiated and led by Mats Lundeberg. ers had grown. To improve coordination and to • PRINCESS (‘PRoject for Interactive Com further stimulate the research, three laboratories puter-based Education SystemS’) performed were created: SECLab (Laboratory for Security research on computers and education, and Informatics), K2 Lab (Laboratory for Knowl- was initiated in 1973, led by Anita Koller- edge and Communication) and SYSlab, Labora- baur. tory for Information Systems and Software De- • Research on videoconferencing was started velopment. by Kjell Samuelsson in the middle of the Since then, the research at DSV has grown 1970s, leading to the experimental system enormously. It is now in broad terms focused InformatiCom. on the design and development of information • Research in the area of ‘Programming systems to provide functioning solutions for Methodology’ started in 1976, initiated by the problems of today and tomorrow. This Sten-Åke Tärnlund. includes methods for the analysis of complex systems, interactions between people and IT The main financing for these activities was systems and security management. We like to external via the Swedish National Board for think that DSV’s research mainly concerns Technical Development (STU), with which the important, real-life problems. This might be Department had an exceptionally productive disaster management on a large scale, support cooperation during the 1970s, and via the for efficient meeting management or lifelong Swedish National Board of Education (Skol learning. We also create tools that are adapted överstyrelsen, SÖ). to human language and that are used, for Two research centres were established be- example, to make finding and summarising tween 1980 and 1988, within the framework information from the Internet easier. This Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 57

research is primarily occupied with people’s • ‘Act in Communication with Technology’ lives, work, educational activities and leisure (ACT), containing researchers working in the pursuits. We want to understand and influence areas of Human-Computer Interaction, Social how technology impacts and changes our daily Computing and Mobile Computing Techno lives. Obviously, this includes the application logies. In particular, the research focuses on of information technology in our professional location-based experiences (the LX Lab), dig- lives, but also includes the mobile environment, ital game design and experiences, and tech- playing and games, human health and different nologies for artistic experiences. These topics user groups, such as children and computer describe research themes in the unit, but each gamers. researcher focuses on more specific problems The research at DSV is genuinely cross-disci- such as investigating how artistic performanc- plinary. It often spans several subject areas and es can be supported through mobile technolo- incorporates perspectives and methods from gy, and how digital games can be designed to other fields such as psychology, linguistics, phi- facilitate player immersion. ACT is led by Do- losophy, social sciences, statistics and mathe- cent Louise Barkhuus. matics. Our research also contributes to these • ‘Information Systems’ (IS) conducts research fields through methods and technologies for into education technology and management seeking new knowledge. Research at DSV is of information systems. An information sys- often interdisciplinary, for instance in informa- tem is an IT-based system that stores, pro- tion systems relating to economics and law, or cesses and presents information in order to within human-computer interaction relating to support the work and communication within psychology, education, linguistics and ethnogra- and between organisations. The research in- phy. In software development there are close cludes disciplines such as database technolo- connections to logic, statistics, applied mathe- gy, business modelling, process management, matics, communication, industrial design, e-gov- requirements management, IT management, ernment, designs for learning and arts. business systems, systems methodology, sys- DSV was reorganised into units in 2003 to tems integration, service-oriented archi- enable more structure regarding its research and tecture and project management. IS is led by educational activities. These units have respon- Docent Åsa Smedberg. sibility for research, as well as graduate and un- • ‘Interaction, Design and Learning’ (IDEAL) dergraduate education, in their respective areas. conducts projects, research and education in At present, DSV contains four units: IT for learning, flexible learning, simulation 58 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

learning and assessment, human-machine in- Economic Information Systems, and Business teraction and communication and learning Information Systems. systems. IDEAL is led by Gunnar Wettergren. DSV has been a fundamental source of aca • ‘Systems Analysis and Security’ (SAS) stud- demic knowledge, measured in the number of ies complex and dynamic systems that de- professors in the Nordic countries that have scribe and define the world and society as had their origins at DSV. The number of visit- well as decision-making under incomplete ing international scholars and researchers at knowledge, presence of uncertainty and time DSV is impressive, and a large number of scien- constraints as well as other analytical sys- tific publications have been produced, includ- tems issues. This is also reflected in the wide ing the PhD dissertations. In the year 2013, range of problems being addressed and researchers at DSV published 143 refereed con- solved, such as policy decision-making at lo- ference contributions, 82 journal articles, 26 cal, national and international levels, in- book chapters and 4 books. cluding the impact on the environment or DSV has taken initiatives to arranging or the insurance strategies of public and private leading national as well as international scien property in case of natural calamities, public tific conferences, and active participation in health issues and strategic business deci- professional organizations such as IFIP, ACM sions. The diversity of the area draws on and IEEE. There are also a large number of col- many disciplines such as mathematics, sta- laborations with companies and the public sec- tistics, philosophy, psychology and econom- tor, contacts with national organizations and ics. The spectrum of key activities covers public authorities, and with international scien- subjects such as decision and risk analysis, tific networks and expert groups. data mining and simulation of complex sys- DSV is very actively involved in EU support- tems. SAS is led by Professor Oliver Popov. ed collaborative research and development projects. DSV has also stimulated several Swedish Influences and external impact companies to increase their participation in EU Computer and systems sciences is an academic projects, and has also been instrumental in SIDA subject that is today taught at more than 20 supported projects aiming at supporting and universities and university colleges in Sweden, promoting ICT in developing countries. originating from the DSV. It is represented by Many of the activities at DSV have reached departments having many different names such far outside the Department. The DSV impact as Computer and Systems Sciences, Informatics, on education in Swedish schools has been fruit- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 59

Entry hall of the NOD building from where most facilities can be accessed. (Photo: Mats Danielson) ful. This includes impact from many education- tutes such as SISU and Institut V, as well as al research projects and useful cooperation with many private companies in the ICT area, in school administrations. Early prototypes of cluding ENEA, Infocon, NeoTech, CNet, Pro- new applications have often proved to be use- jektplatsen, Compumine, Preference, and more. ful for much longer periods than expected. DSV has had its own application of the Most important of all, one should note the sub- theories and the software developed by the stantial knowledge that students with DSV de- research group on decision support systems for grees have carried into practice in Swedish in- procurement since 2011. The tool makes it dustry and the public sector. A number of possible to formulate and evaluate criteria with spin-off companies originate from DSV. Per- higher quality than with the methodology sons from DSV have initiated research insti- usually applied. 60 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

DSV has also responded to many requests terms, it means promotion of and support for to take part in public policy connected types relevant ‘Information and Communication of analysis of proposals and effects from edu Technology for Development’ (ICT4D) efforts cation and research in the ‘information soci- at partner institutions and organisations in deve ety’. This concept was only vaguely defined in loping countries, and the establishment of net- the 1970s and 1980s. DSV’s involvement in works of collaboration in Sweden and abroad. public committees and commissions on indus- Spider supports development of ICT infra trial, social and legal information matters has structure, human capacity and relevant ICT been strong, especially when one considers content. The centre also promotes information that many of the reforms for expansion of management, communication and interaction, higher education and research were born here. in addition to networking and awareness rais- Many analytic reports with roots in the De- ing. Major areas for intervention are access, partment have been formulated, which have e-education, e-health and e-governance, includ described the expansion of education and re- ing human rights aspects. The centre is a col- search in the information society. In fact, it laboration between DSV and national donor can be claimed that analysts with close con- agency Sida (the Swedish International Deve nections to the Department took an active lopment Cooperation Agency). The centre part in the very creation of the concept ‘infor- started 2004 and is presently managed by mation society’. Many organizational, struc- Kerstin Borglin. tural, economic, social, and legal issues have been analysed leading to the development of Mobile Life important social applications of considerable Mobile Life Centre was formed in 2006 at the value for subsequent university educational initiative of Stockholm University. The focus of development. the centre includes research on consumer- oriented mobile and ubiquitous services span- Current research centres ning all areas from entertainment and sociali- Spider Centre sation to work and society. The centre joins Spider – ‘The Swedish Program for Informa- forces with local research organisations such as tion and Communication Technology in Deve SICS and the Interactive Institute. It has major loping Regions’ – supports developing count partners from the IT and telecom industry, in- ries in harnessing the benefits of ICT for cluding Ericsson Research, TeliaSonera, Sony development and poverty alleviation. In practical Ericsson, Nokia and Microsoft Research. Part- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 61

nerships in the public sector, including the City holm University, Atrium Ljungberg, City of of Stockholm and Kista Science City, secure Stockholm, the Interactive Institute, Swedish societal relevance, and collaboration with ICT, Library Stockholm and Kista Science City. Stockholm Innovation and Growth (STING) DAC is placed under E-govLab and the artistic ensures that results are integrated into the director of DAC is Ingvar Sjöberg. innovation system. At the centre, this academic, industrial and public partnership is able to Centre in Arts and Technology in Society work jointly on strategically important proj- On March 19, 2013 an agreement was signed ects that can provide sustainable growth. The between DSV, the Royal Institute of Arts and centre is government funded by VINNOVA on the Royal College of Music in Stockholm. The a 10-year grant, 2007–2017. Mobile Life is led partners will collaborate within CATS – Centre by Professor Kristina Höök. in Arts and Technology in Society. The partners contribute their respective expertise in artistic E-govLab expression and technology. The idea is to inter- E-govLab is our youngest centre, established in act with the rest of society in collaborative April 2014 and described in the section on pro- projects, work for broadened recruitment to file areas. artistic educational programmes in Stockholm and to create educational programmes at mas- Digital Art Centre ter’s and PhD levels. Digital Art Centre (DAC) is a project initiated For joint operations, there is a steering com- in 2010 and is a physical arena where research mittee to which each party appoints one mem- and innovation in technology, media and art ber. The steering committee lays down a busi- created in and around Kista gain visibility. By ness plan and a budget, appoints the director opening a new interface between technology and makes decisions on other common issues. companies and creative industries, cross-fer- The artistic director of CATS is Rebecca Fors- tilisation occurs between the IT industry, berg. working models, new research, and art, and thereby DAC leads to new ways to think inno- Profile areas in research 2014 vatively. The main focus of research at DSV can be DAC is also a launch pad in a long-term ef- roughly sorted under four areas in which we have fort to create a fully-fledged digital experience a leading position and conduct highly acclaimed centre in Kista. Key players in DAC are Stock- research. 62 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

• Arts and Technology for Society – RATS theatre auditorium and working in new ways: • E-government in the public domain, on web platforms and • ICT for Development, ICT4D through mobile phones. RATS Theatre works • Design for Learning, DEL in close cooperation with actors, artistic colleges, universities, institutions, theatres, muse- Arts and technology for society – RATS ums, businesses and schools, both nationally Our programme in RATS addresses design and and internationally. development of cultural, artistic and entertainment experiences, facilitated through novel E-government technologies. By centring on artistic events The term e-government or e-governance is pri- rooted within society, the programme adds marily used to refer to the usage of IT to im- value to broader aspects of local and global prove administrative or policy efficiency. We culture within Stockholm and beyond the local aim at producing other effects that would lead community. Through ubiquitous computing to increased transparency and accountability of technologies such as sensors and fibre networks, government processes, improve trust reflecting we develop new artistic events in collaboration on the relationship between government and with local and global partners for the benefit of citizens, and help build new spaces for citizens both research and the broader population. to participate in their overall development. One of the core values within the RATS pro- Obviously, information and communication gramme is local participation, which is based technologies are key enablers in the modernisa- on the notion that there exists a close relation tion and democratisation of the public sector between quality of life, culture, social partici- and of society as a whole. Over the years, the pation and democracy. Our research therefore main focus has shifted from automation and aims to include participation by society mem- rationalisation of manual processes in the pub- bers from the initial design of technology- lic sector to the interactions between govern- mediated events, to the fruition of such expe ments at different levels, on the one hand, and riences and their evaluations. One of the citizens and enterprises on the other. This has projects in RATS is the RATS Theatre having brought citizens and enterprises better public had productions at, among other places, Swe- services with eServices as a key development in den’s National Theatre (Dramaten). The this area influencing all parties involved in pub- theatre works with cutting-edge research and lic decision-making through eParticipation and new technologies lifting productions out of the eDemocracy. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 63

The driving force behind this is the deve defined by the target group. ICT4D is a growing lopment of societal ecosystems that recognise multidisciplinary field with many practical uses. and respect, as a fundamental right, the unhin- Field studies in developing countries generate dered access to information and the right to knowledge on how ICT can be used for develop- take part in decision-making processes. We pro- ment and poverty reduction. ICT can, for in- mote a model of society that ensures and safe- stance, improve livelihoods, increase access to guards that the means of access are provided education, improve health care, enhance partici- and distributed equally across all sectors of patory democracy and combat corruption. society and to all citizens, irrespective of their Using participatory action research, IT prod- sex, class, creed, religion, ethnicity or origin. ucts, services and models are developed, tested E-govLab has several national and interna- and evaluated in order to improve livelihoods, tional projects, and a national demonstration and increase access to education, improve health care, test environment for Public Innovation have been enhance participatory democracy and combat set up with the aim of increasing the availability corruption. DSV is engaged in ICT4D projects in of practical solutions for eGovernance. We be- Asia, Africa and Latin America. lieve that by reducing the costs for testing eSer- Several projects are funded by Sida, the Swed- vices and systems, and increasing the dissemina- ish International Development Cooperation tion of solutions for eGovernance and com- Agency. Researchers and graduate students from plementing existing laboratories for eGover- partner countries are involved in many projects nance, the E-govLab Test Bed will lead to new and our projects are coordinated with other services, enhanced collaborations and well-in- stakeholders such as donors, NGOs and research formed citizens who will engage at an earlier centres. stage of policy-making. The test bed is funded by We are presently working with a multitude Vinnova. The test bed will also be a natural link of countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, to major international initiatives such as Mind- Botswana, Cambodia, Kosovo, Bolivia, Ethio- lab, Fraunhofer Fokus and Europe’s large-scale pia, Liberia, Rwanda, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, pilots (LSP). Uganda and Zimbabwe.

ICT for development (ICT4D) Design for learning Research in ICT4D involves the study of ICT in At DSV, research on ‘Design for Learning’ has the context of developing countries and is de- been conducted since the beginning of the signed to handle the difficulties and problems as 1970s, as previously described. The scope and 64 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

focus of interest have varied over the years, ronments, as well as virtual cases for learning but taken together, the research conducted has and assessment. formed a critical mass of competence at DSV In order to emphasise the importance of in this research area. ‘Design for Learning’ has flexible education, since 2010, DSV has been also been named as a candidate for selection heavily involved in open education and other as a leading research area at Stockholm Uni- flexible learning models. This work has been versity. the foundation for the design of our learning The fast development of contemporary tech- environment in NOD, which is described in the nology and techniques is changing conditions next section. for learning in profound ways. With the widespread use of technology, like lap top comput- An academic environment for the ers, smart phones, and tablet computers, in future conjunction with high speed internet connec- In spring 2011, the University decided that tions, learning has become ubiquitous. Indeed, DSV should move to the NOD building in Kista the world of education is currently undergoing to work in more suitable premises. NOD was a second revolution where digital technologies built by Atrium Ljungberg with the aim of are transforming how we think about schooling creating a completely new type of venue for and learning. learning, research, business, and culture with a In our work, we are focused on under- focus on innovation and creativity. The new pre standing how information and communica- mises will be inaugurated on October 2, 2014. tion technologies can best be used to support The vision for DSV in NOD is that “[…] the learning, teaching, and competence develop- new premises shall encourage meetings, remote ment throughout life. We also design and de- conferencing, but also real encounters between velop innovative educational applications. individuals. The premises will offer a welcoming, Our approach is interdisciplinary. Our team functional, and flexible atmosphere for DSV focuses not only on technology but takes into employees, students and visitors. The character account and also deals with behavioural, cul- must be clear, a place to remember, talk about tural and social contexts as equally important and happily return to. The premises have been aspects. Our work is conducted in projects an important part of brand building for DSV that are financed by a number of foundations and, together with the high level of education, both in Sweden and abroad and concerns mo- of creating an even bigger attraction and desire bile learning, social media and learning envi- to attend IRL: The environment should feel The NOD building at night. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 65 (Photo: Mats Danielson) 66 Department of Computer and Systems Sciences

creative and inspiring, yet not be overly power- mass individualisation and considers it to be of ful or intrusive. We are all different and our great importance. needs and desires are different. Premises should To handle these new situations, flexible therefore offer a variety of experiences and forms of organising education are required where moods so that you as a student, faculty mem- students are studying remotely at a different ber or visitor can always find a suitable place scale and pace of study, either individually or in for the work to be performed that day. The groups; some students participate through the place should be one of innovation and interac- Internet and some locally at DSV. tion, but also concentration and a focus for a DSV envisages that in future education diversity of people in a variety of occasions.” flexible learning will intensify in and with the Since 2010, DSV has pursued an active move to NOD. In a distributed educational development of educational environments situation, students may choose to attend lec- where IT and technology play a fundamental tures or other work on the premises of the role. However, it is important to point out that institution or to study at a distance, as well as the educational and didactic aspects have guided studying at different paces and through different and continue to guide the work. In working channels and mediums. We see a further need with the design of the NOD area, we have to increase the use of different educational intensified this task. We base our work on the approaches such as project work and case- and fact that the students’ situation has changed problem-based learning in an effort to increase radically, which will continue with new genera interaction between student groups and between tions of students. students and teachers. In today’s society, our students are able to This is justified by the fact that DSV also has share their time between studying at DSV, a university mission to support the deve working in paid employment and, in some cases, lopment of university education related to IT responsibility for a family. Life-long learning and learning for the entire university. and training will be essential in the future and At NOD, the work environment has been is highlighted by the Government of Sweden designed so that lecture halls will be multi- and the EU as important. This means that stu- functional, giving the teacher the opportunity dents do not necessarily come to the Depart- to use a room for a variety of educational ap- ment at the time appointed, and that they must proaches and implementations. Advanced sup- be able to study at times and in ways that suit port of IT is consistently offered throughout the their individual circumstances. EU calls this premises, which are designed and equipped so Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 67

as to allow for the continued development of learning environments.

 • 

Kollerbaur, A. et al. (eds), 2006. ICT for people, 40 years of academic development in Stock- holm. The birth of an academic discipline in the information age. DSV, Stockholm Univer- sity. ‘The Assault’ by Pieter Bruegel the Elder, part of the Stockholm University collection at Spökslottet (the Haunted Castle), an artefact that itself motivates strict security measures. Otherwise a suitable illustration both of criminology and economic history. (Photo: Erik Cornelius) 69

Department of Criminology Henrik Tham

On May 15, 1946 a constitutive meeting of lished by the Central Association for Social the Criminology Institute Association of Swe- Work, which attracted a lot of attention, den was held in the parliamentary rooms of focused on gang criminality and opens with the First Civil Law Committee. The associa- the words: “Over the past few years, the evi tion’s objective was to establish and maintain dently increasing anti-sociality among the an institute of criminology. A parallel associa- young has raised powerful concerns in our tion for criminological research was formed at country” (Ligabrottsligheten 1942). In a the same time, with the task of supporting the broader sense, criminological questions were Institute of Criminology at Stockholm Univer- embedded in issues such as vagrancy, im sity College (Stockholms högskola) and pro- prisonment, poverty and alcohol consump- moting criminological research. With this tion. The interest in criminology and crime meeting, the foundation was laid for what policy also manifested itself in the Society of would later become the Department of Crimi- Swedish Criminalists that had been estab- nology at Stockholm University. lished as early as 1911. In 1945, members of This does not, of course, mean that no this association formed the Crime Policy So- empirical analyses of crime and punishment ciety, with a desire, following the Danish had been conducted in Sweden prior to this model, to “discuss criminological issues more point. Analyses of this kind had indeed been often and within a more exclusive circle” conducted both within and outside the univer- (Kriminalpolitiska sällskapet 1945). Several sities and within the framework of govern- of the members of the society were later ac- mental inquiries. One inquiry from the period tive in the emergence of the Department of around the beginning of World War II pub- Criminology at Stockholm University. 70 Department of Criminology

the trend in the prison population. Sweden has conviction statistics from the 1830s onwards, as is the case in several other western countries. The scientific criminology of the first half of the 20th century was primarily linked to the fields of medicine and psychiatry, however. There were extensive studies of psychiatric ill- nesses considered as causes of crime, and on the mental disposition of, for example, vagrants and individuals convicted of incest (Qvarsell 1993). A doctoral thesis in Sociology from the The departmental seminar room and library at University of Gothenburg on the history of the 6th floor in Building C, Södra huset. forensic psychiatry has the title Sanningen om (Photo: Mats Danielson) brottslingen (The truth about the criminal), which provides an indication of how it was One special tradition in the field of research believed that science could discover the causes on crime and punishment has been the study of of crime by rational means through testing and crime statistics. Sweden is particularly lucky in clinical observation (Börjesson 1994). This strong this regard, having the world’s oldest official position held by forensic psychiatry also led to statistics, due to the establishment of the the introduction of various indeterminate prison Tabellverket as early as 1749. One reservation sentences, such as preventive detention, intern- that should perhaps be mentioned here is that ment and youth prison, with the idea being the Finns argue it is they who have the oldest that the convicted individuals would only be re official statistics, since at that time Finland and leased once their treatment was completed – with Sweden were a single kingdom, and Finland’s the risk for recidivism being specified by experts. time zone lies one hour ahead of Sweden. The This medical-psychiatric oriented criminology earliest statistics, however, were not related to was often grounded in a humanist approach, crime but rather emerged in the form of popu- and its representatives wanted to reduce the suf lation statistics: information on the deceased fering of inmates. However, it opened the way provides an opportunity to develop a series for arbitrary decisions and violations. In the relating to homicide, and documenting the size context of a number of high-profile cases, fo- of the population allows for a description of rensic science became the subject of public criti Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 71

cism. The level of distrust towards the psychia people with sufficient insight into the bio-psycho- tric treatment of offenders, and others, in creased logical characteristics of the aetiology of crime. (Qvarsell 1993). Once National Socialism in Despite a growing interest in these problems and, Europe had compromised the use of medical not least in this country, relatively lively research treatment in relation to “undesirable” individ- activities in this area, our knowledge remains in- uals, the influence of this perspective declined complete. In order to develop crime policy to the from the end of World War II. In a context of point where it is in line with the intentions of legi growing youth crime, it also became more dif- slation, it is therefore important to stimulate in- ficult to reduce the explanation of crime trends terest in criminology.1 through the characteristics of specific individuals. These factors, together with a belief that The individuals behind the proclamation were society could be changed through social reform Ivar Agge, professor of criminal law at Stock- and the emergence of the social and behavioural holm University College, County Governor and sciences, provided a basis for investing in crim- former Minister of Justice Thorwald Bergqvist, inology during the post-war period. the Director General of the Board of Health The creation of the Criminology Institute Thorwald Höjer, Professor of Forensic Psychi- Association immediately following the war can atry Olof Kinberg, the President of the Court be seen as an expression of the endeavour to of Appeals and former Minister of Justice Karl expand criminological research beyond the Schlyter, in addition to Doctor of Law, and later boundaries of the medical sciences. It was also Professor of Criminal Law at Uppsala Univer- a clear manifestation of a scientific optimism – sity, Ivar Strahl. At the time of its formation, criminological research was expected to pro- the association had 34 members, of whom one duce knowledge that could make crime policy was a woman. The number of professors and more effective. The proclamation that led to associate professors was striking, and included the formation of the association notes that: among others Sweden’s first professor of sociology, Torgny Segerstedt, later vice-chan- For a couple of decades, active reform work has been underway in this country in the field of crime 1 The description of the Criminology Institute Association is based on material from two archive boxes that have been policy. The legislation has in many ways improved preserved in storage at the Department of Criminology, Stockholm University: 1. Kriminologiska institutets pro- the opportunities for the rational crime policy tokoll (Minutes of the Criminological Institute) 1946–1947. treatment of law-breakers. Good legislation is of 2. Handlingar rörande Kriminologiska institutet/Kriminal- vetenskapliga institutet (Documents relating to the Crimino- relatively little value, however, if it is not applied by logical Institute / Institute of Criminal Science) 1951–1965. 72 Department of Criminology

cellor of Uppsala University, and the two future stood against the background of the fact that Professors of Philosophy Ingemar Hedenius and Agge wanted to reduce the influence of the Konrad Marc-Wogau. There were also a rela- medical perspective, and that he felt that Kinberg tively large number of physicians, including the was unable to collaborate with the social scientists. social physicians Gunnar Inge, John Takman The association and its members involved and (Skå-)Gustav Jonsson. themselves in different ways in issues relating to Kinberg became the chairman of the Insti- criminology. The government was approached tute that was formed. As early as 1939 he had about the establishment of national police sta- presented a proposal for a criminological tistics in order to develop better knowledge research institute that was to include experts in about the crime volume. Applications were criminal anthropology, criminal sociology, cri made for research funding in order to chart the minal psychology and crime statistics (Qvarsell geographical distribution of crime in Stock- 1993:251). Kinberg had previously succeeded holm, with the motivation that the courts in obtaining funding for criminological re- would be able to place those on probation and search from the Rockefeller Foundation. For those released from prison in non-criminal renewed funding, however, the Rockefeller areas, as well as in order to know where youth Foundation required that funding should also centres should be placed for preventive purposes. be obtained from Sweden. One of the central Members of the association participated as tasks for the new association was thus that of authors in the anthology Kriminologi (Crimi- working to obtain research funds. nology), which was published in Schlyter’s Agge was a driving force in the work of the Kriminologisk handbok (Handbook of crimi- Institute, together with the association’s secre- nology) series (Agge et al. 1955). The introduc- tary Strahl. From 1960, the Institute came to tion was written by the best known Swedish comprise three strictly separate units, one for criminologist by far, Thorsten Sellin. However, clinical and medical criminology, one for crimi- Sweden cannot take the credit for Sellin’s work nal sociology and one for general criminology. since he emigrated from Örnsköldsvik at the It is here that the title of ‘Professor in General age of seventeen, first to Canada and then on to Criminology’ originated, a title that was only the US. He is regarded as one of the pioneers of finally abolished in 2014. Agge’s interest in criminology, and was among other things the criminology lay in the subject’s significance for editor of the ‘Annals of the American Academy criminal law and crime policy. The division of of Political and Social Sciences’ for 39 years, as the Institute into three units should also be under well as giving his name to the prize that is Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 73

Vice-Chancellor Gustaf Lindencrona, Chair of the Parliamentary Justice Commission Gun Hellsvik and Professor Jerzy Sarnecki. (Photo: Yngve Fransson) awarded by the American Society of Criminol- Sellin was only interested in coming as a guest pro ogy to a prominent non-American criminolo- fessor, which he did, coming to Stockholm Uni- gist, the Sellin-Glueck Award. It is also con- versity College in 1946/47 (Sundell 1998:222 f.). ceivable that Sellin may have exerted some The members of the association were highly influence over subsequent Swedish criminology. engaged in the issue of a Nordic criminological A range of documents written by the associa collaboration. Following a proposal from Swe- tion’s members emphasise the importance of den, in 1956 the Nordic Council recommended the research adopting an empirical, Anglo-Saxon the respective countries’ governments to develop perspective. When a chair in criminology had collaboration in the field of criminology. Fol- first been discussed prior to the war, Schlyter lowing a Nordic criminological conference in had turned to his friend Sellin for assistance. Stockholm, the Norwegian Professor of Crimi- Schlyter wanted Sellin to return to Sweden, but nal Law, Johannes Andenæs, was given the 74 Department of Criminology

task of presenting a proposal for the form such sented his doctoral thesis in Sweden in 1961. a collaboration might take. Having rejected a The government finally proposed the establish- proposal for a joint Nordic Institute, a Scandi- ment of a chair in General Criminology at navian Research Council for Criminology was Stockholm University in 1964. The chair was proposed, and was then established in 1962. thus established at the same time as the Faculty During the work conducted to examine possi- of Social Sciences, but came to be shared with ble forms for the collaboration, it was empha- the Faculty of Law. Sveri became the first sised that is was important for each country incumbent of the chair in 1965. to have a strong criminological research com- The creation of the chair and the institute munity – something which the Criminological were typical of the time. The people who Institute Association was able to refer to in its formed the Criminology Institute Association, continued work. and also the association’s membership in gene The work became increasingly focused on ral, were committed individuals from the upper establishing a chair in criminology. In addition and upper-middle classes. It was a top-down to pressure being exerted by the association’s movement comprised of experts and high-rank- members, the proposal was also suggested in a ing officials. The issues were not driven by poli governmental inquiry, and received support ticians, social movements or voluntary organi- from private members’ bills in Parliament from sations. The point of departure was a funda- both the Social Democrats and parties of the mental humanism, and there were major expec centre-right. The only bodies to oppose the idea tations that policy would be improved if it of criminological research being concentrated were to be based on scientific knowledge. at Stockholm University College were, perhaps At the time, politicians shared this hope understandably, the universities of Uppsala and about the practical value of criminology. A Lund. The government, however, chose to private member’s bill from the Social Demo- postpone the issue of a chair in criminology. crats argued that criminological research Agge worked on persistently. He recruited “would substantially improve the chances of Knut Sveri, holder of a licentiate in law, from successfully combating crime” (Wallentheim et the Department of Criminal Law and Crimi- al. 1957). A private member’s bill from the nology at the University of Oslo, in the hope centre-right parties also argued for the cre- that he would become the head of what he now ation of a chair in the subject so that crime wanted to call the Institute of Criminal Science policy could be based more on science (Munk- (Kriminalvetenskapliga institutet). Sveri pre- tell et al. 1957). This suggests that crime policy Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 75

at this time was not an issue of party politics. edge (Munktell 1954). This criticism appears The reasons for the expectations placed on to have been directed at, among others, the criminology in the parliamentary bill from the Roxtuna prison, an institution with a focus on centre-right may however be somewhat differ- providing modern treatment for difficult ent. An earlier parliamentary question from young offenders. The prison has since been one of the centre-right members behind the bill closed and may perhaps be best remembered suggests that one of the objectives of criminol- for having inspired a collection of poems writ- ogy could be to stop expensive reform work ten by a psychologist at the prison, Tomas that had not been founded on sufficient knowl- Tranströmer.

The Office of Student Affairs on the th4 floor. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 76 Department of Criminology

The initial period full-time education, was formally initiated in In 1969, the new professor of criminology 1970, but the teaching appears not to have applied for criminology to become a degree started until the following year. Criminology subject. He motivated the application by stating became an independent section within the that there was a need for academics with a spe- Department of Sociology. It was not until 1987 cialist education in criminology in correctional that the Department of Criminology became a treatment, social care, the police force, the department in its own right. Around 30 or so prosecution service and in the courts. He also students are estimated to have registered at the argued that there was a substantial interest in start of the programme. Over the following 20 the subject among students, and that an under- years, there was limited growth in student graduate programme would have a positive numbers. At the end of the 1980s, criminology effect on criminological research, which would still produced no more than a total of 50 or so in turn be of significance for crime policy. complete annual performances. There were The application was sent out for consultation few full-time posts, and much of the teaching to all Sweden’s universities, to the Swedish Na- was conducted by doctoral students and exter- tional Union of Students, the National Police nal teachers.2 Besides the professor and two Board, the National Prison and Probation Au- administrative posts, there was a part-time lec- thority and the National Board for Health and tureship, a post-doctoral research fellow and a Welfare. All of these bodies supported the pro- part-time assistant lecturer. Leif Lenke was a posal – some in very positive terms. The Nation- member of staff from the day the Department al Prison and Probation Administration stated of Criminology first opened its doors until his that courses in criminology would in the future premature death in 2008. This makes him the be a requirement for all 450 officials with an longest serving criminologist in Sweden. His academic background working for the prison research was innovative and original, in the and probation service. The National Police best sense of the word, and he played an im- Board also stated that it looked forward to hav- portant role in developing the form and con- ing access to professional criminologists and tent of the Department’s teaching. noted in its consultation paper the significance Between the time the Department was first of criminology for the work to combat crime established and the end of 1993, a total of 13 and for the treatment of offenders (Tham 1977). The undergraduate programme in crimino 2 Information on the Department of Criminology prior to 1993 is largely based on documents from the Department’s logy, the equivalent of one and a half year of archive at the University. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 77

doctoral dissertations were published. The five es of work by law students also had a direct that were published during the 1970s were all focus on issues relating to the justice system. written by individuals who came from other A number of dissertations employed a more disciplines or other countries. The first disser- critical and historical perspective, however, tation published by an individual who had and focused on crime at school viewed from a been through the undergraduate and post- Marxist perspective, the state’s adaptive poli- graduate programmes at the Department itself cy in relation to spying during World War II, came in 1981 and had the title Mot mono and the emergence of the prison institution in polisering? NO:s verksamhet under 25 år Sweden. (Towards a monopoly? The work of the Anti- A governmental inquiry was appointed in trust Ombudsman over 25 years; Holmberg 1992, which resulted in the report Krimino 1981). The dissertation was typical for the new logisk och kriminalpolitisk forskning (Crimi- 1970s research focus on economic crime. The nological and crime policy research; SOU crimes of ‘the powerful’ were to be scrutinised, 1992:80). One of the underlying reasons for and the dissertation found that crimes against the inquiry was that the researchers at the the Competition Restriction Act were negotia- Swedish National Council for Crime Preven- ble. In another incident, that was also typical tion (Brå) wanted to become professors of the time, a researcher from another univer- (ibid.:22). This did not happen because the sity had his copy of the dissertation confiscated centre-right government determined that pro- at a customs control in East Germany. It seems fessorships should only exist at universities. likely that the word ‘monopoly’ was on a list The inquiry should also be viewed against the of censored topics, and that there was a suspi- background that research funding was being cion of some form of criticism of a Communist detached from the employees’ investment funds regime. and that research and development activities in Several of the early dissertations had a fo- a number of areas were being placed under cus that may be said to have been in line with review. The leader of the inquiry, Liberal Party the original idea of research serving as a basis member and former Undersecretary of State for crime policy decisions. They chart areas Ola Nyqvist, also placed a strong emphasis on such as drink driving, sanctions, the use of the importance of research in criminal science special powers, the police and crime preven- as a means of contributing to reducing the tion, and they describe the character of crime costs of crime. The inquiry proposed funding a and its geographical distribution. Several piec- number of new positions at the university. 78 Department of Criminology

The proposal probably came just in the nick ble to appoint two research lectureships using of time for the Department of Criminology. departmental funds. The new professor, Jerzy The inquiry’s report notes that: Sarnecki from the Swedish National Council for Crime Prevention, also became head of de- As regards the Department of Criminology, the partment and the Department started to ex- inquiry emphasises that the Department has had pand. The doctoral programme was greatly very few permanent positions over the years, and expanded by means of permanent funding and a heavy teaching load that has been carried out at stipends. Over time, successive expansions of the cost of desirable research efforts. Over the the Department’s teaching obligations opened course of 1991/92, the Department has a re- up the possibility for employing additional search budget of slightly less than one million SEK staff. Since 1999, the Department has pro- […] Given among other things the fact that the duced 34 doctoral dissertations and 12 sepa- Department is considered to fall below the ‘criti- rate licentiate dissertations. In 2014 the De- cal mass required to function effectively’, a work- partment has eleven permanent teachers/ ing group focused on reviewing the university’s researchers (of whom five are professors), a departmental organisation has proposed various further three researchers, ten doctoral stu- alternatives that threaten the independent status dents and two administrative posts. Over 400 of the Department; among other things, a trans- students register for the undergraduate pro- fer ‘as a unit’ to the Department of Sociology is gramme each term, and around 50 register for being proposed, or a merger with the Department the advanced level programme. In 2013 the of Law (ibid.:12 f.). Department produced a total of 247 complete annual performances. The popularity of crim- Expansion in staff numbers and inology as a subject has meant that the num- research from the beginning of ber of applicants for student places has greatly the 1990s outnumbered their availability – there has The governmental inquiry into criminological been an average of five applicants for each research led to a second professorship and a available place on the Department’s teaching post-doctoral research position for the De- programmes – which has also meant that the partment of Criminology. Following the re- Department has been blessed with highly mo- tirement of the first professor at the beginning tivated and gifted students. of the 1990s, the existing professorship was Since the beginning of the 1990s, the research also made available and it also became possi- conducted at the Department has, of course, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 79

Surveillance at the women’s prison Hinseberg. (Photo: Sofia Wikman) covered a wide range of different questions. of time is ‘Brott och straff i Sverige’ (Crime and The tradition of research broadly based on Punishment in Sweden; von Hofer 2011). crime statistics has been strong. The issue of Crime policy research has played a promi- crime trends, and in particular societal trends nent role at the Department. The focus has not in the use of violence, has been a central one in been directed at evaluations of various areas of the crime policy debate. Analyses of hospital the justice system, although a couple of studies data and data from self-report studies among have focused on the police. Instead, the work youth have led to the development of new indi- has in particular been directed at studying the cators of crime. Convictions data and statistics factors that determine crime policy: How and have been used to conduct cohort studies and why has crime policy changed, e.g. towards an historical analyses of crime trends, producing increasingly powerful focus on the crime victim results with clear implications for crime policy. and on violence against women? How does One piece of work produced by the Depart- crime policy in Sweden, e.g. the trend in imprison ment in this area that is likely to stand the test ment, differ from that found in other countries? 80 Department of Criminology

In what ways has the shift towards the risk have been charted and analysed. The fear of society been reflected in crime policy? What crime has been studied among school youth new forms of control are emerging, and how and adults. Other studies have focused on are they influencing traditional policing? How exposure to crime in the workplace, trends in should the issue of immigration and crime be victimisation and inequality, the emergence of understood? Can sentencing and the choice of victim-offender mediation, the relationship sanctions, which is now becoming a political between crime victims and state criminal inju- issue, be legitimised by reference to the public ries compensation, and also exposure to crime sense of justice? among persons convicted of offences. Certain categories of crime have elements of Research on offenders and their life condi- crime policy clearly defined into them. In the tions constitutes a very broad field in which a case of economic crime, for example, interest is large number of studies have been conducted. directed less at the characteristics of the indi- The Department has currently embarked on vidual offender and more towards economic two large-scale projects on crime in a life- structures and the way the legislation is formu- course perspective. Methods for studying lated and applied. It is in this way that research criminal networks have been developed. Stud- at the Department has been conducted into ies have focused on gang-related crime, graffi- corruption, accountancy and environmental ti and a range of aspects of the relationship offences and the regulation of the road-haulage between the police and offenders. Studies industry. Another field with a natural relevance have been conducted with a focus individuals for policy is found in the area of alcohol and admitted to institutions, both youths and drugs. In addition to studies of substance users adult prison inmates. One central issue in the and consumption patterns, a number of studies study of life conditions is that of marginalisa- have focused on Swedish drug policy. In this tion and exclusion at both the individual and area, an intra-faculty collaboration with the structural levels. Several studies have been SoRAD, the Centre for Social Research on conducted based on both interviews and anal- Alcohol and Drugs, has been central. Several yses of register data. doctoral dissertations in criminology have been The Department’s research approach may in written at the Centre. part be seen as being founded in an activist tra- A number of projects have conducted victi- dition. Several of the Department’s employees mological research. Hate crimes in general, and have over the years been engaged in e.g. KRUM hate crimes against homosexuals in particular, (The National Association for Penal reform), Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 81

the RFHL (The National Association for Help men’s violence against women. This change is and Aid to Drug Addicts), Amnesty, LGBTQ clearly reflected in the themes being chosen for groups3 and anti-fascist activities. It may also degree dissertations, not least violence, sexual be significant that several of the Department’s offences, trafficking and constructions of gender. researchers have backgrounds in other countries. In all essential respects, the Department’s Half have been born abroad, in Chile, Poland, research has focused on Swedish phenomena. the UK, Germany and Hungary. It may simply Until recently, the Department’s research was be accidental, but it may also be due to an in- primarily published in Swedish. Of the doctor- terest based on experiences of being an outsider al dissertations published over the past 20 and of feeling different. It has at the very least years, only eight have been written in English. served to broaden the Department’s perspective. The number of articles published in English The number of degree dissertations has also language scientific journals has increased sub- increased substantially at both the undergraduate stantially over recent years, however. One rea- and advanced study levels. The subjects exami son for having published so much in Swedish ned have become increasingly varied and may have been the broader public interest in focused on different types of crime. The police, issues of crime and punishment. The Depart- viewed in a broad sense of the term, provide ment’s researchers may have perceived them- the theme for approximately ten percent of selves as having a Swedish audience to a great- degree dissertations, and this proportion has er extent than researchers at most other increased since the undergraduate programme university departments. The Department has was initiated. This may in part be viewed endeavoured to produce a ‘public criminol against the background of a shift in crime policy, ogy’. Compared with other departments, the which has led to increasing expectations being Department of Criminology’s researchers also linked to the police as the solution to the crime appear relatively often in the national media. problem. Another shift in crime policy is also The university’s media analysis of the social reflected in the degree dissertations produced sciences faculty for 2012 shows that the De- at the Department. Whereas the crime policy partment of Criminology, despite its relatively debate was previously focused on the offender small size, accounts for one tenth of the Facul- and his rehabilitation, the focus has now shift- ty’s media appearances. The list is also topped ed to the crime victim, and in particular to by a criminologist, and is characterised by a similarly skewed distribution to that found in 3 Lesbian, gay, bi-sexual, trans-sexual and queer. relation to criminal convictions – a small num- 82 Department of Criminology

From the women’s prison Hinseberg. (Photo: Sofia Wikman)

ber of individuals are responsible for a dispro- Council is also responsible for the jointly pub- portionately large amount. lished ‘Journal of Scandinavian Criminology The Department’s publication practice, to- and Crime Prevention’, and the Department’s gether with its focus on Swedish conditions, is staff includes two previous editors of this jour- similar to that of the criminological research nal. As an expression of the collaboration with environments in the other Nordic countries. our sister department at the University of Oslo, The public pressure on researchers in a subject Nils Christie was given an honorary doctorate such as criminology may be assumed to be by our own faculty in 2004. greater in small countries than in larger ones. In a broad sense, the term ‘public crimino Over the years, there has been a strong collabo logy’ may perhaps also include the authoring of ration among the Nordic Countries, not least other, non-scientific, publications. Several of the within the framework of the Scandinavian students, doctoral students and researchers who Research Council for Criminology. The Research have passed through the Department over the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 83

years have published works of both fiction and was the Department of Criminology. This prize non-fiction, naturally not least in the form of has subsequently been added to by two of the crime novels. Sven Sperlings wrote Mälar Department’s teachers being named Teacher of mördaren, the story of a mass murder in 1900 the Year within the Faculty. Winning the prize on a hijacked ferry steamer, Leif Persson, wish- requires first being nominated by the students. ing to rehabilitate himself in the context of the These nominations were made by KRÄM, the so-called Geijer Affair, published the novel Gris- department’s student council. Through the festen and by continuing to write in the same student council, the students have been active genre became affectionately known as GW by in the work of the Department, among other the Swedish population. In Svensk Maffiaand things in the form of participation in the follow-up books, Lasse Wierup presented a Department’s board meetings, work groups somewhat controversial picture of organised and planning days. The council is also paid by crime. Pontus Ljunghill wrote the novel En o- synlig about the murder of a young girl in 1920s Stockholm. Jerzy Sarnecki portrays a piece of Central European history in a book describing his father’s life, Hillarys historia. And even before completing his doctoral dissertation, Chris- toffer Carlsson has already published three books, of which the first two have been translated into several languages, while the third, Den osynlige mannen från Salem, received the 2013 Best Swedish Crime Novel award from the Swedish Crime Writers’ Academy.

Students, teaching and subsequent employment In the hall leading from the University Library to Södra huset stands the artist Torsten Rehn- qvist’s Kangaroo. The artwork constitutes the University’s annual teaching prize for the best The annual teaching prize. teaching department. Its first winner, in 1996, (Photo: Mats Danielson) 84 Department of Criminology

the Department to conduct course evaluations. Over the years, the development of teaching has had a high priority for the Department’s staff. Course evaluations are followed up, the Department endeavours to employ a range of teaching and examination methods, and there is a major focus on the use of group exercises and on working with small constellations of students. All of the Department’s professors have given one or more undergraduate courses every semester. The relatively small size of the Corridor view outside the room of the Students’ Department, and the fact that some of the Council, KRÄM. (Photo: Mats Danielson) teaching takes place in the Department’s own premises, may also have contributed to the stu- female applicants, but this proved difficult. In dents feeling that they have good contacts with 2009, however, Eva Tiby became the first the teaching staff. female Swedish professor of criminology. Both As is the case at other departments, work to the head and deputy head of department have promote gender equality has been emphasised been women since 2013. and the proportion of women among the stu- The work to promote gender equality has dents has increased dramatically. At the Depart also involved endeavours to promote the use of ment of Criminology, women now account for a gendered perspective in the Department’s seven out of ten students. A clear majority of teaching. Criminology has traditionally been a the Department’s doctoral students are women, very masculine subject, since males constitute a and over the past decade, women have pro- large majority of those who commit offences, duced twice as many doctoral dissertations as and serious offences in particular, and 94 per- men. Despite this change, the Department’s cent of prison inmates are men. This is naturally teaching and research posts are still dominated interesting from a gender perspective, however. by men, something which should in part be If men were to become more like women, the viewed as a generational issue. When a profes- majority of crime ought to disappear. Researchers sorship most recently became vacant, the at the Department have also focused on the sig- Department worked actively to encourage nificance of ’masculinities’ to the understand- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 85

Who types the most accurate? With or without alcohol? Poster at the Department. (Photo: Mats Danielson) ing of crime and other forms of deviance, and the Department’s alumni (Tham 1977, Frändén have published an anthology on the subject, & Jansson 2004, Kinell 2011). The reason for among other things for use in teaching (Lander having chosen to study criminology is often et al. 2003). stated to have been a general interest in the What does a criminologist do subsequent to subject rather than concrete career plans. When graduating? Over the years, a number of sur- the time comes to look for work, however, veys have been conducted of the experiences of questions are asked about the practical utility 86 Department of Criminology

of criminology. There have also been consistent among its own former students. The majority demands from those looking for work that the have, however, first left the Department with programme should have a more practical focus their doctorates and worked for a while in pub- and should include both study visits and work lic sector agencies and other universities. Three experience. Few feel that specifically having are employed at universities abroad, and five at read criminology has been of merit when other Swedish universities, including the Natio applying for jobs, but that it has rather been nal Police College. Several of those who have the university degree as such. Many do feel, graduated or obtained post-graduate licentiate however, that criminology has been useful to qualifications are working in the police service. them in their work, and employers have noted The Swedish National Council for Crime Pre- that the Department’s criminologists employ a vention has also employed a large number of critical and reflective approach. Approximately criminologists. Of the agency’s eleven employees half of the Department’s alumni also appear to with doctorates, seven published their disserta- have worked with some form of research or tions at the Department. Several of the Depart- investigative work with links to the subject or ment’s teachers/researchers have also worked within the prison and probation service. In the at the National Council. first evaluation, which was conducted in 1977, a striking number had a background in the The Department’s relation to crime prison and probation service prior to studying policy criminology at the Department. The prison and The work of the Department of Criminology probation service’s hope that courses in crimi- today is conducted in a context that is quite dif- nology would become a competence require- ferent from that of the time at which the Depart ment for those with an academic background ment was established. One change that has oc- working at the agency does not appear to have curred is that research on crime and punishment been realised, however – none of those who had is today conducted within a large number of applied for a job at the agency felt that crimi- other disciplines in Sweden, such as sociology, nology had been viewed as a merit in connec- psychology, political science, social work, eco- tion with their applications (Tham 1977). nomics, economic history, history, law and Of those who have published doctoral dis medicine. In several cases, this research is also sertations, approximately ten are employed at organised at separate departments or divisions the Department. It may be viewed as problema of larger departments. The Department of tic that the Department largely recruits from Criminology remains, however, the first and the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 87

largest. Its location at a university in the coun- policy and state repression were made central. try’s capital has also influenced the Depart- Criminologists started to question criminal law ment’s research as a result of its proximity to in general and the prisons in particular, and the politicians and central civil service departments. majority sympathised with the inmate move- The Department’s relations specifically with ment and KRUM, which was formed in 1966. the government and parliament have changed Criminological research came increasingly to since the Department was established. As has consist in a critique of drug policy, of alarmist been described above, the initial expectations descriptions of crime and of the crimes of the associated with the establishment of a crimi- state. nology department were substantial. Crimino At the same time, this ‘critical criminology’ logy was to provide the basis for a rational meant that criminologists were no longer dis- crime policy, and in particular in a context in posed towards finding ‘solutions’ to the crime which crime was rising rapidly. The first pro- problem. One dissertation from the Depart- fessor also attempted to meet these expecta- ment has noted how negative criticism focused tions. The teaching material included a striking on social injustice failed to satisfy politicians proportion of documents from governmental and public sector agencies. Instead, a new cate- inquiries, and the students’ dissertations were gory of ‘administrative criminology’ emerged, focused on ‘descriptive criminology’. The utili- which was conducted within civil service de- ty of criminology for political decisions was partments and public sector agencies them- also, quite naturally, a central focus of the selves (Andersson 2002). The Swedish Nation- governmental inquiry from 1992 (SOU 1992) al Council for Crime Prevention arrived in on providing more funding for criminological 1974 and developed extensive research and in- research. vestigative operations in the form of among The establishment of a Department of Cri other things evaluations and descriptions of the minology coincided, however, with the period crime structure and crime trends. Politicians directly following the student revolt of 1968. therefore came to perceive less of a need for The idea of providing treatment to offenders university criminology. It also became increas- was rejected on both ideological and empirical ingly uncommon for university criminologists grounds. Individual explanations of crime were to be commissioned to participate in govern- replaced by structural explanations. The mental inquiries. offence was viewed as constituting less of a Statements in the media and the many problem than the reaction to the offence. Crime responses written by the Department during 88 Department of Criminology

the consultation process for crime policy pro-  •  posals issued by successive governments may This chapter has been sent for ‘consultation’ to also have contributed to criminologists not the Department’s employees. I am very grateful always being viewed as politically constructive. for the views and comments I have received, The Department’s criminologists have also although I have not included all of them – the been criticised by both the government and in story of the Department could certainly be newspaper editorials. This political invalida- written in many ways. tion expressed itself particularly clearly when Sweden, in connection with the 50th anniversa- Agge, Ivar, Gunnar Boalt, Bo Gerle, Maths ry of the Scandinavian Research Council for Heuman, Carl-Gunnar Janson, Olof Kinberg Criminology, both unilaterally and against the and Thorsten Sellin 1955. Kriminologisk wishes of the other Scandinavian countries, de- handbok. Stockholm: Wahlström & Wid- cided to leave the Council. The reasons given strand. by the Swedish Minister for Justice were that Andersson, Robert 2002. Kriminalpolitikens criminologists were not delivering; they were väsen. Stockholm: Stockholm University, no longer viewed as useful. At the same time, Department of Criminology. however, the Government determined to in- Börjesson, Mats 1994. Sanningen om brotts crease its support for the recently established ligheten. Rättspsykiatrin som kartläggning ‘Stockholm Prize in Criminology’ and its annu- av livsöden. Stockholm: Carlssons. al symposium. One of the two chairpersons of Frändén, Linda and Ulrika Jansson 2004. ”Vad the jury for this international prize is Jerzy Sar- gör en kriminolog egentligen?” En under necki. sökning om vad kriminologistudier lett till In 2014, the last of the Department’s och vem som egentligen är kriminolog. De- teachers/researchers who were born in 1940s gree dissertation. Stockholm: Stockholm will be retiring. This event means that over the University, Department of Criminology. course of only a couple of years, the Depart- von Hofer, Hanns 2011. Brott och straff i ment has undergone a generational turnover. Sverige. Historisk kriminalstatistik 1750– The tradition of the Department of Criminolo- 2010. Diagram, tabeller och kommentarer. gy, together with the members of a new gener- Stockholm: Stockholm University, Depart ation of teachers, researchers and doctoral stu- ment of Criminology, 4th edition. dents, inspires confidence in the Department’s Holmberg, Stina 1981. Mot monopolisering? future. NO:s verksamhet under 25 år. Stockholm: Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 89

Norstedts. Sundell, Jan-Olof 1998. Karl Schlyter – en bio Kinell, Emmy 2011. En undersökning om grafi.Stockholm: Norstedts Juridik. a lum ni studenters huvudsakliga sysselsätt Tham, Henrik 1976. Kriminologiutbildningen ning efter kriminologistudierna. Stockholm: – förväntningar och resultat. En intervju- Stockholm University, Department of Crimi- undersökning av kriminologistuderanden på nology. påbyggnadskurs C:1 1972–1976. Stock Kriminalpolitiska sällskapet 1945. Protokoll holm: Stockholm University, General Crimi fört vid konstituerande sammanträde den 14 nology/Department of Sociology. Mimeo. september 1945. Protocol from Kriminalpo- Wallentheim, Annie et al. 1957. Motion i första litiska sällskapets last secretary, Joel Brors- kammaren, nr 423 (Private Members Bill). son, Swedish Ministry of Justice. Lander, Ingrid, Tove Pettersson and Eva Tiby 2003. Feminiteter, maskuliniteter och krimi nalitet. Genusperspektiv inom svensk kriminologi. Lund: Studentlitteratur. Ligabrottsligheten (undersökning av) 1941. Published by Centralförbundet för Socialt arbete. Stockholm: Kooperativa förbundets bokförlag. Munktell, Henrik 1954. Interpellation i andra kammaren ang. förslag om tillskapande av bättre förutsättningar för kriminologisk forskning , (Parliamentary Question) Febru- ary 2, 1954. Munktell, Henrik et al. 1957. Motion i andra kammaren, nr 539 (Private Members Bill). Qvarsell, Roger 1993. Utan vett och vilja. Om synen på brottslighet och sinnessjukdom. Stockholm: Carlssons. SOU 1992:80. Kriminologisk och kriminalpo litisk forskning. Stockholm: Allmänna För- laget. The Department of Economic History is mainly located in Building A in Södra huset. (Photo: Eva Dalin) 91

Department of Economic History Ulf Jonsson and Johan Söderberg

In 1964, when the Faculty of Social Sciences term, he embarked upon a project concerning was constituted, the Department of Economic the history of Skandinaviska Banken. It was in History was a one of the smallest members of many senses a pioneering work in Swedish the family. Our sister departments in Uppsala, banking history. The two volumes on Skandi Gothenburg and Lund had in the 1960s been naviska Banken from 1864 to 1939 gave a por- integrated into the education of secondary trait of a great Swedish commercial bank and school history teachers. The future history its broader role in the history of Swedish bank- teacher could choose between specializations ing. Banking history was also the subject of one in economic or general history, substantially of Söderlund’s PhD candidates, Sven Fritz, who increasing the number of students. In Stock- defended his thesis, Studier i svenskt bank holm, a small number of students from different väsende 1772–1789, in 1967. The thesis deals departments of the Faculty gathered around with an extraordinary troubled period in the the seminar table in the one room apartment history of early Swedish banking and still con- at Tegnerlunden where the Department was stitutes an important contribution to our under housed. There was also a weekly lecture at standing of late 18th century monetary history. Stockholm School of Economics. Thus, it was Two years later, Staffan Högberg’s thesis, very much a traditional department, relatively Utrikeshandel och sjöfart på 1700-talet: stapel- untouched by the beginning of the great expan- varor i svensk export och import 1738–1808, sion of student numbers in the 1960s. appeared. Högberg’s study questioned in an The modest teaching chores gave the acting interesting way some of the central views of Eli professor, Ernst Söderlund, a lot of space to F. Heckscher on 18th century Swedish foreign pursue his own research. In the last years of his trade. Both Fritz and Högberg pursued long 92 Department of Economic History

Sture Martinius, was recruited from our sister department in Gothenburg. His arrival at the department was a valuable addition to the small senior staff. As all members of the staff, he had to assume a huge teaching burden in these early pioneering years and did so with good humour and loyalty. The premises at Tegnerlunden ultimately became too narrow, and after an interlude at Tulegatan, the Department finally moved to new locations at Frescati. Together with the Departments of Economics, Business Admini stration (now Stockholm Business School), So- cial Anthropology and Political Science we Professor Rolf Adamson, born 1927. were the first to move to these brand-new (Photo: Per Bergström) buildings in 1970. It was very much a pioneering period, living in a building site that lacked careers at the Department and contributed to a lot of the services we now take for granted. teaching and research in a very fruitful way. In The library was found in temporary premises. 1969, Rolf Adamson became professor at the Lunch services were quite rudimentary. No un- Department. His arrival coincided with a radi- derground connection existed in the first years. cal change in the syllabus of history decided on The well provided campus of today was still far the national level. The future history teachers away. had to include courses in economic history in their education. In a single stroke the teaching Undergraduate teaching volume increased four times. The existing staff The creation of the combined history/economic of one professor, two associate professors, history programme was a central part of the Fritz, Högberg and an amanuensis took on a expansion of undergraduate student enrol- heavy workload, but it was far from sufficient. ment. The teaching volume of the course was A number of younger teachers from Gothen- some 400 hours per academic year and coin- burg and Uppsala were recruited on a short cided with the requirement for a full lecture- term basis. In the early 1970s, a senior lecturer, ship. In the early 1970s the Department suc- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 93

ceeded to recruit a senior lecturer from our taining articles from different theoretical sister department in Uppsala, PhLic Allan Lars- schools with introductions posing intellectually son. Larsson was a devoted pedagogue who challenging questions. Adamson had a strong soon became the main teacher on this combi conviction that theoretical pluralism and open- ned history/economic history course for future ness was an indispensable part of academic ed- history teachers. He spent the lion’s share of his ucation but also a way of stimulating curiosity career on this course until his retirement in the and intellectual joy. late 1990s. It became his fief. Hundreds of fu- Certainly, the teaching of theory and meth- ture history teachers made their acquaintance od became demanding for teachers as well as with economic history through Larsson’s en- for students, but was intellectually very re- gaged teaching. warding. The authors of this text vividly re- However, economic history proper also member the difficult tasks we had to face as attracted a growing number of students. In a young teachers when trying to spread the mes- period when the interest in Marxism and his- sage of theoretical pluralism. torical materialism was on the rise, economic Nevertheless, theoretical pluralism estab- history became an obvious option for many lished itself as a general and important trait of radical students. Thus, the early 1970s was an the undergraduate courses in general. At each exciting period. The Department had to recruit level, a fourth of the syllabus consisted of an a number of new teachers, often on a part-time array of courses that students could choose. basis, while the ordinary staff also increased That created a possibility to offer the students but at a slower pace. The younger staff, aman- intellectual challenges and exploration of new uenses and teaching assistants were given a fields. There was, for example, a considerable somewhat larger role than today. supply of courses in world and non-European The atmosphere of the 1970s was not com- economic history. The time span covered the pletely idyllic. In particular, the teaching of economic history from antiquity to contempo- theory and method met severe critique from rary issues in developed and developing parts more or less dogmatic Marxist students. The of the world. Some of the options offered did challenge was met by pursuing theoretical not attract a very large student following. pluralism, where different theoretical and Nevertheless, presenting a broad range of the- methodological perspectives entered the agen- matic courses became a part of the Depart- da. Rolf Adamson took a very active role in ment’s identity. The younger part of the teach- this process, producing a new textbook con- ing staff was particularly encouraged to take 94 Department of Economic History

interests, stimulating. This became an asset in attracting students. However, there were also critical voices pointing out that the range of choices was too large. The identity of the De- partment was too vague, the critics maintained. The critical voices had a point. We had a tendency to constantly add more courses without paying proper attention to what extent they constituted a meaningful whole. Many of the courses did not attract more than a handful of students. We could realistically only offer teach ing on a much smaller number of alternatives. Nevertheless, the wide-ranging interests cultivated in the undergraduate education contributed to making the Department an attractive partner in developing pluri-disciplinary courses. In the mid-1970s, the Department took over the responsibility for two pluri-disciplinary courses, Development Studies and In- Notice boards in the corridor: a classic mode of ternational Relations, involving a number of communication, almost ousted by Internet other departments at the Faculty. These courses development. (Photo: Mats Danielson) were initially given only on a part-time basis as evening classes. Admission was restricted to a an active part in the formation of new courses. fairly small group of 30–50 students. We only This contributed to making the Department an offered first term courses. Interested and en- attractive workplace. Broad reading habits gaged students were, however, constantly de- were encouraged. I (Ulf Jonsson) remember the manding more. The course in Development joy for me as a young teacher exploring new Studies, involving five different departments, fields, trying to put them into reasonably consis- was difficult to manage in the long run. In the tent and understandable courses. late 1990s, the course was closed down. Since Many students found the possibility to two years, however, the Department is involved choose, and hopefully find themes close to their in a new cross-departmental cooperation on Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 95

the theme of Global Development, with the of the new millennium, Örjan Appelqvist be- departments of Human Geography, Social came a full-time lecturer in international rela- Anthropology and Political Science. tions. He started off with great enthusiasm and Even after the introduction of second and contributed both to the intellectual and peda- third year courses, the students at these levels gogical development of the course. For more were relatively few. Nevertheless, those who than a decade Appelqvist devoted the lion’s remained were a very interested and engaged share of his energy to international relations as lot, making teaching on these levels demanding a teacher and director of studies. A couple of but intellectually rewarding. The debates could years later Thomas Jonter, a historian from Upp be highly animated. Ideological clashes were sala, was recruited. Thomas became the first frequent. For teachers, some knowledge of professor in international relations at the Marxist exegesis did facilitate the task. Still, Department. A core of IR teachers was gradually openness and scholarly curiosity characterized formed. The close connection and cooperation most of the students. Of course, it is easy to with the Department of Political Science that view these days in a nostalgic light. Endless was so important in the formation of our struggles over the exact meaning and interpre- teaching in international relations continued, tation of some of the more obscure passages in and part of the staff came from that environ- the third part of Capital could be tedious, but ment. Today, the teaching staff that devotes reminiscences of these confrontations tend to most of their time to IR has expanded consider- fade away. Memory is always selective. ably. Political scientists coming from different During the 1990s, the problem of recruiting political science environments are giving courses second and third term students became less ur- on a part-time basis. The link between us and gent. The following of second term students in the Department of Political Science constitutes international relations expanded rapidly. This a valuable asset in developing the IR education. former part-time course now offered a full- In the last few years, however, the Department time day track, which enlarged the recruitment has also endeavoured to strengthen the links potential. International relations (IR) became between economic history proper and interna- more closely connected to the Department. tional relations, and recruited a number of lec- Instead of part-time teachers recruited on a turers with competence in both disciplines. temporary basis, a small number of full-time Over the last decades, the student following teachers contributed in order to secure the has continued to increase. The pace has been necessary continuity and stability. At the turn more rapid for international relations than for 96 Department of Economic History

the old core discipline. The international rela- World and global economic history have tions part of the Department is now larger than expanded in the curriculum of the old core dis- that of economic history proper. However, cipline. Historically, Swedish and European eco- there is also a significant flow of students nomic history was the dominant component. between the two specializations. Students move The change towards a greater place for non- between the disciplines. Also, and more impor- European themes started already in the 1970s, tantly, there is a high degree of intellectual in- but this trend has been further reinforced over teraction. The internationalization of research the last years. Global history focusing on the is reflected on the undergraduate level. Both economic and social interaction between dif- disciplines have changed. A historically in- ferent parts of the world in a long term performed international political economy (IPE) spective serves as a further bridge between eco- has become a central element in our teaching of nomic history proper and international international relations. This direction is very relations. Today, global history is a vital part of much in tune with the present theoretical dis- the intellectual landscape. At global history cussion among IPE scholars. Influential re- conferences IPE scholars, economic historians, searchers like Barry Buzan, Richard Little, historians and a bunch of other social scientists John Hobson and George Lawson, to name meet and exchange views in a dynamic and fruit just a few, have recently argued for a more sys- ful manner. We try to capture and reflect this in tematic use of historical perspectives to devel- our undergraduate education. op the discipline. The long historical view is Finally, the expansion of international rela- indispensable for the understanding of how tions and the somewhat slower increase in stu- economic interaction and sociocultural forces dent numbers in economic history have con- have changed the global system and the strate- tributed to enlarging the basis for third term gic patterns of power and dominance. Within and advanced undergraduate studies. At the IPE there is a tension between scholars focus- advanced level, the two disciplines cooperate ing on contemporary themes and historically and complement each other even more than in oriented researchers. Our conception of IPE is the earlier stages where some of the basic ele- clearly on the side of the latter. We also try to ments have to be emphasized. make another strand of IPE that takes the gen- The first decade of the new millennium was der dimension into account, labelled ‘everyday characterized by the implementation of the international political economy’, a part of the Bologna system. Although some aspects of this curriculum. work were quite tedious, and some parts of the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 97

framework may seem less fruitful, overall the economic history proper also gained from our intellectual mobilization around important presence in the program. The optional courses pedagogical issues gave the daily work at the are open to our own students as well as to Department a new energy. In particular the those studying in the program. The number of advanced level (master’s studies) did profit from courses in English open to Swedish and inter- this concentrated effort. The Bologna model, national students has expanded rapidly. We offering a broad range of thematic courses for had offered some basic undergraduate courses the students to choose from, is well-adapted to in English before the Bologna process, but it the traditions of our Department. Cooperation was a marginal part of our teaching. A course with other departments was encouraged. on the historical and theoretical problems of A new master’s programme with the depart- European citizenship was given during more ments of Human and Physical Geography ‘Glo- than a decade and attracted a stable and fairly balization, Environment and Social Change’, large number of students over the years. Now has proved to be highly successful with Human we can offer a large number of courses in Eng Geography as host department. Students from lish, although primarily on the advanced level. all corners of the world gathered around a Having such a substantial part of the advan common interest in understanding the global ced level courses in English is, of course, not challenges of our time. Within the programme, without problems. However, this is a difficulty our Department is responsible for one of the we share with the rest of the Faculty and a fact four mandatory first-year courses. We also give we have to accept. A small country with a small two optional courses in the second year: ‘A language can never expect to attract interna- New Global Food Order? Global/local Encoun- tional students by giving courses only in Swedish. ters, Contradictions, Tensions and Conflicts’, Internationalization of university education is and ‘Feminist Theories, Economic Restructur- here to stay. Student mobility over national ing and the Gendered Global Division of borders has always been a valuable part of Labour 1600–2000’. It was and is a pleasure to higher learning. During the heydays of the take part in teaching and developing the pro- nation state system, the intellectual exchange on gramme. The construction of the programme is the personal level became more restricted. Stu- an example of collegial cooperation at its very dent exchange requires a lingua franca, once it best. There is a constant respectful and fruitful was Latin, later on French and now it is Eng interaction between the departments. The lish. In the literature and the intellectual con- advanced levels of international relations and tent of courses we have to open up for perspec- 98 Department of Economic History

Like in other departments, bright cloths are the last resort for handling the white austerity of the rooms and corridors of Södra huset. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

tives from traditions other than the Anglo-Saxon, nomic History’ also involves several other even if it is served through translations. departments of the Faculty. In the fourth and The cooperation with other departments in fifth semesters, students can choose relevant the Faculty does not only involve master’s stu- courses in, for example, political science, dents. We are also part of a BA programme in human geography, gender studies, sociology, ‘Global Development’ hosted by the Depart- and economics. The gender perspective consti- ment of Social Anthropology. The BA pro- tutes a significant part of the basic courses in gramme in ‘International Relations and Eco- the program. Thus, the role of gender studies in Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 99

our research profile is well reflected in all of the fictional texts was a central element in the cur- undergraduate programs and courses. Further- riculum. Which aspects of a past reality does a more, the programs reflect a more extensive fictional text reveal? How does it differ from and systematic cooperation between the differ- the knowledge produced by professional eco- ent departments of the faculty than we had nomic historians? Those were the overarching before. In many senses, cooperation between question posed. We gave four short courses, different disciplines is easier to realize within a two juxtaposing Swedish fiction with domestic programme rather than within a course. With- scholarship in economic history and two cover- in a full BA or MA program, each discipline ing the world history. The First World War can develop its perspectives in a more extensive constituted the chronological dividing line. form and contribute to a deeper understanding These courses attracted a very engaged and of the issues covered in curriculum. interested student following. For the teachers it The renewal induced by the Bologna process was an extremely intellectually rewarding expe - did not only cover the advanced level but also rience. The discussions were animated and full undergraduate education in general. A fairly of surprises. radical process of change can inspire efforts Over the years the Department has been and have effects larger than the original pur- heavily involved in summer courses. This year pose. You start thinking in new directions. One we are only giving one such course, ‘The Swedish effect was the renewal of the part-time evening Model’. Thematic afternoon courses have also classes. Instead of giving a full 30 ECTS credits been an important part of the teaching pro- course, we embarked upon shorter thematic gramme. For the moment we give just one, ‘Gen- courses of a new kind. An interesting experi- der, Power and Work in Sweden, 1800 to 2000’. ment was courses which combined fiction and Such courses depend on the availability of inte economic history. The initiative came from two rested teachers. When the ordinary programs of the more experienced senior lecturers, Ron- expand there is less room for efforts of this type. ny Pettersson and Yvonne Svanström, who lat- Nevertheless, it is a resource that can be easily er became teachers in two of the courses. This activated. adventure was developed in a very cheerful and Undergraduate education at the Department creative atmosphere by a group of teachers is, of course, not without difficulties. We are who also later engaged in the teaching, includ- struggling as much as any other university ing one of the authors of this article, Ulf Jons- department with what we regard as insufficient son. Cross-reading of economic historical and resources. Still, there are also achievements to 100 Department of Economic History

be proud of. Hopefully, we have contributed to the Agrarian project (see below), which dealt give the students a more complex understand- with nineteenth century conditions only. How- ing of how the world we live in has evolved and ever, the movement towards modern history is equipped them with analytical tools useful in a deeper than that, and is well-known not only in large number of societal arenas. economic history but also in other historical disciplines in Sweden. The growing contempo- Graduate and post-doc research rary orientation reflects an ambition to under- Sixty doctoral dissertations have been published stand and explain the far-reaching transforma- at the Department of Economic History since tion of society today. Perhaps it can also be 1969. Some patterns with regard to choice of seen as an expression of a renewed political subject matter and period of investigation de- engagement that turned to other fields when serve a comment. Four aspects will be discussed the interest in political history weakened below: (i) a shift towards more recent history, during the 1970s and 1980s.1 (ii) the internationalization of the fields of study, (ii) A connected phenomenon is that interna- (iii) the growing share of women in the produc- tional fields of study have gained in popularity. tion of dissertations, and (iv) the tendency of Yet, this trend is weaker than could be expected. dissertations to grow in volume. Before the turn of millennium, about one dissertation out of ten dealt with international (i) An obvious tendency is that dissertations economic history or international relations, a increasingly deal with relatively modern periods. share which since then has doubled. This pro- This trend dates as far back as 1970 (Adamson portion is expected to grow significantly in the 1988:56). Most dissertations from the Depart- next few years as it is well in line with the re- ment presented before the turn of millennium, search profile among current doctoral students. however, still dealt with the pre-industrial era. The internationalization of research fields Not more than one fourth of the dissertations has had the effect of a growing number of dis- were devoted to the period after 1900. This has sertations being written in English. Before the changed dramatically in recent years: eight dis- tur n of millennium, only one dissertation out sertations out of ten have an emphasis on the of ten was published in English. After that period after 1900. date, the proportion has been around one To some extent, this chronological shift is third. Swedish still dominates as the language due to the fact that before the year 2000 the research at the Department was dominated by 1 This is argued by Arne Jarrick in (Jarrick 2000:40-43). Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 101

of dissertations. It is mainly dissertations deal- after the turn of millennium can boast an aver- ing with international subjects that are written age of 335 pages (in April, 2014). in English, and that share is as we saw still rather low. This reality is far from the norm of 160 pages (iii) A third tendency is that the proportion that the 1969 national reform of graduate edu- of women among authors of dissertations cation established. The upward curve is not has risen, from 29 per cent before the turn of unique to economic history at Stockholm Uni- millennium to 41 per cent thereafter. The num- versity. The length of a dissertation does not ber of PhD students was small during the tell us anything about its quality. Yet, it is not 1970s, but expanded to comprise about thir- unreasonable to think that more voluminous ty at the turn of millennium. For many years manuscripts take more time to finish and con- most of these students were males. The pro- tribute towards a prolongment of the study portion of female students was about one time. There may be several reasons behind the quarter at the beginning of the new century, tendency towards more voluminous disserta- but has since then risen substantially. Today tions. Word processing has made it easier to there is a clear majority of women in graduate write long texts, and new technology of print- studies. At the same time, the total number of ing has reduced the cost of publication. How- PhD students is smaller than it was at the turn ever, this can hardly be the main explanation. of millennium. An important factor could be that the student The changing sex proportion has not had believes that a future research career is made any appreciable effects on the age at PhD com- problematic unless he/she can display a volu- pletion, the choice concerning the period of in- minous dissertation. Expected competition vestigation, or the length of the thesis. Neither among post-docs can thus play a part (Linde- has the choice of an international research field gren 2004:631-39, Lindberg 2004:188) or the language of the thesis been affected. The national reform of 1969 also aimed at There is, however, a relation with regard to the increasing the number of young PhDs. This has use of a systematic gender perspective. We will not been realized at our Department. The mean soon return to this. (as well as median) age at completing the PhD (iv) A fourth tendency is that dissertations is 41 years and has not changed appreciably have become more voluminous. Dissertations over time. defended before the year 2000 comprised on What has happened, then, with the thematic average 261 pages, whereas those put forward content of the dissertations at the Department? 102 Department of Economic History

Research was for several years during the Chayanov. It tried to account for the fact that 1970s and early 1980s dominated by the so- small production units based on family labour called Agrarian project, the actual name of continued to be viable in agriculture. However, which was “Structural change and mechanisms Chayanov’s approach proved to be less useful of adaptation in Swedish agrarian society than expected, due to important differences be- during the period of population growth in the tween Russia and Sweden (Adamson 1988:52 f) 18th and 19th centuries” (Det svenska agrar- The transformation of Swedish agriculture samhällets strukturförändringar och anpass soon became an attractive field of research at ningsmekanismer under folkökningsperioden other economic history departments in the på 1700- och 1800-talen). The project was country as well. Much of the existing know headed by Professor Rolf Adamson and was ledge of the agrarian sector during the nine- financially supported by the Council for Social teenth century is the result of extensive research Science Research and thereafter by the Bank of carried out during the 1970s and 1980s. Sweden Tercentenary Fund. Six doctoral disser- During the 1980s, graduate studies expanded tations were published from the project. Even at the Department, and also became more varied today this appears to be the biggest single pro thematically. One of the new fields was that of ject in terms of staff that has existed at the labour and industrial history. A recurrent theme Department. was the relation between capital and labour Research in the Agrarian project dealt with and the causes of change in the labour process. questions regarding estate organization, socio- These studies were often inspired by historical economic stratification, the development of materialism. Harry Braverman’s thesis on the poverty, the introduction of new tools, and en- degradation of work under capitalism was lively closure movements. There was a considerable debated, but in the end it received limited sup- variety in the theoretical approaches used, port. Later on, studies of industrial history where international research discussion gave tended to focus more on entrepreneurial history inspiration and sociological theory played a and innovations, usually with a basis in Schum- larger part than did formal, neoclassical eco- peterian theory. In several cases there has been nomic theory. Institutional economic theory a strong international orientation of these stud- was beginning to be seriously explored, howev- ies, dealing with topics such as Indian industrial er. One of the approaches that was discussed history or microfinance in the Caribbean. was the theory of the peasant economy formu- A rather unexpected new feature of the related by the Russian agrarian economist, A.V. search profile of the Department appeared in Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 103

The Department resides at the 9th (topmost) floor of Building A. (Photo: Mats Danielson) the mid-1980s as Arne Jarrick defended his 1997 and left the Department of Economic His- thesis on psychological social history. He argued tory, this research profile was no longer upheld. that psychology, especially psychoanalysis and Another new turn of research at the Depart- Piaget’s cognitive psychology, could fruitfully ment in the mid-1980s was the introduction of be used in historical study. Empirically, Jarrick the study of medieval economic history. The first made an attempt to understand the Moravian dissertation with this focus was published by Brethren in Sweden in the eighteenth century Janken Myrdal who investigated medieval arable by means of an analysis of autobiographies. farming in Sweden. From the late 1990s on Jarrick formulated an approach in terms of wards, medieval and early modern economic mentality which became a point of reference in history has been studied in three additional dis- several dissertations. These studies dealt with, sertations, and has also attracted some post- e.g., secularization in the eighteenth century, the graduate researchers. treatment of children during the same century, As a result of this slow but cumulative pro- and the care of the psychologically disabled. As cess, the Department today is the only one in Jarrick was appointed professor of history in the country which can present broad research 104 Department of Economic History

Monetary and Financial Statistics for Sweden: Exchange Rates, Prices and Wages, 1277– 2008’. A volume with this title, published in 2010, presents new statistics on the transformation of the Swedish monetary system from the medieval era until today, focusing on exchange rates, consumer prices and wages. Another volume dealing with house prices, stock returns, natio nal accounts and the Riksbank balance sheet, 1620–2012, will be published in 2014. Around the turn of millennium, dissertations with an explicit gender perspective began to come forward at the Department. This line of research received firm support as Ulla Wikander, a well- known pioneer in the field of gender history, was appointed professor of economic history at the Department in 1996. A strong profile has successively been built up in this field. The interdisciplinary project, ‘Gender, citizenship and public Classic Ethiopian folk painting on leather reflects the strong international interest of the policy. The transformation of Swedish society in department. (Photo: Mats Danielson) a gender perspective, 1848–2000’ (‘Genus, med- borgarskap och offentlig politik. Det svenska based on medieval sources, as well as on time samhällets omvandling i ett genusperspektiv, series with a length of up to 750 years. What 1848–2000’), involving researchers from the de- may be labelled ‘long-term transformation of partments of Political Science, History and Histo- economic and social systems’ has become one ry of Ideas, played an important role in the for- of the profile areas. Recently, three researchers mative stage. The gender perspective has widened from the Department (Rodney Edvinsson, Bo the scope of economic history through research- Franzén and Johan Söderberg) have collaborating gendered informal economies such as the sex ed with the Riksbank, Sweden’s central bank, market, pornography and domestic work. The as well as with economic historians from other theoretical side of gender research has been parts of the country, in the project ‘Historical further developed since Professor Paulina de los Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 105

Reyes joined the Department in 2009. She is one cal economy can have from a historical perspec- of the researchers taking part in the introduction tive on globalization. By emphasizing fields of the concept of intersectionality, which has been where the Department has comparative research shown to be an inspiring and useful tool for the skills, it wishes to connect the two areas and cre- analysis of power and inequality. ate an internationally competitive scholarly en- The theme of gender and economic history vironment. We also strive to increase publica- has mainly attracted female doctoral students. tion in leading journals and to raise the level of However, there are also examples of postgradu external research funding. ates turning towards gender studies at the De- Research in economic history explores how partment after completing their PhDs. mankind has solved sustenance problems over On the other hand, there are fields which time, nationally as well as internationally. predominantly have caught the interest of male Within the overarching theme ‘Long-term Trans students. In particular this applies to the history formation of Economic and Social Systems’ of economic ideas, macroeconomics and indu three areas are central: strial history. Out of a total of about twenty dissertations in these fields, not more than two (i) Why does economic development occur, have been written by women. and what explains it? Within this area research is undertaken with both a Swedish Current trends and a global perspective. The aim is to dis- As is obvious from the account given above, cern forces behind the divide of the world the research carried out at the Department is, into rich and poor regions during a time to say the least, multifaceted. There is an obvious period of several centuries. need to make priorities and to focus on a smaller (ii) How does gender and economy interact in number of research areas. society? Within this field questions pertain- Therefore, a research strategy for the Depart ing to the historical gender division of la- ment has recently been formulated. This docu- bour in the light of normative perceptions ment states that the Department of Economic of male and female connotations on differ- History has two main research areas: ‘economic ent levels of society. history’ and ‘international relations’. In both ar- (iii) How has the exploitation of natural re- eas social science research is undertaken based sources over time interacted with social or- on historical source material. One example is ganization and technological restructuring the benefit that research in international politi- and what are the societal effects of this? 106 Department of Economic History

In recent years, the field of international politi- programme for PhD students with financial cal economy has become one of the main areas support from the Board of Humanities, Law of research at the Department. This field is con- and Social Sciences at Stockholm University. nected to international relations. Research on The purpose of the SIS is to combine the the redistribution of natural resources and strong points of research from the various in- power in the global system, from a historical stitutions. It will offer a broad curriculum, perspective, has priority. Three areas are seen strengthening interdisciplinary research and as particularly important: the international profile of Stockholm Uni- versity in the field of international studies. A (i) The interplay and the friction between competitive international and multidiscip local and global arenas. Focus is on places and linary research programme is developed in human beings’ roles in the global system and collaboration with the Department of Human consequences of shifts in resources and power Geography (‘global urbanism’), the Depart- for economic and social development. Ques- ment of Political Science (‘international and tions of gender, ethnicity and class are central. European policies’), the Department of Me- (ii) How flows of commodities, services, hu- dia Studies (Division of Journalism, Media man beings and ideas interact and shape rela- and Communication) and the Faculty of Law tions between agents, nations and macro re- (‘public international law’). The PhD stu- gions. A central issue is how markets and dents will participate in SIS courses, receive political organization have been formed from a tutorial support from the SIS departments, historical perspective. participate in SIS organized seminars and (iii) The relationship between natural re- take advantage of the broad international sources, energy and security in the internation- network within the SIS. al system, the development of global markets for water, oil and nuclear power and the polit- Concluding remarks ical security consequences of this development. Over the fifty years that the Faculty of Social Sciences has existed at Stockholm University, A significant step forward for the field of in- the Department of Economic History has ternational political economy is the recent evolved from a marginal position to a work- start of Stockholm University Graduate place employing more than 40 persons. We School of International Studies (SIS). SIS is a have a thriving undergraduate education with comprehensive faculty and multidisciplinary a total exceeding one thousand students in the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 107

Members of the Department who are awarded with prices are also honoured on the wall of one of the corridors. Here Janken Myrdal, Rasmus Fleischer, Fia Sundevall, Johanna Raeder, Rodney Edvinsson and Ulrika Söderlind. (Photo: Mats Danielson) calendar year of 2013. There are two distinct tory and international relations is the extensive parts, ‘economic history’ proper and ‘interna- range of themes and the plurality of perspec- tional relations’, giving us a stable base. The tives. regular staff includes four full-time professors, The advanced level is far more extensive nine senior lectures and a number of part-time than it has ever been. The recruitment potential teachers and post docs. We are offering a broad for graduate students is more stable. It is quite social science education and training. The strength a considerable development. Undergraduate of the undergraduate teaching in economic his- teaching in economic history is no longer just a 108 Department of Economic History

complement for some interested students in  •  economics. ‘Economic history’ and ‘interna- Adamson, Rolf 1988. Economic History Research tional relations’ do recruit students coming in Sweden since the mid-1970s, Scandina- from most of the faculty disciplines and our vian Economic History Review 36:3. students continue their education at a broad Fritz, Sven 1967. Studier i svenskt bankväsende range of departments. 1772–1789, PhD thesis, Department of Eco- The research and graduate education at the nomic History, Stockholm University. Department of Economic History has undergone Högberg, Staffan 1969. Utrikeshandel och sjö- major transformations since the 1960s. What is fart på 1700-talet: stapelvaror i svensk ex- perhaps most striking is that it has maintained a port och import 1738–1808, PhD Thesis, theoretical and methodological openness, com- Department of Economic History, Stock- bined with an ambition to carry out solid empiri- holm University. cal work, throughout this long period. In recent Jarrick, Arne 2000. Historieforskningen inför years, the changes have been unusually compre- framtiden. In Roger Qvarsell and Bengt Sandin hensive, affecting all levels of teaching and re- (eds.) Den mångfaldiga historien. Tio his- search. This is primarily due to the fact that the toriker om forskningen inför framtiden (The field of economic history has widened to include Multiplex History. Ten Historians about more elements from international relations. As a Research Facing the Future) Lund, 40–43. consequence, economic history is not quite what Lindberg, Bo 2004. Den akademiska avhand it used to be. It has become not only more inter- lingen – en föga visionär historia. (The Aca national in its orientation but also more open to demic Thesis – A Not Very Visionary Thing) the study of political organization and power. In Eva Ahlstedt (ed.) Vision och verklighet: Even when researching Swedish themes, the in- populärvetenskapliga föreläsningar hållna teraction between the national or local/regional under Humanistdagarna den 9–10 oktober context and global forces are kept in mind. The 2004 vid Göteborgs universitet, Gothen- contribution of economic historical research is to burg. put forward the indispensable longer view and Lindegren, Jan 2004. Längre och längre år från this is very much part of our long term research år. Doktorsavhandlingar i historia 1960– strategy. In the future, research at the Department 2004, Historisk tidskrift 2004:4, 631–639. and the perspectives and theoretical approaches Söderlund, Ernst 1964. Skandinaviska banken i from economic history and international political det svenska bankväsendets historia 1864– economy will continue to enrich each other. 1914. Stockholm: Norstedts. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 109

Researchers and PhD students of the Department of Economic History were often placed at the Red Cottage annex at Frescati Backe. Guests remember interdisciplinary seminars marked by intellectual creativity as well as a gourmet culture. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Proud110 exhibitionKapitelnamn of past and present professors at the Department of Economics. Recently, signs have been seen of a change in the gender ratio. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 111

Department of Economics Astri Muren and Hans Wijkander

Lectures in Economics at Stockholm Uni- unions and long-run unemployment. He played versity College started already in 1888 with an important role as entrepreneur, channelling Johan Leffler (1845–1912) as lecturer. Leffler, money from the Rockefeller Foundation to an who had studied in Leipzig, combined econom- extensive empirical investigation of wage for- ic liberalism with an interest in social policy mation and national income in Sweden. Bagge (Olofsson & Syll 1998). The first full professor was also a politician; from 1913 he was active of economics was Gustav Cassel who was ap- in local Stockholm politics and later he was pointed in 1904 (Nycander 2005, ch.1). Cassel party leader for the Conservatives (1935–1944) (1866–1945) had originally studied mathemat- and Minister of Education. ics (writing a doctoral dissertation on linear Cassel retired in 1934 and was succeeded by algebra) and later turned to economics. Cassel Gunnar Myrdal (1898–1987) (Gustafsson 1998). is known for his development of general equi- Myrdal’s dissertation, ‘Pricing and Change’, in- librium theory. During the 1920s, he was one troduced inter-temporal planning and risk into of the most prominent economists in the world, price theory. Cassel was the dissertation advi- lecturing widely on monetary issues. Bringing sor. Erik Lindahl, another of the prominent monetary analysis into general equilibrium Stockholm school economists, who was at the theory is still an unresolved issue, particularly time lecturing in the Department, is mentioned regarding financial economics. A second chair in the preface for his advice. Lindahl’s own de- in economics was created in 1921, with Gösta velopment of inter-temporal and temporary Bagge (1882–1951) as its first incumbent equilibrium theory in the late 1920s was, in (Wadensjö, in Nycander 2005, ch.2). Bagge’s turn, influenced by Myrdal’s analysis. During early work concerned wage-setting under trade the 1930s, several members of the Department 112 Department of Economics

were involved in the development of employ- apparatus and the conclusions reached in Sweden ment theory. Considering the economic crisis in on the one hand and Mr. Keynes’ ‘General Theory’ on the world at that point, it was the hot topic of the other hand. Hoping that a discussion of two in- the time. Gunnar Myrdal, Gösta Bagge, Alf Jo- dependent attacks on the same set of problems hansson and Dag Hammarskjöld contributed may throw some light on the latter, I intend in this to the Unemployment Commission. From 1937 and the succeeding paper to make some observa- to 1944, Myrdal spent his time in the United tions on these two theories. (Ohlin, 1937:53) States, working on ‘An American Dilemma’ and financed by the Carnegie Foundation. After re- The Stockholm school of thought has attracted turning, he became Minister of Trade in 1945– a lot of interest and publicity through the years, 47. Much later, in 1974, Myrdal shared the though opinions have always differed on the Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences extent to which the Stockholm school really in Memory of Alfred Nobel with Friedrich von was very different from Keynesian theory. In Hayek. He was not entirely happy about that; any case, the Stockholm school economists, to perhaps the main problem was the co-laureate which Lindahl, Hammarskjöld, Johansson, whose values he did not share, but he had also Myrdal and Ohlin, as well as Lundberg and expressed criticism of the prize itself (Swedberg Svennilson belong, were creative and influen- 2004). tial researchers and policy makers. Erik Lundberg and Ingvar Svennilson offered The Stockholm school of thought theoretical contributions to the Stockholm The term ‘Stockholm school of thought’ or school in their doctoral dissertations. Lund- ‘Stockholm school’ was used by Bertil Ohlin in berg’s dissertation, ‘Studies in the Theory of Eco- 1937 in the first of two articles in the ‘Economic nomic Expansion’, completed less than a year Journal’. He introduced the article by stating: after the publication of Keynes’ ‘General Theory’, presents an independently developed dynamic Owing to a coincidence of circumstances, already at theory of business cycles, later formalized by an early stage of the depression Swedish econo- Paul Samuelson (Lindbeck & Persson 1987). mists came to deal with the problem of variations in Lundberg took up a position at Konjunkturin- employment, output and prices by means of a theo- stitutet (KI, the National Institute of Economic retical apparatus rather different from the price the- Research) in 1937 and became its head in ory in economic textbooks. There are surprising sim- 1946. The same year he was also given a per- ilarities as well as striking differences between that sonal professorship at the Department, where Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 113

Seminar in political economy in the seminar room A700. (Photo: Mats Danielson) he acted as a full-time professor after 1955 to the newly created ‘Research Institute of when he left Konjunkturinstitutet. Lundberg’s Industrial Economics’ (Industriens Utrednings overview of business cycles and stabilization institut) and was its head 1942–51. Svennilson policy from 1953 (Konjunkturer och ekonomisk was appointed professor at the Department in politik, translated into English as ‘Business 1947. In parallel with his professorship, he Cycles and Economic Policy’, 1957) influenced played an important role in the development of a generation of students of Keynesian fiscal and The Medium Term Surveys (Långtidsutredning- monetary policy. arna) of the Swedish government. Svennilson Svennilson’s doctoral dissertation, Ekono- was an early proponent of econometrics, i.e. misk planering: Teoretiska studier, was a theo- the use of statistical methods of analysis of eco- retical study of organizational planning explor- nomic data. (Persson & Siven 2009) ing intertemporal decision-making under risk. At this time the academic world of econom- After his doctorate, Svennilson initially worked ics was almost exclusively male, in Sweden and as an expert in Konjunkturinstitutet where Lund elsewhere. There was only one senior faculty berg was already working. He was then recruited woman in economics at Stockholm University 114 Department of Economics

College, Karin Kock (1891–1976). She defended encouraging the intellectual development of her doctoral dissertation, A Study of Interest their students. One of Lundberg’s few graduate Rates, in 1929. It was the second in Sweden students was Peter Bohm, who became one of presented by a woman – the first was by Margit the Department’s more influential professors in Cassel (the daughter of Gustav Cassel) in 1924. a later era, to which we now turn. Kock’s advisors were Cassel and Bagge. Kock became docent in 1931 and replaced Bagge and The 1960s and 1970s: Expansion Myrdal as acting professor during the period and change 1936–1946, when they were often on leave. In the early days of Socialvetenskapliga institu- One of her teaching areas was monetary eco- tet, as the Department was called until 1964 (in nomics. Kock was given ‘professor’s name’ in English the Institute for Social Sciences of 1945, served as Minister of Trade during Stockholm University, according to Lundberg’s 1947–49, and was the head of Statistics Swe- foreword to his doctoral dissertation, written den from 1949 until her retirement in 1957 in December 1936), the students were few and (Jonung & Jonung 2013). comparatively undemanding. The situation seems Lundberg and Svennilson were professors in to more or less have remained like that through- the Department for some considerable time, out the 1940s and much of the 1950s. How Lundberg until 1965 when he left for the Stock- ever, in the late 1950s that was about to change holm School of Economics, and Svennilsson un- in many ways. Ideas about how to organize the til 1967, when he succeeded Myrdal as head of education of future researchers were brought the Institute for International Economic Studies. in from leading universities in the United During that time, they were both also much in- States, where PhD course programmes were volved in policy advising activities (in those days held. Assar Lindbeck, who returned from a when there were not many students, it seems to two-year stay at Yale University, started by giving have been perfectly normal to combine a profes- an extensive course on monetary theory one year, sorship with extensive other commitments). and one on fiscal policy the second year. The Svennilson appears to have been a kind and car- initiative was followed up by Karl Jungenfelt ing person, if a bit preoccupied, while Lundberg and Östen Johansson. could be ironic towards his students. In general, It may seem a minor thing to start giving the Stockholm school economists were appar- courses for doctoral and licentiate students; ently more interested in their own scientific yet, this change was probably instrumental in a work and in being government advisors than in shift of research focus from research topics Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 115

much influenced by leading persons connected ed with the period when the baby-boom gen- with the National Institute of Economic Re eration born in the 1940s was leaving school. search to research topics that were instead in- Hence, in the period 1956–1960 some 8,000 fluenced by international literature in economics people received a secondary school degree. In and other intensively discussed topics. The the period 1961–1965 that number almost dou- courses were much appreciated by young re- bled to 15,000, and between 1966 and 1968 searchers, who later became prominent in aca- (which is only two years) it increased to demia, such as Peter Bohm, Ingemar Ståhl, Alf 28,000. The volume of higher education ex- Carling and persons who became prominent in panded, and the number of students at the De- politics such as Kjell-Olof Feldt. partment of Economics increased greatly. The One topic within economics that interested Department moved from Odengatan 61 to Ha- several young researchers, for example Peter gagatan. Lectures took place in nearby cine- Bohm and Karl-Göran Mäler, and that later mas, making good use of the newly invented became a very prominent research area at the overhead projector (Nycander 2005:167–168). Department of Economics, was welfare eco- In 1970, the Department was one of the first to nomics. An important early contribution to the move to the new Frescati campus, and has since field was made by J. de V. Graaff in 1957. then had its main location on floor 7 in build- Another influence was Rachel Carson’s book ing A in Södra huset. Silent Spring (1962) in which she criticized the A natural response to a strong increase in extensive use of pesticides, in particular DDT, the number of students would have been a which she claimed threatened the fauna. The strong increase in the number of teachers and book received much attention in public forums professors. However, that did not come through; and awakened an interest in environmental instead, two research institutes were created. issues in many economists. In 1974, Mäler In 1962, Gunnar Myrdal was given a personal published the book Environmental Economics: professorial chair as manager for the Institute A Theoretical Inquiry, which became very infor International Economic Studies, which he fluential. himself had started. In 1966, Rudolf Meidner In the 1960s, the number of students at became the manager of the Swedish Institute universities increased rapidly, probably large- for Social Research. The former institute dealt ly due to changes in the school system, which mainly with macroeconomics and the latter made many more young people eligible for with labour market issues. The two institutes university studies. This development coincid- attracted many promising young researchers. 116 Department of Economics

The Department of Economics’ version of the ubiquitous Södra huset corridor. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

In the late 1960s, two chairs in the Depart- ‘Studies in the Structure of the American Eco ment of Economics received new incumbents, nomy’ (1953). Guy Arvidsson and Lars Werin Lars Werin and Guy Arvidsson, who were both both had their academic backgrounds from appointed in 1969. The Department then had Lund, where they had both had Johan Åker- three professors: Anders Östlind, Guy Arvids- man as dissertation advisor. In addition, Arvids- son and Lars Werin. Werin received his doctoral son, who was ten years senior to Werin, had degree in 1965 on the dissertation ‘A Study of succeeded Åkerman when he retired, but later Production, Trade and Allocation of Resources’, left Lund for the chair in Stockholm. which was an input-output study of the Swed- Guy Arvidsson died prematurely in 1973 ish economy in the spirit of the seminal contri- (aged 55) and was succeeded by Peter Bohm. bution of Nobel laureate Wassily Leontief’s Bohm’s licentiate thesis ‘External economies in Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 117

production‘ (1964), in which he thanks “my very important dissertations such as those by teachers, Erik Lundberg and Ingvar Svennil- Claes-Henric Siven, Bo Axell and the one writ- son”, is a theoretical examination of optimal ten jointly by Thomas Franzén, Kerstin Löfgren pricing under different forms of market imper- and Irma Rosenberg. The internationally most fections. At quite an early stage, Bohm moved well-known of those is probably Bo Axell. He into the new research area of experimental eco- made important contributions to search theory. nomics, and became influential within field By modelling how imperfect information about experiments, always with a focus on microeco- job opportunities opens up for wage bargain- nomic policy and welfare economics (see ing, search models provide explanations for the Dufwenberg and Harrison, 2008, for a descrip- existence of unemployment in equilibrium. The tion of Bohm’s research contributions within dissertation by Franzén, Löfgren and Rosen- the area of field experiments). Östlind retired berg on the effects of the public sector’s activi- in 1979 and was succeeded by Claes-Henric ties on the income distribution received interna- Siven, who received his doctoral degree in 1975 tional attention. Both Franzén and Rosenberg on the dissertation ‘A Study in the Theory of became deputy governors of Sveriges Riksbank Inflation and Unemployment’. In addition to (the Swedish Central Bank). The dissertation by labour market functioning and wage setting, Siven was an important specimen when he ap- which was also the area of his dissertation, Siven plied for the chair after Östlind. has conducted research within the history of Bohm’s group was, in contrast to Werin’s economic analysis and economics of crime. group, much more focused on one field of eco- The research in the department during the nomics, namely welfare economics. A number 1970s and 1980s was informally organized of dissertations were produced in that group into three different groups, each with one aca and also works by more senior economists demic leader and several PhD students. One such as Roland Andersson who later was group was headed by Lars Werin and another appointed professor of real estate economics at by Peter Bohm. The third group was headed by the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). The Alf Carling who was associate professor and in research in the early years of the 1970s was in charge of a large research project dealing with the field of transport economics. It involved studies of the energy system, a field that was central elements of welfare economics such as topical after the first oil crisis in 1973. policy alternatives when dealing with increas- Werin’s group was not oriented towards any ing returns to scale, public goods and externali particular field of economics. It produced some ties. Bohm was the editor of an influential book 118 Department of Economics

to which he also contributed, ‘Transport Policy government sector. To a high degree this has and Economics’ (Transportpolitiken och sam- also been the case for Stockholm University’s hällsekonomin), which had impact on a major Department of Economics. The research focus government inquiry about transport policy in the Department at different points in time headed by Alf Carling (Vägtrafiken. Kostnader has reflected general policy concerns, partly as och avgifter, SOU 1973:32). Many of the PhD a result of this contact. The list of publications students who participated in Bohm’s group later in the ‘Stockholm Economic Studies’ series, went on to careers within public administra- published within the Acta Universitatis Stock- tion. A few stayed in academia, like Hans Wij holmiensis in 1929–1970, shows a concern kander and Jan-Erik Nilsson. Wijkander was with macroeconomic issues as well as with fis- appointed professor first at the Swedish Insti- cal and monetary policy until the mid-1960s. tute for Building Research and the Royal Insti- This is not surprising, given that a number of tute of Technology (KTH), and later at the the leading researchers during that time had Department of Economics at Stockholm Uni- been or were connected with the National In- versity where he held the position of depart- stitute of Economic Research (KI), which lies ment chair for several years. Nilsson is profes- under the Ministry of Finance. The latter part sor in transport economics at KTH. of the 1960s represents a change in that the The group around Alf Carling was some- Department became more oriented towards what separate from the rest of the Department microeconomic policy and welfare economics, socially as well as physically, being located and the link with KI was broken. The 1960s across the road from the rest of the Depart- were characterized by high growth and expan- ment. Those two factors, together with a more sion of the public sector, which generated or less pronounced mission to produce poli- demand for the advice of economists on, for cy-relevant investigations into energy related example, transport policy. After the oil crises in issues, probably made it difficult to produce 1973 and 1979, the referendum on nuclear dissertations. Not many PhD dissertations power in 1980, and the general rise of concern came out from that research group. There are, about energy and environment, energy eco- however, some exceptions. A number of PhD nomics and environment economics became students defended their theses when the group important research areas. was about to be dissolved in the 1980s. The shift in research focus in the late 1960s The academic field of economics hasalways also brought with it a more fundamental change been closely in touch with policymakers in the in research questions. In the earlier period, the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 119

main challenge was to find out more about the indication of the discussions at the time. functioning of the economy in its many aspects, Directly after its first publication, the book was from the possible causes of business cycles to reviewed in the top economics journals by the importance of forestry in the Swedish eco Franklin Fisher, Paul Samuelson, Murray nomy. This approach is called ‘positive eco- Kemp, William Baumol, I.M.D. Little, and nomics’ by economists, and economic models others. An interesting and clarifying review by here serve the important function of structur- Siven, landing on the side of positive econom- ing arguments and clarifying mechanisms of ics, appeared in the ‘Swedish Journal of Eco- interest. Welfare economics, in contrast, is nomics’ in 1965, after the book’s first reprint- much more concerned with how things should ing. (Intriguingly, Graaff himself seems to have be, and involves making recommendations for left academic economics soon after having so policy (‘normative economics’). These recom successfully stirred up the debate.) mendations take their point of departure in a model which presumes to describe the import- Recent and present times ant aspects of the market in question, or per- In the middle of the 1990s, the Department haps even the whole economy. In evaluating had entered a bit of a slump. Werin was retiring policy recommendations arrived at by this and the successor to his chair, which was joint method, the correctness of the model and its with the Department of Law, was on perma- assumptions become crucial issues. nent leave and not taking up the position as In comparison with most present-day aca- full-time professor. The research funds for demic economists, the welfare theorists of the energy applications had dried up and Carling 1960s and 1970s were quite ambitious con- had left the Department, first to KI and later to cerning the possibilities for economic theory to become an economic advisor to the Mandela deliver clear and detailed policy recommenda- government in South Africa. The improve- tions. This may have been one reason behind ments in graduate student financing meant that the at times considerable controversy over the doctoral students no longer took the whether economic theory really did, or does, responsibility for teaching that they had done provide a good enough model to motivate such in previous times. This was obviously in many a research agenda. The debate over the book ways a good change, but meant that most of by J. de V. Graaff, ‘Theoretical Welfare Eco- the teaching was now done by temporary nomics’, and the many reprints of this book replacement teachers. These young people did since its first publication in 1957, provide some good work, but the necessary long-term devel- 120 Department of Economics

opment of courses in response to the research the Ministry of Finance. In the years following advancement in the different fields of the disci- 1996, a number of promising young persons pline could not occur. have moved to the Department from other uni- To move the Department from this state, it versities and taken up professorial positions at was necessary to recruit people who would be the department. Some have also left the Depart qualified and interested in doing both research ment such as Martin Dufwenberg, who moved and teaching. Moreover, it was essential to to the University of Arizona, and Karolina attract a large enough number of people to create Ekholm and Martin Flodén, who both have a research environment. The construction of become deputy governors at Sveriges Riksbank. academic positions in Sweden at the time, An important change in the Swedish aca- where the choice was basically between full- demic system is the possibility of promotion time teaching positions and full-time research from senior lecturer to professor. This made positions, was not well-suited to achieve this – teaching positions more attractive in themselves, the full-time research positions were too few and contributed to changing the focus of academ- and the full-time teaching positions were not ic competition from being mainly within the De- attractive enough. The slow and unpredictable partment (for docent positions and professorial hiring process used in Swedish universities did chairs), to being outside and between depart- not help in this case. However, in the mid- ments (for good research environments, high 1990s a change in the way the Employment rankings, the best junior researchers, etc.). An Protection Act was implemented in the univer- effect of that change is that the number of full sities made it temporarily possible to create at- professors at the Department has increased sub- tractive positions. This opportunity was used stantially from three full professors in the mid- by Wijkander to enable the Department to re- 1990s to now 17 (including professors on leave). cruit young promising PhDs who were given The change in competitive focus may also have positions that were split between teaching and contributed to making the academic atmosphere research. The first who were recruited in that more pleasant than in the old days – boosting manner were Jonas Häckner and Sten Nyberg. one’s own department can seem more productive Both have been promoted to professors and than criticizing one’s colleagues. This does not Häckner is the current department chair. After and should not remove the critical attitude and them Michael Lundholm was recruited. He was habit which must always be an important part of also promoted to professor and is currently academia, but the balance between criticism and (May 2014) on leave to be undersecretary at cooperation may be better nowadays. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 121

Departmental coffee breaks and collective cake eating is advertised by the ringing of the bell. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

In the Department of Economics at Stock- opportunities to plan working time, and by not holm University the policy is that all faculty scheduling meetings and seminars in the early members should do both teaching and research mornings or late afternoons. Also, we make sure and be free to choose their preferred area of re- that the doctoral students and post docs on sti- search. Everyone should teach basic courses as pends do not miss out on their rights to parental well as specialized courses in their area of choice leave. Both women and men in the Department and should have access to their schedule long in take out parental leave and sick child-days. advance. We make it easier for both female and The present Department of Economics has male faculty to combine work and parenthood, about 30 faculty members with at least a PhD for example by using long planning horizons, degree, 50 graduate students, 100 master stu- 122 Department of Economics

dents and well over 1,000 students in intro-  •  ductory and intermediate courses each semes- We thank Roland Andersson and Claes-Henric ter. Of the 17 full professors four are women. Siven for interesting discussions and helpful Most of the faculty members have their doc- comments. The first section is partly based on a toral degrees from other institutions of higher text by Lennart Erixon and Claes-Henric Siven learning than Stockholm University, an indi- used in the Department’s yearly “Current re- cation of the growth of academic mobility and search”. contact areas. A sign of the low level of academic endogamy at the Department is that Dufwenberg, Martin and Glenn W. Harrison there is only one straight link to the early 2008. Peter Bohm: Father of field experiments. Stockholm school economists: Wijkander, who Experimental Economics 11:3, 213–220. wrote his doctoral dissertation on second best Graaff, Johannes de Villiers 1957. Theoretical pricing within public economics, had Peter Welfare Economics, London: Cambridge Bohm as his advisor. He can thereby count University Press. Erik Lundberg as his ‘academic grandfather’, Gustafsson, Bo 1998. Ekonomporträttet: Gun- whom he never met. nar Myrdal (1898–1987). Ekonomisk De batt The current research at the Department 26:8; 617–627. covers a wide range of fields from monetary Jonung, Christina and Lars Jonung 2013. economics to social network theory. Within Karin Kock 1891–1976. Ekonomisk Debatt that wide span economic geography, public fi- 41:7; 66–78. nance, financial markets, behavioural econom- Lindbeck, Assar and Mats Persson 1987. Erik ics, political economy, labour markets, compe- Lundberg 1907–1987. Ekonomisk Debatt tition policy, development economics, economics 15: 6; 459–466. of crime and education economics can be found. Ohlin, Bertil 1937. Some Notes on the Stock- There has been an emphasized shift from theo- holm Theory of Savings and Investment I. retical methods into more empirical research. It Economic Journal 47:185, 53–69. can of course be expected that the range of re- Olofsson, Jonas and Lars Pålsson Syll 1998. search topics has increased since the number of Ekonomporträttet: Johan Leffler (1845– researchers has increased substantially. A bene- 1912). Ekonomisk Debatt 26:7, 527–532. fit of that is that the Department nowadays can Persson, Mats and Claës-Henric Siven 2009. offer a broad spectrum of courses and qualified Ingvar Svennilson 1908–1972. In IFN/IUI advising of students at all levels. 1939–2009. Sju decennier av forskning om Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 123

ett näringsliv i utveckling. Magnus Henrek- son (Ed.), 40–58. Stockholm: Ekerlids. Nycander, Svante 2005. Från värde till väl färdsteori – nationalekonomin vid Stockholms högskola/Stockholms universitet 1904–2004, Stockholm: SNS Förlag. Siven, Claës-Henric 1965. Theoretical Welfare Economics by J. de V. Graaff (Review). Swedish Journal of Economics 67:1, 98–100. Swedberg, Richard 2004. Introduction to the Transaction Edition. In The Political Ele ment in the Development of Economic Theory. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers. The Department of Education enjoy having sculptress Frida Tebus’ ‘The Pearl’ at their doorstep and every year celebrates the event ‘Polishing of the pearl’ with a speech in honour of the spring, hymn singing and generous use of ‘yacht wax’. (Photo: Jean-Baptiste Béranger) 125

Department of Education Anders Gustavsson

Writing the history of one’s depart- partment of Education a few years ago. This ment and discipline to some extent always development from fragmentation to consolida- means writing one’s own history. This has some tion will be the running thread of the chapter advantages. My history has been linked to that and of my analysis of how the last 50 years of of the Department of Education for the better educational sciences at Stockholm can be un- part of the 50 years of the history of the Faculty derstood. Another way of countering my ego- of Social Science. But an insider’s perspective centrism has been to ask colleagues for infor- also makes it difficult to see the whole picture. mation. A few of them have read and commented Here, my experience as deputy vice-chancellor the text, but I alone am responsible for the his- during the last years has been valuable. The tory presented here. new responsibilities have, to some extent, made me an outsider of the Department and given The emergence of two academic me new insights into its role within the univer- traditions of education in Stockholm sity and within the field of education as a The academic discipline of education has a whole. In retrospect, I can for instance see that long history in Sweden and at Stockholm Uni- the Stockholm University Department of Edu- versity. The first professors were appointed in cation, where I ‘grew up’ and still have most of 1910 and 1912 in Uppsala and Lund and in my ‘social science heart’, contributed to a de- Stockholm 1937. During the first years (1937– bated fragmentation of the discipline, which I 1953), the new Department of Education at will discuss in this short history of education–a Stockholm University College (Stockholms hög development that might have been broken by skola) hosted both education and psychology. the establishment of the new Stockholm De- Separate departments did not exist until 1952–53. 126 Department of Education

When the Faculty of Social Sciences was estab- tion was established only three years after the lished in 1964, education had thus far had a first, when the Teachers’ Training College rather long and somewhat complex disciplinary (Lärarhögskolan, LHS) was opened. In English, history. Before 1964, education belonged to the this unit was referred to as the Stockholm Insti- Faculty of Humanities, like some other disci- tute of Education. As a result, educational plines which today are part of the social sciences. sciences in Stockholm developed in two quite The complexity of the history of education different directions: one school-oriented at the is due to several reasons. One of the most Institute of Education (LHS) and another at the important factors is that education is both a Stockholm University department, which grew practice field and a discipline—the latter often out of the historical link between education referred to as ‘educational sciences’. (I will here and psychology, an academic field that can best sometimes use this term in order to make the be described as applied social psychology. Let’s distinction clear, even if the discipline often is take a closer look at what happened. referred to just as education at Stockholm Uni- Torsten Husén, who was appointed the first versity and most other Swedish universities.) professor of education at Stockholm University When education was established in Sweden as College in 1953, was called to a new chair at an academic discipline, schooling was regarded the Stockholm Institute of Education. Husén as the key field of educational practice. One of was a typical representative of the school- the former professors of the Stockholm Univer- oriented research the new discipline was sup- sity department phrased it like this in an earlier posed to contribute. The development of the history of education: social psychological approach was initiated and strongly supported by the second professor We can immediately state that the academic dis- at Stockholm University College, Arne Tran- cipline of education almost exclusively was estab- kell. In a presentation of social science research lished in order to provide the teacher education for published by the Faculty in 1979, Trankell secondary school with a sustainable potential for described his discipline: research and develop ment (Edfeldt 1989:189, my translation). Education as a discipline has a mainly formal character and relates to, for instance, psychology, as However, in order to understand the history of the discipline of statistics does to mathematics. Its educational sciences in Stockholm, one must main focus is on methods for the transmission of also know that a second department of educa- knowledge, attitudes and ways of relating to other Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 127

people – and lately – also on the conditions for and considerable challenges. On a terminological the consequences of the on-going changes in all level, there have been constant discussions over human societies (Trankell 1970:67, my translation). what education and educational sciences mean and really are. A strong practice influence risks In a review of the bachelor’s theses produced at reducing the space around which an academic the Department of Education during the 1950s discipline needs to raise productive questions and 1960s, Trankell (1970) found that tradi- and can study these questions without too tional educational-didactical issues dominated much interference from the people engaged in during the 1950s, while applied psychological everyday educational problems. This was prob- issues dominated in the early 1960s with a grow ably one reason why schooling gradually lost ing interest in current societal problems, like its position as the main research focus, at LHS health care services, in the latter part of the decade. as well. As we will see later on, the dynamics of Both the educational science traditions in the fragmentation of educational sciences in Stockholm have, in their own ways, been the whole of Sweden during the last decades of shaped by the advantages and difficulties of the the 20th century can be understood in terms of close relation between the disciplines and dif- the development of different strategies applied by ferent practice fields. The advantages first of all individual researchers and groups to embrace consist of the obvious relevance of the research or distance themselves from the practice fields for current societal problems. At the Stock- at hand. holm University department this meant taking Another characteristic of the complex history on current societal problems, like international of educational sciences is its multi-discipli migration and exclusion of ethnic minorities, narity. On several occasions, Husén (1996) has the development of socially-oriented psycho- argued that education is not an independent therapies, international aid to developing coun- discipline, but a knowledge field drawing on tries, adult learning within a working context theories, methods and empirical experiences of and personal experiences of ill health. At LHS, other disciplines. Basically I agree, and this is schooling in a broad sense remained the key one argument for talking about educational practice field even if some researchers also sciences in plural. However, Husén’s idea of gradually distanced themselves from the issues independent disciplines raises questions con- of teacher education and schools. cerning how self-sufficient any discipline can, The close relation between educational and should be. Several social sciences oriented sciences and their practice fields has also meant towards current societal problems share this For128 severalKapitelnamn years, the Department of Education were housed in this building at Frescati Hage. With the integration of the teachers’ training and several departmental mergers, the premises became far too small. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 129

multi-disciplinarity and the scientific evolution for third-cycle courses for doctoral students re- over the last decades also raises the question mained at the College and the University until whether there is really support for such ideas of the final fusion between LHS and the Universi- disciplinary purism. It should also be remem- ty in 2008. However, it should be noted that bered that in many other countries education teacher education and other undergraduate constitutes a faculty of its own, including seve programmes at LHS were run by the institute ral disciplines and separate departments. From itself as a separate organisational unit and will this perspective it comes as no surprise that not be discussed here. educational research in Sweden also adopts The newly established Institute of Education psychological, sociological, cultural, historical (1956) also organised research and research and philosophical approaches, just to name education within the discipline of pedagogik the most frequently used conceptual frame- (education, sometimes translated to ‘pedagogics’ works. And—as we will see later on—all these in order to distinguish between different educa- orientations can today be found in the new tional sciences) with a focus on teacher educa- Department of Education at Stockholm Uni- tion and schooling along quite different lines versity. than the Stockholm University Department of Education. However, it should be noted that Educational sciences at the Institute critique was also soon heard at the institute, of Education, LHS that the research began to distance itself from When Husén was called to the new chair of the practice field of schooling. In fact, a cri- education in 1956 at LHS, he left his chair at tique for lack of interest in the schooling and Stockholm University College, but only on the teacher education-relevant research grew condition the he would be able to keep his stronger at all Swedish units for teacher educa- membership in the Faculty of Humanities (later tion during the 1980s and 1990s and paved the Social Sciences) of the College (Husén 2003). way for the establishment of more practice-ori- This meant that the doctoral students from the ented educational sciences orientations. During Institute of Education graduated from Stock- the first years of the 21st century, three new dis- holm University College and that the new Depart ciplines grew out of educational sciences at the ment of Educational sciences remained part of Stockholm Institute of Education: special edu- the faculty of the College. In spite of several cation, child and youth studies and didactics. attempts from LHS to get its own degree- The new discipline of didaktik, established awarding power, the research and responsibility by the Faculty of Social Sciences at Stockholm 130 Department of Education

University in 2004, was the Stockholm re- comprehensive school for all pupils. Typically, sponse to the critique concerning reduced in- these projects were initiated by the govern- terest in school-relevant research. In Umeå and ment and placed at the research units linked Luleå, new disciplinary constructions, such as to teacher education. LHS, for instance, re- pedagogiskt arbete (pedagogical work) and ceived the responsibility for the development lärande (learning), were launched and later and administration of the new standardised spread to other teacher education units in the test used to assess the achievements of the pu- country. The history of child and youth studies pils in the comprehensive school–a work that and special education are discussed more in was first lead by Torsten Husén and later by detail elsewhere in this book. Bengt-Olov Ljung. Earlier, Husén also played To some extent, this development of new an important role in developing international school-relevant disciplines can be understood comparative assessments. The International as a process of differentiation, where the earlier Association for the Evaluation of Educational broad discipline of pedagogik (education) de- Achievements, originally located in Hamburg veloped into a number of new practice-orient- in 1960, moved with the support of UNESCO ed educational sciences. This process of differ- in 1969 to Stockholm where it was made a entiation grew stronger and stronger during part of the new Institute of International and the 1990s and the first years of the 21st century, Comparative Education (IIE) established by contributing to an inevitable fragmentation of the Faculty of Social Sciences at Stockholm the old discipline. Below, I will argue that there University in 1971. Husén was, once again, called are signs that this trend now has been broken, to chair the new department (more about this for example, by the gradual establishment of below). the new Department of Education at Stock- During the 1970s, 80s and 90s, educational holm University during 2008–2011. sciences at the institute linked to teacher educa- The process of differentiation can be illus- tion developed into a rich and diversified re- trated in more detail in the development of the search environment. This was due to the influ- educational sciences at LHS. During the first ence of two main factors: the interests of the years, the new Institute focused simultaneous- rapidly growing group of researchers—from a ly on research linked to the current school handful of persons during the first year to over reforms and the new demands for knowledge 70 persons in the middle of the 1990s—and the concerning educational differentiation and as- growing demands from a teacher education sessment raised by the introduction of the which came to include more and more diversi- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 131

fied programs such as pre-school teachers, –a lack of space created by the expected, close vocational teachers and teachers in sports, relation with the practice fields. music and special education. In a book pub- The issue of practice-oriented educational lished in connection with the 40th anniversary science research has been raised and answered of the institute, a critical review of the weak differently over the years. Inspired by the focus on practice oriented class-room research American so called ‘methods tradition’, i.e. the was presented: practical know-how related to how a teacher or- ganises his or her work in the classroom, a In retrospect, we can see that an order gradually number of ‘methods lecturers’ were appointed developed [in the orientation of the educational at LHS. As a response to even more increasing sciences] which was characterised by a basic prob- demands for teacher know-how in the new lem. The researchers in educational sciences teacher education, which was designed to sup- worked within projects, which did not focus on the port the implementation of the comprehensive everyday of the schools, the classes, the pupils or school reform, a didactic centre (Didaktikcent- the teachers—the everyday life that engaged the rum) was established in 1988 with the aim of “methods lecturers” and the supervisors in the developing a knowledge field that was now re- schools and the everyday life that the future ferred to as didaktik (didactics). This can be teachers encountered in the practice field (Arf- understood as the first phase of the didactic wedson 1996, my translation). development at LHS. In connection with the celebration of the 40th anniversary, the first In trying to understand this problem, the professor of didactics with a special focus on authors of the celebratory text pointed to diffi- subject didactics (didaktik med inriktning mot culties created by all the commissioned research ämnesdidaktik), Staffan Selander, was appoint- the Department had to do, but it is also obvious ed. This marked the beginning of the second that any ordinary research unit–over time–will phase of the development of didaktik. In the produce both more theoretically oriented work years to follow, a number of studies were car- and studies with immediate relevance for a spe- ried out and several special series of didactical cific practice field. To some extent, these varia- publications were initiated at the Institute. tions can probably also be seen as expressions Over the years almost 30 doctoral students were of the concerned researchers personal strate- associated with Didaktikcentrum and the new gies to manage the lack of space for intra-disci- research milieu headed by Selander, ‘Didak- plinary development of the educational sciences tik-design’ and other didactically oriented 132 Department of Education

The main staircase at the new Department of Education building. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

research groups. The development of different, tion a divide between subject didactics–belong- content-oriented subject didactics were later sup- ing to disciplines like language, science, humani ported–in a third phase–and made the corner- ties and the social sciences–and more general, stone of the new teacher education programme comparative didactics was made more and after the fusion with Stockholm University in more manifest. 2008. The third phase meant a very important However, it should be noted that the main new step towards realising the basic idea of the part of the educational sciences research of the content-oriented didactics and by this evolu- institute belonged to the general discipline of Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 133

pedagogik. A strong line of development headed learning and socialisation outside of the formal by Ulf P. Lundgren had its base in the group for school system–an area that in fact covers many curriculum theory and cultural reproduction, of the most influential processes of personal which carried out a considerable number of and social development. studies concerning what goes on within class- During the time before and the first years rooms, in terms of communication, roles and after the establishment of the Faculty of Social power, and how on-going activities are framed Sciences in 1964, research at the university de- by a host of restricting factors. Other import- partment included a wide range of studies. The ant contributions came from the research and research dealt both with traditional educational developmental work concerning assessment of phenomena (like left-handedness and manual the achievements in the new comprehensive writing; silent reading) and the new scope of school, mentioned above and from research educational psychology focusing on current groups of adult education and sports educa- societal problems (like family planning in deve tion. Before the establishment of the three new loping countries; schooling and societal inclu- disciplines of didactics, special education and sion of the Roma minority; the expanding pre- child and youth studies, all PhDs within these school sector; education for pregnant mothers; fields also graduated at Stockholm University breast cancer patients’ experiences; rehabilita- in pedagogik, the discipline of education. tion of blind people; immigration and identity construction; experiences and effects of psycho Educational sciences at the therapy, etc.). The concept of social in this Stockholm University department social psychologically-oriented research setting The division of responsibilities between the had two different meanings. First, it referred Institute of Education (LHS), and the Stockholm to current societal problems engaging the University Department of Education, created a researchers and large groups of people in Swed- space for the social psychological research tra- ish society at the time. Secondly, social referred dition initiated by Trankell. In retrospect, we to a theoretical perspective applied to tradi- can see that the University tradition of educa- tionally psychological and educational phe- tional science was, in one sense, quite peripheral nomena, like children’s cognitive development, to mainstream educational research at the time. psychotherapy, children’s use of media, experi- However, the space for innovative research, to ences of disease and disability and how to some extent, also filled a long-lasting gap in understand life-long learning. The social per- mainstream educational research. It focused on spective often meant revisiting existing theories 134 Department of Education

and findings, pointing to the importance of They can be important for the maintenance of a social interaction and of cultural factors influen democratic type of society, as in the case of how an cing learning and developmental processes in effective socialisation of critical thinking is ways seldom described in mainstream educa- achieved, how criminal policy concerning the issue tional research. A popular undergraduate proof effective treatment of delinquents is developed, gramme, which captured both these aspects, or for larger or smaller groups of citizens, how to was the programme ‘Social Pedagogy and Edu- address the issue concerning different kinds of dis- cational Technology’ in the 1970s. turbances in adaptation and performance at In order to understand the particular per- school or at a work place, etc. (Trankell 1961:105– spective of educational sciences at the Stockholm 106, my translation). University department, the old link between education and psychology must be highlighted. As an This pragmatic, societal approach also had im- expression of this link, Trankell’s chair had the portant implications for the methodological, disciplinary description “Education and educa- developmental work carried out at the Depart- tional psychology”. In Trankell’s own words, we ment during the 1960s, 1970s and 1980s Tran- can identify the social psychological perspective kell continues his description of the applied and the sensitivity to current societal problems: psychological research, referring to a number of doctoral theses published by the Stockholm Educational psychology studies how human be- University department: ings of all ages are influenced and influence each other in all kinds of environments. One could say A characteristic of the problems (of these the- that we in this way have a practice-oriented form ses) is that they usually cannot be solved by of psychological research at the various depart- using any of the standard methods of the kind ments of education as a complement to the theo- which are used within psychophysics. The re- retically oriented research at the departments of sult cannot be expressed in exponential equa- psychology. The most obvious difference between tions or other mathematical models (however, the educational psychology. [.] The psychology there are exceptions). As a consequence, they done within the graduation discipline of psycholo- (the theses) are annoyingly complicated and do gy lies in the way problems are chosen. The educa- not just demand confidence and careful plan- tional psychologists are pragmatic in this sense, as ning from the researcher, but also a consider- their problems are almost always to be found able amount of fantasy and sense of the human within what is considered important for society. dimension of the problem in order for the studies Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 135

Frescativägen 54 has several interesting pieces of art – here a triptych by Kerstin Hörnlund: ’The memory of Minos’. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

to provide meaningful results (Trankell 1961:107, in theory and practice (1979), are examples of my translation). methodological work from the Department. At the time, there were of course many other im- Trankell and his colleagues at the Stockholm portant contributions to this methodological University department played a role in the broad development at the Faculty. One of the most methodological development of the social scien well-known is Soulside, Ulf Hannerz’ thesis in ces during the second half of the century, today social anthropology (1969). often just summarised by ‘the development of In 2003, when the Department of Educa- qualitative methods’. Charles Westin’s thesis tion celebrated its 50th anniversary, its special (1973) studying Swedish immigration, and research profile was still quite visible. One of Per-Johan Ödman’s textbook on hermeneutics the new professors of education at that time, 136 Department of Education

Agnieszka Bron, who has an extensive experi- For the 50th anniversary, the current re- ence of education in Poland and several other search at the Stockholm University Department countries, discussed how different the Stock- of Education was presented in a special publi- holm University department was in relation to cation describing nine thematic fields, all illu other mainstream educational departments in strating the close connection to current societal Europe. She stressed the uniqueness of the problems: Work and Learning Environment, Department, for example its perspective on Children, Youth and Culture, Participation education that allowed for a much broader and Marginalisation, Gender, International scope than the usual school-oriented views Migration and Ethnicity, Communication and characterising other departments. She also Construction of Knowledge, Education and pointed to the engagement of the researchers, Media and finally School. Over the years, the wanting to make a difference in society and department has produced more than 200 doc- not just in the research community, which was toral theses in pedagogik. A typical characteris- an engagement that she herself supported. tic of the undergraduate programmes offered Furthermore, she commented on the research at this time was that the research groups were climate of the Department, characterised by a responsible for planning and offering courses methodological openness. Birgitta Qvarsell, based on on-going research. Thus, the link be- who had the old chair of the Department at tween research and undergraduate programmes the time, and who got the same question, was very strong. found the Department more mainstream. Both view-points are perfectly understand- A third department of education in able. The fact that the social psychological Stockholm perspective was so well integrated into the As already mentioned, the Faculty of Social work of most of the researchers made it invis- Sciences in Stockholm, in 1971 took the deci- ible. In addition, this taken-for-granted per- sion to establish what in English became the spective was applied to many traditional edu- Institute of International and Comparative cational phenomena. Qvarsell herself has done Education (IIE). An important background a lot of research in schools. From an insider’s was the growing interest for international com- viewpoint, the research profileappeared as parisons of school achievements at the time mainstream in many ways while its special (forerunners of today’s PISA and Timms evalua characteristics probably were easier to discov- tions). The work of Torsten Husén and his col- er for a newcomer. leagues on construction of assessments and Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 137

tests contributed to this work. When The Inter- departmental project, exploring educational national Association for the Evaluation of Edu planning in several African, Asian and European cational Achievements (IAE) was moved to developing countries. The shift from the com- Stockholm, the question of creating a new aca- parative focus to the focus on international demic unit at Stockholm University was raised. education also meant a shift from big quantita- However, international and comparative edu- tive top-down comparisons designed by acade cation also is a field of its own within the edu- mics to more multi-methodological, bottom-up cational sciences and the scope of the new studies exploring the meaning of education for department was gradually broadened over the people in a specific country and culture. years to come. Up to the late 1980s, IIE was the It is obvious that the development of the in- only department of international and compara- ternational and comparative field at Stockholm tive education in Northern Europe. University was an important fortification of the In the beginning, the IIE was mainly a educational sciences in Stockholm. However, research unit with a doctoral programme. Over the fact that this research was organised within the years, IIE has produced approximately 70 a separate unit also contributed to some extent, doctoral theses. Today, the international Mas- to the gradual fragmentation of the educational ter’s programme is noteworthy with more than science field that took place during the last 90 % foreign students. IIE always heavily de- decades of the 20th century. pended on external funding. The budget of 1983 included, for instance, only 600,000 SEK Fragmentation in the name of school in internal funding, compared to 2.2 million centred research SEK in external funding from the UNESCO, The critique against educational research for The World Bank, UNDP, The European Union, having abandoned the basic field of schooling The Swedish Agency for Education, The Swedish was by no means a local discussion at the Insti- International Development Cooperation Agency, tute of Education (LHS). On the contrary, this The Swedish Institute, etc. discussion has been heard all over Sweden The initially dominating interest in school during the 1990s and the first years of the 21st achievements was later gradually replaced by century. In a report from The Swedish Agency an interest in international education planning, for Higher Education, assessing the quality of especially in developing countries. The book, education (HSV Rapport 2009:22 R), one of ‘Education and National Development’ (Fäger- the authors of the final report, Sven G. Hart- lind & Saha 1983), described an on-going man, stated that there has been a repeated cri- 138 Department of Education

tique against the research within the field of cating the obvious risks of this fragmentation. education for its lack of relevance for school- In an article from 2004, Thomas Englund ar- ing. gued against the disciplinary fragmentation, School-oriented researchers at LHS respon pointing to the fact that it is to some extent ded to the critique by arguing for the renais- driven by the researcher’s quest for individual sance of ‘didactics’ and ‘subject didactics’, recognition and ambition to build his–for it while school-oriented scholars at other units had seemed to have been only male projects– for teacher education argued for developing own educational territory. In their ‘Manifesto the fields ‘pedagogical work’ or ‘learning’. The for Education’, Gert Biesta and Carl-Anders typical history of these new fields was that they Säfström also lamented the fragmentation of were launched as new disciplines recruiting the educational science field: doctoral students for a new, more practice-oriented research career. The problem with this This expansion of ’educational’ research in univer- debate is, of course, not the critique itself. sities, mainly through teacher education, in effect There was obviously a lack of research closely diffuses the field even more. Education has been related to teacher education and schooling, not severely marginalized as an intellectual tradition only in the University, but at the departments in its own right, and new inventions are constantly of education linked to teacher education as made in order to meet the demands of a confused well. The challenge was in the great diversity of field and determined policymakers alike. The in- the solutions initiated by the problem. Already ventions are called, for example, subject didactics, Pedagogikutredningen (the official government educational work, educational sociology, special report concerning education) from 1970, education and educational psychology, and are es- pointed to the importance of keeping the disci- tablished as their own disciplines but often with pline of education together as a united academic the same content, only named differently at differ- discipline. ent universities, and all of them supposedly dis- In the first years of the new millennium, I tinctively different from education (pedagogik), attended the annual meetings for professors of confusing students and staff on all levels (Biesta & education in Sweden. I remember that I started Säfström 2011:545). wondering whether the old discipline of pedagogik would disappear altogether, so strong However important the reasons might be for was the enthusiasm for the new disciplines. creating a new, school-centred research, frag- However, several voices were also raised, indi- mentation risks to jeopardize the whole field of Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 139

educational sciences. A strong academic disci- figures for all work concerning quality control pline is not just built on a close relation to a means a risk that personal interests are given field of practice. Three arguments against frag- priority over quality. mentation seem especially important. Consolidation (i) A big enough mass of critical colleagues is There are many good arguments against frag- of utmost importance to a discipline. The cu- mentation—and some of them have been put mulative growth of knowledge within a nar- forward in the discussions over the years. In row field can never be subjected to the neces fact, the question was discussed regularly from sary critique and quality control. Representatives the 1960s to the beginning of the 21st century, of other disciplines cannot fulfil this task. As a when the fusion of the three educational science consequence, a small number of researchers in departments discussed took place. As men- a field–however important this field might be– tioned above, the so called Pedagogikutred cannot maintain a scientific growth of good quality. (ii) The innovation and creativity of good research also demand that the research field itself comprises a certain diversity. Scholarly progress is seldom the result of continuous work along the same lines, however innovative this line of development was in the beginning. Op- position and critique are necessary components of all scientific growth and this, in turn, demands space for persons with different backgrounds and ways of thinking. A homogenous milieu runs the risk of running out of new ideas. (iii) third argument against fragmentation concerns stability and survival over time. It is impossible to guarantee quality in the appointment of new representatives of a research field if the total number of members of the field is Wooden sculpture by Britt Ignell. limited. Dependence on one or a few leading (Photo: Mats Danielson) 140 Department of Education

ningen (the official government report concern- The decisions to finally integrate the educa- ing education 1970), carried out by repre- tional sciences in Stockholm came first when sentatives from both the existing university de- external conditions changed radically. The first partments of education and the departments step, involving the integration of the Depart- closely linked to teacher education, discussed ment of International and Comparative Educa- the issue in detail but concluded that there was tion with the old Stockholm University Depart- a continued need for both kinds of organisa- ment of Education, was almost forced on both tions. The report, first of all, proposed in- parties. Due to gradually reduced external creased funding. However, it was also stated funding, the Faculty Board saw integration as that increased collaboration was needed. A the only alternative to a permanent closing of special terminology was introduced: collabora- the unit for international and comparative edu- tion within the group of educational depart- cation. As head of the Department of Educa- ments–an idea that was concretely proposed by tion at that time, I found it easy to accept the Torsten Husén at Stockholm University and proposition of integration, as this was the only realised in connection with the establishment way of saving our sister department. of the third department of education in 1971. A few years later, in late 2007, The Institute Around 1990, the question of integrating of Education (LHS), was closed by a govern- teacher education with the Stockholm Univer- mental decision. Its assignments were trans- sity Departments of Education was again ferred to Stockholm University. All faculty with- raised, but the final decision this time, too, was in the field of pedagogik moved to the existing to keep the three separate units. A collegium of university department from the beginning of the group of departments still existed and con- 2008. After an initial period of searching for an tributed to some joint courses and regular dis- adequate organisation of the university integrat- cussions between the departments, first of all ed teacher education, the University Board de- concerning research education. The resistance cided also to include the field of didaktik into against a fusion was strong from all parties, the Department of Education and its Swedish apart from some professors at the Institute of name was changed to Institutionen för peda- Education (LHS). I can still remember the fears gogik och didaktik from 2011. A year later, the expressed by many of my colleagues that the new Department of Education was definitely es- existing profiles and special interests of the sep- tablished, when yrkesdidaktik (vocational di- arate units would be lost if the three depart- dactics) and vårdpedagogik (care and nursing ments were to become one. education) also were included. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 141

Even if these reorganisations were initiated but future, creative collaboration will most by external factors, it is most likely that the ef- probably call for new orders. fect will also be a consolidation of the educa- Pedagogik today includes four milieus: cul- tional sciences as a unified research field. A true tural studies; higher education and philosophy ; and productive integration of all the three edu- adult learning, organization, pedagogics and cational science orientations, of course, de- leadership and education and health. The mi- mands hard work, probably over several years. lieu of cultural studies is a lot broader than the Another condition for successful integration is current terminology indicates and includes most probably that there will be enough space classical fields as history and sociology of edu- for each of the old orientations to maintain cation. Higher education includes philosophy their strengths and continue to develop in in- of education. The milieus of adult learning, or- teraction with similar orientations in the inter- ganization, pedagogics and leadership focus on national research community. I am fully aware learning in working life, organisation as well as of the fact that many of my colleagues have leadership issues. The milieu of education and found the integration work hard and exhaust- health addresses issues of personal and social ing. Nevertheless, there are signs of growing meaning-making associated with health and ill- integration and consolidation. The departmen- ness, normality and deviance. Didaktik in- tal decision to announce this year’s new doctor- cludes three milieus: research within didactic al positions jointly for all three disciplines design deals with studies of textbooks and edu- (pedagogics, didactics and international and cational media, communication in classrooms comparative education), with opportunities for and on the Internet, trans-professional commu- specialisations later according to the app nication, the role of narratives in learning and licants’ personal profile and strengths seems to relations between academic, professional train- be such a sign. However, and most importantly, ing and professional work. In focus for the re- the eight research milieus at the new depart- search group ‘Cultures of Knowing and Teach- ment now constitute a rather complete educa- ing Practices’ are issues related to knowing, tional science arena, including most of the in- learning, teaching, and assessment in various ternational educational science fields. For institutional contexts from comprehensive historical reasons–and perhaps also for reasons school to higher education. And finally, the re- of personal belonging and professional identi- search group VET/YL focuses on issues within ty–the eight milieus are still organised within vocational education and training. The large the frames of the old graduation disciplines, field of internationell och jämförande peda- 142 Department of Education

gogik includes multiple theoretical and meth- and that these fields really are parts of the stud- odological perspectives on education all over ies of languages and science. In conclusion, my the world with a special focus on developing basic impression is that conditions for a strong countries. Together, all these groups and mi- educational science development at our Depart- lieus certainly constitute a strong research envi- ment have never been better than now. I even see ronment with access to expertise in almost all opportunities for some of the traditional prob- of the existing educational science fields. Thus, lems of school-centred research to find solu- opportunities for exchange and collaboration tions, drawing on the strong heritage of prob- are ideal. lem-oriented research at the old university In a more everyday perspective, I can see that Department of Education. interactions and dialogues between members of  •  the departments take place in the open spaces of the coffee room, the nearby lunch restaurant at Arfwedson, Gerhard (ed.) 1996. Lärarhögsko- the Museum of Natural History and in all the lan i Stockholm 1956 – 1996. Stockholm: possible and impossible spaces where we find HLS förlag. opportunities to meet and discuss what is im- Biesta, Gert and Carl-Anders Säfström 2011. A portant to us for the moment. Certainly most of Manifesto for Education. Policy Futures in the positive consequences of the consolidation Education 9:5, 540–547. are still to come. I have to admit that there are Edfeldt, Åke W. 1989. Pedagogik i Stockholm also a few worrying signs of new kinds of frag- 1953–1988. In Lars Nyström (ed.) For Spiri- mentation—as in the case of the break-away tual and Bodily Health: 50 years of the chair concerning one of the traditional educational in Education and Psychology of Eneroth , science fields, child and youth research, which is 187–228. Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell today being more and more associated with the International. new Department of Child and Youth Studies. Englund, Thomas 2004. Nya tendenser inom Some might also add that fields like language pedagogikdisciplinen under de tre senaste education and science education, which today decennierna. Pedagogisk forskning i Sverige are integrated parts of their specific subject stud- 9:1, 37–49. ies within the faculties of Humanities and Sci- Fägerlind, Ingemar and Lawrence J. Saha 1983. ence, also are signs of fragmentation. However, Education and National Development: I would object to such an understanding arguing A Comparative Perspective. Oxford: Perga- that the organisation of today is more adequate mon Press. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 143

Hannerz, Ulf 1969. Soulside. Inquiries into the ments of the Faculty of Social Sciences ). Ghetto Culture and Community. New York. Stockholm: Publication from Stockholm Uni- Columbia University Press. versity. Husén, Torsten 1996. Pedagogik – en veten Westin, Charles 1973. Existens och identitet. skap? Pedagogisk forskning i Sverige 1:2, (Existence and Identity) PhD thesis, Depart 100–102. ment of Education, Stockholm University. Husén, Torsten 2003. Den nya pedagogiska in- Ödman, Per-Johan 1979. Tolkning, förståelse, stitutionen – ett halvsekelperspektiv (The vetande. Hermeneutik i teori och praktik new department of education–the perspec- (Interpretation, Understanding, Knowing. tive of half a century) Published in Anders Hermeneutics in Theory and Practice). Gustavsson, Birgitta Qvarsell, Margareta Stockholm: Almqvist & Wiksell. Aspàn, Ida Westanmo and Noella Bickham (eds.) 1953–2003 Pedagogiska institutionen, Stockholms universitet (1953–2003 The Department of Education, Stockholm Uni- versity). Stockholm: The Department of Education, Stockholm University. Granskning av utbildningar i pedagogik, HSV rapport 2009:22 R. Stockholm: Högskole- verket. Accessible at: http://www.hsv.se/ download/18.5161b99123700c42b07ffe37 4/0922R.pdf (2013-05-01). Trankell, Arne 1961. Magi och förnuft i män- niskobedömning (Magic and Reason in the Understanding of Human Beings). Stock- holm. Bonniers. Trankell, Arne 1970. Pedagogiska institutionen. In D. Norberg (ed.) Samhällsforskning vid Stockholms universitet. En presentation av institutionerna vid Samhällsvetenskapliga fakulteten. (Social Research at Stockholm University. A Presentation of the Depart- 144 Kapitelnamn

In 1986, the facilities at Norrtullsgatan 2 were rebuilt and renovated. The Geo Library was moved from the Old Observatory and came to form an important hub for students and researchers alike. (Photo: Eva Wernlid) 145

Department of Human Geography Mats Widgren

Among the different factors that influ- versity as a whole. During the first years ence the character, the culture and the achieve- (1956–1971), the Department was internally ments of a university department, the intellec- dispersed at several addresses. It shared one tual and practical leadership is of course area of the city, Vasastan, with many other instrumental. During the first thirty years of departments of social science (see map in the Department of Human Geography, it was a Helmfrid 2001). Later on, we became internally one-professor department. The professor most concentrated but were left behind in the inner often also served as head of department. As city (1971–1997). Most other disciplines geographers, we also believe that space and moved to the Frescati campus. Our departmen- location matter. In the documentation from the tal premises were subject to a profound rebuild early years, the obstacle that distance created is ing and reorganisation in 1986–1987, coinciding a current theme (Hannerberg 1965, Lundén in time with the appointment of a new profes- 1970, Helmfrid & Sporrong n.d.). Economic sor. In the summer of 1997 we finally moved to geography has shown that easy access to face- Frescati and were co-localised with the geosci- to-face contacts enables creative development ences and in convenient proximity to most other and is a force behind clustering and creative social sciences. cities. For the Department of Human Geogra- In the beginning of the spring term 1971, I phy, its locations over the last 50 years have lined up with other students in the stairways at offered qualitatively different possibilities for Kungstensgatan 45 and registered as an under- face-to-face contact within the Department, graduate in human geography after having with colleagues in physical geography and with studied statistics, political science and econom- other departments in social science and the uni- ics. This semester was my only direct contact 146 Department of Human Geography

Kungstensgatan 45, now used by Folkuniversitetet. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

with the first of the four phases I will describe dent, the active member of a successful research below. In 1973, I was employed as an assistant group on historical landscapes in the 1980s and started my doctoral studies. From my doc- and 1990s, and the professor (1999–) and head toral defence in 1983 and onward, I have been of department (2001–2007, 2013–2014). The employed in different positions at the Depart- following is based on my own memories, notes ment. Thus, the position of this text’s author and reflections, a browsing through 50 years of moves from the curious investigator of what university catalogues, some printed material on was prior to my own memories (pre-1971) to the history of the Department and a few archi- the perspective of the 1970s’ post-graduate stu- val documents. The history of the Department Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 147

until 1997, written by Helmfrid and Sporrong, the chairs in geography into physical and also serves as a base for my account (Helmfrid human geography had already started in the late & Sporrong n.d.). For the broader context of 1940s at other Swedish universities. At the time Swedish geography in the 20th century, the of the split in Stockholm, the professor of geog- works by Helmfrid (1999) and Buttimer and raphy in Stockholm, Gunnar Hoppe, chose to Mels (2006) form a background. Staffan Helm- specialise in physical geography. The Institute frid and Ulf Sporrong have read this manu- of Geography (Geografiska Institutet) from script at a preliminary stage and added import- then on had one professor in the Faculty of ant information and perspectives. A list of 78 Mathematics and Science (Hoppe) and one in dissertations published on the web provides an the Faculty of Humanities (Hannerberg). The insight into the themes researched during this two professors shared the directorship of the period. Much of the ongoing intellectual activ- Institute. The formal split into two separate de- ity has not yet made a clear imprint in the form partments seems to have been made in 1965, of an identifiable group of dissertations from a one year after the establishment of the Faculty. specific research group or school in this list.1 The reason I use Swedish above is because There is usually a long delay between the estab- the term ‘kulturgeografi’ has been somewhat lishment of a research group and the finalisa- controversial in different periods of the intel- tion of an identifiable group of dissertations. lectual development of human geography in Sweden. It is also not intuitively well under- Positioning geography as social stood but often mixed up with cultural history, science cultural anthropology and, not least, with the Kulturgeografi was part of Samhällsveten English term cultural geography, which is the skapliga fakulteten (the Faculty of Social subfield of human geography that deals explic- Sciences) at Stockholm University from the itly with culture (see Cosgrove 2000). Going birth of the Faculty. In 1956 David Hanner- through some documents and articles from the berg, then professor in Lund, had been sum- 1950s and 1960s, I have also realised that the moned to Stockholm to take up a new position term was seen as problematic already in the as professor of ‘Geografi, särskilt kulturgeografi 1960s. In a debate with Hannerberg, William med ekonomisk geografi’ and became a mem- William-Olsson wrote that the term was unfor- ber of the Faculty of Humanities. This split of tunate, and could give rise to any kind of interpretation. William-Olsson claimed that when 1 http://www.humangeo.su.se/publikationer/avhandlingar/ avhandlingar-för-doktorsexamen. the professorships in Sweden were divided into 148 Department of Human Geography

physical and human geography in the 1940s, that term has also shifted meanings in the his- most of those that had qualifications in human tory of Swedish human geography. geography were specialised in the historical A reason why I also use Swedish for the name geography of the 16th century and hence spe- of the Faculty – Samhällsvetenskapliga fakul- cialised in what was then called kulturgeografi teten – is that I want to point out the difference (William-Olsson 1962:152). In 1968, Sven between ‘vetenskap’ and ‘science’. The differ- Dahl (as always meticulous with terms) in his ence between the German/Swedish Wissen- assessment of candidates for the successors of schaft/vetenskap and the English science has Hannerberg also considered the term unclear namely played a central role in the debates with- and discussed why the then current terms An- in geography. “Wissenschaft for a German is tropogeographie (German) and human geogra- any organized body of knowledge, not only phy (English) were not more directly translated what we call a science” wrote Fred K. Schaefer to Swedish (Dahl 1968, see also Dahl 1972).2 in 1953. Is geography a science? Yes, said Schae- But as Dahl also points out, the newer and wider fer, geography should be a law-seeking science, sense of kulturgeografi has since then become where the speciality of the geographers were synonymous with human geography. The issue “the laws concerning spatial arrangements” concerning the naming of our discipline has (Schaefer 1953:228). His article was an early come back now and then. Many human geo clarion call for positivism in geography and for graphers today find the term ‘samhällsgeografi’ the spatial paradigm that would then come to (lit. societal geography) more appropriate, as it rule in geography for two decades or more, es- clearly conveys the idea of geography as social pecially in Sweden and in the English-speaking science. Nevertheless, as will be shown below, countries. Schaefer’s article was formulated as a direct critique against previous conceptions of 2 “Formuleringen ‘kulturgeografi med ekonomisk geografi’ synes icke ha varit helt lyckad. Den klassiska tyska termen geography as mainly a descriptive discipline, var ‘Antropogeographie’; på engelska har man ofta sagt ‘human where the ultimate goal was a synthesis in the geography’. Troligen av språkliga skäl har man i Sverige icke velat använda uttryck som antropogeografi eller män- form of a regional monograph. In present niskogeografi, än mindre human eller humanistisk geografi. Begreppet kulturgeografi vore å andra sidan utomordentligt Euro-English, the distinction between ‘Wissen- svårt att definiera, om därmed skulle mena något annat än schaft’ and ‘science’ is becoming more and more vad tyskarna avsett med uttrycket antropogeografi. Flertalet geografer torde numera uppfatta termen kulturgeografi som blurred. At our university, the confusion is man- liktydig med antropogeografi. Formuleringen ‘med ekonomisk geografi’ gör emellertid att man måste bli tveksam om ifested in the fact that we (in English) have a vad som egentligen i Sverige skall avses med termen kultur- Faculty of Science (naturvetenskap ) and another geografi”. (Sven Dahl, sakkunnigutlåtande 26 sept. 1968, Stockholms universitets arkiv) one in Social Sciences (samhällsvetenskap). Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 149

The artist Calle Drakenmark (1931-2009) studied geography under David Hannerberg. This painting was made for the latter’s 60th birthday in 1960. It shows a typical field scene, where Hannerberg (in goggles and beret) delivers his interpretation of a cadastral map. Some of the students have been busy measuring fossil agricultural fields – the reason for the rod to the left and the field map to the right. (Photo: Mats Widgren)

Hannerberg was only active as a professor when hypothetico-deductive approaches and in Stockholm for twelve years. During these quantitative methods were coming more and years he influenced the future development of more into focus in social science generally, and the Department in a very profound way. He especially in geography, his background as an was a quantitative geographer with a deep undergraduate in mathematics and physics knowledge of agrarian history, and had con- was an obvious strength. He also wrote the nections to ethnology, history, etc. At a time first textbooks on quantitative geography in 150 Department of Human Geography

the Scandinavian languages (Hannerberg and the building of the welfare state, many of 1969, 1970). At the same time, his own re- them focussed on basic research concerning search focussed on the historical geography of past agrarian landscapes. Within that field, the agrarian landscapes. Himself the son of a Stockholm school of historical geography deve farmer, he brought a different perspective to loped into a strong and internationally visible agrarian and economic history, a perspective centre. This would hardly have been possible if that challenged the then sometimes patroniz- Hannerberg was not at the same time respected ing view of farming and peasants in history as a modern geographer. As mentioned by Gerd (Helmfrid 1982). He also succinctly developed Enequist in her assessment of Hannerberg for arguments for geography as socialvetenskap the post in Stockholm in 1956, he was the su- and for the need to understand labour rela- pervisor of both Sven Godlund and Torsten tions (Hannerberg 1944). Buttimer and Mels Hägerstrand. For Enequist this served to show (2006) summarise (with reference to Helm- that he was well acquainted with the latest frid) the role of Hannerberg: developments in modern geography (Enequist n.d). His quantitative inclination, unorthodox enthusi- How did this, for his time, very modern ge- asm for novel methods, and his tendency towards ographer explain to his students what kultur- spatial generalisations on a northern European geografi was? I read his book Att studera kul- scale, represented an explicit rapprochement be- turgeografi as an undergraduate in the early tween traditional landscape research and what 1970s but do not remember much of it, per- would become the positivist turn in geography (But- haps just because it took such a pragmatic (and timer & Mels 2006:66–67). therefore not very interesting) position towards something that at this time was a much debat- It can be confidently stated that Hannerberg’s ed topic: What is (human) geography? In his unique combination of skills and interests had book, Hannerberg defined kulturgeografi from a decisive role for human geography at Stock- the research projects that had been funded by holm University. When all other geographical the Swedish Council for Social Science Re- departments in Sweden during the 1970s and search, which he grouped under economic ge- 1980s focussed on the geography of contempo- ography, social geography and geographical rary Swedish society and on quantitative cultural landscape research. These three fields methods, the Stockholm geographers went he considered to be separate branches (veten against the grain. In a period of modernism skapsgrenar). Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 151

A common view, still alive in the 1950s, was chorological (spatial) and chronological app that regional geography was at the core of geo roaches, respectively. What the emerging spa- graphy and that the systematic branches of geo tial paradigm claimed, which was in fact in line graphy (e.g. social geography, historical geo with Kant, was that it was the spatial struc- graphy, economic geography, biogeography, tures, not the objects as such, that defined geo climatology, geomorphology, etc.) were there graphy. to serve that core. Hannerberg, somewhat sur- At about the time of his retirement, Hanner prisingly to me now, just lumped together the berg reflected in an essay on the relations be- systematic geographies that had anything to do tween objects, data and models very much in with humans under the heading of kultur- line with emerging quantitative and spatial geografi. He denied that there was any core or geography. However, he again left the question that these systematic branches were integrated of geography’s definition open: “A beautiful parts of a synthetic subject, geography. “It is a summer day, when waves are rolling in over conception, which, according to my view, is shallow beaches, I feel comfortably far away unnecessary and leads to logical problems”3 from the rather sterile discussion about what (Hannerberg 1968b:24). His critique against human geography is”4 (Hannerberg 1968a:12). the idea of a synthetic subject of geography Hannerberg was evidently defending one of the was a position that was fully in line with the textbook explanations of what geography is: spatial and quantitative school that was domi- Geography is what geographers do. This prag- nant in the 1970s. matic view can be said to characterise much of On the other hand, his pragmatic view, that the later developments at the Department. each of these sub-branches of human geo There have been contradictions and intellectual graphy had their own objects of research, was debates, but very few serious contests over in sharp contrast to the then ruling paradigm what human geography is, neither have Stock- of geography as spatial science. This paradigm holm human geographers been especially visi- presumed that geography, unlike e.g. zoology, ble on the national and international arenas of astronomy, etc., did not have its own objects. discussion regarding the theoretical aspects of Following the ideas of Immanuel Kant, geogra- our discipline. phy and history were disciplines not defined by their objects but by their organising principles: 4 ”En vacker sommardag när vågorna rullar in över långgrunda stränder känner jag mig behagligt fjärran från den ganska 3 ”det är en uppfattning, som enligt min mening är onödig och sterila diskussionen om vad kulturgeografien är.” (Hanner- som leder till logiska svårigheter” berg 1968a:12) 152 Department of Human Geography

William-Olsson, then professor of economic of Stockholm are often referred to when dis- geography at the Stockholm School of Eco- cussing Swedish early contributions to the nomics (SSE), wrote a critical review of the first development of international geography. The (1961) edition of Hannerberg’s book ‘Att stu reader who wants a deeper understanding of dera kulturgeografi’. He questioned Hanner- this colourful and innovative geographer berg’s division of human geography into sever- should read Helmfrid’s analysis of William- al sub-branches and instead defended the old Olsson’s last uncompleted project on the geog- view of geography (human + physical) as a syn- raphy of Europe (Helmfrid 2008). thesis. William-Olsson’s review and Hanner- berg’s answer are a useful read to understand 1956–1971: Around the Old how geography was discussed at this time (Wil- Observatory liam-Olsson 1962, Hannerberg 1962). As a The home of geography in Stockholm since the young postgraduate in the 1970s, I often had 1930s was the Old Observatory, and still so to listen to William-Olsson’s lamentations of when the chair was divided between physical where geography was heading. When he as an and human geography in the mid-1950s. As emeritus from SSE visited the Department, he student numbers increased and research ex- could ask: “To where are you planning your panded, additional localities had to be sought next expedition? “ Or he said “Somebody must elsewhere. In 1964, Hannerberg had his office study the relief of Africa. It is often erroneously in the Old Observatory. Societal geography conceived as just a large tableland”. With his (samhällsgeografi) was taught by Gunnar Törn- Stockholm studies, William-Olsson was the qvist at Observatoriegatan 1. Population geog- real pioneer of a true social scientific geogra- raphy was taught by Nils Friberg at Obser phy. It was always a conundrum to me why he vatoriegatan 2A. Teaching in general chorolo- spent so much of his later life and especially his gy took place at Observatoriegatan 11. Many emeritus years defending an old-fashioned of these addresses were in old residential apart- view of what geography should be. His Stock- ments, in buildings earmarked for demolition. holm studies were characterised by detailed re- In his reply to William-Olsson’s book review search on the social inner differentiation of the in 1962, and in a special report about the city, and was focussed on causes and effects, Department in the journal Ymer in 1965, Han- explanation, and searching for the laws behind nerberg gives a vivid picture of teaching and the inner differentiation (William-Olsson research activities at the new department. The 1937). His doctoral thesis and his other studies largest group was in modern samhällsgeografi Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 153

(modern societal geography) with economic A third field, that clearly interacted with the geography and samhällsplanering (urban and two mentioned above, was the research and regional planning). In this field, docent God- development of quantitative spatial methods lund was in charge until he took up a position (metodutveckling och korologisk teori). None in Gothenburg in 1962. In 1963, Törnqvist de- of the researchers mentioned under this head- fended his doctoral thesis on industrial loca- ing came to play a role in the further develop- tion. He was after that in charge of teaching ment of research at the Department, but the samhällsgeografi, until appointed professor in legacy of this group survives in Hannerberg’s Lund in 1967 (where he is still active as emeri- own textbooks (Hannerberg 1969, 1970). More tus). Other researchers that later came to play importantly, they do so in the development of a role in the history of the Department men- computer cartography and geographic infor- tioned by Hannerberg under samhällsgeografi mation systems, which since the visit of Duane were Bruno Johnsson (docent 1965), Torvald Marble in Stockholm in 1969–70 has remained Gerger (docent 1970) and Gunilla Beckman a core speciality of the Stockholm department. (later Gunilla Andrae, PhD 1981, docent 1998). As emphasised by Helmfrid and Sporrong The other main field he described was all- (n.d.), Hannerberg was heavily engaged in rais- män och historisk kulturgeografi (general and ing the funds to acquire the most recent techni- historical human geography). The division be- cal equipment for enlarging and reducing tween this field and that of modern samhälls- maps, measuring areas on maps and making geografi seems somewhat arbitrary since Claes- advanced statistical calculations. At the time of Fredrik Claesson’s spatial studies of cinema his report from the Department in 1965, this audiences are mentioned under allmän och his- concerned machinery that often combined me- torisk kulturgeografi. Hannerberg also admits chanical and optical parts with transistorised that the boundaries are blurred (“mycket electromechanical calculators (for illustrations oskarpa”). It is interesting to note that Hanner- see photos in Hannerberg 1965). The Olivetti berg already then emphasised that “in fact Programma 101 that I remember well from the everything within kulturgeografi can be count- early 1970s seems to have been a hybrid be- ed as samhällsgeografi”. Seen in retrospect, the tween an electromechanical calculator and a historical geography of agrarian landscapes desktop computer. was the field under this heading that came to An interesting question relating to this influence future research at the Department in period is why historical geography came to the most profound way. dominate the research. I have mentioned Han- 154 Department of Human Geography

nerberg’s personal qualities as one explanation, dynamic development of this field in post-war but the question can also be asked from the Germany. With its problem formulation, it other perspective. Why did Hannerberg’s inter- marked a sharp contrast to the regional mono- est in quantitative methods, and the presence at graphs that had dominated historical geogra- Stockholm University of influential figures in phy until then. Hannerberg had also launched quantitative and modern human geography a programme for using field evidence to reach such as Godlund and Törnqvist, not lead to the further back in time in the search for the origin development of a spatial school of research fo- of field patterns (Hannerberg 1963). It was in cussing on contemporary planning? It is clear this context that Sven-Olof Lindquist was re- that this was a concern for Hannerberg. He searching the remnants of Iron Age field was personally involved in planning issues and boundaries and stone walls in Östergötland in also worked towards the establishment of a cooperation with archaeologists from Stock- separate chair for Modern samhällsgeografi at holm University, which became the basis for his the Department (Hannerberg 1962:157). The dissertation in 1968. The geographical ap- anecdotic explanation for why modern societal proach to ancient fields,using a morphological geography never took off and recruited many approach inspired by geomorphology and with successful doctoral students, which can be meticulous surveys in the field, was combined heard from older colleagues, is that a large with the new possibilities for archaeological number of participants in Godlund’s and Törn- dating that the radiocarbon method offered. qvist’s seminars were soon recruited to the then This led to a rapid development of new results growing government planning administration and new questions on the prehistoric and early in the capital and at county boards, where medieval agrarian landscapes. It laid the foun- regional planning was growing fast (see also dation for a close interdisciplinary cooperation Lundén 1970:35). with medieval history and archaeology in the The flip side of the coin was that the research years to come. on the history of agrarian landscapes was of Towards the end of this period, the chair after high quality and innovative for its time. Staffan Hannerberg was advertised, this time as ‘Human Helmfrid had already started his studies in Geography with Economic Geography’ (Kul- Östergötland, when Hannerberg was recruited. turgeografi med ekonomisk geografi). After a In 1962, Helmfrid published a thesis that intro- drawn-out process, Helmfrid was appointed in duced the morphogenetic approach on Swedish 1969. He has himself described the turbulent landscapes. It was highly influenced by the situation in the late 1960s and early 1970s, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 155

extra lecturers to take care of all the students became acute problems. Already in 1965, a move to Frescati was discussed by Hannerberg but the plans were never realised. In the presentation of Human Geogra- phy in 1970, Thomas Lundén mentions that the activities of the Department still took place at four different addresses. One of them was even more distant from the central office than before, at Tulegatan, where the desktop computer and an optical pantograph were located. “The staff is forced to use a large part of their time to carry papers. Exchange of information is made more difficult and has to be formalised. Students are forced to make time-consuming searches for their supervisors” writes Lundén The Old Observatory on the hill Observatorie (1970, my translation). kullen. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 1971–1987 Norrtullsgatan 2 – period 1 when he took charge of the Department’s When most other social science departments leadership. More liberal university entrance moved to the new campus, there were still no requirements and a removal of the restrictions concrete plans for the geography depart- concerning the number of students admitted ments to be relocated. Instead, a new provi- had caused an increase in student numbers sory solution was made possible, when the from about eighty in the mid-1960s to over Faculty of Law moved to Frescati in the sum- eight hundred four years later (Helmfrid & mer of 1971. For 26 years, the neo-classical Sporrong n.d.). Many students did like I did in ‘temple’ at Norrtullsgatan 2, originally built 1971, lining up on the street outside a popular in 1925–27 to house the faculties of Humani department to register for courses a few days ties and Law, became the home of human ge- before they started. Regardless of all other ography (Program 1927, Strömdahl & Wåh- planning problems, the question of premises lin 2001). This was a huge building with for teaching and an increasing demand for enormous halls and stairways, built to house 156 Department of Human Geography

Norrtullsgatan 2, presently referred to as Studentpalatset (the Student Palace) and offering study places in the city centre for students. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 157

eight professors, administrative staff, librar- on postgraduate courses. Nobody asked why ies and several large lecture theatres. Internal the English title was ‘Philosophy of Natural communication within the Department be- Science’ and what the implications were for us came easier. Having to climb three flights of human geographers studying humans in the stairs or to wait for the slow two-person ele- past. Some of the answers to that question vator, combined with competition between were to be found in David Harvey’s inspiring different research groups, however led to hat and reflexive book ‘Explanation in Geogra- coffee was brewed on three different floors. phy’ (1969). Only a few years later, critique Interaction with other social sciences at the against positivism started to flow in geogra- new Frescati campus was severed by physical phy. Gunnar Olsson returned to Sweden from distance. For those of us who spent our first the US. In early 1978 he gave lectures at the years as university employees at Norrtullsga- Stockholm School of Economics, which many tan, the distance to Frescati made us talk of the human geography postgraduates from about the University (at Frescati) as some- the University attended. In 1974, Olsson had thing external to us. attacked the basic premises of geography as Student numbers continued to increase. This science and especially the spatial paradigm also affected the PhD programme. A large (Olsson 1974). According to him, the impossi- number of postgraduates were admitted to the bility of drawing inference from form to pro- new type of PhD programme introduced in the cess was like a hit under the waterline of the early 1970s. My list of fellow students active whole ship of geography. Harvey developed during my first year as a PhD candidate (1973) his Marxist approaches to urban geography contains 39 students admitted according to the and showed, on the other hand, how space new rules. Of these, only twelve graduated. mattered for social justice. Perhaps more inter- Internationally, the late 1960s and early esting for those of us who were studying farm- 1970s was a period when the positivist para- ing, landscapes and resources, Harvey sharply digm came to influence geography heavily. The stated that ‘resources’ is not a scientific but an textbook answer taught to us advanced under- ideological concept (Harvey 1974). The theo- graduates was that the “distinctively geo- retical approaches to human geography graphical question is ‘why are spatial distribu- changed rapidly at this time. For those who tions structured the way they are?’” (Abler et eagerly searched for the core of the discipline, al. 1972:56, Lundén 1970). Hempel’s book the whole foundation of the spatial paradigm ‘Vetenskapsteori’ was recommended reading was shaking. Perhaps typical for Stockholm, 158 Department of Human Geography

this did not shake the fundamentals of what Hägerstrand in his assessment of Helmfrid for we were doing. the professorship in 1968. Helmfrid’s inspiring During much of this period Helmfrid, the lectures on the broader picture of the history of new professor, was increasingly drawn into ser- the European agrarian landscape since the vices for the University at the faculty level. Be- medieval period made it possible for us to put tween 1978 and 1988 he served as vice- our field work in different parts of Sweden into chancellor of the University. As expressed by an international context. This was unique both himself, the “scientific and administrative lead- in a Swedish and the rest of Scandinavia for ership of the Department was taken up by Tor- this time, and was further developed during vald Gerger and Ulf Sporrong, thus reflecting this period. A field symposium in Sweden with the natural division of the Department into a group of UK historical geographers in Sep- two fields, the socio-scientific and the human- tember 1978 became instrumental in this re- ist“ (Helmfrid & Sporrong n.d.). spect for many of us. The international orienta- These two docents intermittently held posts tion and the connection to current debates in as head of department and at the same time social science turned out to be an important developed their own research groups. This strength, especially in relation to the emerging interregnum was in many ways productive for hunger in archaeology and history for models the development of new research, but was not from social science and for international app without tensions. roaches. During this period, Hannerberg Within the group of historical geographers, worked as an emeritus to finalise his grand syn- docent Sven-Olof Lindquist continued his re- thesis on the connection between regularities in search on both historical and recent changes in the physical layout of medieval fields and set- agrarian landscapes and continued the explora- tlements, on the measurements used, and their tion of ancient fields, especially on Gotland relation to the administrative levels of early and in Västergötland. In 1977, he was appoint- societies (Hannerberg 1976, 1977). Hanner- ed to one of the new posts as county antiquar- berg’s research programme was special and is ian on Gotland. From then on, Sporrong took difficult to assess even today. The results, which academic leadership of the research on histori- came out of his ambitious programme to in- cal landscapes. One of the strengths that Helm- clude the field evidence in the form of fossil frid had brought to landscape research was his field patterns, did not really fit into his model, international network and his international but, as shown by dissertations in the 1970s and overview, something pointed out already by 1980s, opened up new lines of enquiry. In Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 159

1985, Sporrong synthesised his work in the history. A major monograph by Göran Hoppe Mälardalen area in a regional overview that, in and John Langton on the development of capi- a way, combined the strength of the old region- talism in the countryside of Östergötland al monograph – understanding the broader during the 19th century combined the general geographical context – with the detailed analy- questions of a social historical geography with ses of changes in field patterns and settlements the rich Swedish sources from that period (Hoppe as reflecting wider societal change from the late & Langton 1994). As a result, a second partly Iron Age to the 17th century (Sporrong 1985). overlapping research group reinforced the The results from this active group of research- dominance of historical geography at the ers were recognised nationally by historians Stockholm department. However, the two and archaeologists and among the internation- groups emphasised different time periods al community of historical geographers. One (1700s and earlier vs. 19th. to early 20th century) UK observer compared the achievements of and different objects of research (agrarian land- this research programme with “the success of scape change vs. broader societal change on the the recent Japanese industrial effort” (Whit- countryside). tington 1987:74). Parallel to this, there has always been re- At the same time, Gerger developed a research on contemporary societal issues. Six of search programme that drew on the excellent the fifteen dissertations from this period con- Swedish population sources on the 18th and cerned modern social geography, but during 19th centuries, in combination with historical this period these research interests hardly maps. The combination of these two types of formed schools. As pointed out by many sources, and others, made possible an early his- observers, the lack of research on urban issues torical GIS database for a parish in Sweden. is indeed a notable feature. “The situation is Gerger developed, together with Stefan Fogel- paradoxical: the city, a geographical play box vik, Göran Hoppe and Roger Miller, a number surrounds the Department” wrote Lundén of investigations into the local social and spa- (Jonsson & Lundén 1984). As mentioned above, tial processes of change in the Swedish coun- William-Olsson’s Stockholm studies from the tryside. A series of doctoral dissertations and 1930s provided early inspiration for urban ge- other monographs were published from this ography internationally. In 1965, Hannerberg group between 1979 and 1992. The group had wrote about the emerging studies on the urban a clearly international orientation and were in- geography of Stockholm, and the university spired by recent European social and economic catalogue for 1967 even provided a telephone 160 Department of Human Geography

number for “Stadsbygdsprojektet / storstad- with a major renovation and reorganisation of sprojektet”. For unknown reasons this never the house at Norrtullsgatan 2. The law library developed much more than that. During the finally moved out and two of the large lecture 1970s and 1980s urban geography was never- theatres were converted into a library and map theless one of the core themes in the under- library, respectively. The Geo Library, which graduate curriculum. Anyone who has fol- had until then been located in the Old Observa- lowed lectures and excursions by Bertil Sannel, tory, was moved in. Kerstin Bodström and Lennart Tonell know For research on historical landscapes, this about their capacity to connect local urban ge- was a period when the concept of cultural ography to wider research issues. In this peri- landscape had entered the general debate. Al- od, however, the time for research for lecturers ready in 1979, Staffan Helmfrid on behalf of was minimal, so a research group never really the Royal Academy of Letters and Antiquities developed. Their experience from urban devel had organised a large conference in Folkets opment was nevertheless an important base for Hus called ‘Människan, kulturlandskapet och the undergraduate programme in ‘Urban and framtiden’. Three regionally focussed interdis- Regional Planning’ (Samhällsplanering) launched ciplinary projects based at the universities of in 1977 in cooperation with other departments Lund, Stockholm and Umeå were the outcome at the Faculties of Social Science and the of this effort. By the late 1980s they had started Humanities (Bodström et al. 1978). In some- to deliver results. Parallel to this, the general what altered form, this programme remains appreciation of the long term role of humans in today and draws a large group of students. A shaping the landscape had increased among de- full review of academic staff and research inter- cision makers and in state agencies for cultural ests for a representative year in this period can heritage, as well as in environmental conserva- be found in Sporrong (ed. 1978). tion. The achievements of this research group, until then mainly curiosity-driven, therefore 1987–1997 Norrtullsgatan 2 – period 2 entered into a period of applied research with In 1986, Helmfrid was given a personal chair many contacts in planning, cultural heritage after his service as vice-chancellor. Sporrong and environmental conservation. was appointed to the thus open professorship During this time, Sporrong made a huge in 1987, which was once again named ‘Geo contribution towards popularising the histori- graphy, especially human geography’. He also cal understanding of Swedish agricultural land- became head of department. This coincided scapes. He personally flew over large parts of Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 161

Entrance to Norrtullsgatan 2. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 162In 1971, the Department of Human Geography moved in at Norrtulls- gatan 2, built in 1925-27 to house the faculties of Humanities and Law, with large halls and stairways. (Photo: Eva Wernlid) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 163

Sweden in a helicopter in order to gather first- With few exceptions, most research up until hand knowledge of the status of the historical this period had been focussed on the human aspects of settlements and field patterns (Spor- geography of Sweden. In the early 1970s, Prime rong 1995). Parallel to this, Helmfrid led the Minister Olof Palme had initiated a commis- large project concerning a new National Atlas sion for the internationalisation of Swedish of Sweden, which also synthesised the knowl- universities, led by the former leader of the edge of the landscape history of Sweden (Helm- main academic trade union, Bertil Östergren. frid 1994). Staffan Helmfrid and the physical geographer Methods of recording historical features in Anders Rapp worked for the commission. They the landscape, based on cadastral maps and on developed a new curriculum in university geog- field surveys, were standardised and introduced raphy, where resources should be guaranteed in special courses for rescue archaeologists and for undergraduate field courses in developing planners, and the Department became a centre countries (Rapp 1974). Stockholm University for applied work with the cadastral maps. A was the only university to respond to this pos- method for producing map overlays to com- sibility, but this was sufficient to guarantee the pare the 17th and 18th century agrarian land- provision of the necessary funds needed to start scape was introduced. The new map library regular field courses in Kenya, and it was also became a laboratory at the interface between the start of the building of a research capacity basic and applied research. At this time, map in development geography. Since then a non- overlays and rectification of maps were still European field course has been part of the geo made with pens, photocopiers and ink-pens. graphy curriculum common to physical and The laboratory also became a breeding ground human geography. for advanced students aspiring towards doctor- In the early 1990s, a Sarec-sponsored pro al degrees. Many of the doctors in this field ject to strengthen links and research coopera- that would graduate in the next period were tion with the Institute of Resource Assessment engaged in this applied work. in Tanzania and the University of Botswana Parallel to this, a new programme for histor- opened up possibilities for PhD students from ical landscape research was formulated by Tanzania and Botswana to study at Stockholm Sporrong and Widgren. It emphasised the use University, and also for a limited number of of landscape evidence in the deciphering of his- Swedish PhD students to be financed by the torical property rights and social structures programme. This project was, on the Swedish (Sporrong & Widgren 1988). side, run through a cooperation between Carl 164 Department of Human Geography

Christianson at the Department of Physical Ge- the radical human geographers favoured an in- ography and Ulf Sporrong at the Department tegrated geography. Some of the radical geo of Human Geography. The Environment and graphers at that time were especially sharp in Development Studies Unit (EDSU) was set up, their opposition to the idea of geography as a based at the Department of Physical Geogra- synthesising discipline. phy. It focused on land use and land degrada- Starting in 1979, a series of meetings tion. In the wake of the Sahel crisis in the between Nordic critical geographers had been 1970s, new frameworks had been developed. held, and in 1984 the journal ‘Nordisk Sam Political ecology provided a radical answer to hällsgeografisk Tidskrift’ was launched by Malthusian arguments, in which population partly the same group. Stockholm was to large increase and poor farmers’ mismanagement of extent outside of this network, while post their lands were to blame for desertification graduate students and young lecturers from and land degradation. Three doctoral disserta- Uppsala, Roskilde, Oslo, etc. were more in- tions were written in 1995–1996 on this theme, volved. I can only find three Stockholm geogra- followed by several similar dissertations in the phers among the contributors to ‘Nordisk following period. Samhällsgeografisk Tidskrift’ during its entire This project indicated the strength of an lifetime (1984 to 2007): one undergraduate interdisciplinary cooperation between physical student, one doctoral student and one research- and human geography. A line of thought er, the latter two only contributing with book strongly developed by Sporrong at this time reviews. On the other hand, three later mem- was that the undivided subject of geography bers of staff in Stockholm, who were then still would be able to give significant contributions in Uppsala, made one or several contributions to the understanding of environment-society to this journal (Gunnel Forsberg, Bo Malmberg relations. With growing research on environ- and Brita Hermelin). The fact that Stockholm ment-society relations, geographers found their geographers were outsiders to this network is old capacity of dealing with such issues over- also reflected in the meagre representation of run by human ecology, systems ecology and references to Stockholm-based research in the new centres for interdisciplinary environmen- overviews of Nordic geography produced by tal studies. Again the Stockholm department, this group (I can find no references to contem- at least initially, went against the grain of de- poraneous Stockholm researchers in Öhman & velopment in human geography. At this time Asheim ed. 1994 and only a few in Öhman & neither the modernist societal geographers nor Simonsen ed. 2003). Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 165

Among those critical geographers, the con- associated with the idea of a natural sci- cept of ‘samhällsgeografi’ had a meaning dif- ence-dominated regional geography, and later ferent from the one used by Hannerberg. While with a systems oriented type of resource geog- Hannerberg (1962, 1965) considered to a large raphy that did not take social science fully into degree ‘samhällsgeografi’ as a geography in ser- account. This was seen as an obstacle for devel- vice of the state, the concept of ‘samhälls- oping radical human geography as social sci- geografi’ among the critical geographers was ence. A prolific voice for the radical Norwegian often much more clearly associated with the view was Björn Terje Asheim (Asheim 1987). A critical strand: “Samhällsgeografi […] refers similar scepticism towards a rapprochement to here to Nordic critical human geography physical geography and the idea of geography launched during the 1970s in connection to the as an undivided discipline was often voiced by radical leftist orientation among the students Uppsala geographers. and younger university teachers” writes Lehti- In 1997, an international evaluation of nen (2003). Swedish human geography was carried out by As mentioned above, the tendency among HSFR (Swedish Council for Research in the many radical geographers in the 1980s was to Humanities and Social Sciences). It noted the oppose the idea that geography was a disci- strong position in Sweden generally for the pline able to transcend the nature-culture study of historical rural landscapes and com- dichotomy. To understand why, we have to go mented upon its “well deserved international rep- back to the original split between human and utation” (Christiansen et al. 1999:65). Among physical geography. While this split had started the recommendations of the evaluators there are in the 1940s in Sweden and was more or less two themes I want to highlight. One was their completed with the establishment of a chair in recommendation of increased research on envi- Stockholm in 1955, the situation was different ronmental issues and cooperation with physi- in other Nordic countries. In Norway, such a cal geography. This lead to the announcement split was not yet fully achieved in the late of a six year research post, sponsored by the 1980s. Only later did Norwegian geographers research council, which after competition was organise a separate organisation for human awarded to a candidate from Stockholm Uni- geographers. In Oslo human geography be- versity. The other is their recommendations for come a sub-section of sociology under the increased mobility and for better postgraduate Faculty of Social Sciences. The idea of geogra- courses. Since then an organisation of national phy as a synthetic discipline was in Norway research courses has been established to secure 166 Department of Human Geography

The Geo Building at Frescati, originally shared by human and natural geographers and geologists. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

cross fertilisation at the postgraduate level be- At the level of geosciences, contacts were tween departments. also made easier. The building was shared with the then three departments of Physical Geogra- 1997 – The Geo Building, Frescati phy, Quaternary Geology and Geology, respec- In the summer of 1997, the Department finally tively. Moving in close to Physical Geography moved to the Frescati campus. Face-to-face was a deliberate plan, where the Heads of De- contact and cooperation were made easier at partment Ulf Sporrong (human geography) three spatial levels. Instead of sharing a volumi- and Leif Wastensson (physical geography) were nous building, the Department was gathered in instrumental. The Geo Library was preserved two floors in one of the wings of the new geo- as a separate unit within the broader Stock- science building. Common coffee and lunch holm University library and formed the core of rooms for the whole Department guaranteed the building. The move contrasted with the de- that none of three old coffee factions survived. velopments in Uppsala and Gothenburg, where Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 167

human and physical geography were now lo- ground, during lunches at Lantis or at the Facul- cated at large distances from each other and ty Club, does indeed facilitate formal and infor- where physical geography has become anony- mal contact. Many of us who were part of the mous within the new large constellations of move from Norrtullsgatan 2 to Campus Frescati geosciences. It is only in Stockholm that the in the autumn of 1997 felt that we had finally departments of geography share a building like become part of the Faculty of Social Sciences. this. The aim to establish a close cooperation When it comes to the academic staff in between physical and human geography can human geography, the late 1990s marked a still be read in the details of this building. The definite end to the one-professor system. Al- Stockholm Geoscience Building was planned ready in 1994 at Norrtullsgatan a second chair according to the comb principle (cf. Beckman in ‘Geography, especially Human Geography’ 2004), which presupposes a common front, had been established with Bo Lenntorp as its but a sharp labour division between different first holder. Lenntorp had until then been do- disciplines behind this common front. In order cent in Lund, a student of Hägerstrand, and to counteract this, a special bridge was built in had specialised in time geography. He brought the far end of one of the wings so that direct a different intellectual sphere closer to Stock- physical contact was established between land- holm. Being in charge of doctoral studies, he scape researchers in physical and human geog- influenced theory and method in many disser- raphy. This bridge remains today the physical tations. Moreover, in the late 1990s, a profes- manifestation of the idea of close cooperation sorship in ‘Human Geography, especially between physical and human geography. This Urban and Regional Planning’ was secured to proximity has facilitated collaboration in GIS Stockholm University as part of a governmen- and remote sensing, in research on Swedish tal programme to increase the share of female landscapes, and on past and present African professors. Gunnel Forsberg from Uppsala was environments, and not the least, made work appointed. She brought not only research com- for all those engaged in teaching the common petence on urban and regional planning to the courses in geography easier. Department, but was already then a central The final arrival of human geography at the scholar in gender geography, with her applica- Frescati campus also made contact with the oth- tion of the ‘gender contract’ concept to spatial er social sciences, the humanities and the univer- issues. When the Department gathered for a sity administration, much easier. The occasional kick-off on an archipelago island in August contact on the long escalator from the under- 1998, this new setup was clearly manifested 168 Department of Human Geography

with Bo Lenntorp as head of department and and Lenntorp by Bo Malmberg (population the new professor Gunnel Forsberg giving the geographer from Uppsala, 2005). In 2012 Brita introductory talk on planning research. The Hermelin (economic geography) was promoted teaching programme in ‘Urban and Regional to professor, but unfortunately left for Linköping Planning’ (samhällsplanering) did finally get a University in 2013. permanent research superstructure with an ac- During the early period at Frescati, the tive research group. Hannerberg’s old wishes breadth of the research was further developed for a second professorship in ‘Modern Societal by Docent Gunilla Andrae, who in the late Geography’ had come through by a wide mar- 1990s set up a research programme on People, gin, with Forsberg, Lenntorp and Sporrong Provisioning and Place in African Cities (PPP) representing different and complementary with funding from the Swedish International research interests: planning, gender, time-geo Development Cooperation Agency (Sida). The graphy and landscapes. Since then, Sporrong programme focussed on the consequences of has been succeeded by Mats Widgren (2002) liberalisation and globalisation for access to

The central stairway of the Geo Building. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 169

the basic means of livelihood in African cities. the outcomes of the 1986 research programme No less than seven doctoral dissertations were on property and landscapes. Historical geogra- published within this framework between 2002 phy of rural landscapes remains a strong and 2007. Besides the dominant historical ge- research group, especially among the senior ography group and the Gerger-Hoppe group researchers. In 2001, with support from Sida, a (see above), this is the quantitatively clearest research environment for African landscape mark in the list of dissertations of a distinctive history was launched under the acronym PLA- school of research at the Department. An ex- TINA (People Land and Time in Africa). This ternal reviewer reviewed one the theses from reflected the continued close collaboration be- this research group but also commented on the tween physical and human geography estab- other: “The PPP research group has developed lished in the late 1990s and was led by Karin quite a knack for combining what one expects Holmgren and Mats Widgren (Holmgren et al. of a quality dissertation–thorough, rich and 2008). Research on the past and present of original empirical research–with probing inter- African farming environments is a growing rogations of cutting edge theory” (Myers 2007). field of research. In the list of dissertations from this period a As mentioned above, the move to Frescati notable feature is the increased representation facilitated contact not only with physical geo of research at the interface of urban geography graphy, but also with the other social sciences. and planning in Sweden and elsewhere in In 2007, an interdisciplinary master’s pro- Europe. These dissertations represent approach- gramme on ‘Globalisation, Environment and es from ethnology, time-geography, environ- Social Change’ was launched in collaboration mental psychology, economic geography and with the Department of Economic History and gender studies. The previously often mentioned the Department of Physical Geography and lack of urban geography and studies on Stock- Quaternary Geology. It has a close connection holm at the Department is no longer true, to research interests at the involved depart- although no coherent school of urban studies ments, with climate studies (physical geogra- can yet be identified in the list of theses. phy), globalisation (economic history/interna- During the period 1997–2014 dissertations tional relations) and global urban environments on agrarian landscape history still represented (human geography) forming the core curricu- a large share of the output but were no longer as lum. At the BA level, the Department collabo- dominating as in previous periods. Several of rates with the Departments of Social Anthro- those theses published in the early 2000s are pology, Economic History and Political Science 170 Department of Human Geography

in a programme on ‘Global Development’. The man geography (Människan och landskapet, Department also participates in a graduate 1995). Attempts were also made to establish an school of international studies that gathers interdisciplinary centre for urban planning at doctoral students also from economic history, about this period. Only with the establishment political science, media studies and law. Bo of a second and third professorship in 1994 Malmberg’s very active and visible research and 1998 was the basis established for the group in population geography and migration breadth that is now represented both in teach- has a close collaboration with the Demography ing and research. We now have research groups Unit at the Department of Sociology and forms that in different constellations focus on urban part of one of the Faculty´s appointed leading and regional planning, including global urban- research areas. ism and gender geography, population geography with geographical information systems Reflections and remote sensing, as well as past and present Hannerberg gave a picture of a great width of farming landscapes in Sweden and Africa. A research interests in his overview from 1965. university department today must nonetheless Yet, most of the research initiatives he men- balance on one hand the full width that teach- tioned then never developed very strongly ing programmes motivate, and the need for op- during the following decades. Instead, the timally sized research groups that can establish focus during this half century has very clearly international networks and be nationally and been on the history of agrarian landscapes, internationally visible on the other. It is unlike- which has formed a very strong school of rely that the research interests at the Department search with documented international impact. in the future will be much broader, but the Nevertheless, slightly more than half of the themes and constellations will definitely change doctoral theses during this period were not in and reconfigure. Our present size with three historical geography. These theses only seldom professors, twelve lecturers (of which five have represented identifiable andcoherent schools docent competence), and a few researchers on of research to the same extent as those in his- soft money makes possible a close interaction torical landscape research. Initiatives to strength- and creative innovations in the borderland been other fields of human geography have been tween research groups. Thus, several research made over the years. A presentation of the De- projects involve themes and researchers from partment from 1995 reflects the ambition to more than one of the three main strands of represent a truly broad span of branches in hu- research mentioned above. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 171

Looking back at the roughly 40 years from cil for Research in the Humanities and which I have first-hand knowledge, this in- Social Sciences (Humanistisk-samhälls- crease in the scope of teaching and research vetenskapliga forskningsrådet) (HSFR). represents probably the most fundamental Cosgrove, Denis 2000. Cultural Geography. In change at the Department, besides the in- R. J. Johnston et al. (eds.) The Dictionary of crease in numbers of staff. It also goes hand in Human Geography. Oxford, Blackwell. hand with – and has been supported by – the 134–138. increased emphasis on research done by lec- Dahl, Sven 1968. Sakkunnigutlåtande. profes- turers. During the coming academic year, half suren i ‘Kulturgeografi med ekonomisk of the lecturers will spend substantial time on geografi’, 26 sept 1968. Stockholm Univer- externally funded research projects. This sity, Archive. comes in addition to the 30 percent research Dahl, Sven 1972. Kulturgeografi (Human Geo that is now funded from the University for graphy). In A. Attman ed. Social Science Re- each lecturer. This is a clear contrast to the search in Sweden. Stockholm, Statens råd situation in the 1970s to 1990s, when the för samhällsforskning. 56–70. heavy teaching loads led to a marked labour Enequist, Gerd n.d. Sakkunnigutlåtande över division between researchers and teachers. David Hannerberg kallelse till professuren. Ö A 1 Professor David Hannerbergs hand-  •  lingar. Archive of the Department of Human Abler, Ronald, John. S. Adams and Peter. Geography, Stockholm University. Gould 1971. Spatial Organization: the Geo Hannerberg, David 1944. Geografi ochso - grapher’s View of the World. Englewood cialvetenskap. Geografiska Notiser 11(4) 1–6. Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Hannerberg, David 1962. Ett genmäle Ymer. Beckman, Jenny. 2004. Nature’s Palace: Con- 82, 154–159 structing the Swedish Museum of Natural Hannerberg, David 1963. Fossila landskap och History. History of Science 42:135, 85–111. lantmäterikartorna. Svensk Lantmäteritid Buttimer, Ann and Tom Mels 2006. By North- skrift 55(5–6) 347–364. ern Lights: on the Making of Geography in Hannerberg, David 1965. Från fält och forsk- Sweden. Aldershot: Ashgate. ning. Kulturgeografi vid Stockholms Univer- Christiansen, Sofus, Peter Hagget and Perttu sitet. Ymer 85(3–4) 97–108. Vartiainen 1999. Swedish Research in Hu- Hannerberg, David 1968a. Objekt – data – man Geography. Stockholm: Swedish Coun- modeller. Ymer Årsbok 1968 18–29. 172 Department of Human Geography

Hannerberg, David 1968b. Att studera kultur- liga forskningsrådet) (HSFR), 19–54. geografi: en introduktion. Stockholm: Sv. Helmfrid, Staffan 2001. Ett universitets his- bokförl. toriska geografi. In M. Elg and M. Widgren Hannerberg, David 1969. Beskrivande korolo- eds. Plats, landskap, karta: en vänatlas till gi: grundkurs. Lund: Studentlitt. Ulf Sporrong. Stockholm, Stockholms uni- Hannerberg, David 1970. Korologiska popu versitet, Kulturgeografiska inst. 20–21. lationsmodeller. Lund: Studentlitt. Helmfrid, Staffan 2008. Professor William- Hannerberg, David 1976. Models of Medieval Olssons ”Geography of Europe”. Ymer and Premedieval Territorial Organization, 128, 37–50. with a Select Bibliography. Journal of His- Helmfrid, Staffan and Ulf Sporrong 1997. torical Geography 2(1) 21–34. History [online]. Available at: Hannerberg, David 1977. Kumlabygden: forn- http://www.humangeo.su.se/polopoly_fs/ tid, nutid, framtid. 4, By, gård och samhälle. 1.20651.1309157376!/menu/standard/file/ Kumla. department_history_1997.pdf Harvey, David 1969. Explanation in Geo [Accessed 2014-05-09]. graphy. London. Holmgren, Karin et al. (PLATINA) 2008. The Harvey, David 1974. Population, Resources, Vulnerable Continent: Historical perspec- and Ideology of Science. Economic Geo tives on Africa’s Climate, Environment and graphy 50(3) 256–277. Societies. Meeting global challenges in re- Helmfrid, Staffan 1982. David Hannerberg. search cooperation. Proceedings of a confer- Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund Årsbok 146– ence and workshop in Uppsala, May 27–29, 154. 2008. Uppsala, Collegium for Development Helmfrid, Staffan 1994. National atlas of Swe- Studies, Uppsala University. 585–596. den. Landscape and settlements [kartogra Hoppe, Göran and J. Langton 1994. Peasantry fiskt material]. Stockholm, SNA Publ. to capitalism: Western Östergötland in the [Sveriges nationalatlas]. nineteenth century. Cambridge: Cambridge Helmfrid, Staffan 1999. A Hundred Years Univ. Press. Geography in Sweden in Christiansen, S., Jonsson, Stig and Thomas Lundén 1984. et al. Swedish research in human geogra- Geografisk forskning vid Stockholms uni- phy. Stockholm: Swedish Council for versitet. Geografiska notiser 42(3) 3–5. Research in the Humanities and Social Lehtinen, Ari Aukusti 2003. Samhällsgeografi Sciences (Humanistisk samhällsvetenskap and the politics of nature. In Öhman, J. and Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 173

K. Simonsen 2003. Voices from the North: 11/78. Stockholm. New Trends in Nordic Human Geography. Sporrong, Ulf et al. 1995. Swedish Landscapes. Aldershot Ashgate, 233–258 Stockholm: Swedish Environmental Protec- Lundén, Thomas 1970. Kulturgeografiska insti- tion Agency (Naturvårdsverket). tutionen. In G. Boalt ed. Samhällsforskning Stockholms högskolas katalog. Stockholm, vid Stockholms universitet: en presentation Bonnier [distr.]. av institutionerna vid samhälls veten skapliga Stockholms universitet Katalog, 1960 –. fakulteten. Stockholm, Utbildnings förlaget. Strömdahl, Katarina and Lars Wåhlin 2001. 34–39. ”Norrtullsligan”. In M. Elg and M. Wid- Människan och landskapet: en presentation av gren eds. Plats, landskap, karta: en vänatlas Kulturgeografiska institutionen vid Stock- till Ulf Sporrong. Stockholm, Kulturgeograf- holms universitet. 1995. Stockholm: Kultur- iska institutionen, Stockholms universitet. geografiska inst., Univ. 22–23. Myers, Garth Andrew 2007. From public pipes Whittington, Graeme 1987. The Dark Ages. In to private hands: Water access and distribu- M. Pacione, ed. Historical Geography: Pro- tion in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Urban gress and Prospect. London, Croom Helm. Studies 44(12) 2487–2488. 70–95. Program vid invigningen av Stockholms hög- William-Olsson, William 1937. Huvuddragen skolas nya byggnad den 20 och 21 maj av Stockholms geografiska utveckling 1850– 1927. 1927. Stockholm. 1930. Stockholm. Rapp, Anders 1974, Geografi och internatio- William-Olsson, William 1962. Att studera nalisering. Geografiska Notiser 22 (2) 45–46. kulturgeografi: Ett diskussionsinlägg med Schaefer, Fred K. 1953. Exceptionalism in Geo anledning av David Hannerberg’s bok med graphy: A Methodological Examination. samma titel. Ymer 82, 150–154. Annals of the Association of American Geo- Öhman, Jan and Björn Terje Asheim 1994. graphers 43(3) 226–249. Traditioner i nordisk kulturgeografi. Upp Sporrong, Ulf 1985. Mälarbygd: agrar bebyg- sala: Nordisk samhällsgeografisk tidskrift. gelse och odling ur ett historisk-geografiskt Öhman, Jan and Kirsten Simonsen 2003. perspektiv. Stockholms universitet. Voices from the North: new Trends in Nor- Sporrong, Ulf (ed.) 1978. Kulturgeografiska in- dic Human Geography. Aldershot: Ashgate. stitutionen i Stockholm: lärare och forsk ningsinriktning. Kulturgeografiskt seminarium Enno Hallek’s ’Elm Power to the People’, (1971), is placed between buildings E and F close to the lecture rooms used by Political Science. It commemorates a well-known tree-hugging action in the Stockholm city centre, an iconic event from the times of the student revolution. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 175

Department of Political Science Olof Ruin

A picture of Herbert Tingsten is hanging the number of students was little above one on the wall of the seminar room of the Depart- hundred annually. The PhD dissertations ment of Political Science on the 7th floor in the approved were not more than nine before 1960. F building at Frescati. In 1935 he was appoint- My own inside view of the development at ed the first holder of a newly established pro- the Department covers more than fifty years. In fessorship, the Lars Hierta chair of govern- the early 1960s, I became associated with Stock- ment, devoted solely to research and teaching holm University with a PhD from Lund. From in political science. This branch of learning had 1976 until 1994 I was the permanent holder of existed as an independent discipline for many the Lars Hierta chair and thereafter I have been centuries at Uppsala University. In the begin- allowed to occupy a desk in a corner of Skogs ning of the present century, it had also been torpet (the Forest Cot), situated on campus, as introduced at the universities in Lund and Go- a professor emeritus. From the early 1970s un- thenburg. The appointment of Herbert Ting- til my retirement I also served as head of de- sten in 1935 also marks the beginning of polit- partment, alternating with my colleague Gun- ical science as a distinct discipline at Stockholm nar Wallin. This overview of the development University College (Stockholms högskola). of political science will deal mainly with the The growth of this new social science com- consequences of the rapid expansion of student munity was fairly slow up to the 1960s. Her- enrolment in the very beginning of these fifty bert Tingsten himself resigned in 1945 and was years but also, more briefly, with the research succeeded first by Elis Håstad and thereafter by pursued during the whole period. Gunnar Heckscher. Besides the holder of the Most social science departments grew Lars Hierta chair, the staff remained limited; during the 1960s due to free access to higher 176 Department of Political Science

The reality of national election campaigns reaches also into Campus – here to the site of the Department of Political Science at Building F of Södra huset. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

studies still being in force. The development at This exceptional expansion was due to many our department was, however, exceptional. In circumstances. One of these applied to all the the fall of 1964, the same year as our faculty Departments of Political Science in the country. was formed, 508 new students were registered They all benefited from an interest in matters for courses on the elementary (A) level. During political that was increasing among young peo- the following years, the number increased by ple. One was special for us in Stockholm, and almost 200 students annually. At the end of the consisted of the fact that many of our teachers 1960s, the Department of Political Science at were involved in a popular course in political Stockholm University was for a short time the science, broadcast on the national radio. In or- second largest university department in Sweden. der to handle these enormous crowds, large Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 177

premises had to be rented in town for lectures raised for studies to be structured differently and examinations. I remember that I often had and for students to have more of a say in run- to lecture to new students in the main hall of ning the Department. For a few days the media the Norra Latin secondary school in downtown coverage of our department was intense. Even Stockholm. Still, the seats did not suffice and Olof Palme, who at that time was Minister of listeners had to crowd along the walls or in the Education and whom I knew from the time we doorway. The office of the Department was lo- both had been active in student politics, called cated at various addresses during the 1960s, at and was worried about what was going on at Kungstensgatan, Observatoriegatan, Drottning- the Department of Political Science in Stock- gatan, Ynglingagatan and Hagagatan, before holm. we moved out to Frescati among the first of the The turmoil at our place calmed down after downtown departments. two weeks. The revolutionary students moved on and joined other dissatisfied groups at the Unrest at the University University. The idea came up that they should A few years earlier, the Department had been occupy their own union building at Holländar- the first in Sweden to be hit by the student un- gatan. Among those we saw on TV mounting rest that swept through the Western world. Our the rostrum and later flocking through the overcrowding was partly the reason. Every- streets down to Gustav Adolfs Torg and the thing had started on the 10th of May 1968, at an Opera House, we recognized quite a number of international politics lecture for undergradu- students from our own department. In the mid- ates. A group of students interrupted the lectur- dle of the occupation, Olof Palme unexpectedly er and accused him vehemently of having been turned up and, among all the shouting, gave his partial in his definition of ‘subversive activities’ passionate speech – often referred to later – and in his illustration of how Soviet authorities about the meaning of democracy and how to tended to take advantage of this kind of activi- express opinions in such a democracy. ty. After the accusations were made, the pro- The way the Department of Political Science testers left the room and demanded that the reacted to the unrest that it had triggered off lecturer himself be removed from further teach- was, I venture to say, rather pragmatic. This ing. This criticism grew rapidly into a harsh applies both to the dramatic days in May 1968 criticism of the teaching at the Department as a as well as the more quiet months thereafter. whole and of the literature required for reading. The stormy days in May were promptly Mass meetings were organized. Demands were recorded and analysed by a student who pre- 178Police gather at the entry of the Student Union building at Holländargatan at the occasion of the legendary occupation by leftist students in May 1968. (Photo: Gösta Glase, ©Nordiska Museet) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 179

sented his results in the form of a graduate in the country. The Department of Political Sci- paper the following year. The student was An- ence in Stockholm was, however, expressly al- ders Mellbourn, who later became a well- lowed to continue its own work, which was known journalist. He showed that the Depart- strongly suffused with principles of representa- ment leadership was willing to listen to all tive democracy. The policy-making mass meet- complaints, talk to the dissatisfied and not ings of the kind that the revolutionary students take strong action. The leadership at the time had demanded in May were regarded as ana consisted of Hans Meijer, who was the holder thema. of the Lars Hierta chair after Gunnar A central element for us in making new rules Heckscher, and myself, who had obtained a for running the Department was to construe a permanent associate professorship. At the representative assembly, similar to a miniature same time as we tried to listen to grievances, parliament. It consisted of all members of the we also strongly emphasized that demands for departmental staff and of student representa- central changes must be attended to in accor- tives who were elected with courses and semi- dance with “the constitution in force”, a polit- nar groups as constituencies. Individual pro- ical science line of talk that some of us tended posals put forward were given in the form of to use. The student body had two elected rep- motions on which an executive committee, resentatives present at staff meetings. Their elected by this assembly, was to make pro- role was to forward complaints, function as an nouncements. Proposals from the executive intermediary and to participate in the deci- committee were in turn drafted by different sion-making process regarding changes. Of committees on which teachers and students were course we understood that this was a very dif- equally represented. To accommodate all, the ficult position to hold. Therefore, immediately rooms in which we met had to be fairly large, after the hectic May weeks, the Department especially as the student representatives initial- embarked upon framing a new constitution, ly demanded gallery accommodation for fellow which was to give students more of a say in the students who were not part of the assembly. running of the Department. Of course this new decision making procedure took time. Demands were, for example, Efforts at democratic representation constantly being made for the guillotine and Our initiative coincided with attempts of a sim- for a final list of speakers. Furthermore, meet- ilar kind instigated by the central educational ings were often adjourned because of insuffi- authorities as a reaction to the student unrest cient attendance. Teachers brought up in an 180 Department of Political Science

Our special constitution was abolished during the 1970s. In principle, the same decision making model was adopted as in most other university departments. The attempts to practice ideas taught in courses on constitution in daily departmental life remained vivid in the memory of the staff for many years. For some, these memories were rather painful; for others, filled with a certain nostalgia. For the staff, the unrest of 1968 and its immediate consequences continued, for a long time, to be looked upon as fairly recent events, while for Trophies of academic work exhibited at the new waves of students, often expressing differ- elevator exit. (Photo: Mats Danielson) ent kinds of demands, it was seen as pre-history.

old-fashioned public servant tradition often A period of decline felt rather out of place in a setting where vari- Our overflow of students diminished during ous coalitions, many of them unholy, where the 1970s and early 1980s. This was partly due formed. Others – myself among them – with to the general decline in the number of new stu- previous personal experience from student dents, and partly because the organization of politics felt more at home. In the long run, this undergraduate studies in well-coordinated study time-consuming organization could not be programmes disfavoured political science. In sustained. It contained too many conflicts of addition, the discipline as such had lost its for- principle. The teachers as public employees mer popularity. Thereby, a department which were expected to comply with central direc- had been almost inundated with students be- tives whereas students did not need to do so; gan to worry about the lack of them. they furthermore possessed expert knowledge Again, a change occurred in the middle of that students did not have. The students, from the 1980s. The well-coordinated study pro- their side, expected to be on an equal level grammes were loosened up and interest in mat- with the teachers as decision-makers, while ters political was also rising, a rise coinciding they were at the same time subordinate to and to some extent with the assassination of Olof dependent on them in their own studies. Palme. The student population has thereafter Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 181

The departmental annex, Skogstorpet (The Forest Cot), has housed some of the department’s researchers and emeriti. (Photo: Mats Danielson) remained both large and stable with minor an- zation also occurred in this respect. Further- nual variations. Now, in the spring of 2014, the more, the Lars Hierta chair was supplemented Department has 525 students registered at the with two new chairs, one, to begin with, was undergraduate level, 139 at the master’s level held by Kjell Goldmann and the other by Dan- and 46 at the PhD level. iel Tarschys. Now, in the spring of 2014, the Naturally, the fluctuation of the number of total number of people employed at the De- students also influenced the size of the depart- partment of Political Science is 89. The staff mental staff. In the expansive 1960s, new consists of two holders of a chair, seven univer- teachers had to be hired continually on a per- sity lecturers promoted to professors, 27 uni- manent or non-permanent basis, but later stabili- versity lecturers, four teachers with a lower 182 Department of Political Science

rank, and 31 researchers all differently financed. sis and orientation over time. Scholars in polit- Finally, there are 13 people carrying out ad- ical science, like scholars in other disciplines, ministrative duties. Political scientists are to- have shown a natural tendency to be influenced day also part of the staff at Score, the multi-dis- by issues of current general interest in their se- ciplinary centre which was founded in the early lection of objects for research. There continues 1980s. to be areas where many researchers tend to congregate regardless of time. I shall limit my- Lines of research self to three such broad areas and add two It is also natural to use Herbert Tingsten’s ex- more specific ones that have lately come into tensive political science production as a start- focus. ing point for a short overview of the research One broad area is the study of political in- pursued at the Department. Three different stitutions and public policy. Institutionally ori- perspectives, each associated with a related ac- ented works have dealt with the system of par- ademic subject, were accommodated in his work liamentarism and parliamentary proceedings, as well as that of other political scientists of his with the office of Swedish prime minister and time. One perspective was legal, stemming proceedings inside the ministries. Particularly, from constitutional law, another historical, many scholars at the Department have been arising from the study of history, and a third involved in a study of public administration, idea-oriented associated with philosophy. Ting- regarding both the recruitment and the activity sten also introduced a totally new perspective, of central bureaucrats. The policy oriented a behaviouristic one shared with the subject of studies have covered different policies, partic- sociology. His remarkable and many-sided pro- ularly those on educational, constitutional and duction is today primarily remembered for environmental matters. In a political science works on ideas and ideologies, particularly department situated in the capital of a country, those about fascism, problems of democracy it appears especially fitting to be interested in a and the ideas of the Swedish Social Democratic study of central political and administrative party. entities. Political science research at our Department One type of institutionally oriented research during the almost seven decades that have pursued at our Department was in focus at all passed since Tingsten left his professorship has political science departments in the 1970s and covered all dimensions of the discipline. How- 1980s. It concerned the local authorities, the ever, there have been variations of both empha- municipalities. How do they function, how are Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 183

their relations to the central authorities in “corporatization”. This means that interest or- Stockholm, etc.? This research was not least ganizations not only seem to generally have influenced by a national policy of merging great importance but that they also have delib- small local entities into larger ones at the time, erately tended to be integrated into formal gov- partly in order to facilitate a transfer of duties ernmental policy making. from the centre to the periphery. For a welfare A third, broad area is the study of interna- state, often overburdened with tasks to be han- tional politics and development in the third dled centrally, a move towards decentralization world. Mostly around the middle of the period was seen to be of great value. this area attracted many scholars at the De- A second broad area, closely related to the partment. Their works, generally published in previous one, is the study of political parties English, have often received international at- and interest organizations. tention. The international politics oriented re- Party oriented works, published at our De- search has covered both foreign policy, con- partment, have dealt with ideologies, strate- ducted by central actors, as well as the gies, leadership and membership of different principles, both old and new, adhered to on the parties as well as with relations between them. global stage. The development oriented research Less has been done in Stockholm on election be- has foremost been concentrated on countries in haviour, although Tingsten was once a forerun- Africa but also on parts of Asia. This type of ner for this kind of research. Our studies of research has been very much in tune with the parties have often, as far as Swedish conditions great attention given in Sweden to offering aid are concerned, been influenced by a character- to developing areas. istic trait of the national party system during The two specific study areas, which have most of the past century. A multitude of parties been in focus during the past two decades, are existed, but at the same time, they tended to further examples of research on issues of cur- divide into two distinct sides with one party, rent interest in society. One is gender research. the Social Democratic one, dominating one side. The Swedish government has not only general- Works on interest organizations have mostly ly stressed the importance of a policy of equal- been oriented towards those on the labour ity between the sexes but has also established market. Again, as far as Sweden is concerned, research positions solely reserved for gender this research has often reflected another feature studies. The Department has shown a particu- that is characteristic of our political system. We larly great interest in this area of research. An have talked about the existence of a form of extensive number of books have been pub- 184 Department of Political Science

cerns the EU and the Europeanization of politics. It is a natural consequence of Sweden having been a member of the EU since the middle of 1990s. The research in this area at our department has dealt both with the complicated decision making structure of the EU as well as with the effects of the union membership on our own political structure and policies. The coexistence at the Department of Political Science of these different study areas during the past fifty years has been rather peaceful. The shifts in attention that have occurred from one group of issues to another have as a whole not produced bitterness or resistance. Nor has the use of new research methods caused internal problems. An illustration of the tranquil development in this respect is for example that the wave of Marxist-oriented analysis, which shook many social science departments in the country during some years, did not hit the political science community, either in Stockholm or elsewhere.

The Department of Political Science also houses CESAM, a unit for education in and research on Engaging with the world the learning and teaching of social science The results of studies undertaken at the De- disciplines. (Photo: Mats Danielson) partment, regardless of the type of area, have of course had a certain impact on the surround- lished. Mostly they have dealt with women, ing society. This applies hopefully to all social and their position in political life but also with sciences. Individual political scientists have many other problems that they tend to encoun- also, like other social science scholars, been exter in daily life. The other specific study area pressly asked for advice and have themselves that has come into the foreground lately con- occasionally recommended a course of action Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 185

to be followed by public authorities. Still, in my view, political science as a discipline is more reluctant than many other branches of social science to provide recommendations for action. The research ethos is more descriptive/analytical than normative. I would like to finish this essay by underlin- ing that political scientists, particularly in Stockholm, at the same time as they adhere to this ethos in their position as scholars, have often been willing to engage in the outside world. Herbert Tingsten left his chair to be the editor-in-chief of the liberal newspaper Dagens Nyheter. Elis Håstad and Gunnar Heckscher combined their professorships with being conservative members of Parliament before they both left their chairs to go on to other positions in public administration. Like- Herbert Tingsten 1876–1973 wise, during the following decades, researchers at our department have had important positions in political life or public administration. The latest examples of this pattern are Daniel Tarschys and Björn von Sydow. The former was a liberal member of Parliament for 15 years and the latter is still a Social Democratic member of this assembly after earlier having been Minister of Defence and Speaker of the Parliament. The belief that it is possible to pursue research on political matters objective- ly, and at the same time engage in politics, has thus been put into practice at the Department of Political Science at Stockholm University. 186 Kapitelnamn The stately main psychology building was previously used by the College of Forestry – beautiful trees in the surrounding form the remnants of its arboretum. (Photo: Henrik Dunér) 187

Department of Psychology Gunn Johansson

To give a fair and substantial account of the Background most important events over fifty years at a An embryo for the Department of Psychology large university department in a limited space can be traced back to 1934, when the board of is impossible. Therefore, this account will have Stockholm University College decided to create to be read as an utterly summarizing sketch the Olof Eneroth Chair. Olof Eneroth, a po- with some highlights of particular traits of the mologist, i.e. an expert in the cultivation of ap- Department of Psychology. An invaluable ples and other fruits, had already in 1876 do- source of information has been the jubilee nated his fortune to a chair, but the resources book compiled at the 50 years’ celebration of were insufficient and only after additional the Department of Psychology (Nilsson 2003). money had been allocated could the chair be When the Faculty of Social Sciences was instituted. Perhaps the testator’s phrasing of formed in 1964, the Department of Psychology the donation’s purpose raised some consterna- was four years old. Stockholm University College tion, delaying the matter. The will prescribed a had recently become a state university, and psy- chair in the “study of the connection between chology had become an autonomous subject of natural law and the virtuous and physical na- examination. What had, until 1960, been an In- ture of Man, with particular concern for the stitute of Psychology, had turned into a regular upbringing of the growing generation into spir- university department that had just moved from itual and bodily health”. Despite this cryptic a backyard house at Observatoriegatan to prem- formulation, finally, after various turns, the de- ises in the old main building of the Royal Institute cision was made to advertise a professorship in of Technology (KTH) on Drottninggatan, oppo- education and psychology, the first incumbent site “The Haunted Castle” (Spökslottet). of which, David Katz, was appointed in 1937. 188 Department of Psychology

Later, a professorship in education was crea Early research ted, and the Olof Eneroth Chair was changed Research and education in the 1960s were both into a chair only in psychology, with Gösta Ek- marked by an academic and theoretical direc- man as incumbent. tion, with a strong focus on classical, experimental psychology, methods and method de- The 1960s velopment. The work of the professor, Gösta That was the situation when I first became ac- Ekman, within psychophysics and scaling quainted with the Department of Psychology. At methodology, inspired a growing number of that time, examination results from a preparato- PhD students at the new Department. Later, ry course, in combination with the marks from they bore witness to the dynamic and creative the General Certificate of Education (studentexa research environment formed under the leader- men), made up the selection instrument for about ship of Ekman (Härnqvist 2003:53, Sjöberg forty positions offered for first semester students. 2003:142). Right from the start there was a Eminent lectures were given at ‘proppen’ (‘the strong relation to international research. The plug’, the propaedeutic course) by the most research tradition cultivated during this time prominent researchers of the Department: Gösta was later strengthened and developed along Ekman, Daisy Schalling, David Magnusson, different tracks, e.g. towards learning psycholo- Gunnar Goude, Hannes Eisler and Marianne gy, cognitive psychology and cognitive neurosci- Frankenhaeuser. For those who were admitted, it ence. Psychophysics has, for example, become soon became clear that the studies in psychology relevant when new technologies for brain im- were heavily scheduled with extensive group agery have made possible a dynamic develop- work and laboratory experiments. Test theory ment of the study of brain processes. Presently, and comprehensive group work with quite a bit this tradition stands strong in the research car- of statistical calculation formed an important ried out at the Division for Perception and Psy- part. A feared ingredient was the training in inter- chophysics, which is now housed in a separate view methodology, where the interviewees were building in Frescati Hage, the Gösta Ekman lower-level students. Interviews were taped and Laboratory. replayed in front of the group and teacher, who gave feedback about the performance. A strong Longitudinal research sense of togetherness arose in some of the groups At the end of the 1960s, preparations went on and study mates from that time have stayed my at the Department of Psychology for one of close friends. the extensive, longitudinal research projects Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 189

The Gösta Ekman Laboratory for Sensory Research is named after Professor Gösta Ekman (1920-71), specialist in psychophysics and scale methodology. (Photo: Mats Danielson) that have become an important part of the tween the individual and her context over Faculty of Social Sciences’ profile. The initia- time, i.e. the processes that characterize the tor and principal investigator of the project individual pattern of development (see e.g. Individual Adjustment and Development Magnusson & Stattin 1998). This project has (IDA) was David Magnusson, who succeeded followed several year-cohorts of school chil- Gösta Ekman on the Olof Eneroth Chair in dren in Örebro into middle age, and collected 1969. The project deals with the individual a large and valuable database, which is still in development process in a life perspective, and use for analyses of new research questions. It from the beginning its aim was to widen the is worth mentioning that the IDA project study of psychological development from passed relatively unaffected by the crisis for cross-sectional analyses to the interaction be- big longitudinal databases that hit our faculty 190 Department of Psychology

in the aftermath of the so-called Metropolit and, as a long-term goal, a formal, governmental affair. The reason for this was probably that licensing of psychologists. A government com- the project, already before its start and mission put forward a proposal already in the throughout, was well-anchored in Örebro 1950s, but the decision was delayed. Among through the school administration and the other things, the teaching in theoretical sub- media. Yet another longitudinal undertaking, jects had to be supplemented by more applied the Betula project, has later been added as an elements, and this was accomplished in the important basis for research at the Depart- form of courses in personality psychology, element of Psychology (see below under Re- mentary psychiatry, and interview methodolo- search in Cognitive Psychology). gy. Not until the beginning of the 1960s did the final choice fall upon a tri-annual model, with Education with and without an at least two grades (betyg = semesters) in either occupational focus psychology or education, and the rest of the The Psychology students of the 1960s had a grades in statistics and sociology. In 1958, the range of purposes for their studies. There were, Swedish Medical Board had confirmed the for- like today, some who studied psychology in or- malization of merits through the decision that der to better understand themselves and their a degree based on this model would be required fellow humans. There was also a group who, for posts in clinical areas. Responsibility for by acquiring some grades in behavioural disci- the required practical training, however, still plines, hoped to increase their chances for ad- rested outside the University. Such training was mission to medical studies. But most students provided through a local agency in cooperation had a general and genuine interest in psycholo- with the Psychological Association. Thus, all gy as a discipline and saw it as an important psychology students still followed the same part of a fil.kand. (Bachelor of Philosophy) de- study plan regardless of their occupational gree, many with the intention to pursue a ca- goals. This was the order that ruled at the time reer as a professional psychologist. of the establishment of the Faculty of Social However, the establishment of this new oc- Sciences. cupation had just begun, and posts were very few. An impatient Sveriges Psykologförbund Student dissent (The Swedish Psychological Association) and Over time, the student revolution of 1968 also its predecessor had long been struggling to reached the Department of Psychology, al- achieve a uniform education for psychologists though not in very dramatic forms. Like else- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 191

where, student dissatisfaction concerned the 1970s stress research hierarchical structure of the University, with One of the early research orientations at the autocratic heads of department, and also the Department of Psychology was psychophysiol- contents of the curriculum. The theory-orient- ogy or, as it is now called, biological psycholo- ed teaching offered at the Department of Psy- gy. In the 1970s Marianne Frankenhaeuser was chology satisfied neither the expectations of professor (laborator) of experimental psychology future psychologists, nor those who studied at the Council of Medical Research (MFR, psychology for other reasons. Medicinska Forskningsrådet), and her activi- There was a wish for educational content ties were mainly located at the University’s De- that was more relevant for application and partment of Psychology. Her research con- less comprised of test theory, as well as more cerned stress, a concept originally used in concerned with clinical issues and less with experimental animal research, but which had experimental methodology. Some asked for now become highly relevant within psycholog- textbooks in Swedish rather than the Anglo- ical research on motivation. Frankenhaeuser American literature that dominated Western built a research team of co-workers recruited university education in psychology. The de- from among the psychology students of the bate was lively, and on occasion teachers had University. Licentiate and PhD theses based on to fight for critical analysis and scientific strin- psycho-biological and behavioural theory, as gency. A working group consisting of teachers well as biomedical empirical theory, began to and students was formed with the assignment be presented (Frankenhaeuser 1979). This re- to prepare suggestions for change. The first search made use of advanced biochemical anal- suggestion concerning a changed form of gov- yses of stress hormones initially performed at ernance was rejected by the student represen- Karolinska Institutet. The extent of stress re- tatives, who considered the suggestion as put- search grew, and in the 1980s a biochemical ting too much responsibility on them. Instead, laboratory was established at the Department an advisory committee was formed, consisting of Psychology in Frescati Hage. It was run of professors and lecturers plus five student there for about 25 years, entirely on external representatives. With the exception of one research funds. year, this model was in use until 1977, when a The experimental stress research at the De- new reform of higher education made student partment contributed basic knowledge about influence permanent (Högskoleförordningen the intricate interaction between the social en- 1977:263). vironment, the individual and her health. As 192 Department of Psychology

the methodology was developed and became nization and employment, new systems of re- more robust, stress research moved from the muneration, in addition to the increasing flexi- laboratory into real life, such as the school set- bility of work. ting that was studied in collaboration with the IDA project in Örebro. Stress and work A fruitful collaboration was started in the Research in work psychology 1970s between work psychologists and stress In the 1970s, a chair in Social Psychology of researchers who shared a bio-psychosocial per- Working Life was established, with Bertil Gar- spective on the conditions of work that over dell as the first incumbent. Work-related re- time came to undergo an accelerating change, search had been performed before at the De- not least through the digital revolution. Above partment, but was now intensified by a debate all, the focus was on how to identify the on working conditions in industry that had work-related factors that contribute to stress followed upon the miners’ strike in Malm- and encumbrance and – in a longer perspective fälten, an area of mineral extraction in North- – somatic ill-health. This cooperation contin- ern Sweden. Organizational psychology and so- ued for a long time and has resulted in several cial psychology now became relevant for big field research projects during the 1980s, critical scrutiny of working conditions and 1990s and 2000s. Researchers active in this forms of organization. The interest was ex- theme today are also part of the Stockholm panded to also include the working situation of Stress Centre (SSC), which has the overarching white-collar workers and thus a new term, psy- goal of adding to the knowledge of psychobio- chosocial working conditions, was minted. logical mechanisms in stress and health. Since that time, working life has undergone radical changes and new issues of investigation have Uniform training of psychologists been addressed. Organizational and technical Efforts to establish a unified and appropriate change still generates new questions for re- occupational training of psychologists, and to search along with some classic ones, such as the counteract irresponsible and dubious app never-ending issue of how to obtain valid and lications of psychological knowledge, had gone reliable test instruments to be used for recruit- on since the mid-1900s. During the 1970s, ment and selection. A large part of contempo- there was a breakthrough. Through several rary research, however, deals with new and steps a new order of studies was ratified, con- changing work conditions: new forms of orga- taining strong elements of application and in- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 193

competence profile of the teaching staff has had to be improved. The faculty nowadays includes a number of teachers with a PhD, who at the same time are themselves licensed psychologists and certified psychotherapists.

Premises and internal structure: the 1970s and 1980s The strong growth of research and the expan ded education of psychologists made the De- partment creak at the joints. At the same time, the subject attracted an increasing number of students to the regular academic education in psychology, on both the basic and advanced levels. For a time it was also necessary to create Corridors in one of the old College of Forestry special opportunities for previously educated buildings convey a strange feeling of travelling professional psychologists to supplement their by train. (Photo: Mats Danielson) education up to the new standard. This assignment included the BA degree described above, built practical training (Jonsson 2003). The but also the higher level of Licentiate of Philoso- term psykologlinjen (the psychologists’ curric- phy degree. ulum) became official, and in 1978 the occupa- For decades, the question of how to harbour tional certification was issued by the National a permanently growing and diversified activity Board of Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen). was a headache for department heads and the Additional confirmation was given in 1982 department board. Much work and engaged when an integrated, five-year training pro- involvement was invested in one plan after the gramme for psychologists was ratified, with other, but for different reasons they could not further specification of the goals of education be realized. Before the Department finally (lärandemålen), e.g., demands for competence moved out from the city centre to Frescati, an to take part in psycho-therapeutic tasks. intermediate stop was made from 1971 to A specifically formed, five-year education 1982 in locations scattered over a couple of for psychologists implied of course that the blocks in Vasastaden: at Hagagatan 25, where 194 Department of Psychology

mainly basic-level education was undertaken, within their own particular special areas, and and at Norrtullsgatan 41 and Norrtullsgatan therefore it becomes natural for staff who are 43–45 – the former Borgerskapets änkehus primarily involved in teaching to choose a (The House for Bourgeois Widows). Here, re- home location within these divisions. The for- search, PhD education and departmental ad- malization of an already existing structure con- ministration were located. The move solved the tributed to make the width of departmental worst of the overcrowding but was, of course, activities more visible. One aim was that each less than ideal from other points of view. division should be represented by at least one Among other aspects, the integration of re- professor. In the present situation, after the research and teaching was hampered for a period. form introducing the possibility for lecturers to Towards the end of the 1970s, the Depart- apply for promotion to professor, this ambition ment had grown to the degree that it also be- is well fulfilled. came complicated to handle information about Much later, there was a new period of grow- department activities internally within the Uni- ing pains. Successful competition for research versity, as well as externally towards society. funds, and increased societal demands for pro- The Department was a sizeable part of the Fac- fessional psychologists, resulted in each of the ulty of Social Sciences, and for a while the pos- six divisions growing to the size of other ‘nor- sibility of splitting it into several, smaller de- mally sized’ departments within the Faculty of partments was even discussed. In the end, Social Sciences. Following the example of for- formalizing the informal division between eign universities, the Department then made a dominating research areas that had existed for serious attempt to establish a new, independent a long time proved the best option. As a result Faculty within the University. This proposal, six divisions were formed: Psychology of Work however, gained no support. and Organization, Biological Psychology, Clin- ical Psychology, Cognitive Psychology, Percep- The 1980s and 1990s: Clinical tion and Psychophysics and The Psychology of research gains speed Personality, Social Psychology and Develop- Many people associate the discipline of psycho ment. With somewhat varying nomenclature, logy primarily with issues of mental illness and and in somewhat varying shape, the six divi- psychological problems and difficulties. At the sions have lived on until today. Each of the di- Stockholm Department of Psychology, clinical visions comprises a number of research groups. research made up a minor part of the total vol- The divisions are involved in the education ume of research up to the 1990s. Ever since the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 195

1960s, there had been a division of applied research is concerned with how people’s psychology, where clinical research was carried thoughts, behaviour and emotions influence out. But it was only when Carl-Otto Jonsson and are influenced by other people. Recent ex- was appointed to professor and acting head of amples concern research on intergroup biases department that clinical psychology gained a in judgements, decision making, and memory, more prominent role. as applied in legal settings and in relation to In 1992, a chair was created with the speci- stereotyping and prejudice. Another theme fication of clinical psychology. Thereby, the ac- concerns the relation between psychological at- tivity within this field grew further, and research tachment and religiosity. Some of this research with an international orientation gained speed. is performed as laboratory experiments, while The chair’s first incumbent was Lars-Göran other studies are conducted in real life. Öst, and the research became directed towards issues of treatment. Since then salient themes Research in developmental have concerned cognitive behavioural therapy, psychology treatment of phobias and of states of anxiety, To the field of developmental psychology we depression, and also the unwanted side effects have to count the entire longitudinal IDA-pro of psychological treatment. Presently, there is ject, as it has been pursued ever since the 1960s. research on internet-based psychological treat- Another early example of research within this ment, a vital and growing field of research and field concerns studies dealing with intrapersonal application. Another theme within this field is communication in relation to deafness, blind- forensic psychology, for instance the way in ness and other functional disorders. Attention which children and adults perceive, remember and theory has inspired research on the particularly narrate traumatic experiences. Another theme strong bonds between parents and children and is the study of the attachment process and parent- their role in a development perspective. child interaction, both in the normal development context and in a clinical perspective. Research in cognitive psychology Since the 1990s a central theme has been the Social psychological research human memory functions. In 1993, Lars-Göran The research field of social psychology is an- Nilsson succeeded David Magnusson as the other area that has grown in span and impor- Eneroth Chair. He also remained leader of a tance in our Department during recent decades. comprehensive longitudinal project that he had Social cognition is the general theme and the started at Umeå University in 1988 called the 196 Department of Psychology

Betula Project. This longitudinal project stud- on decision making, as it is performed by indi- ies aging, and its purpose is to explore how viduals, by groups, and by organizations. memory functions change in adult life and old Risk-taking behaviour has also been a closely age, how to define risk factors for dementia, related research theme. and how to find early, pre-clinical signs of dementia. The project is interdisciplinary and The Psychotherapy Clinic and the apart from cognitive psychology it involves education of psychotherapists neurophysiology, brain imaging, genetics and After the formal demand that psychologists gerontology. The personnel union between must have competence for therapeutic tasks, Stockholm and Umeå has provided researchers the Department started a clinic for psychother- in cognitive psychology at the Department ac- apy. The clinic offers opportunities for students cess to material from this very rich database. A in the final stage of their professional psycholo- salient theme concerns auto-biographic memo- gist training to conduct individual therapy ses- ry, the individual’s memories from her/his life, sions under the surveillance of experienced, li- and the complex combination of mental pro- censed psychologists/psychotherapists. The clinic cesses that interact in the construction of such is now one of the biggest in Stockholm, receiving memories. The field of cognitive psychology about 4,000 visits per year. The problems ad- has always been represented at the Depart- dressed are of varying nature such as anxiety, ment, for example through extensive research depression, fears, sleeping problems, stress, etc.

The David Magnusson Lecture Hall. Frescati Hage (the Frescati Meadow). (Photo: Henrik Dunér) (Photo: Henrik Dunér) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 197

The Psychotherapy Clinic of the Department of Psychology. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

Since 2011, the Department of Psychology sion. The participants choose one of two psy- offers a supplementary training in psychother- chotherapeutic orientations: cognitive beha- apy, leading to a government license, ratified by vioural therapy (KBT) or psycho-dynamic the National Board of Health and Welfare. It is therapy (PDT). given at a half-time pace for the duration of three years, and is intended for persons who PhD education already have basic academic education in a car- Up until 1974, ten traditional PhD disserta- ing profession, i.e. psychologists, physicians tions were defended in psychology. After the and social workers. One requirement is that reform of higher education in 1969, and the the candidate her/himself has gone through introduction of the new doctoral degree, the therapy and has at least two years’ experience yearly number of new PhD degrees steadily in- with psychotherapy under qualified supervi- creased. For the period 1974–1983, 34 disser- 198 Department of Psychology

tations were registered. From 1984–93 there Together with colleagues at the Department were 47, 1994–2003 94, and 2004–2013 83 and from Uppsala, he contributed expertise PhD dissertations (Nilsson 2003). This makes from the psychology of perception and the an average for the whole period of 5.9 disserta- psychology of learning to one of the most tions yearly. International publication and comprehensive and successful information compilation theses have dominated. The campaigns that has ever been implemented in sub-studies of such theses usually consist of sci- our country. entific articles that are either already published An example of a concrete product is the so- or accepted for publication in international, called Borg Scale, named after its originator, peer-reviewed journals. It can be noted that Gunnar Borg (Borg 1998). Borg had been a since the normal time for PhD studies of about student of psychology at the Stockholm De- four years was introduced, the requirements partment already at the time of David Katz. for the number of sub-studies have been low- He returned to Stockholm as professor in per- ered while the quality demands on the frame ception and psychophysics in 1980, when his paper (kappa) have increased. research group was transferred from the Psy- chotechnical Institute to Stockholm Universi- The third task ty. The Borg Scale is a theoretical scale of esti- Education and research in the subject of mation, provided with carefully chosen verbal psychology have over the years created broad labels for the different numerical steps. It was surfaces of contact with the surrounding soci- originally intended for the estimation of per- ety. Co-workers at the Department of Psychol- ceived physical effort, including shortness of ogy have in many different contexts been able breath and muscular fatigue. Presently it is to offer expertise. I will select only two exam- used all over the world, not only in the train- ples. In the 1960s, some of the researchers at ing of athletes but also within rehabilitation the Department played a significant role in the and in medical care, where it offers patients preparations for the right-hand traffic reform an opportunity to communicate their experi- to be implemented in 1967. Docent Mats ence of pain. Those of us who have moved in Björkman, later professor at Umeå University, international circles of psychological research was appointed chairperson for the ‘Scientific and have identified the Department of Psy- Workgroup for Traffic Security, Learning, chology in Stockholm as our home base, have Teaching and Media’ appointed by the Right often heard the comment “Aha, the Borg Hand Traffic Commission (Trafikverket 2004). scale!” Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 199

The Department today Frankenhaeuser, Marianne 1979. Psychoneu- Close to 180 persons have some form of roendocrine approaches to the study of employment at the Department. Just under 130 emotion as related to stress and coping. In of these co-workers are engaged mainly in re- Herbert. E. Howe and Richard. A. Dienstbier search, and of these about 50 are active PhD stu- (eds.), Nebraska Symposium on Motivation dents. Roughly 30 persons have the title of pro- 1978. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. fessor. Some 50 people work mainly with Jonsson, Carl-Otto 2003. Psykologutbildnin- teaching, and about 20 are administrators and gen – utvecklingen som jag ser den. In Lars- technicians. Göran Nilsson (ed.), Psykologiska Institu- All included – the basic and advanced levels, tionen: En jubileumsbok. Stockholm: PhD education, the programmes for psycho Psykologiska Institutionen, Stockholms uni- logists and psychotherapists and other special- versitet, p.101–108. ist educations consist of over 1,000 students per Magnusson, David and Stattin, Håkan 1998. semester enrolled in the Department’s educa- Person-context interaction theories. In Wil- tion. Through the Institute for Applied Be- liam Damon and Richard M. Lerner (eds.), havioural Science (ITB), the Department also Handbook of Child Development. Vol I: supplies commissioned courses for external or- Theoretical models of human development ganisations and for departments and adminis- (p. 685–759). New York: Wiley. trative units within Stockholm University. Nilsson, Lars-Göran 2003. Psykologiska Insti- The researchers publish between 150 and tutionen: En jubileumsbok. Stockholm: 190 texts per year according to the publication Psykologiska Institutionen, Stockholms uni- database DiVA. Around 90 to 100 of these are versitet. articles in scientific journals. The rest are books, Nystedt, Lars 2003. Psykologiska Institutionen chapters in books, and reports. Today, the De- i Stockholm 1953–2001. In Lars-Göran partment of Psychology is represented in two of Nilsson (ed.), Psykologiska Institutionen: En the University’s leading research fields: ‘cogni- jubileumsbok. Stockholm: Psykologiska In- tive aging’ and ‘stress, work and health’. stitutionen, Stockholms universitet, p.7–36. Trafikverket 2004. http://www.trafikverket.  •  se/PageFiles/43322/hogertrafikens_histo- Borg, Gunnar 1998. Borg’s Perceived Exertion ria[1].pdf. and Pain Scales. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics. Tuareg camel herders at a SAREC-supported conference in Mali about the problems of nomadism and camel rearing, arranged by department researchers in 1986. (Photo: Gudrun Dahl) 201

Department of Social Anthropology Karin Norman

“It is no secret that anthropologists are to this professionalized, internationally-orient- mobile, but when going through the material ed department with elaborate undergraduate presented in this chapter, I’m struck by the ex- and graduate courses, active researchers, and a tent to which the world is our workplace and long list of accomplished publications and doc- subject of enquiry. Seminars, publications, re- toral theses? search projects and conferences straddle places That is a long, complex story. By reminisc- and topics across the globe. The longstanding ing with colleagues, being reminded of events claim that transnational connections are a key and persons, and by looking through a dispa- defining feature of our Department still seems rate assortment of documents, I have tried to to hold true. Yet, through our special mode of sort it out. I hope to give some glimpses of engaging with the world, the specificities of what this department is and has been about. place and the diversity of human experiences are still brought to the fore.” Thus writes the The early days head of department in his introductory words “The 1960s and 1970s constitute a period that to the latest annual report from the Depart- the older generation consider especially im- ment of Social Anthropology. portant and memorable – and not (just) be- Fifty years earlier, there was no annual re- cause they have reached the age where you love port to be had and no Department of Anthro to dwell on memories of the ‘time when every- pology. There was its outdated ancestor, the thing was much better,’ but because these were Department of General and Comparative Eth- the formative years of the Department and the nography, housed at the Ethnographic Muse- discipline in Stockholm. It was in 1970 that the um in Djurgården. How did we get from there first professorship in Social Anthropology was 202 Department of Social Anthropology

installed, while remnants of the eccentricities ed North American anthropology. Some of the of bygone days would make themselves felt all course literature of that time has become obso- through the 1960s.”1 lete. Other parts have been raised to the status The Department of Ethnography was in the of ‘Classics.’ The view was of local cultures as beginning oriented toward the study of cultural coherent, territorialized wholes. Ideas of origin traits seen as isolated phenomena to be studied and diffusion at this time lost a former interest. through artefacts and techniques. In lectures This theoretical shift had a political aspect in among the collections of masks, axes and ar- its recognition of local cultural creativity. rows, students were told intriguing stories about From the mid- and late 1960s, the Depart- fieldwork in New Guinea with lively descrip- ment was in the throes of being transformed tions of the men’s penis sheaths and elaborate into social anthropology. In 1968–69, for those ritual adornments, forming some ideas of what young students yearning to ‘change the world’ fieldwork could be. The old professor, Sigvald or to know something about it, anthropology Linné, made sporadic appearances serving an- seemed a politically radical alternative to the ecdotal tales from his archaeological excava- stuffiness of conventional academic subjects. tions in Mexico. As one of the early students Those were the days of strong political move- remembers from his first year at the departments – the anti-Vietnam war, anti-imperialism, ment, Linné would persistently pose more or anti-authoritarian pedagogics, and the wom- less far-fetched questions, such as “Why are en’s movement. With the younger, more up-to- Eskimos so well clothed while the Indians of date and ambitious teachers, most of them only the Magellan Strait who have no less cold graduate students themselves, things were get- weather, wear such little clothing?” He never ting more interesting but also more confusing gave any answer. and conflictual. ‘It was a breaking point, and it Although this trait-oriented outlook was was exciting to be part of it,’ one of the young kept alive into the 1960s by the older teachers, students/teachers of that time remembers. there was a generational shift during those When Linné retired in 1968, the suggestion years. The researchers and teachers became infor professorship caused upheaval and student fluenced by British social anthropology and its protests. The whole procedure was rewound, structural functional studies of social organiza- surprisingly with support by the government. tion, in time also by the more culturally orient- Karl Eric Knutsson from the Gothenburg department, who applied, was appointed. This 1 Ulf Hannerz, personal communication. found the support of both staff and students. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 203

The Department was renamed ‘Social Anthro- and employment at the Museum or arranged pology’ and transferred from the Faculty of temporary exhibitions. Throughout there have Humanities to the Faculty of Social Sciences. been guided tours of exhibitions with under- During the year-long lapse between professors, graduate students. The head of the museum acting Head of Department Göran Aijmer took was in later years Ulla Wagner, who received hold of the situation by setting a stricter agen- her PhD in 1971 at the Department. da for teaching and curriculum. To everyone’s The journal Ethnos has been an important horror ‘he failed everyone on their current link between the Museum and the Department. course exams,’ as one former graduate student It still has an editor from the Department, al- remembers. though it is no longer published in the name of The Department moved from the Museum in the Museum. It has gone through a number of 1969, to an old apartment at Sveavägen. The editorial changes and is no longer specifically Geology Department used the apartment be- turning to Scandinavian contributors and read- fore us and left an assortment of rock speci- ership. The first issue was published in 1936 mens lying around on shelves, like some ironic with a focus on material culture and ‘extra-Eu- inversion of the masks and axes. Lecture halls ropean ethnography and archaeology.’ Today were spread out in different buildings in the “there are no restrictions on the range of an- city. Students and teachers mingled fairly free- thropological topics and fields of interest cov- ly. C-students were welcome to the seminars ered in the journal” (Bubandt et al. 2006:5–8). and hung around in the library. They organized In the late 1960s and early 1970s, teachers various study groups on their own or together and students were turning to fields and theories with graduate students/teachers. Some of them that they felt relevant to the political urgency were recruited to teach first year students, of the world in which they lived – theories of while the more accomplished graduate students political economy with a neo-Marxist turn and were responsible for much of the second and about the nature of patriarchy. third-year courses. The concern with ‘changing the world’ also A temporary rift between the Museum and meant our own world. Students were enthusi- the Department arose due to the students’ in- astic about the Norwegian anthropologist volvement in a demonstration against a (seem- Ottar Brox’s study of Northern Norway (1966) ingly) uncritical exhibition on the Maya Indians and Daun’s ‘Upp till kamp i Båtskärsnäs’ (1969). of Guatemala. In time, several of the Depart- Several young students were keen to conduct ment’s researchers, however, found positions studies in rural Sweden for their BA theses, per- 204 Department of Social Anthropology

PhD candidate Gudrun Dahl writes field notes in Kenya in 1974. (Photo: Anders Hjort af Ornäs)

haps for their future doctoral work. This ran sidering the large number of immigrants from into some opposition among the oldest profes- Turkey) and the Southern Europe group. Other sors – ‘you must first go abroad, girl!’ as groups were explicitly oriented towards theo- Izikowitz, professor in Gothenburg, exclaimed retical/political issues. A stencilled document on a visit to the Department. That is, leave the was at some point sent out by two amanuenses/ world you take for granted, confront the un- doctoral students with the query, “A critical known! social anthropology – where will it lead?” They To come to grips with the ‘unknown,’ stu- wrote: “Last semester a few student groups ar- dents formed various study groups – the Northern ranged informal discussions about what char- Europe Group, the Rural Group (Glesbygds- acterizes social anthropology in comparison gruppen), and later on the Turkish Group (con- with sociology. An attempt was also made to Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 205

clarify the potential usefulness of anthropology perspective, he adds, referring to an early paper for society. This coming semester we are plan- by Ulf Hannerz (1970), ‘The Management of ning to widen these discussions and form one Danger.’ This perspective is the definite strength or two study groups. Two themes have been of the discipline. Anthropology is nonetheless a preliminarily decided upon: ‘Applied Anthro- generalizing and comparative science, Knuts- pology’ and ‘Marx or Malinowski?’. son states, foreboding a classic debate that has been on the critical agenda many times since Identifying anthropology (cf. Abu-Lughod 1991, Gingrich & Fox 2002, For his instalment in 1970 as the first professor Bubandt & Otto 2010). in Social Anthropology, Knutsson presented a This perspective raises ethical problems text titled ‘The Anthropological Perspective, about the responsible uses of anthropology, Reflections about the identity of a discipline’. something that greatly preoccupied Knutsson. In the text, he grapples with the task of identi- He points to anthropology’s social relevance, fying what anthropology is. What is specific which was high on the agenda for many stu- about anthropology? What creates its disci- dents and younger teachers, a prominent issue plinary unity?, he asks. in the continued formation of the Anthropolo- Anthropology is no longer a regionally gy conducted at the Department and its subse- identifiable discipline, nor is it limited to a quent engagement in research on ‘ideologies of specific set of empirical or theoretical prob- development.’ lems, Knutsson tells us. Neither can the method of participant observation define the disci- “The next ten years” – pline. Participant observation is not only a anthropology in Stockholm method for gathering information but an atti- Knutsson was an enthusiastic, networking per- tude towards the ‘material,’ he writes. It is son, wanting to get things moving. He was en- about striving to create social relations based gaged in getting students out into the field and on trust and reciprocity. This research attitude finding channels to finance doctoral students’ Knutsson refers to as ‘the anthropological fieldwork. This had a great significance for the perspective.’ many who did fieldwork during the 1970s and Its most basic characteristic is to take the early 1980s. “Who else would have taken stu- view from inside the universe of the people be- dents (C-level and graduate students) to the ing studied. Inside implies from below, he goes AAA Annual Meeting in New York (1971), on; it is a grassroots perspective, or an asphalt finding ways and means of financing it? It was 206 Department of Social Anthropology

an amazing experience, most of us had never a Marxist anthropology, critiquing the contin- been to New York before,” a former amanuen- ued focus on ‘micro-level questions’ and ‘the sis remembers. desperate search for new fields of inquiry, “With you (the students/teachers/research- such as the anthropology of hierarchies, lin- ers) there are no problems – but what will hap- guistic anthropology, urban anthropology’ pen in the next ten years?” Knutsson won- when most people in the world are part of a dered. A conference for the Department was ‘world-embracing system’ where the ‘mecha- arranged in 1973 to discuss the future of an- nisms of underdevelopment’ are prolific. For thropology, called ‘The Next Ten Years’. A Knutsson it meant problematizing the ‘neo-co- number of different topics were on the agenda lonial consequences of development’ and – teaching, research specializations, the job working against ethnocentrism. market, international exchange, the role of Others lifted questions such as the organiza- Swedish anthropology. The aim was that the tional goals of the doctoral studies. Should conference would have an ‘open and sponta- there be specific field training courses? What neous atmosphere.’ kind of anthropological competence would be The question was what we could contribute sought after in the future? Should doctoral to anthropology, given that Sweden was on the training promote specialization or broad gen- periphery of the ‘established centres of the dis- eral anthropological knowledge? cipline’ (Great Britain and USA) and had “a lot Ten years had not passed, however, before to learn from them given our lack of tradition,” Knutsson left the department for other pas- according to Knutsson. Endorsing the interna- tures. He initiated the funding organization for tional contacts, Hannerz emphasized that “too development research, SAREC, and became its great attention to, and dependence on, metro- first head in 1975. In terms of funding research, politan anthropologies could be detrimental.” this was significant, but it left theDepartment Perhaps it would be possible for us at some in a kind of limbo during the second half of the point in the future to take a role in decentraliz- seventies. A row of temporary visiting profes- ing anthropology, he suggested. sors, such as Sandra Wallman, Robert Paine, Although all contributions were concerned Harald Eidheim, Maurice Bloch and others, all with the ‘social relevance’ of anthropology, had significance for the graduate students who the emphasis went in different directions. often were left to their own devices and heavy Some argued specifically for the study of the teaching loads, since their supervisors and the effects of neo-colonialism and for establishing department head were absent. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 207

Being a doctoral student Even if there was no dominating regional or “You don’t need to have read the classics, it is theoretical ’school,’ some of the new ‘elders’ enough if you just have held them [the books]” and guest professors were influential. Knutsson is one of Knutsson’s more memorable statements. was a significant supporter of the early gradu- There were no definite criteria for admit- ate students turning to studies in East Africa tance to doctoral studies. Being an amanuen- and development issues. Hannerz was more in- sis meant an automatic admittance, although fluential for those interested in ‘complex societ- becoming an amanuensis was not just about ies’ and urban life, a group which evolved into being willing to shuffle paper, fix schedules or the so-called PLUS project, four studies on ‘so- make stencilled copies of all sorts. You must cial stratification’ in different urban contexts. have been an active C-level student, shown an It has always been hard work to be a doctor- interest. There was hardly any doctoral pro- al student, difficult to get adjusted to the work- gramme and no regular courses. Knutsson ings of the Department, the requirements, the met up once a year with the doctoral students loneliness of writing, worries of not succeed- who then reported on the credits they had at- ing. During the first decades, the doctoral stud- tained during the previous year. “I have seen ies were disorganized. The great worry for that you are all hard-working,” he would say, many students was money – how to support which was sufficient for him. He was fully yourself, perhaps even a family? It was either preoccupied with getting the Department ad- about having a well-to-do and supportive fam- justed to the new surroundings at Frescati ily or finding a job that allowed for time to and the Faculty. study. Or it meant teaching and administrative Knutsson was open and supportive in gener- work at the Department. Such work was sel- al, letting people engage in different fields and dom full-time. It was low paid and often on an research issues. This was also the stance of hourly basis. In time it became clear that you Hannerz, and has continued to be so. Others had to have credits in order to at some point worried about the proliferation of research in- have a chance to get the small student grant. terests and the ’fragmented state of the Depart- Dissatisfaction with the disorganized doctor- ment.” For the graduate students, this open- al studies and the hierarchical atmosphere at the ness to a variety of studies and approaches was Department, especially in terms of gender, made stimulating but made it more difficult for them the active female students at the time feel that to find their theoretical bearings and formulate something must be done, both with the organi- reasonable research questions. zation of studies and with tendencies towards 208 Department of Social Anthropology

male favouritism. They demanded change! The protests resulted in the establishment of AKSA, the Working Group for Women Social Anthro- pologists (Arbetsgruppen för kvinnliga social antropologer ), in 1973. To his credit, Knutsson took it seriously. “You say that I am oppressing you, I don’t think I am, but if you say so, then I probably am,” said Knutsson, “so go find out what to do.” He rather unconventionally supported AKSA. He made the Department finance a weekend conference at Bergendahls folkhögskola, where the issue could really be debated among the women Dissertation defence audience 1987. and something concrete come out. As one of the (Photo: Gudrun Dahl) participants notes, remembering this historic event: “It turned into a regular revival meeting!” Much of the ‘looseness’ of the 1970s, however, continued into the 1980s. There was periodically no real leadership or continuous supervision to count on. The seminars were supplemented by visiting professors who all took an interest in the research projects. In the 1980s, Moshe Shokeid came several times and Bruce Kapferer for a semester. The study group on phenomenology that he held in his dun- geon-like apartment on Kungstensgatan in the mid-1980s is unforgettable. There was a kind of blurred hierarchy with doctoral students keeping the ship afloat with Opponent, grading committee member and teaching and doing administrative work, while respondent. Professors Aijmer and Adamson congratulate Claes Hallgren after viva arranging their own small series of seminars. It examination. (Photo: Gudrun Dahl) was exciting to be part of something new. All Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 209

were young and engaged in finding out about more or less a year of fieldwork, and writing up anthropology. Yet this involvement had its dis- their ethnographic material into a thesis. In ad- advantages in the long run – it postponed their dition, they are of course still expected to partic- own dissertations and advancements. They be- ipate in research seminars. Their teaching expe- came learned teachers – worried about not be- riences are restricted to being assistants to the ing ‘good enough’ and able to manage the crit- lecturers. For all that, their future as researchers ical students – now as they were on the other or in finding employment is uncertain. “This side of the fence. No matter, “it will work out, it streamlining is a misguided view of what re- always has…”, several people reasoned, not search is about, and the varying conditions that concerned enough with their careers, until they universities have. The whole ‘new management’ realized that time was no longer on their side drive is detrimental for the life of a department and the University became a more demanding and the creativity of its students and research- controller of academic careers and increasingly ers”, one supervisor summarized the view that scarce positions. This process has sharpened several others also have expressed. No wonder over the years. students hope that ‘having a theory’ from the In the end, the doctoral studies became more start will more effectively and professionally clearly organized with regular courses given, solve their dilemmas of gathering their ethnog- although more sporadically than in later years. raphy and writing it up in time. Students again formed their own reading groups. People tend to remember such groups Publishing theses as important and stimulating, something they In 1974, the Department started its own publi- miss. Such seminars/discussion groups seldom cation series, the SSSA, to accommodate the have a specific goal; they are about searching, printing of doctoral theses and other book- learning, and they have an ambient value. length manuscripts. The first book printed was With a reform of the universities in 1998, Hannerz’s “Caymanian Politics” in that year. doctoral students have become more hedged in. The last to be published in the old series was Studies are more narrowly oriented to their own Anette Nyqvist’s “Opening the Orange Enve- projects, which they must have decided on as lope” in 2008. Nowadays, the doctoral theses they apply to the programme. They are more of the University are packaged in a blue-white secure financially and in terms of social security. Acta series – perhaps symptomatic of the cen- Yet their time is restricted. In four years they are tralizing regulatory frame in which research is supposed to have accomplished reading courses, finding itself. 210 Department of Social Anthropology

SSSA was organized as a non-profit associa- A variety of projects and interests tion with statutes, a board and a paying mem- In the 1970s, and the 1980s, there were a number bership – in 1983, for example, the annual fee of group projects, more or less loosely tied to- was 10 Swedish Crowns. Managing the SSSA gether. Many projects were individual. Quite a series was as so much else in the hands of re- few were studies in Europe, some ‘at home’ in searchers and doctoral students. According to a Sweden, but the majority outside Europe – rotating schedule – one month each – they were countries in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and responsible for taking in orders of books and Latin America. The variety has continued, now distributing them to customers, answering let- including the USA and some of the post-social- ters and keeping track of payments. In time, ist countries in Europe. the work became too extensive as did problems The individual projects had a broad range of with storage, so this was outsourced. topics – an Indian reservation community in A council was constituted in the early 1970s, Canada, household management in a French during Knutsson’s era, in order to give depart- municipality, Maasai pastoralism and changing ment researchers the opportunity to influence gender relations, child raising and ideologies of the division of resources, the distribution of personhood in Germany, class relations in a student scholarships, teaching, and administra- Swedish working-class community, young girls tion. There was no constitutional ground for growing up in London, and a development proj- the council. It was instead a way for the head ect and local relations in Syria. of department to delegate power, something A study of the Sami minority in Sweden was the later formal Department Council also de- conducted in the 1970s (Svensson 1976) and in cided to do. The ‘Resource Council’ (Resurs 1981, Ulf Björklund conducted fieldwork among nämnden) was informal and advisory, with no the Suryoyo from Turkey in Södertälje, one of power of decision. In the council resided the the first anthropological studies of immigration head of department, elected representatives in Sweden. He and several others at the Depart- from among the doctoral students, teachers and ment working with issues of migration and eth- researchers, all who read through documents of nic relations at that time had close contacts with applications and made recommendations to CEIFO, The Centre for Research in Internation- the Department Council. However, one of the al Migration and Ethnic Relations, a multi- professors was in the end not so pleased with disciplinary research centre of long-standing and this set-up, feeling that the committee was international acclaim which for many years was “more into equality than quality.” a neighbour and collaborator with the Depart- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 211

ment. Only very recently was CEIFO trans- fieldwork in Yemen, Malaysia, and India, referred, in diminished form, into the Department spectively. Hannerz conducted his study in Ni- of Anthropology, as a research programme. geria. Their theoretical approaches varied, but The Turkish group (Damturken) consisted of ‘social stratification’ is a recurring concept in a small group of three doctoral students. They their project descriptions. From the beginning, all located their studies among Turkish immi- one of them was attempting a Marxist analysis grants in a suburb to Stockholm. One was a of the mode of production, but found that it did study of Turkish women in Swedish health not work. As one, now retired colleague con- care. The other two turned to children in a day- templates, “For me, Marxist anthropology has care centre and in an elementary school. Those been important, emotionally and politically, were the days when Swedish immigration poli- and still is, but I haven’t succeeded in making a cy on integration and the right to one’s cultural Marxist analysis of my material.” heritage was to offer children ‘home language’ education. The Turkish children were learning KOS – women and social change mainly in Turkish, going to a Turkish class. In 1976, one could read in the largest evening The study of the day-care centre became an paper: “The Tercentennial Fund of the Nation- ethnographic film, one of the first among the al Bank has this year given its largest grant, few that have appeared at the Department. half a million Swedish Crowns, to a research team of five women for their project ‘Women Plural societies / PLUS and Social Change’ in different parts of the Although a quite different group project, the world.” It was an unusual endeavour, and pres- Plural Societies Project (PLUS) was launched tigious for the Department. and funded during the 1970s, but lasted to the They had all participated in AKSA and sup- end of the 1980s when the last of the three the- ported by Knutsson decided to organize a col- ses was completed. The research was linked to laborative research project on women and so- the early interest emanating from Hannerz’s cial change for their PhDs, a comparative study study of an urban ghetto and developed a focus of women in five different societies including on ‘complex societies,’ with forerunners in Brit- Colombia, Ghana, Yugoslavia, Morocco, and ish studies of African towns and of the net- Sweden, which was. Their stated aim was to works of ethnic and ‘tribal’ relations and in the “correct an anthropological deficit and give a American sociological studies of urban life. more complete and valid view of social life The three male doctoral students conducted which must include the work and lives of wom- 212 Department of Social Anthropology

en, as well as that of men; to explore what opportunities and power women have of taking control of their lives; and to see how social changes have influenced women’s lives.” It was the first and most ambitious group project at the Department (AS 1981). In their common ‘log book’, they made notes of topics to discuss with each other: since it was to be a comparative study, how would this be accomplished? They had many, many discussions about how to proceed gathering the empirical material, what kind of material KOS (”Women and Social Change”) were pio- was needed and how to go about gathering this neers in Swedish feminist research. Here Eva “without constantly feeling at a loss as to how Sköld, Eva Evers-Rosander, Prudence Berger and to structure the data.” Should they concentrate Gunilla Bjeren. (Aftonbladet 1976) on the same issues? What concepts to work with? In a sense, they put the cart before the and the aluminium roofing creak and moan. It horse, realizing this only when the different sounds as if this whole ice-blue university fieldwork had gotten underway. Like genera- building will fall apart any minute, like a house tions of doctoral students after them, they were of cards…There was a report from ER that ar- prone to be too theoretical, too structured be- rived today – desperation. The usual conflict of fore they knew their fields well enough. “We roles in the field. Sometimes I wonder if we should have done each our own study and then were just too naïve and optimistic about this from our results drawn out issues that could whole project. Will all the suffering feel worth have been raised to a level of comparison,” one it in the end? Yes, maybe. Probably.” of the former participants reflects. Another entry is a brief, somewhat despon- Fieldwork/Life in the field dent reflection from one Friday afternoon “To me, the most important aspect of anthro- during the autumn semester. Sitting in the proj- pology is that of fieldwork, the detailed and in- ect room, E, who is temporarily home, writes depth work with the ‘people themselves,’ tak- in their log-book, “The wind is blowing right ing part in how they see their lives,” an older through the room here, making the glass façade colleague once said. As one younger colleague Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 213

comments, ‘fieldwork raises questions, it is a kind The point was that the seminar should have a of problematization.” ‘holistic view’ of fieldwork and not just take up What is fieldwork all about? How do we go questions of method in a circumscribed, techni- about conducting fieldwork in our different cal sense. The discussions revolved around the projects? In the late 1970s, edited volumes on significance and problematics of one’s gender, fieldwork methods began to see the light of family situation, the language difficulties one day, often less technical and distanced. One or had, how one’s network of contacts evolved, the other were more personal, however, like and relations with assistants. People’s fields that of Freilich’s ‘Marginal Natives’ (1970) or were widely dispersed geographically, but the edited volume by Golde, ‘Women in the many difficulties and methodological/theoreti- Field’ (1970). The few more detailed and sensi- cal issues were shared. This rich material was tive descriptions such as Briggs’ (1970) or compiled in a modest form in a special issue of Bowen’s (1954) were far apart, and not seen as the small local student-led magazine, Antro intellectually compelling as the ethnographic pologiska Studier (1977: 21). monographs and theoretical treatises. They One of the more difficult topics was that of were mainly written by women, which is noted field notes. “The tendency to one-up-manship, in the much later volume ‘Anthropology and that at times made itself felt during the semi- Autobiography’ (Okely & Callaway 1992). nars, became more prominent and the atmo- At this time, an initiative was taken to sphere became more defensive” wrote Birgitta arrange a seminar series about ‘life in the field.’ Percivall (1977: 33), going on to write about The publications in existence were not about the participants’ struggle with doing ‘real the whole field situation and our own experi- work’ – that is, interviewing, writing notes, ences. How do people live in the field? What and the more participatory activities of ‘hang- demands are they confronted with? Who are ing around.’ The contradiction became appar- one’s contacts? What influences one’s sense of ent, between the critique of positivism and the well-being or discomfort in the field? What in- general agreement, that anthropology cannot fluences choice of field site? become an ‘exact’ science, one the one hand, and Every Wednesday morning for a year, an in- the unhappy admiration for the social sciences’ formal and open group of the Department’s use of more technically sophisticated methods researchers and doctoral candidates met to ex- than ours on the other. change experiences on a variety of issues rele- Since then, the debates on the meaning of vant to their different projects and fieldwork. participant observation, the formation and de- 214 Department of Social Anthropology

limitation of a field site, the relationship be- raphies? The problem sharpened and became tween experience and anthropological knowl- more politicized. It was the post-structuralist edge, as well as the more practical aspects of era, and the reflexive turn of the 1980s and conducting fieldwork, have gone on. For many 1990s. This ‘turn’ has shifted its intention and years it has been formally included in graduate meaning, but the significance of the anthro course work as well as in undergraduate teaching. pologist as a political subject has remained a For anthropology, it has always been prob- compelling problem. It questions concepts of lematic, whether implicitly or explicitly, ‘who’ culture, of representation and cultural translation. the anthropologist is in relation to her or his research subjects, and what the possible sourc- End of a decade and a new professor es of bias are. In the 1960s and 1970s we Already in 1969, Hannerz received his Doc- learned that we should see things from “the torate and thereby made the newspaper head- native’s point of view,” as Malinowski wrote, lines. In the provincial thinking of those days, yet avoid the dangers of ‘going native.’ We his thesis, ‘Soulside’, an ethnographic study of were taught to distinguish between the ‘emic’ an African American ghetto, was with its lack and the ‘etic’ the native’s views and experiences of statistics not really seen as scientific by the and the anthropologist’s privileged analytical social scientists in the examination commit- position. Subsequently, this gave rise to worries tee. None of them were anthropologists and whether the people we studied were ‘infor- competent to judge, having no clue about an- mants’ or if they could be called ‘friends.’ thropological methods or theoretical perspec- In time, this ‘native’ has become all the more tives, or that the book would become a clas- problematic, as if everyone were the same. Did sic. They were unwilling to give him the people not think and do things differently ev- highest grade, which would have made him erywhere? In other words, what is ‘culture?’ Docent and eligible to apply for professor- Was it difference or sameness that we were con- ship. He is quoted as saying: “[T]he kind of cerned with? What was being compared in the one-man show that a professorship is will dis- comparative project that anthropology claimed appear. Becoming professor or county gover- to be? Issues of hierarchy, power, and gender nor (landshövding) is the end-station of a long entered the debates and ‘the Other’ became a career and there you sit until you die. If you different kind of dilemma. Again, who was the wish to do research it is not especially attrac- anthropologist in this post-colonial world? tive to have to sacrifice half of your time on Whose voices were being heard in the ethnog- office work”. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 215

He was 29 at the time. A little more than mantel. Our chief was born! The audience ten years later, nearing the prime of his career, cheered and the ritual experts departed. And he must have changed his mind since he ap- the party lasted far into the night. plied for and took on a professorship after all. In addition, he was head of department for Research in the 1980s several longer or shorter periods until he re- Gender continued tired in 2007. Studies of women and gender have been a continuous and more and more complex issue in Performing an initiation ritual anthropology since the 1970s and the days of By the time of Hannerz’s instalment, the grad- AKSA and KOS. Like most other research is- uate students he had known at the Depart- sues, it has been linked to the wider theoretical ment were also much more in the know, com- and political debates. Perspectives have shifted pared to the days of Knutsson. They had read from studies primarily on women, by women and taught van Gennep, Mauss, Turner, and – few men have proven specifically interested in Douglas, so Hannerz was installed and cele- studies of women – to a wider scope on gender brated accordingly. Academic formalities and sexuality and the problematization of fem- were one thing, but the tribe at the Depart- inism, subsequently taking in theories of queer ment wished to celebrate its new headman. and heteronormativity. With meticulous preparations, a rite of pas- The body and sexuality have been part of an- sage was to be arranged. Everyone stood gath- thropological research since the days of Ma- ered in the venue that had been rented (a linowski and Mead, but then mainly in relation restaurant in town). The room was lit only to marriage, socialization processes, initiation with candles. In a Turneresque mode, two rit- rituals, circumcision, and homosexual behaviour. ual experts, two of the female graduate stu- Issues of sexuality and the body in terms of pow- dents, dressed in flowing textiles, their faces er relations and performance are a much later painted white, led the trembling initiate to the theoretical development. However, socially and centre of the room, placed him prostrate on culturally pervasive, gender analysis is a more or the floor and covered him with leaves. The less separate topic and research focus and has at music throbbed and the ritual experts danced the Department its own reading course. Some around and around the still body. As his old ‘do gender,’ others don’t, as it were. identity successfully died he was raised up and The seminar series on women at the Depart- placed in a special chair, covered in a royal ment had been going on for quite some time 216 Department of Social Anthropology

the term ‘kön/sex’ were to be retained instead of the more distinctive concept gender. Since most of the participants in the gender seminar were graduate students, they decided to compile a reading list for a credit-giving course. The papers they wrote were discussed in the seminar and later printed in abbreviated form in the special issue, ‘The Gender Debate,’ of the departmental student journal, Antropo logiska Studier (1990).

Development as ideology and folk model ‘Development’ and related issues of social

Mona Rosendahl acted as ritual leader when the change, modernization, and progress had been Department in 1981 celebrated its new professor, a prominent interest since the days of Knuts- Ulf Hannerz. (Photo: Gudrun Dahl) son. Already in 1974, the Development Studies Unit was established, an initiative of Knutsson, when, at the end of the 1980s, the suggestion leading to the constitution of ‘Sektionen’ – the was to rename it ‘The gender theory seminar,’ Development Studies Unit – connected to the GET (Genusteoretiska seminariet ). In 1987, a Department but financed by SIDA assignments. volume with contributions from several of the Unfortunately, it became marked by a division researchers at the Department was published between applied and theoretical anthropology, with the title Från kön till genus (From Sex to and almost turned into ‘a supplier of conve- Gender, ed. Kulick 1987). Although some were nient labour for SIDA,’ in the opinion of some. afraid that the use of the gender concept would However, the Unit arranged a series of semi- again make women invisible, most of the partic- nars at which the Department’s researchers and ipants opted for ‘gender.’ Although the nature/ students would sometimes participate. It was culture dichotomy had been discussed and cri- for quite a few of the Department’s doctoral tiqued for some time, a seemingly indisputable students and researchers a source of experience distinction made between biological sex and the in development work, what it entailed, and a social/cultural sex was still taken for granted, source of shorter and longer periods of em- which, it was argued, would be confounded if ployment. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 217

In the mid-1980s, a group project was ini- In 1989, the Department had received a sec- tiated by Gudrun Dahl, focusing on develop- ond professor in ‘Anthropology, especially de- ment as an ideological and cultural concept velopment research.’ ’Development,’ which is and ‘the processes through which Western central in Western thinking, is a problematic thinking about development is reproduced concept. It “has a normative and evaluative and communicated in developing countries.’ meaning,” as Dahl notes (Dahl 1989:4), which A variety of research issues were part of this goes against the grain of anthropology. So, the overarching project and the series of seminars appointed professor herself, Dahl, commented that were organized every semester for quite a on the paradox of the specification of the pro- few years discussed a number of different the- fessorship (ibid). This interest in conceptualiza- oretical and ethnographic problems. The proj- tions of ‘development’ has been extended to ects included a large variety of studies – how the more current theoretical interests in envi- the ‘concept of development among the Bo- ronmental issues, sustainability, resilience – raana nomads of Ethiopia and Kenya relate to concepts that today are common, yet problem- their traditional notion of growth as a central atic, and the focus of critical studies in several cultural value and fate as a cyclical phenome- of the Department’s projects. non’; comparing notions of development in Jordan, Kuwait and Syria as this was commu- Research on cultural organization nicated in political speeches, education and ’Cultural organization’ had become a signifi mass media; language shift in a small village cant research focus at the Department, so far in Papua New Guinea and villager’s cargo-ori- expressed on an unarticulated basis in various ented ideas about development and its rela- projects. To create a forum for such interests, a tion to Catholicism and white skin; the con- seminar group, FOKO, was loosely formed in ceptions of development in local and regional 1987 by Hannerz, open to researchers and doc- notions of belonging and cultural identity and toral students concerned with theories of cul- processes of mobilization in Sweden. ‘Kam-ap ture. The notion of cultural organization was or Take-off’ was an edited volume with con- meant to problematize the relationship be- tributions from the different participants of tween culture and social organization. The the seminar series (Dahl & Rabo 1992), in ad- world is all the more complex, it is stated in the dition to the Swedish volume, ‘Bortom bruk- presentation of the group. In terms of ideas and sandan’ (‘Beyond the Company Town Menta forms of expression and representation, culture lity’, Ekman 1996). may still be seen as a collective phenomenon, 218 Department of Social Anthropology

but hardly as something undifferentially ever, there was, and has been, an ongoing di- shared. Culture is diversely distributed but so- versity of interests and theoretical debates at cially organized. Quite concretely, the group’s the Department about power, economic orga- participants represented varying areas of inter- nization and shifts in the labour market and est – the division of labour as a division of meanings of labour, work that has incorporat- knowledge; popular culture; research and edu- ed both culture, power, mechanisms of control cation as cultural processes; the significance of and dependence. information and media technologies for the organization of cultures; transnational cultural The material and the visual flows; cultural identity in relation to ethnicity The interest in ‘material culture’ is of course an and nationalism. old one, central to the Museum, and so some- These regularly recurring seminars stretched thing the critical students in early years were over many years, reflecting one of the more more interested in avoiding than studying. Slowly, prominent research profiles at the Department the material aspects of social life reappeared in at the time. It has continued and been reformu- a different theoretical guise and became an im- lated into various projects, and is one of the portant part of the anthropological project in predecessors of the current ’profile area’ of the terms of ‘the social life of things’ (Appadurai Department – transnational anthropology. 1986) and their uses and consumption (Miller To some, the focus on culture seemed to dis- 1987). But ‘things’ raise problems. What is a regard the workings of economic and political ‘thing,’ and what is its materiality? In other structures and power relations. A group of words, the problem concerns severing life from (doctoral) students declared that the interest in things, the material. Today, doctoral students economy and economic organization had “de- confront in their courses the disconcerting creased to the extent that we must do some- question if ‘glaciers listen’ or ‘forests think.’ It thing radical! The individualisation of doctoral may seem far-fetched, but the issue is whether studies and the interest in so-called cultural or not we can understand and come close to a analyses shows that we need to take a renewed world, where some of our interlocutors think interest in studies of economic organisation that glaciers do listen (Cruikshank 2005) or and inequality”. Seminars were to be organized forests think (Kohn 2013). This raises anew the and those interested were instructed to contact question of what difference is and what it the two initiators, calling themselves ‘Not yet means for the anthropological project and our PhD’ and ‘Never Attaining Docentship.’ How- conceptions of who ‘the Other’ is. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 219

‘Material culture’ was about documenting, ment in Uppsala. It engaged a number of our and in a different way so are the images – pho- department’s graduate students and research- tos, films – that anthropologists make. These ers. For many years, the Ethnographic Museum are, however, also much more, since the whole was responsible for archiving the films. Several idea of documentation alludes to some kind of of the graduate students were engaged in the objectivity. Most anthropologists will remem- festivals and workshops, but there has not been ber one or another of the ethnographic films any training as such at the Department (AS they have seen during their studies and the 1986). A few films have nonetheless been pro- strong impression it made, and the seemingly duced. An early film, Pinnarävar, was based on odd black and white photos in early mono- fieldwork among workers in a Swedish small- graphs – Malinowski sitting on his veranda town factory. A more recent film, “B.A.T.A.M.” talking to some ‘informant,’ Margaret Mead was based on work among migrants in a free- wearing a Samoan dress, standing beside her trade zone in Indonesia. Today, members of the female informant, or the Nuer leopard-chief Department are invited to participate in a de- holding his status paraphernalia in Evans- partmental lab workshop on digital photo Pritchard’s monograph. graphy and HD video. Most anthropologists take photos during fieldwork; many monographs contain pictures of The research seminars and thinking various field situations and persons, including the about hierarchy anthropologist herself. Yet, what is the relation What are seminars for? between image and text? What message is con- “The research seminar is the backbone (or the veyed? What are the aesthetics employed? How ‘life blood’) of the Department, both aca is ethnographic film-making related to fieldwork? demically and socially,” as one colleague formu- Somewhat differently, how do we study the imag- lates it. “It is something akin to a gift economy es produced by others? Ethnographic films have – by participating, giving, you also receive,” as always been used in teaching, especially in under- another sees it. “But now it’s more of the neolib- graduate courses. Visual anthropology has also eral attitude – what-can-I-get-out-of-this-type- been a growing interest, both in the making of of-thinking.” various images and in the study of images pro- Throughout the past 50-odd years, a variety duced by the people being studied. of seminars have been a standing phenomenon Already in 1972, a Nordic film association, at the Department, as in any other academic NAFA, was initiated at the anthropology depart- department. The complaint that students do not 220 Department of Social Anthropology

participate enough is an unresolved issue that tials of the seminars, the learning,” as one re- transcends every generation. searcher reflected. One may feel or act as if Apart from the weekly or bi-weekly general one’s whole intellectual credibility is at stake. research seminars, there have been an array of Even in the early days, the intended openness temporary or long-term seminars for different of the ‘Life in the field’ seminar ran into trouble purposes and topics – regional, methodologi- as “some tended to dominate discussions at the cal, theoretical, and seminars for presenting expense of others,” Gerholm writes (AS 1976). work in progress. In the 1970s and 1980s, the Already in 1970, a group of female students few formal courses offered to doctoral students felt that the research seminars were such a “de- made the various seminars all the more import- moralizing pain,” given the dominance of some ant and encouraged students to take initiatives of the males, and arranged a form of ‘pre-sem- to form reading and discussion groups. There inars’ to prepare themselves by discussing the was in the beginning a sense of enthusiasm paper and conjuring good arguments. “It was among the generationally fairly homogenous, very helpful, lasted a couple of years.” and at times acephalous, group of graduate students/teachers/administrators. There was Alternative fora “an implicit but pervasive denial of academic hier- In the 1990s a series of debates were arranged archy,” as Tomas Gerholm wrote in a document. with those doctoral students who so wished to Research seminars are meant to be fora for participate. They were based on the recurring thought and communication but easily become debates at Manchester University, a number of fora for personal positioning and experiences them which were gathered in a volume, ‘Key of uncertainty. There is a tension between the Debates in Anthropology’ (Ingold 1996), and wish for the uncensored openness and the for- followed the format in simplified form: two mality of the institutional seminars, however speakers argue, one for, the other against a informal they are meant to be. The seminar chosen theoretical statement, followed by gen- room seems to constitute a supreme place in eral discussion. A number of interesting and the academic world for performing hierarchy. compelling issues were debated. It was intrigu- The emplacement in the room, who tends to sit ing and great fun, inspiring people who tended where, is part of this performance. Then again, to be silent at regular seminars to actively par- “if you don’t participate at the seminar, take ticipate and not succumb to a sense of uncer- part in the discussion, you can get caught up in tainty or unease that is such a common occur- hierarchies, seeing more of that than the poten- rence at seminars. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 221

About ten years ago a small group of doc- use. Concepts and notions of centre and pe- toral students decided to arrange their own riphery may, however, easily reify relations, reading group, the Vasa seminar, named after overlooking temporal, spatial and intellectual the pub where they met. After a while, the shifts and changes. group transformed into more of a thesis-text To what extent do we cultivate our own sig- group. They took turns carefully commenting num? The dilemma is that a small national re- on each other’s texts at various stages. “We tried search community can end up becoming just a to be constructive, but thinking back, we were ”safe haven for mediocrity” (ibid:12). probably too critical, too detailed. We may even Although differentiated, centres may remain have contributed in delaying each other in fin- on the whole intact, self-sufficient with little ishing our theses. Then again, it led to some re- awareness of the peripheries. Peripheries do not warding general anthropological discussions. necessarily turn to each other as much as to cen- Apart from that it has always been nice to meet tres. Whether we could, at some point in the fu- regularly in a relaxing pub environment!.” ture, take a role in decentralizing anthropology (and if) Swedish anthropology (would) be any The move towards ‘internationaliza- more acceptable to the Third World than the tion’ – ‘centre and periphery’ metropolitan, great-power anthropologies is still In the introduction to a special issue on natio an open question. Individual researchers have nal anthropologies in Ethnos, Gerholm and through their networks and specific interests and Hannerz state that “one of our interests is in publications surely had an impact within their the inequalities of international anthropology; specialities, or even in terms of broader issues – in the ways the strong influence the relatively such as transnationalism, globalization, migra- weaker” (1982:6). Their concern coincides tion, organization, development, and law. with the general interest in anthropology at the At the same time, a department may have its time, namely the tensions between ‘centre’ and own version of ‘centre’ and ‘periphery’ – or hi- ‘periphery.’ How does this relate to the Stock- erarchy, perhaps more to the point. Some re- holm Department? searchers are for various reasons central in What is the meaning of ‘international?’ terms of formal position, generation, gender What constitutes a ‘centre?’ What is a ‘peri- and scholarly accomplishments – while others phery?’ In different ways the issue has been an revolve around them as constant or temporary ongoing aspect of our discussions about re- and shifting peripheries. What are the conse- search, teaching, publications, and language quences of such a division of labour? 222 Department of Social Anthropology

On the Vega Day Symposium of 1995, ‘Cul- The last few decades ture and Voice in Social Anthropology,’ Veena The FOKO seminars continued into the 1990s Das, the Indian anthropologist, was awarded and globalization entered the research vocabu- the Retzius medal. Hannerz refers to the issue lary, together with transnational connections, of periphery in his presentation: “She asks us cultural complexity and ‘flow.’ While culture to listen to more voices than what mainstream was on the agenda, far from the earlier metropolitan anthropologists have historically straight-jacket of the territorialized, trait-ori- done: to the scholars of the periphery, grounding ented view of culture, the culture concept be- their work in other experiences and world came an issue to reflect over. Could ‘culture’ views; to women, youth and children; to victims both be a descriptive and an analytical con- of disaster and upheaval” (Hannerz 1995:158, cept? What could Marxist analyses do with Restrepo & Escobar 2005). What have we our- this concept? With Geertz stepping out onto selves taken in of the various ‘peripheries’? the scene early on with his ‘webs of meaning’ and interpretative take, the concept raised Stockholm Roundtable problems of symbolization and representation. The suggestion for an annual Stockholm Round- Over time it became an even more problematic table in Anthropology was raised some years issue for us to think about. ago, to create an unconventional meeting place On the one hand, there were issues of cul- for discussing particular issues. One or two of ture and globalization, of culture mediated the Department’s researchers are responsible for through the media and the internet. The topic organizing a particular meeting. The main con- of cultural flows raised problems in relation to tributions are to be given by the Department’s method and fieldwork – where to do field- own researchers, with a few invited speakers/ work? The ‘field’ as place and locality could be interlocutors. All papers are brief, the point be- anywhere, as before, but also everywhere si- ing to discuss and to exchange ideas and expe multaneously. The article by Marcus on riences. The stimulation of guest participants multi-sited anthropology from 1995 raised from different places has, however, come to what had been going on to the status of (an rather dominate the scene. As some feel “there is American) discovery. It was referred to so often too much emphasis on guests, while our own that finally the whole issue seemed to become researchers come in second hand, risking that an end in itself. Recently, the pendulum swung we place ourselves in the periphery” and assume back a bit to a defence of the ‘one sited’ field that we have less to offer than others. (cf. Candea 2007). However, before it got to Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 223

In the spring of 2014, the Department held a competition for the best student photo documentation. This is a corridor exhibition featuring female tea workers at Siliguri in Northern India, made by Sandra Åhman. (Photo: Mats Danielson) that, Hannerz edited a volume (2001) with lance of educational systems and practices. contributions from department researchers, Such theorizing could also be connected to the Flera fält i ett (‘Several sites in one’). organization and diversification of the labour On the other hand, there were the problems market and how people experience work. This of power and practice addressed by Bourdieu interest has developed into a number of current and the theories of political economy: power projects both in Sweden and abroad on ‘flexi- and knowledge as forms of surveillance, gov- ble labour’ and manpower agencies, EU bu- ernmentality in the terms of Foucault, opening reaucrats at work, as well as normative educa- for analyses of the ‘audit culture’ of Neolibera tional policies, and, lately, how ‘think tanks’ lism and of the increasing ‘benevolent’ surveil- work and influence policies. 224 Department of Social Anthropology

The book cabinet mirrors the width of thematic and regional interests at the Department of Social Anthropology. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

With the growing interest in mobilities of These clusters are fora for paper presenta- all kinds, and the practical and ideational tion, small workshops with outside research- movements that make up people’s lives in reers, and reading groups. Thematically and lation to migration, labour, organizations, theoretically they overlap and ‘membership’ policies, and kinship, the Department formu- is loose. Most find something in these clus- lated a programme for its overarching profile, ters that relate to their different research in- Transnational Anthropology. Subsequently, terests. In different ways, many issues con- four thematic clusters were formed – Migra- nect the 21st century decades with the theoretical tion, Media, Environment and Organization. and political concerns of the 1960s and 1970s. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 225

mused while thinking about anthropology, that it has changed her as a person, made her see things differently, and question assumptions and relations in a way that colleagues in other disciplines find unnecessarily complicates matters. The problem is, how do we know what is unnecessary? Not only professors, researchers and doctoral students move about in the Department corridors, attending all the ‘very important seminars with very important guests,’ queuing in the stuffy little copy machine room to print out articles, schedules or project proposals in the last hectic minute, or hanging around in the Thoughtful listeners at an anthropological kitchen talking and joking, planning the next seminar: Mark Graham and Simon Johansson. ‘beer seminar.’ Persons have varied – from the (Photo: Gudrun Dahl) professor’s own somewhat scary secretary many years ago in the age of typewriters and Some final words black telephones, to the present staff of effi- As anthropology goes through its twists and cient and open internet users – but the staff of turns, some turns are declared to be more cru- administrators are the reliable presence at the cial than others. Such declarations of turns or Department. The bureaucratic superstructure crises appear to come mainly from the more is unavoidably there to keep absolutely every- established centres. An ‘ontological turn’ is the one in the folds of university rules and regula- most recent, leaving us in a somewhat bewil- tions. Who would be able to manage without dered state, as crises tend to do. This ‘turn’ this small local group of administrators? Who questions any conceptions of what anthropolo- would be able to offer such a sense of stability gy is all about. We are again asked to ponder: and good company? Certainly, through the “[W]hat is an anthropologist and who’s the na- years, some have at times given up on us, tired tive?” (Viveiros de Castro 2003:2). Waiting to of confusions, heavy workloads, unclear hier- figure out an answer, we must also ‘get on with archies and empty corridors, and left us for anthropology’ as best we can. A colleague more interesting projects. Others have come, 226 Department of Social Anthropology

tried us out and found that, “yes, why not stay Candea, Matei 2007. Arbitrary locations: In on, researchers aren’t always such a bad, in- defence of the bounded field-site. Journal of comprehensible lot” as it were. the Royal Anthropological Institute, 13:1: 167–184.  •  Cruikshank, Julie 2005. Do Glaciers Listen? Abu-Lughod, Lila 1991. Writing Against Cul- Local Knowledge, Colonial Encounters and ture. In Richard Fox (ed.) Recapturing An- social Imagination. Seattle: University of thropology, Working in the Present. Santa Washington Press. Fé: School of American Research Press. Dahl, Gudrun 1989. Särskilt utvecklingsforsk- Appadurai, Arjun (ed.) 1986. The Social Life ning? (Especially development research?). of Things, Commodities in cultural perspec- Antropologiska studier (Anthropological tive. Cambridge University Press. Studies), Department of Social Anthropolo- Björklund, Ulf 1981. North to Another Coun- gy, Stockholm University. try, The Formation of a Suryoyo Communi- Dahl, Gudrun and Annika Rabo (eds.) 1992. ty in Sweden. Stockholm Studies in Social Kam-up or Take-off, Local Notions of De- Anthropology, No.9, Stockholm University. velopment. Stockholm Studies in Social An- Bowen, Eleonore Smith 1954. Return to Laugh- thropology, Stockholm University. ter, An Anthropological Novel. Harper & Daun, Åke 1969. Upp till kamp i Båtskärsnäs. Brothers. Bokförlaget Prisma/Verdandi debatt. Briggs, Jean 1970. Never in Anger, Portrait of Ekman, Ann-Kristin (ed.) 1996. Bortom bruks- an Eskimo Family. Harvard University andan, Föreställningar om kultur, historia Press. och utveckling i Bergslagen (Beyond County Brox, Ottar 1966. Centralbyråkraterna och Mentality, Notions of Culture, History and glesbygden. Bokförlaget Prisma/Verdandi Development in Bergslagen). Fritzes förlag. debatt. Freilich, Morris (ed.) 1970. Marginal Natives, Bubandt, Nils and Ton Otto (eds.) 2010. Anthropologists at Work. Harper & Row. Experiments in Holism, Theory and Prac- Gerholm, Tomas and Ulf Hannerz 1982. Intro- tice in Contemporary Anthropology. Black- duction: The shaping of national anthropol- well Publishing. ogies, Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology, Bubandt, Nils and Mark Graham et al. 2006. 47:1–2, 5–35. Three score and ten. Ethnos: Journal of An- Gingrich, André and Richard Fox (eds.) 2002. thropology, 71:1, 5–8. Anthropology, By Comparison. London and Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 227

New York: Routledge. Percivall, Birgitta 1977. Fältanteckningar Golde, Peggy (ed.) 1970. Women in the Field, (Fieldnotes). Antropologiska studier (An- Anthropological Experiences. Aldine Pub- thropological Studies), 21. lishing Co. Restrepo, Eduardo and Arturo Escobar 2005. Hannerz, Ulf 1969/2004. Soulside, Inquiries in Other Anthropologies and Anthropology Ghetto Culture and Community. Chicago Otherwise: Steps to a World Anthropologies University Press. Framework, Critique of Anthropology, 25 Hannerz, Ulf 1981. The Management of Dan- (2): 99–129. ger, Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology, 46:1–2: Viveiros de Castro, Eduardo 2003. And. Man- 19–46. chester Papers in Social Anthropology, 7, Hannerz, Ulf 1995. The Vega day symposium: 2003. Culture and voice in social anthropology. Antropologiska studier (AS, Anthropological Ethnos: Journal of Anthropology, 60:3-4 Studies), Department of Social Anthropology, 157–158. Stockholm University, Special Issues: Hannerz, Ulf (ed.) 2001. Flera fält i ett, Soci- - 1976. Livet i fält (Life in the Field), 21. alantropologer om translokala fältstudier - 1981. Women: Work and Household Sys- (Several Sites in One, Anthropologists on tems, 30–31. translocal field studies). Carlssons. - 1986. Visuell antropologi (Visual Anthro Ingold, Tim (ed.) 1996. Key Debates in An- pology), 40–41. thropology. Taylor & Francis. - 1990. Genusdebatten (The Gender Debate), Kohn, Eduardo 2013. How Forests Think. To- 46–47. ward an Anthropology Beyond the Human. - 1997. Kroppen, maskulinitet och sexualitet Kulick, Don (ed.) 1987. Från kön till genus (The Body, Masculinity and Sexuality), 58–59. (From Sex to Gender). Carlssons. Marcus, George 1995. Ethnography in/of the World System: The emergence of multi-sited ethnography, Annual Review of Anthropo logy, 24, 95–117. Miller, Daniel 1987. Material Culture and Mass Consumption. Oxford: Blackwell. Okely, Judith and Helen Callaway 1992. An- thropology and Autobiography. Routledge. The Department of Social Work occupy the larger part of the former Sveaplans gymnasium, considered a functionalist showpiece. The City Council has now asked to have the building back from the University, in order to cater for future generations of school pupils arriving with the new Haga City development. (Photo: Björn Dalin) 229

Department of Social Work Tommy Lundström

The Department of Social Work was not The Stockholm programme was, for more than part of the Faculty of Social Sciences when it 20 years, the only one in Sweden. It was initial- was formed 50 years ago, but the Department ly run privately (at least formally) by the Na- still has a fairly lengthy history. The main tional Association for Social Work, a voluntary theme of this text is to show how a profession- association with its roots in the 19th century al education programme at the college level can charity movements. be included in a university system, and to do One of the texts in the anniversary issue was this we must go far back in time. written by Gunnar Heckscher, who was dean of the school from 1945 to 1954. Heckscher The early history of social work describes a history where the School of Social In 1981, the School of Social Work (Socialhög- Work was tasked with providing a university skolan), as it was known at that time, pub- education for persons who had previously been lished an anniversary issue – ‘60 years of the excluded from these environments. He points School of Social Work’ (Socialhögskolan – 60 to a number of successful examples of persons, år). In other words, the first Swedish social who graduated at the institute, including a cou- work programme started in 1921 as what was ple of government ministers (Heckscher 1981). then known as the Institute of Social Policy and Heckscher was one of several well-known Municipal Education and Research (Institutet deans at the School of Social Work. Others in- för socialpolitisk och kommunal utbildning clude Gösta Bagge, professor of Economics and och forskning). The institute was founded to right-wing politician (dean from 1921 to 1941) provide the expanding cities and municipalities and Bengt Börjeson, who was known for par- with trained administrators and social workers. ticipating in public debates on social issues and 230 Department of Social Work

Past rectors of the College of Social Work: Gösta Bagge (1921-1938), Gunnar Heckscher (1939-1954), Hans Meijer (1961–1966) and Gunnar Hellström (1972-1980). (Photo: Mats Danielson)

who was later vice-chancellor of the Stockholm year graduated from all the schools that existed Institute of Education, LHS. at that time – Stockholm, Lund, Umeå and Go- The schools of social work were natio thenburg. This figure is slightly lower than the nalised in the early 1960s, at around the same number of students now graduating each year time as the social science faculties were found- from the Department in Stockholm alone. ed. The nationalisation meant that a Degree of It was not until the major university reform Bachelor in Social Work (socionomexamen ) of 1977 that the School of Social Work became was now considered to be on a par with regular part of the university system. In the 1981 publi- academic degrees, although there was no spe- cation earlier mentioned, a few years after the cific academic discipline entitled ‘Social Work’. reform, one can still perceive some confusion Back then, approximately 200 students per regarding the new system and some sentimental- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 231

ity for the ‘good old days’ when the schools (Larsson 1981:82). This more or less construct- were independent institutions, even if they were ed contradiction between theory and practice, firmly governed by the state (Mundebo 1981). or academia and the “real world”, was of some Reidar Larsson, political scientist and the importance during the early years of establish- first head of department, interpreted the situa ing the discipline and is still, but to a lesser ex- tion so that, following the 1997 reform, it was tent, discussed today. mainly the universities that conformed to the Thus a doctoral education in the field of so- schools of social work, rather than the other cial work had to be introduced. The first pro- way around. Think what you will about this fessor was Hans Berglind, who at the time was claim, but there was one aspect where it was docent at the Department of Sociology in very clear that the entity that became the De- Stockholm. He was already working on a proj- partment of Social Work was to conform to the ect, which had strong ties to social work, be- University and the Faculty of Social Sciences. It fore he started his work as professor in 1979. was to offer doctoral studies in the new aca- Berglind was the second professor of social demic field of social work. work. The first professorship was announced In the anniversary issue, Reidar Larsson ex- in Gothenburg slightly before when another pressed conventional sentiments regarding the sociologist, Harald Swedner, was appointed doctoral education (which back in 1981 al- (Sunesson 2003). ready had 15 admitted doctoral students). He Maybe it is not so strange that the first pro- emphasised that the doctoral education should fessorships were given to sociologists. Several not be detached from the undergraduate studies, sociologists, including Walter Korpi and Hans that good methodological training was re- Berglind, both from the Faculty of Social Sci- quired and that research should not distance ence in Stockholm, had in various ways, and itself from the practice of social work. One sometimes with considerable opposition, been can, however, sense a concern regarding the involved, with the support from the social ties to practical work: “How were the academ- workers’ union and their contacts within the ic teachers to keep contact with their profes- government bureaucracy, in the work to intro- sional field?” he asked himself. There was also duce the new academic discipline. In one way, some remorse regarding how they would be the model which they strived for was the Amer- received by the established academia: “Some ican, where social work had long been an es- dyed-in-the-wool academics may, slightly dis- tablished academic field. But as Berglind later missively, call our education workmanlike” said: “We were not, however, interested in 232 Department of Social Work

making the Swedish field as micro-focused as various types of measures – both socio-political its American precursor.”(Berglind 1991:12–13, and individually targeted – for solving such see also Sunesson 2003). problems. The subject is therefore designed more around a research object than any specif- Establishing an academic discipline ic range of theories or methodologies. The re- Social work as an academic discipline was cre- search object is, however, changeable and part- ated through an administrative reform rather ly determined by historical circumstances, such than as the result of an internal academic de- as the issues with which the profession has pre- mand. Historically, new academic disciplines viously been concerned. As far as the latter is often come about by breaking off from existing concerned, this differs from country to country. disciplines, such as sociology developing from For a good overview of the early establishment philosophy – i.e., evolution through specialisa- of the discipline on a national level, you can tion (Janson 1995). Social work can instead be consult Sune Sunesson’s ‘Socialt arbete – en bak- described as an interdisciplinary field, with con- grund till ett forskningsämne ’ (Social Work – a nections to sociology, psychology, law, etc. It background to the research subject), which he has a special focus on what could roughly be wrote for a national review of the subject of described as social problems, and later also on social work that was conducted by the then matters concerning the elderly and persons Swedish Research Council for Health, Working with functional disabilities. Life and Welfare (FAS) and the National Agen- In the early years there was much discussion cy for Higher Education (Sunesson 2003). regarding the content, methodology and theo- The teachers employed by the Department retical grounding of the new subject. This was of Social Work in Stockholm in the late 1970s often conducted with reference to profession often had a background in sociology, psycholo- theory, based on the discipline’s international gy or law, or had a background in applied so- background (mainly in the US), and as a delim- cial work. It could be said that the Department itation with respect to other subjects. It is of was brought in line with the academic world course quite natural for a new academic disci- from the top down; the first positions appoint- pline to focus on these kinds of introverted ised were professorships and the persons ap- sues, even if the answers to the questions posed pointed were recruited from other subjects. Via may often fail to advance things very much. In the doctoral education, the Department could very general terms, the focus of social work is subsequently appoint senior lecturers with ex- still usually described as social problems and pertise in the new subject. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 233

The entrance to the building known as Sveaplans gymnasium where the Department of Social Work is located, together with the research institutes CHESS and SoRAD. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

With the aid of special government support, was financed by the Faculty as part of an ambi- another professorship was created in the late tion to generally strengthen research on children 1980s that focused on substance abuse issues. in the context of the University’s take-over of Anders Bergmark currently holds this position. the responsibilities for teachers’ training. Its cur- Later, in the 1990s, another professorship was rent holder is Tommy Lundström. Counting the created – again as a result of specific government original professorship that is currently held by support – this time with a focus on social work Åke Bergmark, this means that there are four with the elderly. The current holder of this posi- professorships in total. The Department also tion is Marta Szebehely. It would take almost 20 has three promoted professors: Evy Gunnars more years before the next professorship was son, Marie Sallnäs and Bo Vinnerljung. created, this time with a focus on social work Let us go back to the discipline’s formation, with children and adolescents. This position development and academic establishment. The 234 Department of Social Work

Bo Beskow’s wall painting (1939) at Sveaplans gymnasium reflects that the building was originally one of Sweden’s only two secondary schools for girls, built when it had been decided that women could become state employees. The gender roles reflected in the painting may however feel a bit outdated today. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

first Stockholm-based doctoral thesis was pre- portant for establishing the social work re- sented in 1983, but it had, to all intents and search field. purposes, been created outside of the Depart- It is difficult to distinguish any clear theme ment. Theses from the Department’s own doc- in the first 20 or 30 Stockholm theses. Their toral programme started to be published at the subject matters are quite disparate, but there is end of the 1980s. A decent publishing rate was a clear connection to the professional field of not achieved until the beginning of the 1990s. social work. In attempting to discern a com- Many of the early doctoral projects were fi- mon denominator, it can be noted that some of nanced by what was then the Delegation for them had their roots in the ‘Social Services Social Research, the support of which was im- Project’ (Socialtjänstprojektet) led by Docent Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 235

Ulla Pettersson. The empirical focus of the Department to develop its research.” (FAS & Hög- project was on what is normally referred to as skoleverket 2003, 324, my translation) individual and family care or personal social services, i.e. the social work with and organisa- It is reasonable to suggest that, since then, the tion of child protection, drug abuse treatment Department has improved its position still fur- and social assistance at the municipal level. ther, both in absolute and relative terms. The De- When FAS and the National Agency for partment is still at the “forefront nationally” Higher Education evaluated the subject of so- when it comes to social work research. The re- cial work in 1983, they noted that the Stock- searchers have managed to retain a decent admis- holm department’s research had become aca- sion percentage in applications to research coun- demically established. This is how the assessors cils. They therefore enjoy an extensive level of described the Stockholm department: external financing for research that exceeds the faculty financed research grants. The number of “The conclusion is that the research at the School doctoral degrees awarded is currently around 80 of Social Work /in Stockholm/ should be consid- and the rate of thesis production is steady. ered very positively /./ The Department is at the Personal social services in the municipalities forefront nationally when it comes to research still constitute an important focus for the Depart- into social work, is on a par with other university ment’s research. In other words, a large number departments in Sweden, ahead of corresponding of persons have graduated in areas connected departments in other Nordic countries, and mea- with child protection, drug abuse treatment and sures up well internationally with respect to social social assistance. These are also the areas where work research.” (FAS & Högskoleverket [the the majority of social workers are active. In this National Agency for Higher Education] 2003:324, sense, the research has a high degree of practical my translation) relevance. In addition to this, there is a distinct expansion of research focusing on social work The report also commends Stockholm Univer- with the elderly, most recently through a six-year sity and the Faculty of Social Sciences, which program grant of SEK 18 million. Research is may be something worth citing in this context: also conducted regarding the knowledge base applicable to social work and the forms of evi- “This positive status is largely due to the Depart- dence-based policymaking that have been em- ment, the Faculty and the University Board sys- ployed in social work over the last 20 years. One tematically and consciously working to allow the particular area of importance concerns the effects 236 Department of Social Work

that privatisation of services has on elderly care cial care programmes to the Department. This and personal social services. meant that the Department was tasked with creating two new programmes – ‘Social Peda- Education gogics’ and ‘Social Work with the Elderly and In the early 1990s, about 10 years after the for- with Persons with Functional Disabilities’ – as mation of the new discipline, it was noted that versions of the social work programme. the recruitment of senior lecturers at the Depart- At the same time 20 teachers, most of them ment had gone slower than expected: “This without a doctoral degree, and 250 students somewhat peculiar situation has thus arisen, were moved from the School of Health Scienc- that whilst there now [...] are professorships and es to the Department. The first students were various doctoral positions within social work, admitted to the new programmes in the au- positions in undergraduate education are still tumn semester of 1998 and graduated in Janu- fairly sparse” (Berglind 1991:12, my transla- ary 2002. The addition, which meant that the tion). In retrospect, it can be said that the educa- student stock in the social work programme tion in the early 1990s was in many ways char- increased by around 30 per cent to approxi- acterised by its history, i.e. independent schools mately 1,000 students, was obviously wel- operating outside of the university system. The come. There was no doubt that the programmes teaching staff to a large degree still consisted of that had been transferred belonged within the persons without a doctoral degree. Newly gra- social work programme. This also provided the duated doctors were focusing more on research new professorship, with a focus on social work than on undergraduate education. Combined for the elderly, a clearer foundation in under- with the fact that students spent long periods on graduate education. Naturally, the integration placements (there were two semesters of place- of the new teachers and students required time ments back then), this meant that the academic and resources. This all took place fairly shortly part of the social work programme was being after the Department had made a rather somewhat neglected. demanding move from Frescati to Sveaplan. A few years later, the social work pro- When the National Agency for Higher Edu- gramme in Stockholm was expanded signifi- cation and FAS presented their evaluation of cantly. Through an agreement between Karo social work in 2003, it can be noted that the linska Institutet and Stockholm University, the Department was performing well as far as re- County Council-owned School of Health Sci- search was concerned. However, the education ences in Stockholm transferred in 1998 its so- was not quite up to this level. While it was not- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 237

ed that there had been several improvements we have been able to reward good performanc- made since the previous assessment in 1999, es all the more. We have also had reason to there were still problems, for example with re- spend time on determining what constitutes spect to inferior performance levels and a lack progression and how this should be expressed, of organisation in the teaching. Admittedly, it from the first semester up to master’s level. is hard to compare the various assessments One external factor that has influenced us to made by the National Agency for Higher Edu- some degree is the very rapid increase in social cation – there has not exactly been a focus on work programmes on a national level. The continuity – but it could still be noted that the number has almost tripled since 1977, when 2009 assessment gave the Department deci there were six programmes in the entire coun- dedly better marks. Together with three other try. The social worker programmes at Stock- programmes, the Stockholm department met holm University have, however, managed to the requirements for very high quality (The maintain a high level of applications despite National Agency for Higher Education 2009). this competition. Prior to the 2013 autumn se- According to the National Agency for High- mester, the social worker programmes received er Education, the education has in other words almost 6,000 applications, which was an in- significantly improved in the first ten years of crease compared with 2012. The total number the new millennium. It is possible to identify at of applications per place was around 30 for least two factors that have been important for one of the two programmes and around 24 for this positive development. The first factor con- the other. The admission scores for both social cerns that which was previously discussed: the worker programmes are fairly high, and there academisation of the education. During the are currently no indications of a decrease in ap- early 2000s, the Department had, pure and plications. simple, recruited more teachers whose research Students graduating from the social work base was in social work. The other factor con- programme are in high demand on the labour cerns the Bologna process which, whilst stren- market and there are no indications of a nega- uous, has led to a better quality of education. tive change to this trend. The broad and grow- For example, the programme has adopted a ing field of social work both nationally and in- seven-grade system instead of the old two- ternationally means that social workers today grade system. This means that the teachers had have a good labour market and that social to spend a great deal of time discussing the worker students have therefore a good chance quality of the students’ performances and that of finding employment after graduating. 238 Department of Social Work

Some closing words Mundebo, Ingemar 1981. Från socialinstitut One may ask how long it takes to establish an till Socialhögskola. In Socialhögskolan 60 academic discipline of good quality when the år. Stockholm: Socialhögskolan. starting point is a professional education at a Socialhögskolan 1981. Socialhögskolan 60 år. college or university college level. Judging by the Stockholm: Socialhögskolan. history of the Department of Social Work, it Sunesson, Sune 2003. Socialt arbete – en bak- takes around 20 years if being ‘established’ im- grund till ett forskningsämne. In FAS and plies being primarily self-sufficient with respect Högskoleverket Socialt arbete. En nationell to teachers, having relatively extensive educa- genomlysning av ämnet. Stockholm: Hög- tional operations, and if the research in the ac- skoleverket. ademic discipline in question starts basically from scratch.

 • 

Berglind, Hans 1991. Tio års forskning i social arbete. In Berglind, H. and Kristensson, P-O (ed.) Socialt arbete i utveckling. Stockholm: Allmänna förlaget. FAS and Högskoleverket 2003. (FAS and the National Agency for Higher Education)) So- cialt arbete. En nationell genomlysning av ämnet. Stockholm: Högskoleverket. Heckscher, Gunnar 1981. Socialinstitutet, dess uppkomst och omvandling. In Socialhög skolan 60 år. Stockholm: Socialhögskolan. Janson, Carl-Gunnar 1995. Stockholmssocio login cirka 1950. In Swedberg, R. and Wennemo, I. (ed.) Sociologin i Stockholm 1954–1994. Larsson, Reidar 1981. 70-talets löften och 80-talets krav. In Socialhögskolan 60 år. Stockholm: Socialhögskolan. 239 A view of Campus Frescati from neighbouring Wenner-Gren Center. (Photo: Mats Danielson) The Department of Sociology has been located in Building B of Södra huset since it moved to Frescati in 1971. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 241

Department of Sociology Göran Ahrne

Immediately after the Second World of big cities and monotonous work in industry. War, sociology was in the air. The Swedish gov- Torgny Segerstedt, a professor of practical phi- ernment had set up a committee to investigate losophy at Uppsala University, was one of the the position of the social sciences in higher ed- most outspoken representatives of such thoughts. ucation and research. In its report, the commit- He wrote about how the mobility from the tee especially emphasised sociology as one of countryside to cities had split up the primary the most important disciplines in the strength- groups that previously created togetherness ening of education and research in the social and a strong social identity. In this way, mod- sciences. Several academics and influential ern man was exposed to impulses from differ- writers, among them Herbert Tingsten and ent social fields that created an uncertainty Gunnar Myrdal, had also pointed out the un- about social norms. Segerstedt was also a derdevelopment of and bad conditions for the member of the committee for the investigation social sciences at the universities in Sweden. of the social sciences. In 1947 he chose to leave The reasons for the uneasiness about the lack his chair in practical philosophy in favour of a of research on contemporary social conditions new chair in sociology. were of course experiences from the 1930s and Also, at Stockholm University College (Stock the war. In order to avoid similar social disas- holms högskola), sociology developed within ters in the future, many politicians as well as the the discipline of philosophy and in 1949 sociol- general public felt a strong need for more ogy was taught for the first time within the De- knowledge about how the citizens could be ad- partment of Philosophy. The professor of prac- justed to the modern life: from life in country tical philosophy, Einar Tegen, had spent several villages and farm work to a life in the suburbs years in the United States and returned to Swe- 242 Department of Sociology

den with a great interest in sociology and social psychology. His Friday night seminars at Odengatan 61 became a meeting point for future sociologists in Stockholm. One topic discussed at the seminars was the origin of Nazism. Among those participating in Tegen’s seminars were several future professors of sociology, and not only in Stockholm (Jansson 1995a). Gunnar Boalt, who became the first holder of the chair in sociology in Stockholm in 1954, had got a little ahead of the others. In many respects he was an autodidact. His first academic degree was in the natural sciences (biology, chemistry and zoology). He has himself described how he started his career as a sociologist when he worked as a teacher in a secondary school in Hallsberg in the 1930s (Boalt 1995). He became curious about the correla- tion between the home conditions of the pupils and their marks in school. His means of inves- Professor Gunnar Boalt, 1910–2000. tigating this was to compare the food-packs the pupils had brought to school, for instance how 1943, he was able to continue his research on heavy they were, with their marks. He also social background and school results, but this discovered how far from the school they lived time through a survey supported by the Stock- and their father´s profession. When Boalt had holm School Board. In the meantime, he at- to return to Stockholm at the outbreak of the tended Tegen’s seminar and studied the re- war, he also returned to the academia, but this quired literature at the Stockholm Library for time to the pedagogical seminar where he also the Social Sciences (Socialvetenskapliga bib- got in touch with practical philosophy. He was lioteket). In the autumn of 1947, he put for- encouraged to write a licentiate thesis based on ward his doctoral dissertation on school results his results. After he had received his exam in for children of different social groups in Stock- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 243

holm (Boalt 1947). Boalt’s research laid the The Swedish idea of American sociology was, foundation for the internationally well-known however, somewhat distorted. It has later been sociological research in Stockholm concerning brought forward that Lundberg had become social selection and social mobility with fol- pleasantly surprised by the attention and status lowers such as Gösta Carlsson, Robert Eriks- he received in Sweden, since he had hardly had son and Jan O. Jonsson. The dissertation made the same recognition in the United States (Törn- him a docent of practical philosophy, and after a qvist 1997:251, Platt 1996:98). This is confirmed while he deputized for Tegen and started to give by the American sociologist Alvin Gouldner, who lectures in sociology and social psychology. made friends with Gunnar Boalt around 1965 Sociology as an academic discipline was es- and wrote an introduction to Boalt’s book on so- tablished in Sweden as a somewhat peculiar mix ciology of research. Gouldner mentions his sur- of philosophy and statistics. The kind of sociol- prise at the methodological consensus among so- ogy that was expected by representatives of the ciologists in Sweden. He points out that the new discipline was a scientific sociology based methodological subculture in the US is far more on statistics (Olsson 1997:227). The mission of varied and multifaceted (Gouldner 1969:xxvii). sociology was to find the quantitative indicators This is how Gouldner describes the Swedish required to measure and compare social phe- methodological subculture: “It was my impres- nomena and processes. There was indeed some sion that there is no group of sociologists any- opposition against this view of sociology, but where in the world today who, more than those the different views were seen as a division be- in Sweden, have a clearer and more agreed-upon tween continental (European) and American so- view of the standards and values to which good ciology, and at this time there was no doubt sociology should conform. Swedish sociologists about what variant was the one preferred. seemed to me to be the people of, by and for a At this time American sociology was first and formal methodology” (1969: xxviii). This state foremost represented in Sweden by George ment was more accurate for the sociology depart- Lundberg. Boalt writes that Lundberg’s book ment in Stockholm than for other departments in Foundations of Sociology published in 1939 Sweden. Gouldner adds that his description does had become like a bible for him and several oth- not necessarily state what sociologists in Sweden ers of those who participated in Tegen´s semi- do but above all their culture and morals. nars (Boalt 1995: 44). Lundberg had also been The background of the interest in quantita- invited by the newly established Research Coun- tive methods was the development of survey cil for the Social Sciences to lecture in Sweden. methodology seen in the US. Sending out 244 Department of Sociology

Restrictive policies against changing the intentions of the architect leave little room for the creativity of interior decoration in the many identical corridors of Södra huset. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

questionnaires and getting relevant answers had never been done on a greater scale before from a representative sample of the popula- (Platt 1996). tion was a sensational innovation that raised Although sociology had been established hopes of being able to investigate people’s at- within practical philosophy, the new-born dis- titudes in an entirely new way. Such surveys cipline dissociated itself quickly from the hu- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 245

manities in general and looked towards the holm University College, it is not enough to sciences. There was a tension within the disci- look at the Department of Sociology. Since so- pline of sociology between the philosophical ciology does not have a particular part of soci- and humanistic roots, and the scientific ideal ety as its object of research, and from the start affects the subject even today. was strongly identified with a special type of Sociology differed from the already estab- research method, the boundaries of the disci- lished disciplines within social science such as pline are quite vague. Sociology can be applied political science, economics and pedagogics. through a number of different analyses of soci- Sociology deals with the entire society and not ety. The titles of the text-books that Gunnar with a particular part of society. Sociology Boalt started to write as a new professor can does not have any other object than society illustrate the span of what sociologists do: so- itself and the relations between man and ciology of the family, sociology of religion, so- society in general. The new discipline could ciology of work and sociology of illness. But offer a number of concepts to analyse rela- these are just some examples. tions between individuals and society such as Gunnar Boalt once pointed out that the roles, norms and status groups. Sociologists Stockholm sociologists often cooperated with talk about social stratification, social classes other academic institutions within and outside and social mobility, but in order to develop the university, and several of the professorships these concepts much theoretical work is re- at the Department of Sociology in the 1960s quired. The expectations of the new sociolo- were shared with other departments or re- gists were, however, to produce empirical research institutes (Boalt 1970:107). sults as a basis for social planning and the In order to give a correct picture of socio solving of various social problems. Looking logy at Stockholm University, it is necessary to back at this period, Gunnar Boalt has written take up the shifts that have taken place in the that the expectations of the sociologists were organisation of sociological research at the high but the resources given were very limited University. I would like to emphasise three (Boalt 1969:83). such tendencies that also illustrate what sociological research at the University has been The development of sociological about. First of all, several fields of study have research in Stockholm hived off from sociology. The most obvious In order to give an overview of the develop- case is criminology. The first chair in criminol- ment of the discipline of sociology at Stock- ogy was established at the Department of So- 246 Department of Sociology

ciology in 1964. In 1970, criminology be- set up as a cooperation between sociology, psy- came an independent division within the De- chology and social work. Eckart Kühlhorn, partment and it was turned into a depart- who held the chair in sociological research on ment of its own in 1987. When social work alcohol, moved to this institute as well as sev- was set up as a doctoral programme at the eral other researchers from the Department of School of Social Studies in 1977, the first Sociology. This professorship had been institut- professor, Hans Berglind, came from the De- ed by the government in the early 1980s. There partment of Sociology. Several other sociolo- had been some research within the field already gists soon moved to the Department of Social in the 1960s, but this new chair was held by the Work (Ulla Pettersson, Annika Puide). Yet prominent Finnish alcohol researcher Kettil another sociologist from the Department be- Bruun, who died already in 1985. The Centre came professor of social work, Sune Sunes- for Health Equity Studies (CHESS) was estab- son, but this time in Lund. Second, there is a lished in 2000 as a joint venture between Stock- long history of the establishment of sociolog- holm University and Karolinska Institutet. A ical research within specialized research in- professorship of medical sociology held by stitutes at the Faculty of Social Sciences. The Denny Vågerö was transferred to CHESS, and earliest was the Institute for Social Research several other sociologists joined. (SOFI) established in 1972 with pro Some years earlier in 1992, the Stockholm fessorships in sociology as well as economics. Centre for Organizational Research (Score) was The first two professors of sociology at SOFI established as a result of an initiative from the were Walter Korpi (social politics) and Sten Swedish Parliament to support research on or- Johansson (level of living studies). Korpi had ganisation of the public sector. Score is a joint his PhD from Stockholm University in 1966. venture between the Faculty of Social Sciences Johansson moved from the Department of and the Stockholm School of Economics. Score Sociology in Uppsala where he had been the is organised in a different way compared to oth- director of the first Level of Living Study. In er research institutes. There is only one perma- 1985, Johansson was succeeded by Robert nent position at Score, a professorship in one Eriksson. of its core subjects, currently political science. By the end of the 1990s, two new research All other researchers at Score are expected to institutes with professorships in sociology share their time between their home depart- were established. The Centre for Social Re- ment and Score. The disciplines represented at search on Alcohol and Drugs (SoRAD) was Score have above all been business administra- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 247

tion, political science, sociology and social an- they are also disadvantaged when applying for thropology. In 1995 I was engaged at Score, research grants. which meant new interesting opportunities for One can also note that sociological theories, research across disciplinary boundaries. My concepts and methods have spread to many engagement at Score also gave opportunities other social science disciplines. Today, sociolo- for several PhD students as well as some post gy as a research practice is pursued within doc positions. many academic disciplines other than sociolo- Sociology has many interfaces with other gy proper, both within the humanities, medi- disciplines and sociology is represented in many cine and social sciences (cf. Allardt 1995:19). multidisciplinary co-operations. This is more or I cannot develop this idea further within this less a typical feature of sociological research, context. and multidisciplinary research is necessary and important. Nevertheless, this is also a problem The Department of Sociology for sociology. In the long run it is a threat In 1954, sociology became an independent dis- against sociological competence if researchers cipline at Stockholm University College, and become specialists in multidisciplinary fields. In Gunnar Boalt was appointed the first professor. order to be able to contribute something to a Another two new professorships of sociology multidisciplinary environment, sociologists also were created in Sweden in the 1950s and the have to maintain and develop their sociological incumbents were both former participants of competence. This competence has to be Einar Tegen’s seminars: Gösta Carlsson in Lund acquired together with sociologists working in and Edmund Dahlström in Gothenburg. To the other research fields. It is only in this way we new professorship in Stockholm was attached can develop social explanations of human be- an assistant position held by Carl-Gunnar haviour as a complement to cultural, economic, Jansson, who succeeded Boalt in 1977. and psychological explanations. The largest and most dominating research There is a decided risk that the independent project at the Department during this time was research institutes will exploit the departments. a project led by Jansson. Project Metropolitan, I believe it is important to develop organisa- which was its early name, was originally con- tional forms in order to facilitate the coopera- ceived as a comparative Nordic project. The tion between research institutes and depart- initiative came from the Danish sociologist ments. Departments often have to pull the Kaare Svalastoga in the early 1960s. The aim heaviest load with less rewarding tasks and was to compare the impact of socio-economic 248 KapitelnamnDepartment of Sociology

background on education and future living of the times and the criticism of bureaucracy conditions among children in Copenhagen, and authorities that was prevalent, but it was Oslo, Stockholm and Helsinki through non-ret- also easy for those who were involved in the rospective longitudinal data. The project was investigation to recognise each other and mo- in line with previous studies at the Department bilise resistance. Referring to the Data Protec- by Boalt, among others. This project, however, tion Act, thousands of them demanded infor- was much more extensive and one was aware mation about what data that had been collected that it would take at least twenty years before about them. The result of the debate was that there were any interesting results (Jansson the data had to be anonymised, which made 1995b). Helsinki and Oslo disappeared early further investigations impossible. However, in from the picture, but the work had started in later years it has been possible to complete the Stockholm and was supported already from material with recent data from public registers, the beginning by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond which has made some new analyses possible. (The Tercentenary Fund of Sweden’s Central The whole story about the project and its re- Bank). sults has recently been excellently documented The sample for Project Metropolitan in in a book by Sten-Åke Stenberg, professor at Stockholm consisted of 15,117 children living SOFI and himself included in the sample of the in Stockholm in 1963 and born in 1953. The investigation (Stenberg 2013). investigation started in 1966 with a survey dis- The critique against Project Metropolitan in tributed to all children in schools. Two years 1986 was misdirected and incorrect and has to later their families received a survey. Apart be understood in connection with a general from these surveys, data were collected from scepticism of much of the social science that various public registers. In 1985 a new survey was formulated in the 1980s. Yet, it is also ob- was conducted that was sent out to all 15,000. vious that Project Metropolitan was an impos- This survey dealt especially with recreational sible project in many ways. Nobody would activities. Following this survey, a huge public come up with the idea of starting such a project debate broke out. It started with a long article today and it would hardly be possible. Just as in Dagens Nyheter on the 10th of February the criticism of the project can be understood 1986. Headlines shouted that 15,000 Swedes as an expression of the political climate and the had been secretly investigated for 20 years. The spirit of the times, one can also understand the debate that followed in the spring of 1986 was start of the project as an expression of the to- absurd and can only be explained by the spirit tally different spirit of the early 1960s. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 249

Since its beginning in 1954, the development pecially at the departments in Uppsala and at the Department has been intermittent. From Lund. In Stockholm, however, the number of the beginning up until 1979 there was a steady “new” sociology dissertations was very low for expansion, and in the 1960s the number of stu- a long time. The department in Stockholm had dents exploded. In the spring term 1970 the produced twice as many “old” dissertations as Department employed around 60 teachers and the next department (Uppsala), but at the end there were 3,000 students. The Department of the 1980s the number of “new” dissertations has never before or after been bigger, neither in was far behind the rest (especially Lund and terms of the number of students nor number of Uppsala) (Wennemo 1995). teachers. At the beginning of the 1970s, the In many sociology departments in Sweden number of students decreased, first of all be- and elsewhere the discipline itself was in a state cause of university reforms but also because of of turbulence: new theories were brought for- smaller age groups. ward and there was above all a heavy dispute Most of the teachers were not permanently over sociological methods. The strong consen- employed and had to leave. However, during sus that Alvin Gouldner had observed was the expansion years, a number of younger quickly being broken. The critique against the teachers had been hired on a permanent basis, dominance of quantitative methods was gener- but most of them did not have a PhD. Their ally formulated as a critique of a positivistic teaching loads had been very heavy, which had research tradition, but concerning alternatives prevented them from being able to pursue ca- there were many ideas such as soft data, “ver- reers as researchers. Moreover, some teachers stehen”, hermeneutics or phenomenology. Un- and researchers moved to other neighbouring fortunately, the positions soon became fairly disciplines. For many years after 1970, hardly locked and unnecessarily polarised. In many any new teachers were hired at the Depart- departments qualitative methods became dom- ment. inant, not least because most students find soft The situation was similar at all the old socio- data more interesting. logy departments at the undergraduate level The Stockholm department was relatively qui- during the 1970s and 1980s. The difference be- et during this period, however, and work with tween the Stockholm department and the rest quantitative methods continued as before. For was at the graduate level. When the PhD edu- sociology in Sweden at large it has been a good cation was reformed in 1969, the effect was a thing that the sociologists in Stockholm defended fast increase in the number of dissertations, es- and developed quantitative methods during these 250 Department of Sociology

years. In several other departments they were al- Uppsala since the beginning of the 1970s. In most disappearing. Today there is a rather strong 1976 I received my PhD there. My first em- consensus and awareness that sociological ployment as a sociologist was as an assistant research requires both quantitative and quali within the Level of Living investigation led by tative methods and that they can be combined. Sten Johansson. After my PhD, I had worked In 1985 I received an appointment as docent as a research assistant to Ulf Himmelstrand in at the Department of Sociology in Stockholm. I his big project on the future of the welfare had then been a graduate student and been state in Sweden. I also had a couple of other employed at the Department of Sociology in projects. One was in cooperation with the

From the time of the first student boom, when the Department of Sociology was housed in the city centre. Lots of teachers had been recruited but still, lots and lots of examination papers had to be marked by everyone. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 251

American sociologist Erik Olin Wright in his partment with between 5 and 10 researchers ‘Comparative Class Structure’ project. The and PhD students. other was a project about bureaucracy and In 1987, Richard Swedberg became an the welfare state. Since there were no open po- assistant professor at the Department. He had sitions at the department in Uppsala I was very obtained his PhD in the United States (from happy to get the opportunity to move to Boston College). After returning to Sweden he Stockholm. I had studied my first semester of had been working together with Ulf Himmel- sociology in Stockholm in 1964 where I had strand in Uppsala. Two years later, Peter Hed- read several of Boalt’s books. In the first half ström was appointed professor. He had previ- of 1971, I worked at the Institute for Labour ously worked as a researcher at SOFI, had Market Research at Stockholm University, obtained his PhD from Harvard and later which was the predecessor of SOFI, with anal- worked at University of Chicago where he had ysis of data from the Level of Living survey. collaborated with James Coleman, among oth- Methodologically, I had used both quantita- ers. A few years later Barbara Hobson, who had tive and qualitative data in my research, and I a PhD from the United States, was employed. had actively conducted several surveys. I have These new recruitments gave many new im- always been convinced that there is no contra- pulses to the research at the Department. Swed- diction between using different kinds of data berg was internationally active in the develop- and methods of analysis. When moving to the ment of the “new economic sociology” and was department in Stockholm in 1985, I immedi- an outstanding editor of anthologies and a bi- ately felt at home, and from the middle of the ographer. He also developed his own theoreti- 1980s the research environment at the De- cal contributions, for instance a theory of inter- partment was slowly changing through a ests. With Hedström he had a project on social number of new recruitments. mechanisms in which they cooperated with Jon Already in 1983 a professorship in demo Elster and some other internationally promi- graphy, funded by the Social Science Research nent sociologists. Through the research in this Council, was placed at the Department. Jan project, Hedström developed the foundations Hoem, who had held professorships in Oslo as for an analytical sociology. Hobson launched well as Copenhagen, was appointed. It was on the gender research at the Department. This re- his initiative that the chair came to the Depart- search had above all a comparative and social ment of Sociology. From the outset, demogra- political direction. From 1994 to 2002, Hob- phy became a separate division within the De- son was the head of CGS, an interdisciplinary 252 Department of Sociology

graduate school for comparative gender studies ther strengthened the research environment: funded by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. This Karin Bergmark, Carl le Grand, Arni Sverrisson school had graduate students from disciplines and Ryszard Szulkin. By that, the number of such as political science, anthropology, history graduate students increased, not least because of and law. Many international scholars were in- the new projects initiated by the new professors. vited to give mini-courses. Many graduate students were also employed at When I succeeded Carl-Gunnar Jansson on the research institutes. The number of disserta- the chair in sociology, my possibilities of devel- tions increased considerably during these years. oping research in the field of organisation the- During the 1980s, 19 dissertations were pro- ory improved considerably. My aim was to duced, but during the 1990s there were 33 dis- connect organisation theory and general social sertations and most of them during the last years. theory. One of my projects dealt with organisa- The largest increase happened in the years 2000 tional and social change. Other projects con- and 2001 with 8 and 13 dissertations, respec- cerned the organisation of service work or new tively. Since then the number of dissertations has voluntary associations. varied between 5 and 12 a year. As a matter of The graduate education changed as well. In fact, more than half of the dissertations at the the middle of the 1980s, the graduate education Department of Sociology have been produced did not function very well and the postgraduate during the 21st century (even if one includes environment was experienced as poor (Wenne- ‘old’ dissertations). In the last few years new mo 1995:173). From the early 1990s, we had graduate students have been recruited interna- opportunities to build up a new graduate educa- tionally to an increasing extent. tion with an extensive supply of courses in so- From the early 1990s the number of under ciological theories and methods as well as many graduate students started to increase again: special fields. We also had the opportunity to from a couple of hundred each term in the be- invite Thomas Coniavitis as a guest professor to ginning of the 1990s to more than five hundred teach theory. He was a professor in Athens, but at the middle and the end of the decennium. had graduated from Uppsala University in 1977. This figure has remained relatively constant Later, a professorship in sociological theory was since then. The increased amount of teaching established, which from 2004 was held by Lars at the undergraduate level made it possible to Udéhn, who has a PhD from Uppsala. engage graduate students and post docs in In the first years of the new century, the De- teaching, which often has provided a bridge to partment got several new professors who fur- continued academic work. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 253

Much information is conveyed at the central notice board opposite the elevators. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

In the last ten years there has been a marked the Department in the last ten years, many change of generations at the Department. In were relatively new PhDs. Most of them are 2002 Richard Swedberg moved to the United now docents and one of them, Fredrik Liljeros, States and a position at Cornell University. Pe- is now a professor. Today the Department is not, ter Hedström obtained a professorship in so- as before, split between a group of teachers at ciology at the University of Oxford. Both of the undergraduate level and another group of them have, however, maintained contact with researchers, but research and teaching are inte- the Department. Many of the lecturers who grated to a much larger extent than earlier. were employed at the end of the 1960s had re- In 2009, Jens Rydgren was appointed to the tired. Of those lecturers who were employed at chair in sociology after Boalt and Jansson, 254 Department of Sociology

which I had held since 1994. Rydgren is a po- the Department of Sociology. Thomson was in litical sociologist who has done excellent re- 2013 succeeded by Gunnar Andersson, who search on ethnic relations and on networks. has a PhD from the Division of Demography Proof of the graduate education’s vitality at the and after that had spent some time in Rostock. Department is that many of the sociologists In spite of the somewhat uneven develop- that obtained their PhD at the Department ment, there is at the same time an apparent since 1995 have been appointed to professor- continuity in the sociological research at the ships at several other universities in Sweden: Department. It is still known as the Swedish Patrik Aspers at Uppsala University, Christof- department where quantitative methods domi- fer Edling at Lund University, Magnus Boström nate and where competence in this area is the at Örebro University, as well as Apostolis Pa- most developed. In several respects, quantita- pakostas at Södertörn University College. tive methods have developed enormously in the The organisation of demographic research last fifty years when it comes to the possibilities has fluctuated, too. At the end of the 1990s, to analyse large data. The survey technique it- Jan Hoem moved to a professorship at the self, however, and methods to make people an- Max Planck institute for demography in Ros- swer questions, are at a standstill. Today there tock, followed by some of the other demo are real problems in getting enough people to graphers. A couple of years later, the activities participate in survey research (cf. Eriksson at the division of demography had decreased 2014:46). Moreover, sociology is not as depen- dramatically and the remaining researchers dent on its methods as it once was: not as were integrated into the Department of Sociol- strongly identified with a particular method. ogy. When a new professorship in demography There is a greater awareness of the advantages was announced, the chair went to the interna- and limitations of various methods. Today tionally well-known demographer Elisabeth both quantitative and qualitative methods are Thomson at the University of Wisconsin-Mad- taught in Stockholm, and quite a few successful ison. She had previously been guest researcher researchers at the Department work with qual- at the division and chose to place the professor- itative methods. ship at the Department of Sociology. After her The competence and breadth developed in arrival in 2004, the demographic research Stockholm sociology through cooperation be- group grew rapidly when they received several tween the Department and the research large research grants. Today, demographic re- institutes in quantitative analyses has been a search is a considerable part of the research at main reason for their increased external fund- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 255

ing. Sociological research in Stockholm has a ‘new’ dissertations had a female author. From marked international circulation and the De- 2000, however, a majority of new PhDs are partment usually does well in international women: 60 women and 42 men from 2000 to rankings of publications and citations. 2012. For sociology to be able to contribute to inter- Among the 10 most recently employed lec- disciplinary cooperation in the long run, I hope turers, six are women, five of which are docents. that the Department will continue to be the arena In all likelihood, this indicates that the Depart- where sociologists can develop their competence ment in the near future will finally have far in confrontations and interchange with different more female than male professors. kinds of sociological research. For this to be pos-  •  sible a strong competence in general sociological theory is also required. Different theories and Allardt, Erik 1995. Reflexioner kring utveckl- methods must be able to meet and be tested ingslinjerna i svensk sociologi. In Sociolo- against each other. Only in this way can sociology gin i Stockholm 1954–1994, Richard Swed- and our understanding of society increase. berg and Irene Wennemo (eds.), 3–23. So far has this been an embarrassingly male Sociologiska institutionen: Stockholms uni- story. Of those mentioned in this overview the versitet. vast majority have been men; only a few wom- Boalt, Gunnar 1947. Skolutbildning och skolre- en appear. This is a mirror of how it has been. sultat för barn ur olika samhällsgrupper i Although the absolute majority of the students Stockholm (Schooling and school results for at the undergraduate level since the 1970s have children of different social groups in Stock- been women, the proportion of women on holm), PhD thesis, Stockholm University Col- higher positions has remained very low. Are lege. there no signs that the male dominance on Boalt, Gunnar 1969. Sociologi. In 20 års sam- higher positions will be broken? One can on hällsforskning. Statens råd för samhällsforsk- the one hand look at dissertations, and on the ning 1948 – 1968. Stockholm: P.A. Norstedt other newly hired lecturers. & Söners förlag. When it comes to dissertations there has Boalt, Gunnar 1970. Sociologiska institutionen. been a tangible change in the last 15 years. If In Samhällsforskning vid Stockholms universi- we go far back we can notice that only one of tet. Stockholm: Utbildningsförlaget. the ‘old’ dissertations had a female author. Up Boalt, Gunnar 1995. Minnen och meningar. In until the year 2000 about one third of the Sociologin i Stockholm 1954–1994, Rich- 256 Department of Sociology

ard Swedberg and Irene Wennemo (eds.), Platt, Jennifer 1996. A History of Sociological 36–73. Sociologiska institutionen: Stockhol- Research Methods in America 1920–1960. ms universitet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Eriksson, Robert 2014. LNU från utredning till Stenberg, Sten-Åke 2013. Född 1953. Folkhems- forskning. Ett historiskt perspektiv. In Ojäm- barn i forskarfokus. Umeå: Boréa förlag. likhetens dimensioner. Uppväxtvillkor, arbete Törnqvist, Rolf 1997. Ett modernt forskningsfält och hälsa i Sverige, Marie Evertsson och Char- växer fram. Om svensk sociologi på lotta Magnusson (eds.), 30–50. Malmö: Liber. 30–50-talen. In Sociologi i tiden. Bakgrund, Gouldner, Alvin 1969. Introduction: Personal utveckling, framtid. Sociologisk forskning reality, social theory and the tragic dimen- 1–2: 231–265. sion in science. In Gunnar Boalt The Wennemo, Irene 1995. De räknande socio sociology of research, xv – xxxviii. Carbon logerna. In Sociologin i Stockholm 1954– dale, Ill.: Southern Illinois University Press. 1994, Richard Swedberg and Irene Wennemo (This text is also published in Alvin Gould- (eds.), 164–178. Sociologiska institutionen: ner, For Sociology. Renewal and critique in Stockholms universitet. sociology today. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books 1973.) Jansson, Carl-Gunnar 1995a. Stockholmssocio login cirka 1950. In Sociologin i Stockholm 1954–1994, Richard Swedberg and Irene Wennemo (eds.), 95–101. Sociologiska institutionen: Stockholms universitet. Jansson, Carl-Gunnar 1995b. Project Metro politan. In Sociologin i Stockholm 1954– 1994, Richard Swedberg and Irene Wennemo (eds.), 102–132. Sociologiska institutionen: Stockholms universitet. Olsson, Anna 1997. En ny sociologi. Om in- rättandet av sociologi som självständigt ämne i Sverige 1947. In Sociologi i tiden: Bakgrund, utveckling, framtid. Sociologisk forskning 1–2:203–230. 257

The Department can also be accessed from the south side of Södra huset. (Photo: Mats Danielson) The new department building at Frescati Hage, previously housing the IT Services. (Photo: Björn Dalin) 259

Department of Special Education Siv Fischbein, Margareta Ahlström, Inger Assarson, Lise Roll-Pettersson and Mara Westling Allodi

Historically, special education has been that way became closely connected to special part of the academic discipline of education. education. When the compulsory school was introduced To understand why special education has in Sweden, it soon became obvious that some become a separate subject at Stockholm Uni- children had difficulties following the curricu versity, it is necessary to briefly describe the lum in the same time and at the same pace as historical development of the academic disci- their schoolmates. The reason for this could pline of education. Originally, the discipline be individual factors such as intellectual dis- was part of philosophy at Swedish universities. abilities as well as environmental circumstanc- In 1910, the first Swedish professor of education es, for instance socio-economic adversities. was installed in Uppsala. His name was Bertil This challenge was either met by prolonging Hammer. He had a broad view of the disci- the time available for the student or by reduc- pline, which meant he included behavioural, ing the content of the course. In several coun- societal, didactical and philosophical perspec- tries with a compulsory school system, there tives. His followers were mostly interested in was, however, a discussion about adjusting psychological aspects. During the first part of teaching to the variation among pupils. This the twentieth century, the discipline remained led to the organisation of ‘special education’ as practically synonymous with psychology. In a practice, for instance special classes for chil- 1953, psychology became a separate subject. dren with intellectual disabilities. In France, Many of the professors in education chose to Alfred Binet was assigned by the government transfer from education to psychology. From to construct a test to select children for such then on, the educational science subject gradu- classes. The history of intelligence testing in ally changed towards educational sociology 260 Department of Special Education

and philosophy. It must be remembered, how- (IEA). Today this has turned into well-known ever, that as late as the beginning of the 1960s systems of pupil testing, such as PISA and the courses in education and psychology were PIRLS. Ljung was also a major spokesman for practically identical at Stockholm University. the behavioural tradition in education. He had In the 1970s and 1980s, drastic changes took written his thesis about the growth spurt during place. Theories of environmental circumstanc- adolescence. When he retired in the 1980s, a es instead of ideas about individual prerequi- struggle took place between the behavioural sites began to dominate the educational disci- tradition and its rivalling sociological and phil- pline, not only in Stockholm but generally in osophical perspectives. One of the applicants Sweden and other countries. for the professorship was Siv Fischbein, who had had both Husén and Ljung as supervisors. Stockholm Institute of Education Her thesis, based on twin studies, emphasised The Department of Education at the Stock- the importance of the interactional influences holm Institute of Education (the Teachers’ of both genetic and environmental factors. In Training College, LHS) had a long tradition of the appointment procedure, her research was behavioural research. Torsten Husén had used considered psychological and not educational, data from Swedish conscripts to study the rela- reflecting the change of educational sciences from tions between ability and social background, a focus on behavioural aspects towards societal occupation, length of schooling and school and philosophical perspectives. performance. This was the start of several very successful longitudinal studies. Husén also be- The Department of Special Education came involved in twin studies as a method to Supplementary education for regular teachers to investigate the relations between genetic and become teachers in special education had been environmental influences. Bengt-Olov Ljung given at the Stockholm Institute of Education was one of his many doctoral students. He be- (LHS), from 1962 but to a fairly limited extent came a professor in education at the Institute and without any connection to research at the when Husén moved to Stockholm University to educational department. In 1990, however, a become the first professor in international edu- new education for special pedagogues was cation. This was another of his main research started. The ambition was to make it scientifi- interests. He was the initiator of the large inter- cally based and more research oriented. The national comparative studies, performed with- programme comprised one and a half year and in the International Educational Association was divided into four different streams: ‘Com- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 261

plicated Learning Situations’, ‘Deafness and to change pupils instead of adjusting the setting Hearing Deficiency’, ‘Blindness and Visual De- to suite them. The new teacher training in spe- ficiency’ and ‘Intellectual Deficiency’. From the cial education that started in 1990 was there- beginning, these streams were clearly separat- fore more concerned with the supervision of ed. They catered to different school systems: regular teachers and headmasters instead of the ordinary compulsory school and special work with individual pupils. The students re- schools for deaf, blind and intellectually dis- cruited to this new supplementary teacher edu- abled children. Gradually, some common con- cation were preschool teachers as well as regu- tents were developed for these different lar teachers. Gradually, the educational streams streams, forming a general course, which incor- oriented to intellectual deficiencies and compli- porated 10 to 20 of the 60 credit points. The cated learning situations were combined. In the ambition was to give the students different per- long run, knowledge about pupil deficiencies spectives on special education: a behavioural, and didactic aspects–such as early reading, societal, philosophical and historical perspec- writing and mathematics learning–were re- tive. The course included knowledge about pu- duced in favour of more theoretical and philo- pils in need of special support, considering indi- sophical aspects on special education. Ques- vidual aspects and environmental circumstances tions concerning the participation and inclusion as well as ethical questions and aspects pertain- of pupils in need of special education were giving to justice and human rights. Above all, em- en priority. phasis was laid on the interaction of individual and environmental influences in different situa- Research in special education tions and on the need to adjust the school sys- At the end of the 1980s a temporary professor tem to pupil variation. Before 1990, there had ship had been advertised at the Department of been different educations for special teachers Special Education. Ingemar Emanuelsson, who depending upon which pupil group they were was the first doctoral student of Bengt-Olov catering to: intellectual or speech difficulties Ljung, applied for and received this position. and hearing or sight deficiencies. The students Emanuelsson was also raised in the behavioural enrolled in such education often had extensive tradition. Over time, however, he became more experience working with pupils that had func- interested in the importance of including all tional deficiencies. However, the educational children at school and how the educational sys- authorities considered this streaming of educa- tem could be changed to promote it. When he tion as reflecting a compensating strategy, trying moved to Gothenburg in 1990, he was suc- 262 Department of Special Education

ceeded by Siv Fischbein. In 1995, the appoint- didactical perspectives on special education. ment was changed to a permanent professor- Another important project was financed by ship. Fischbein became the first female pro- Axel and Margaret Ax:son Johnson’s Founda- fessor at LHS. She remained in that position tion and the purpose was to investigate stu- for fifteen years and was a strong advocate for dents at risk for exclusion in the upper second- making special education into a separate disci- ary school (GURU). The approach was societal pline at Stockholm University. This was diffi- and philosophical, focusing on experiences of cult since the academic traditions were fairly teachers and the possibilities for students at weak at the Department of Special Education. risk of exclusion to succeed in the Swedish The main research at the LHS had been per- school system. Other colleagues at the Depart- formed at Department of Education. ment were successfully granted EU and SIDA The supplementary special teacher educa- projects (about video telephone for people with tion that started in 1990 included an exami intellectual deficiencies; people with low vision nation paper at the C-level. This implied that in Botswana and Tanzania, and alternative around 200 students each year had to be communication in Russia). trained in scientific theory and methodology as In 1995, many new professors in special ed- well as supervised and examined. This was a ucation had been appointed in the Nordic challenge. Only two persons at the Department, countries. Together with these partners, courses Siv Fischbein and Gunnar Kylén, had a doctoral were arranged for our doctoral students, who degree. The latter initiated research focused on since the start of LHS were formally examined persons with intellectual disabilities and their at the Faculty of Social Sciences at Stockholm dependence on a stimulating environment. University, since LHS lacked independent After some years, the recruitment of re- rights of doctoral examination. Scandinavian searchers with varying perspectives on special colleagues were engaged as opponents and rep- education – behavioural, societal, handicap- resentatives in examination boards as well as and praxis-oriented – began. experts in the appointment of applicants for A programme grant for six years was given academic positions in special education in our to Fischbein by the Research Council for Work- different countries. While special education ing Life and Social Sciences (SFR/FAS) for a was a fairly new subject in Sweden and Den- project named ‘Pupils in Special Educational mark, Norway and Finland had a long tradi- Activities’ (ESV). This project underlined the tion and four professors already in 1948. Con- necessity to combine behavioural, societal and tributing to the good cooperation was an Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 263

interest that the two female professors in Fin- the special educational programme disappeared. land and Sweden had in common. They were Instead, there were basic course and optional both breeding horses and passionate visitors to course alternatives. The teaching of child and horse races. The probability for this to happen youth science focused on the education of pre- must be practically zero! school and leisure time teachers. The number of persons belonging to this subject was consider- A department without a letter-box ably larger than those belonging to special edu- In 2002 there was a major reorganisation at cation. Preschool education dominated the new LHS. Three new departments were established: department and it was difficult for special edu- the departments of Individual, Society and cation to maintain its status as a separate sub- Learning (IOL); Society, Culture and Learning ject. It virtually became invisible. One of the (SKL); and Teaching Processes, Communica- lecturers in special education said that it was tion and Learning (UKL). These departments like a subject without a letter-box. The students were thought to represent the behavioural, so- in the special educational programme were also cietal and didactic streams in education. Spe- protesting against the institutional invisibility. In cial education was included in IOL – a major addition, they maintained that they received too disadvantage since it made it more difficult to little knowledge of neuropsychiatric diagnoses maintain the interactional and interdisciplinary and reading and writing problems/dyslexia. character of the subject. It was also perceived In that situation it became very important to as a risk that special education would again be convince the Faculty of Social Sciences at the classified as a subject with a focus on pupil university to make it possible for doctoral stu- problems and compensating strategies. There dents to become doctors in special education was a discussion about where doctoral stu- and not in education. In 2003, special education dents in special education should be placed, became a separate research subject with its own since they could potentially have a behavioural, doctoral students. A thesis in special education societal or didactic focus. The professor in a covered a broad field, from individual develop- subject could not choose which department to ment and family background to societal per- whom he/she should belong, but teachers and spectives, as well as didactic questions. Another doctoral students could do that. trend in research and production of literature The area of the new department, IOL, com- has been the close relationships between theory prised special education and child and youth and practice. Fischbein worked for many years science. In the former subject, the streaming of teaching and writing books and articles together 264 Department of Special Education

with experienced teachers and teacher educa- physical development, neurophysiology and tors. Rolf Helldin, the successor to Fischbein as disabilities of different kinds. Environmental professor in special education, started several influences at the societal, institutional and development projects with cities and municipal- group level can be categorized as sociology or ities sending students to supplementary educa- social psychology. In the philosophical field, tion. Generally, one can say that behavioural, power relations and questions of justice are societal and didactic perspectives have mutually important as well as conceptualizations of stimulated the special educational field. normality and diversity. Ethics is also an important area in special education, where you Special education – risk defining problems in a biased way from an an interdisciplinary subject advantaged position. Critical educational the- Making special education a research subject ory is relevant wherever the impacts of societal separate from general education was one way changes or humanistic and epistemological of enhancing its visibility. Another fruitful ap- perspectives on special education are studied. proach was to start cooperation both national- The physical/technical field of research is also ly and internationally with other disciplines. necessary to include in special education. In Together with Per-Anders Rydelius, profes- recent years there has been an amazing devel- sor in child and youth psychiatry at Karolin opment in this area, helping many children ska Institutet, and Eva Björck Åkesson, pro- and adults to optimal achievement. Above all, fessor in special education/habilitation at however, the significance of the interaction be- Mälardalen University College, we initiated tween individual prerequisites and environ- cooperation in master’s and doctoral studies, mental influences is recognised. This implies research projects and seminars. This project incorporating different theoretical perspec- was called Forum for Special Education and tives at varying levels: risk factors in individu- was funded by the Swedish Research Council. al development, leadership and group process- This was a way to combine influences from es to prevent exclusion, and participation and different subjects and achieve interdisciplinary justice in education and society. Functional cooperation, which is vital for both research disabilities are central in all these areas. A per- and practice. Psychological knowledge, for in- son with a functional disability tends to be at stance about cognition and emotions related risk of being marginalised and excluded in dif- to learning and the formation of self-concepts, ferent situations. Special education is thus en- has to be in focus as well as biological factors, gaged in questions of participation and influ- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 265

ence at the individual, group and societal sociated with diagnoses. How can individual levels. needs be apprehended without losing the In this multifaceted field of practice and re- awareness of how the general teaching envi- search, cooperation with persons from other ronment can be improved to benefit all? These disciplines and professions makes it easier to are ethical problems that teachers in special ed- see possibilities instead of obstacles. The in- ucation as well as their students in their future terlocutors and cooperation partners can be professional life always have to deal with. teachers, special educators, social workers, Special education is internationally an estab physical therapists, speech therapists, psy- lished discipline with varying focus in different chologists, medical doctors’, etc. An import- countries. Often there is a tendency to sort out ant area both for practical involvement and as children in the educational system and to gear a research topic is the cooperation between the education to issues about how you can parents and school professionals where ques- compensate for shortcomings, e.g. functional tions of power relations and submissiveness disabilities. In other instances the whole varia- are in focus. The more perspectives that are tion of individual capacities is included in the taken into consideration, the better we can teaching of special education, and the expres- handle critical educational situations involv- sion “exceptional children” is used. Some ing children, youth and grown-ups in risk of countries have a long tradition of using alter- marginalisation. native tools to include all children in regular Theory and practice must be combined with activities. In both Norway and Finland, special ethical judgments, as well as mobilising vary- education has been an established discipline for ing perspectives on special educational situa- a long time with its own professors and doctor- tions. On the one hand, there is a risk that eval studies. When, as was earlier the case in Swe- eryone is treated similarly irrespective of den and Denmark, general education incorpo- individual differences and experiences, and on rates special education, the problem is that the the other, that there is too narrow an individual average educational situations come into focus diagnosis. A pervasive problem is balancing the rather than the special situations. An interdisci- need to use the most up-to-date understanding plinary and interactional approach, working in of how different functional deficiencies work cooperation with other countries, makes it pos- and the resources that can be mobilised to re- sible to enhance research and education in spe- mediate or compensate them, along with the cial education from a holistic perspective and risks of stigmatisation and marginalisation as- avoid some of these pitfalls. 266 Department of Special Education

Research from year 2008 means to pragmatically establish optimal devel- When the Stockholm Institute of Education, opmental and learning opportunities. Interven- LHS, was incorporated into Stockholm Univer- tional, as well as descriptive, research concern- sity in January 2008, the Department of Spe- ing the development and learning of children cial Education was reborn and the possibilities and youth (0–22 years) with neurodevelopmen- to develop the subject further increased. Doc- tal issues (autism, ADHD, intellectual disabili- toral studies, as well as the basic and advanced ties), sensory impairments and co-occurrence of courses in the discipline of special education diagnoses will be conducted. This area deals and the supplementary programme for special with the multi-dimensional examination of a va- educators, became part of the Faculty for So- riety of interrelated variables such as: communi- cial Sciences. We can today proudly say that cation/language, social (e.g. play) and cognitive the Department of Special Education is the development, in addition to environmental as- only one in Sweden. pects such as classroom climate, professional In the following, some of the important ar- competence, attitudes and perceived efficacy. eas of research that are pursued in the new de- These issues can also be studied comparatively, partment will be presented. The Department of looking at both Swedish and culturally diverse Special Education has cemented its position in families. scientific research in many different areas of in- In Sweden, there is a lack of studies on the terest. effects of psycho-educational intervention targeting children and youth with autism (ASD) Disabilities from a lifespan perspective and ADHD (SBU) as well as hearing, visual This research cluster is led by Professors Ulla and intellectual disabilities. A major purpose Ek and Lise Roll-Pettersson. Individuals with of the research group is to contribute to meet- disabilities and their families are confronted ing this societal need. This relevance is under- with barriers inherent in policies, attitudes, and scored by the rising prevalence of neurodevel- services, which can lead to significant conse- opmental disabilities. Most probably teachers quences such as reduced learning opportunities, and special educators will come in contact lower quality of life and isolation over the with a child/pupil with ASD or ADHD diffi- course of their lifespan. The focus of research in culties. this area is on addressing these mechanisms The Department of Special Education is within inclusive and specialized preschool or building an interdisciplinary multi-professional school settings (and habilitation services) as a consortium within the Stockholm region with Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 267

the purpose of developing and implementing conducts prominent research and outreach in sustainable socially valid interventions for indi- early childhood special education in the USA viduals with neurodevelopmental disabilities concerning disabilities, families and learning across their lifespan. There are three main na- environments. Especially recognized is their re- tional partners: The Consortium is made up of search concerning early intervention and edu- the Center of Neurodevelopmental Disorders at cational interventions for children/pupils with Karolinska Institutet (KIND), the Psychology neurodevelopmental disabilities (i.e. autism Division at Karolinska Institutet the Depart- spectrum disorders and co-occurring diagno- ment of Clinical Neuroscience, in cooperation sis). Secondly, the Department of Special Edu- with the Neuropsychiatry Assessment Unit at cation has also been part of the European Sachs’ Children and Youth Hospital (Sachs), Commission Leonardo Project and collaborat- the Division of Child and Adolescent Psychia- ed with universities in Northern Ireland, Ice- try in Stockholm (BUP), PRIMA Psychiatry land, Italy, England, Holland, Norway, Germa- Stockholm and the Centre for Habilitation and ny, and Spain in developing an instructional Health Stockholm. It is coordinated with four multi-media programme with a psycho-educa- major neurodevelopmental parental and interest tional learning theoretical focus on autism in- organizations. terventions and will hopefully continue with The Karolinska-Huddinge collaboration in- comparative studies. Finally, our unique mas- cludes several ongoing projects concerning vi- ter’s programme in visual impairment is given sual outcome for children with optic nerve hy- in collaboration with NTNU (Norwegian Uni- poplasia, and visual and perceptual outcome versity of Science and Technology, Trondheim) after allogeneic stem cell transplantations. and entails ongoing collaboration and develop- For the ‘National Agency for Special Needs ment of research projects. Education and Schools’ (Specialpedagogiska skolmyndigheten, SPSM), the partnership is Learning environments, didactics and inclu- concerned with visual impairments as well as sive education in school and preschool cognitive and intellectual disabilities. This second research cluster is led by Professor At present we have in this field of research Mara Westling Allodi (successor of Rolf Hell- three main international collaborative partner din). It is conducting research with a variety of setups. The first is the Frank Porter Graham approaches and contents that nevertheless has Development Institute at the University of the common denominator of focusing on de- North Carolina in Chapel Hill. The institute scribing, assessing and evaluating the special 268 Department of Special Education

educational policies, activities, strategies and this research field wants to contribute to bridg- methods that are practiced. The aim is to iden- ing the gap between research and practice. This tify promising approaches that should be em- can be done by various means: through the de- ployed in educational situations and organiza- velopment of practices through theory and tions, in order to prevent difficulties that can evidence-based interventions, prevention pro- arise in learning environments – intended in a grammes, participatory research, collaboration broad meaning – and to support optimal learn- with stakeholders and internationalization. ing, participation and equity in the educational system and in society. In contrast to other and Democracy and fundamental values still prevalent applications and interpretations The third cluster is led by Senior Lecturer Ulf of Special Educational research in Sweden, Sivertun. Research within inclusive education which have taken a rather practice-distant, pre- reveals how segregation based on culture, so- dominantly theoretical stance, or also an exclu- cial class, gender, disability and knowledge sively critical standpoint in relation to practice, bring about negative consequences for person-

The staff of the Department after the move to Frescati. (Photo: Eleonor Svensson Lindholm) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 269

al development as well as the learning develop- Basic courses and master’s ment of students. Concepts like democracy, programmes on an advanced level justice, and ethics are at the center of the anal- The Department offers courses in special ysis in which society’s design as well as views of needs education within the general teacher humanity, values issues, and views of knowl- training programmes, and several basic cours- edge are critically examined from a historic es such as ‘Special Education 1’, ‘Intellectual perspective in which ruling discursive power Disability 1’, and ‘Development and Mental relations are in focus. Health of Children’. On the advanced level we Research within the cluster concerns struc- have two programmes educating ‘Special Edu- tures of power and justice, where democracy, cational Needs’ teachers and ‘Special Needs equity and ethics are in focus. Praxis related Training’ teachers. These professions are research projects scrutinize how different ac- highly requested and the latter programme is tions and educational settings in school create expanded by being much more than doubled, constraints and boundaries and how tensions from 100 students to 285, in 2015. As the between homogeneity and heterogeneity, as only department of this kind in Sweden, we well as between the individual and the collec- offer a Master’s programme in ‘Specialization tive, are managed. This extensive analysis is in Visual Impairment Pedagogy’. relevant for studies of those groups of stu- All the above described programmes are of- dents regarded as being in need of special sup- fered in Swedish. However, the Department port. The research area includes among others offers a few courses in English for both Swed- studies of school systems, school organiza- ish and our international students. A good tions and resources, the organization of sup- many international agreements with other Eu- port and working environment. ropean universities under the Erasmus pro- The Department also houses independent gramme, as well as bilateral departmental researchers, and among their interests we can agreements for students outside the EU, have mention multiple disabilities with a focus on been established. communicative and cognitive disabilities, and the use of aesthetical methods in connection with cognitive and linguistic impairment. Fi- nally, one project deals with the use of creative play in longitudinal formative intervention, using inspiration from Vygotsky. 270“Study Kapitelnamnstatistics!” The labour market for statisticians is constantly hungry for more students to graduate, so this exhortation is well-founded. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 271

Department of Statistics Daniel Thorburn

The Department of Statistics celebrated main reasons. He suggested, for instance, ‘uni- 100 years of statistics at Stockholm University versal’ suffrage (for men, that is), improved College (Stockholms högskola) on the 20th of housing and economic development. Sundbärg October, 2003 (Frank et al. 2003). This makes it also emphasised the importance of a broad gen- one of the oldest statistical departments in Swe- eral education. den. Exactly 100 years earlier, Gustav Sundbärg After Sundbärg, Nils Wohlin (1881–1948) (1857–1914) had been appointed docent. He and Karl Arvid Edin (1880–1937) were re- was a statistician in the old sense, more interest- sponsible for statistics. As a curiosity, it can be ed in describing the world than in developing mentioned that the first two professors of sta- new methods to be used by others. He had made tistics in Uppsala were Sundbärg and Wohlin, a long series of statistical studies, mainly on de- both of whom were recruited from Stockholm. mography but also on other subjects like agri- When Edin died, the City of Stockholm decid- culture, railways and traffic, e.g. ‘La Suède, son ed that the head of their statistical office, Sten people et son industrie’ (Sundbärg 1900), in- Wahlund (1901–76), could also serve as a part- tended for the World Exhibition in Paris. Sund- time professor. He was thus appointed in 1938 bärg is probably best known as the one respon- as the first professor. The University College sible for ‘Emigrationsutredningen’, where he in had at that time close ties to the City, so this 21 large volumes (Sundbärg 1907–13) tried to solution was quite natural. However, the De- find the reasons why so many Swedes emigrated partment grew and the workload became too and what measures should be taken to make heavy. In 1949, Wahlund left the statistical of- them stay in Sweden. The reports emphasised fice to become a full-time professor. During his that the large social clefts and poverty were the last years at the Department, Wahlund was 272 Department of Statistics

also a prominent member of the parliament for hannesson 1988, Höijer 2001). Before the Fac- the Agrarian Party. He sometimes asked stu- ulty of Social Sciences was created, statistics was dents to come to his office in the parliament, part of the Faculty of Humanities. where he examined them. As a researcher, he One division of the Department of Mathe was a demographer particularly interested in matics also deals with statistics. In 1919 a the nomadic people of Northern Sweden. He mathematician, Harald Cramér (1893 – 1985), introduced the Wahlund effect, a concept that became interested in insurance. During the late is still used in population genetics. As a politi- 19th century, many insurance companies had cian, he played an influential role in the intro- gone bankrupt. The situation was quite similar duction of the public child allowance and the to the banks’ situation at the turn of the millen- ATP pension reform. nium and corresponded to the rise of financial In 1953, Wahlund left for the parliament mathematics. Cramér realised not only that in- and he was succeeded by Sten Malmquist in surance needed a firm basis of probability, but 1954. With him came the new view that statis- also that statistics needed a firm basis of prob- tics is a science that also deals with methods ability. In the 1920s and 1930s, an institute for and not only with contents, even though the actuarial mathematics was created together change was gradual. Malmquist was at the De- with a chair for him. Cramér is the best known partment for 30 years. He has characterised the of all Swedish academic statisticians. In the period when it expanded from a one-man unit 1930s, some people had started to realise the to a modern department with many people need for a firm theory regarding statistical in- working there. A one-man unit was not literal- ference. Cramér made many contributions, and ly true, since at that time every professor al- his book ‘Mathematical methods in statistics’ ways had a secretary and an assistant. (1946) was used as a graduate textbook all Statistics, in the sense of describing society in over the world until the 1970s. He is famous figures, started in the 17th century mainly as a for many results, for instance the ‘Information part of political science. The division between inequality’, which is usually called the ‘Cramér- subjects was nevertheless not clear, and statistics Rao inequality’. He was not only a great scien- was taught in connection with other subjects as tist but also well liked and a good administra- well, such as history (Uppsala) and astronomy tor. He became both vice-chancellor of the (Lund). A former lecturer at the Department, Stockholm University College and later national Olle Sjöström, has described the early years in chancellor. One of his dreams was to create one several treatises (e.g. Sjöström 1980, see also Jo- large and unified statistical department in Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 273

Stockholm. Even though there are some differ- special positions financed by the Scientific ences between mathematical statistics, which Council (‘forskningsrådsassistenter’) who gave contains deeper concerns with probability, and free advice to researchers from other subjects. statistics, which contains more about data col- These positions disappeared in the middle of lection and handling, and is thus more oriented the 1970s. After that, consultancy has not towards applied statistics and the social sciences, been formalised but depends on the available the similarities are quite strong. time and on the inclination of the staff. Most consulting had to be done along with the ordi- Development of statistics nary tasks. At the beginning of the semester, and research when teaching was planned, the demand for The classical statistical theory developed by, consultancy was generally not known. When for example, Cramér (1946) was the frame- researchers in need turned up with questions, work for most research in the 1960s. New everyone was 100 % occupied with other du- methods were developed within the theory ties. such as large econometric models, rudimentary In 1964, almost all statisticians used fre- structural equation models and the Box-Jen- quency-based inference, but internationally kins’ ARIMA approach as well as non-para- there has been a successive increase in Bayesian metrics, operations analysis and stationary methods since then. One might say that classi- processes. Very few mainframe computers were cal statistics focus on reliable methods, while available in the 1960s and they were used only the Bayesians focus on reliable results. One for simple simulations and tedious calcula- main theme of the Department’s research is tions. The first statistical programs were writ- Bayesian methods with the use of advanced ten and simple packages like BMD began to MCMC-methods. A recent example is the disappear. Statistics Sweden had started to use a sertation of Feng Li, who received the Cramér computer for adding, sorting and tabulating prize for the best statistical dissertation in Swe- data, but most of the work was still done man- den in 2013. He can be seen as the third gener- ually or by punch card sorters. The Department ation of Bayesians at the Department. was quite early in using computers and realis- One trend in statistics was towards coming their importance for statistics. puter-intensive methods. Such methods are, The Department has always helped re- for example, projection pursuit, resampling searchers from other departments in statistical methods, GLIM and high-dimensional meth- matters. During the 1970s, there were even ods. In 1964, survey sampling was considered 274 Department of Statistics

The various posters at the department reflect membership in an international ‘epistemic community’. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 275

as fully developed. The advent of computers servient secretary to being in charge of the has led to new methods, for instance propen- salaries and the economy in her own right. sity scores and model based estimators. Much One part of the early professor’s secretaries’ of the Department’s research has focused on work was to take hand-written manuscripts the use of auxiliary variables in survey sam- and type them, but there were also other secre- pling and when correcting for biased samples. taries typing for the entire staff. Before the era The Department’s speciality of network sam- of computers, everything had to be typed. Re- pling also fits well into that field. search papers, memoranda, applications, test Another trend is the increased use of more papers and so on. When more than five copies complicated probability and statistical models were needed, it was typed on special waxed pain applied sciences. One example is hazard re- per for later duplication. This was not easy gression in epidemiology and behavioural sci- with all the mathematical formulas and with ences in the 1970s. Hoem was one of the fore- no possibility to change a typo. Around 1970 runners of this and later Gebrenegus Ghilagaber. came machines with exchangeable balls for dif- One should also mention Docent Gunnar ferent fonts in addition to rubber facilities for Eklund (1923–), who in 1975 left the Depart- erasing and also primitive copiers. With the ad- ment to become professor of cancer epidemi- vent of computers, it became possible for ev- ology at Radiumhemmet. Other applied exam- eryone to produce their own documents and ples are financial economics, twenty years later, the need for typists had almost disappeared by but also the analysis of social networks and the 1990s. Computing thus had consequences high-dimensional data. for the lives of administrators, the students in In the 1960s, every professor had a secre- statistics, and statistical research in general. tary who was responsible for much of the ad- In the 1960s, the computer central QZ was ministrative work at the department. To be built up in Stockholm with an IBM computer the secretary of a professor was a qualified job that was used for analysing data and statistical comparable to the title administrative officer research. Around 1980, both statistics and (byrådirektör) today. They had often attended mathematics used a shared computer owned by special secretarial schools. Malmquist’s secre- the Department of Physics in the building at tary, Gun Ogenäs, was a central person in the Hagagatan 22, with terminals in the rooms of life of the Department. By the time she was the researchers. This computer was heavily replaced by Kari Blomberg in the 1980s and used by, for example, Jan Hoem and some PhD 1990s, the role had shifted from being a sub- students. At that time computer runs were 276 Department of Statistics

cumbersome and computers were not very reli- sion concerning the relation between smoking able. Hoem once lost more than three months’ and cancer, now taken for granted but much work during a computer crash. When statistics debated at that time. Malmquist was a timid moved to Frescati in 1987, the department ac- man who did not make much fuss about him- quired its own computer. The development was self, but it was during his leadership that the fast and this shared computer was soon repla unit took its form and changed into a modern ced by one PC for every person. Department. However, the Department and Malmquist’s students took up much of his Important people time. He had little time left to do research of In the 1960s, Erland Hofsten (1911– 96) was his own, not even after resigning from being asked to comment on the voting figures on TV head of department. during election nights. He was later supp When Malmquist had resigned as head of lemented and eventually succeeded by Thorb- department, it had no steady leadership for a jörn Thedéen (1931), who was responsible for period. During the following 20 years, no head the development of the early election forecasts stayed in office for more than one period of during election nights. In this work, he was as- three years. The department had its first female sisted by Per Näsman. These forecasts were head, Carita Gundberg, as early as 1981, but successively improved and complemented by she stayed for only one year. exit polls. Thedéen moved to KTH, but per- Another important person was Tore Dalenius sons from the Department participated during (1917–2002). If Malmquist was a timid man, many elections. Dalenius was his opposite. He was a very active Sten Malmquist (1917–2004) was both an and intense person, working within the field of economist and a statistician. Like Hofsten pre- surveys. Having been the originator of the Of- viously, he made significant contributions to fice of Investigation (Utredningsinstitutet) at the theory of indices. His best known work Statistics Sweden, he came to the Department in deals with productivity indices and it is still ap- 1965. He had a position as ‘preceptor’, which preciated (Färe et al. 1998). His work on utility was later transformed to a full professorship is sometimes cited as well. Malmquist also con- with special emphasis on official statistics. This tributed to the theories of demand and proba- speciality was for a long time unique to Stock- bility, and worked with applied statistics at the holm. Similar chairs have since been created in- same time he was active at the Department. For ternationally. At Statistics Sweden, he had been example, he took an active part in the discus- responsible for many important studies such as Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 277

2013 was the year of statistics all over the world, not least at the Department of Statistics. (Photo: Mats Danielson) the ‘The Living Conditions Surveys’ (ULF). his own field but also in related fields. During Dalenius was also active internationally. He had his last ten years, he shared his time between good contacts with the best survey researchers Stockholm and Brown University in Rhode Is- all over the world. He was quite early with land, USA. Dalenius knew a lot about different bringing home ideas from the US, not only in fields and he was mostly right, but he was not 278 Department of Statistics

an easy person and he often offended people. his advice about confidentiality, the debates He wrote, for instance, a nonsense article with about the Census (FoB85) and the Metropolitan the right vocabulary, which he got published in Project could have been avoided. a medical journal (1964) in order to show that Demography played a large role at the de- the refereeing system did not work. It created partment from its beginning. During the 1950s more animosity than positive results. Dalenius and 1960s, other subjects took over, but in was a demanding, but also a very encouraging, 1981 the Department recruited a new profes- leader and supervisor. As an example, he once sor in demography named Jan Hoem (1939–). called one of his PhD students, Lars Lyberg, on He was originally from Norway but had previ- Christmas Eve and asked him to come to the ously been a professor of actuarial mathemat- Department. ics in Copenhagen. The arrival of Hoem meant Dalenius is known for his contributions to sur- a rise and rekindling of demography. He intro- vey statistics; for example, the ‘Dalenius-Hodges duced modern methods like point processes allocation’ in stratified sampling bears his name. and hazard regression and put Stockholm Uni- He was responsible for several large research versity at the scientific frontier of demography. projects. In all these he was often ahead of his Yet, he was fairly isolated at the Department time. The project ‘Errors in surveys’ (Fel i un- and only a few years later demography was dersökningar, 1970–74) resulted in 81 different made an autonomous unit within the Depart- reports. There Dalenius coined the term ‘Total ment of Sociology. After his departure, demog- Survey Error’ and emphasised that the sampling raphy played only a minor role at the Depart- error was only a (small) part of the total error. ment until Gebrenegus Ghilagaber (1958–) His view on statistical quality has influenced not arrived as a lecturer in 1999. only Statistics Sweden but also many internation- Both Malmquist and Dalenius retired in al statistical offices, such as the US Census Bu- 1983. Hoem left the Department one year later. reau. Another large project was ‘Access to infor- They were replaced in 1984 by Ove Frank mation through censuses and surveys’, where he (1937–) and in 1989 by Daniel Thorburn emphasised the upcoming role of computers and (1945–). This can be seen as an important time the need for statistical knowledge when creating of change for the Department when new per- databases. His work was met by very little inter- sons arrived with new interests and specialities. est in the statistical community but many of his Frank has his PhD from the Department but ideas have been reinvented in computer science. If had been professor in Lund for ten years in be- statistical bureaus and researchers had followed tween. He is an international authority on sta- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 279

tistics regarding graphs and social networks. could be taken up both in research and under His thesis from 1971 was the first large treat- graduate courses. This has led to a long series ment on the subject. It is difficult to single out of dissertations relevant for official statistics, only one of his results, but his work on expo- dealing with issues like index theory (continu- nential graphs should be counted among his ing the tradition from Hofsten and Malmquist), best. The field has received more interest with methods for seasonal adjustment, measure- the advent of modern computers. Statistical ment errors, interviewer effects and non- graphs have played an important role in the re- response adjustment. With Thorburn, Bayesian search at the Department. In 1987, Ove Frank theory also became one of the Department spe- succeeded to gather the most important interna- cialities. In 2012, he was succeeded by Dan tional scientists working with stochastic graphs Hedlin (1960–) on a chair with the same orien- to one of the many conferences that have been tation. arranged at the Department. Frank retired in In the late 1990s the possibility to be pro- 2002 but is still quite active, writing research moted to professor was introduced. Jan Wret- papers and supervising students. man, who had then been a lecturer at the De- Thorburn had come to the Department in partment for almost ten years, was the first one 1984. The Department of Statistics has a long to be promoted at the Department in 2000. His tradition of cooperation with official statistical main research deals with sampling designs, but agencies. Sundbärg, Wahlund and Hofsten all he had extensive experience as chief statistician shared their time between statistical offices and at Statistics Sweden before coming to the De- teaching. This was reflected in the name of partment. He is one of the three authors of the Dalenius’ chair: ‘Statistics, especially official international standard book on advanced sur- statistics’. With Thorburn, the cooperation was vey sampling (Särndal et al. 2003). He is a very even more formalised because his employment timid and kind man who was well liked by the description explicitly prescribed that he should whole Department and appreciated by the stu- spend 20 % of his time at Statistics Sweden, dents. He was born in the night of New Year’s but did not say what he was supposed to do Eve in 1939 and sometimes joked by saying during this time. In practice that percentage of “We who have got experience from the thir- time was spent on discussions, seminars, cours- ties” when he wanted to stress some point. es and supervision. The cooperation with Sta- Another prominent lecturer was Rolf Lars- tistics Sweden benefited the Department, since son (1962–) who is a good econometrician with the very problems met by Statistics Sweden VAR-models and unit roots as his specialties. 280 Department of Statistics

In 2002, he followed the examples of Sundbärg increased and the staff has grown more inter- and Wohlin to leave the Department for a chair national. Today, there are three lecturers and in Uppsala. two guest researchers or post docs with PhDs Hans Nyquist (1950–) succeeded Frank in from abroad. The goal of the Department is to 2002. His main research area is asymptotically have many international contacts and to invite optimal allocation in model dependent design at least one guest every semester. of experiments. His presentations are always There was a change of generations around lucid and enjoyable, and he is a good supervi- 1984 when Malmquist and Dalenius retired. A sor for graduate students. Experimental design similar change came around 2010, when has recently become one of the Department’s Hedlin became the new professor of official three specialties, with a couple of academic statistics and Ghilagaber was promoted to pro- theses. Nyquist is also a keen winter sports- fessor and presently being head of department. man. When he became head of department in His specialty is duration and event history data. 2005, he arranged a Department gathering in Recently, some qualified lecturers have been em- Hemavan during the winter. ployed coming from other universities like Tat- The Department has also had many guest jana von Rosen specialising in linear models, researchers and adjunct professors. Hofsten, Andriy Andreev in business and financial sta- Hoem and Thedéen have already been men- tistics and Frank Miller in biostatistics. They tioned. Others that may be mentioned are: will strengthen what are now the Department’s Mats Rudemo from Copenhagen, specialising main areas: Bayesian methods, financial statis- in point processes (in the early 1980s); Carl tics, design of experiments and biostatistical Erik Särndal from Montreal working in sam- applications. But all the staff is not new. Ny- pling (in the 1990s); Thomas Polfeldt and Peter quist and a couple of other teachers are still Guttorp, interested in environmental statistics active and contribute to the development. Sev- (the former staying for six years and the latter eral people who have graduated here are em- for one year, both around the millennium); ployed as lecturers such as Raul Cano, Michael Lars Erik Öller dealing with time series and Carlsson, Ellinor Fackle-Fornius and Jessica economic statistics (eight years from 2004) and Franzén. Lars Lyberg working on survey quality (today). In 2013, the Survey Research and Education These are only a few names. Over time there Centre, SuREC, was launched. Its goals are to have time been a lot of foreign guests for short- promote the use of modern survey methods er periods. During recent years, the number has and to increase cooperation with other univer- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 281

sity departments interested in surveys and also middle of the floor where the statisticians resid- with surrounding society. The vision is that ed there was a large, dark library room with Stockholm University shall become a world- bad ventilation and without windows, where leading centre for survey education and research the shelves were filled with old books since the in social sciences, theory and methods as well days of Sundbärg as well as modern ones. The as applications, and, more specifically, a world Department subscribed to many scientific jour- leader on how to use administrative data and nals, which were sent to the binder every year. other non-statistical data in combination with In the library, there were many series of such survey data for statistical purposes. bound volumes, some of the series starting One goal of the Department is to reintro- with volumes from the 19th century. The semi- duce and expand interdisciplinary work where nar rooms were in the same house. Larger lec- statisticians and subject matter researchers ture halls and examination rooms had to be combine their knowledge and abilities to create found elsewhere. Most major lectures were a good research environment at Stockholm held in the old law building at Norrtullsgatan. University. SuREC has hitherto been successful In 1987, the Department moved to Frescati in this respect, but it has only been active for a where it still occupies the seventh floor of short period so the knowledge of its existence building B. There is still a small library, but the has not spread to all who might be interested. Internet has made paper copies of old journals The cooperation between the Department and obsolete. One advantage was that the Depart- the rest of the faculty has become more vivid ment came closer to the other subjects in the during the last three years, not only with Faculty, which has created possibilities for in- SuREC, but also in many other constellations. terdisciplinary cooperation. One important factor of change has been the Premises and technology introduction of computers and of statistical Between 1950 and 1964, the Department had packages, which has meant that the focus of four different addresses in Vasastan. In 1964, it teaching has changed. Fifty years ago, the De- gained more permanent premises in a function- partment had rooms filled with mechanical cal- alist building at Hagagatan 23, where it re- culators (‘Facitsnurror’), where the students mained until 1987. It was perhaps not the most learned how to compute, for example, long sum inspiring building. On one side, the windows of squares for regression and for analysis of faced a stone wall five metres away, and on the variance. These rooms were quite noisy when other side was a grey and dull street. In the filled with practising students. In the 1970s, the 282 Department of Statistics

calculators were replaced by electronic hand cal- physical centre has been planned for in the Al- culators and ten years later they were replaced bano area and Cramér’s dream of one large sta- by the first simple computers like ABC80. By tistical unit may come true. 1990, the rooms were filled with terminals to a mainframe computer. Today they are packed Teaching statistics with advanced personal computers, equipped As an academic subject, statistics received its with statistical and other program packages, form in the 1950s. In early times, an overview and with access to the Internet and statistical da- of existing statistical publications was import- tabases. These rooms have lately become less ant in the curriculum. The ability to find statis- important, as almost all students have their own tical data in available reports and yearbooks laptops and are able to download datasets and was earlier a part of the examination. In 1964, do the calculations there. the contents of the introductory course was The discussion on merging statistics and more methodological and more or less the mathematical statistics has continued on and same all over the world. There have been only off for a long time. At Hagagatan 23, the two small changes in the basic outline since then, departments were in the same building, but sta- but the theory has become applied to larger tistics was on one floor and mathematical sta- data sets and to more complicated models. In tistics on the floor above. There were some- the old times, there were not necessarily any times common arrangements and staff parties. books and the syllabus was defined by the lec- However, even though some teachers crossed tures. Already in 1943, Erland Hofsten (1911– the departmental border and some persons vis- 96) had published ‘A guide to Swedish statis- ited seminars in the other department, the two tics’ which was regularly updated until 1987, units have never come close to becoming one when the 10th edition was published. Hofsten unit. There have, also with varying intensity, worked with statistics at the National Board of been discussions on a mathematical centre in Health and Welfare, but he helped out at the Stockholm and statistics has mostly been a part Department for three decades. of them. When the College of Forestry moved In the 1960s there were thus basic books, to Umeå in the early 1980s, there was even a but they were complemented by supplementa- concrete plan to create a common mathemati- ry material (‘kompendier’), written by the cal centre at their former location. However, teachers and sold at the Department’s student plans changed at the university. Today there is office. The Department had a special box with a virtual mathematical centre, but a smaller petty cash to handle the payments. This han- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 283

dling of money at the Department ceased In the old system, students studied one sub- around 1990. ject at a time and for an entire semester. There Hofsten’s book was used until the early was usually only one or two lectures a week 1980s but its importance gradually decreased. even though small group exercises with case The topic of Swedish statistical sources is still studies (‘räkneövningar’) were added on in the taught and it is now contained in Karin Dahm- 1960s. The rest of the time, the students were ström’s book ‘From Data Collection to Re- expected to read the book and try to solve port’, but its emphasis lies on how the statistics problems on their own. At the end of the term, are produced and not the figures themselves. they were tested, often both orally by a profes- Dahmström (1943–2012) was a lecturer at the sor and in a written test. The grades were called Department and she wrote the first edition in one, two or three ‘betyg’ (grades) depending on 1991. The book has now reached its fifth edi- whether it was the first, second or third semes- tion and it is used throughout the country. ter course. These marks were with or without The emphasis of teaching has changed from ‘spets’ (‘point’, i.e. distinction). performing simple calculations to under In the 1960s all students were admitted if standing the output of statistical packages. they had a General Certificate of Education Fifty years ago it was only possible to handle (studentexamen) which made it difficult for the small models and small data sets in the exer- Department to plan. The students only had to cises. In order to do the calculations, the stu- show up at the introductory meeting to be al- dents nevertheless had to understand why lowed to study the course. Sometimes, teachers they did them. Today, the students analyse had to be recruited with only one week’s no- large data sets by e.g. generalised linear mod- tice. Today, the students have to apply in the els, vector-autoregressive models, structural midterm before the courses start. However, equations, multilevel models, and propensity there are still planning problems since many scores with the same ease. More of the lecture admitted students never show up. time must be spent on understanding and in- At the end of the 1960s and in the early terpreting the results and the output of statis- 1970s, the number of university students in- tical packages. Earlier the students had to un- creased enormously (the ‘student explosion’). derstand what they were doing in order to get The number of teachers soon became insuffi- a result. Today, they can easily obtain results cient. In order to remedy this, good students but still need the understanding when inter- were recruited as teaching assistants after less preting them. than two semesters’ study and very soon be- 284 Department of Statistics

come responsible for lectures and for whole many small courses which together should give courses with hundreds of students. The num- a good three-year education. Almost all tests ber of lecture halls was also insufficient so that became written exams and the marks were ei- the Department sometimes had to use ordinary ther ‘pass’ or ‘pass with distinction’. The num- cinemas during daytime. Where the film screen ber of tests increased from one examination was at night, students that had studied statis- every semester to three or four examinations tics for three semesters could be standing lec- per semester, not counting hand-ins. Oral exa turing to hundreds of undergraduates. Even minations almost disappeared. The compulsory though most of these teaching assistants left bachelor’s theses were introduced at the same the university for a job after some years or be- time. At first they amounted to five weeks’ came graduate students, some of them re- work, but since then they have expanded and mained as appreciated junior teachers (’assi- the student will have to spend ten or even stenter’ or ‘adjunkter’). Three of them, Björn twenty weeks to finish the thesis. Järvheden, Ann-Sofi Matthiessen and Bo Ry- At the same time, the number of admitted dén stayed until this century. Peter Claësson, students was given an upper bound for all who was recruited a little later, is now the only courses. Statistics became a part of many study one remaining. He is responsible for the coop- programmes (e.g. the programmes for econo- eration with Human Geography and the study mists ‘ekonomlinjen’, administrative manage- programme in Urban and Regional Planning. ment ‘förvaltningslinjen’, public planning During the student boom period, the atmos ‘samhällsplanerarlinjen’, systems science ‘sy- phere was in a way dominated by the young stemvetarlinjen’ and behavioural science ‘be- generation. They created, for instance, a sports teendevetarlinjen’) but there was no autono- club “Statist IK” that participated in some out- mous full study programme in statistics, even side competitions and leagues, ‘korpen’. How- though the possibility to study single courses ever, the club faded away and had disappeared remained. Later, many departments that were when the Department moved to Frescati in responsible for a study programme took over 1987. In 1969 and 1972, the UKAS and PU- the statistical teaching themselves. In the early KAS reforms meant a complete reorganisation 1990s, statistics was represented only in two of the undergraduate teaching at the philo- such study programmes: ’Business Administra- sophical faculties. Instead of one-semester tion’ and ‘Urban and Regional Planning’. courses, complete education study programmes The education reforms had an even more were introduced, which were composed by profound impact on the undergraduate teach- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 285

Some of the veterans of the Department: Hans Nyqvist, Daniel Thorburn, Ove Frank and Per Dahmström. (Photo: Karin Dahmström) ing. Many study programmes contained only 1970s, there could be 50 students taking a five, ten or at most twenty weeks of statistics. third semester course every year. Twenty years This meant that there was no natural way to later this figure had decreased to about five per- continue with statistics for a second semester sons writing bachelor’s theses in statistics. or to even higher levels for those interested in With the reforms came also a differentia- the subject. Instead of a ‘normal’ university de- tion between the resources allocated to the partment, statistics was transformed into a ser- subjects. Statistics, together with mathematics vice department giving the students enough and mathematical statistics, was in the 1960s knowledge to continue their studies in other classified as a ‘semi-laboratory subject’, since subjects or to get a job in other fields. In the they needed tutorials and teaching in small 286 Department of Statistics

groups but not as much as fully laboratory ences from the study programme, the under- subjects like chemistry. The differences in graduate education was successively reorgan- allocated resources between statistics and oth- ised, creating natural ways for the students to er subjects like mathematics gradually in- continue with second, third and fourth semes- creased. Around the millennium, statistics ters in statistics. Around the millennium, the was funded as any other social science subject, number of bachelor students was almost back while mathematics and mathematical statis- to the good figures from the 1970s, e.g. almost tics were funded as a natural science subject. half of all the bachelor’s theses in statistics in This meant that the Department’s elementary Sweden were written in Stockholm. In 2006, a undergraduate teaching was in a way spon- special study programme in economics and sta- sored by the teachers who had no time for re- tistics was launched. However, most of its stu- search and personal development. In 2006, dents specialise in economics. the allocation was raised again. Today, there In 1964, there were only five Swedish uni- are many lecturers who have time to do good versities (colleges) with undergraduate teach- research and actually do so. ing in statistics. Today there are more than Jan Gustavsson (1933–) played an impor twenty. In order to coordinate the teaching and tant role in implementing these reforms. He share experience, informal coordination exists. was director of studies (studierektor) for more Already in 1983, the Department took the ini- than two decades and also head of department tiative and arranged a much appreciated na- for three years. He was very conscientious and tional conference for all statistical departments his spirit still hovers over the undergraduate on Ljusterö. This was the first in a long series education. of such conferences held by different depart- It was not until 1990, when Per Dahmström ments, which by now have become a tradition. was the head, that a special statistics study pro- The Department has also given courses else- gramme (‘statistikerlinjen’) was launched. The where. When Stockholm University in 1967 Faculty abolished this study programme quite became responsible for building academic edu- soon due to financial reasons. After the second cation in Linköping, the Department with Erik admission, no more students were admitted. Leander as chief responsible handled the edu- The students who were admitted, however, cation in statistics. When Linköping became a liked the study programme and were later well university of its own in 1975, most of the received by the labour market, both by the teachers in statistics had been recruited from public and the private sector. With the experi- Stockholm. Further, for more than ten years, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 287

the Department was responsible for the statisti- reason may be that statistics is considered to be cal courses at Gotland University College. Edu- simpler and more applied than mathematics and cation was also commissioned from many other subjects in the natural sciences and thus agencies and companies; for instance, one and more suitable by quantitatively interested fe- two-semester courses for Statistics Sweden in male students. This high proportion still holds the 1980s. The first course based on distance for all levels. Already in the 1970s a substantial learning through the Internet was a course for number of the PhD students were female. To- Telia in 2000. day the proportion of female students is well above 50 %. In 1995, the Department organ- The students ised the First Conference for Female Statisti- In the 1970s, the new students came to an in- cians in Sweden, with more than 70 participants. troductory meeting without any prior app The Department has always received good lication or notice. They put their names on the marks for the administrative handling of stu- registration list and were then automatically dents. This applies particularly to the staff at admitted to the course. A card was filled out the student office and their response to all the and all students had to leave a photo, which was questions from the students. For a Department attached to the card. All examination results with many short service courses, the student were then noted on this card. This was the only office is often the only personal contact stu- university documentation. The students had dents have with the Department. They attend their own documentation in the form of a the lectures but sit quietly listening and never booklet, tentamensbok, where all results were raise their voices. Three persons, who have entered. Before oral exams, the teachers pre- been responsible for the student reception pared themselves by looking at the cards and during different periods, are Lillemor Moberg, photos. These cards were used until about Iris Claësson and Birgitta Berggren. 1990 but the photos disappeared earlier. Com- During the last half century, the proportion puter based systems were used in parallel for of an age cohort going to higher education has about ten years before they became the only increased from only 10 % in the 1960s. Today, form. Today the students are more anonymous, the technical and medical universities alone ac- but the databases have other advantages. count for this fraction. This has led to a deteri- Statistics has always had a relatively good oration in the capacities that the students bring proportion of female students in our own to their studies, since the faculty earlier re- courses outside the study programmes. One ceived a better fraction of younger generations 288 Department of Statistics

in the 1960s. There has also been a drop in called ‘proppen’ (the plug, the ‘propaedeutic’ mathematical knowledge in general. Already in course). the 1980s, the technical universities reported a The requirement of mathematics has over steady decline in mathematical knowledge and time disappeared, which means the mathemat- abilities among freshmen. One might say that ical level of some candidates is lower today in the 1970s, the students knew that they did than fifty years ago. The Department has intro- not master integrals. Today many students do duced special lectures in mathematics for those not even know that there is something called starting their second semester and at the mas- integrals. ter’s level. In the 1960s, the students were recommend- The many short service courses entail special ed to have mathematics in their General Certifi- problems, since the students have very varying cate of Education (‘reallinjen’) when beginning backgrounds and capabilities. Students with no studies in statistics and also to have one semes- talent for figures have trouble passing even if ter of studies in mathematics before starting they work hard while others with a more solid their third semester (‘tre betyg’). With the new background may get a high pass after one week study programme system this was impossible of preparation. The Department has the ambi- to require. All students admitted to a study tion to make time spent here meaningful for all programme should be able to read all the kinds of students. All students should work courses in the study programme, and if the stu- with their studies and all hardworking students dents wanted to continue with statistics there should pass. This has always been a challenge. was no place in study programmes to add an It is even more so now, since the diversity has a extra semester of mathematics. In the 1970s, new dimension today, with more foreign stu- statistics was a popular subject to start with. dents. These problems are not unique to Stock- The Department welcomed many students di- holm. In fact, when the university education in rectly from upper secondary school. Students statistics was evaluated by the authorities (HSV who intended to study business administration 2006), Stockholm University was deemed to be or economics were recommended to start with among the best in statistics, if not the best. statistics. The subject was also included in a Many students from the Faculty of Social special degree, ‘the pol. mag. degree’ (Magister Sciences study statistics. More than one thou- Politicus), intended for those who were train- sand students participate in at least one of the ing for a career as a civil servant. There was Department’s courses every year. Yet, the De- even a special preparatory course for them, partment is one of the smallest of the Faculty, if Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 289

counted by the length of the courses. The num- the increasing number of students. Many of the ber of students has usually been between 300 assistants soon disappeared into the labour and 500 during most of the last forty years, if market or became assistant senior lecturers evaluated in terms of whole year equivalents. (adjunkter) with a heavy workload, but some This figure was smaller in the 1960s, but it has of them continued on to a PhD. The first one also decreased during recent years. The num- was Gunilla Elofsson in 1970, and the second ber has almost halved from 1997 when it was one was Ove Frank, who later was to become a around 500. professor at the Department. The concentra- In 2005, the possibility for Swedes to get a tion on demography had by then disappeared, Master’s degree was introduced. Since the de- and the topics of research were chosen from gree is new, neither the students nor the labour many different fields of modern statistics. market have gotten used to it. There have been Since the 1970s there has been a steady about 10 to 20 students beginning their studies stream of new PhDs, with about one disserta- for a Master each year, but most of them have tion per year. There were 10 dissertation de- so far been offered interesting jobs before fin- fences in the 1970s, 8 in the 1980s and 7 in the ishing their studies. The actual number of stu- 1990s. The rate has increased since then and dents who have written master’s theses and re- there have been 21 in the twenty-first century ceived a master’s degree is thus limited so far, (until 2013). About one quarter of all PhDs last but there has been a slight improvement during century were female. The proportion has in- the last years. This trend will hopefully contin- creased to almost one half in recent years. ue in the future and the department has recent- The theses do not belong to only one area of ly reorganised the master’s education. statistics. It is more natural to emphasise the diversity and plurality. During the 25 year peri- Graduate education and dissertations od of 1964–89, official statistics and survey sam- The first PhD who graduated in statistics in pling were well-represented but also other fields Stockholm was Alfred Söderlund in 1923. Two like econometrics, non-parametrics or bivari- other students received their PhDs in 1932 and ate data. During the last 25 year period of in 1953 respectively. All three theses dealt with 1989–2014, most theses have dealt with net- demography. After that, there was a long period works, survey sampling, official statistics, and until 1970 without any dissertations. econometrics with finance and/or Bayesian the- During the 1960s, many of young teaching ory. Design of experiments has also become an assistants were recruited in order to cope with increasingly important topic for the Depart- 290 Department of Statistics

ment. Two theses within that area have already clusively become an intermediate exam. Out of appeared and one more is expected this year. the fifteen licentiates since the year 2000, ten Very few theses have been completely theoreti- have already received their PhD’s and the re- cal. Most of them contain applied parts taken maining five will do so in the near future. from areas like economy, medicine, traffic theo- Many students started their graduate studies ry or sociology. A professor was long expected in the 1960s and early 1970s. After that, the to be able to supervise graduate students in any number of new PhD students went down. In part of the subject. During the last five years, the 1990s the output of potential PhD students however, the range of possible directions for increased and the Department could not admit new students to choose has been limited by the every good student. Many left for other univer- specialties of the available supervisors. sities. However, the number of bachelor’s stu- Apart from those getting a full PhD, nine dents decreased and almost all new PhD stu- students chose to finish with a licentiate degree dents during the last five years have come from between 1970 and 1973. When the old system other universities. with doctoral degrees was abolished in the ear- There is, however, a clear demand for peo- ly 1970s, the licentiate degree also disappeared. ple with a PhD in statistics. The available stat- There was a rush from many graduate students isticians are almost too few to fill even the to get that degree before it was too late. Those needs of the universities. About twenty of the licentiate theses had a scientific level quite close PhD’s have stayed at the University, working to a new PhD For example, it qualified one for with research or teaching. Ten of them have a lectureship (lektorat). later become professors, most of them in Swe- The licentiate degree was reintroduced at den but also abroad. Fifteen have received the Department about fifteen years later. The good positions in public agencies and gover- old doctoral degree corresponded to at least nance, about half of them at Statistics Sweden five years study after a bachelor’s degree. The or Eurostat. The remainder work elsewhere as, new PhD is expected to be around four years. for example, statistical consultants in the For the old licentiate degree, three years was pharmaceutical industry or with financial in- normal, but the new one corresponds to one stitutions. year less. The new licentiate degree has been  •  used both as a final and an intermediate degree. Out of the first 14 new licentiates, seven did Cramér, Harald 1946. Mathematical Methods in not proceed to a PhD. Today, it has almost ex- Statistics, Almqvist & Wicksell, Uppsala. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 291

Dahmström, Karin 2005. Från datainsamling Li, Feng 2013. Bayesian Modeling of Condi- till rapport: att göra en statistisk under tional Densities, (PhD thesis), Department sökning, 5th ed., Studentlitteratur, Lund. of Statistics, Stockholm. Dalenius, Tore 1964. Synpunkter på artikeln Sjöström, Olle 1980. Svensk samhällsstatistik. om datamaskinell optimering mm, Svenska Etik, policy och planering, (PhD thesis), De- Läkartidningen 61, p.1124. partment of Statistics. Stockholm. Frank, Ove 1971. Statistical Inference in Svensk statistikhistoria, Gidlunds, Uppsala, Graphs (PhD thesis), Department of Statis- 2002. tics, Stockholm. Statistiska institutionen 1998. Annual Report Frank, Ove, Olle Sjöström, Per Dahmström, 1997, Department of Statistics, Stockholm. and Gösta Hägglund 2003. 100 års statistik Sundbärg, Gustav 1900. La Suède, son people et vid Stockholms Högskola/Universitet. Re- son industrie, Stockholm. port from the Department of Statistics, Stock- Sundbärg, Gustav 1907-13. Emigrationsutred- holm University. ningen (a Swedish Government Report, with Färe, Rolf, Shawna Grosskopf and Robert Rus- 20 attachments), Stockholm. sel 1998. Index Numbers: Essays in Honour Särndal, Carl-Erik, Bengt Swensson and Jan of Sten Malmquist, Kluwer, Norwell, USA. Wretman 2003. Model Assisted Survey Sam- Hofsten, Erland 1943. Vägvisare i svensk pling, Springer, New York. statistik, Kooperativa förbundets bokförlag, Stockholm, (10th ed. with Ermalm-Kåreby, SCB, Stockholm). HSV, Utvärdering av grund- och forskarutbild- ning i statistik och demografi vid svenska universitet och högskolor, (Evaluation of the undergraduate and postgraduate education in statistics at Swedish universities and university colleges), Report 2006:9 from HSV, Stockholm, 2006. Höijer, Henrik 2001. Svenska siffror, Gid- lunds, Uppsala. Johannesson, Karin 1988. Det mätbara sam- hället, Norstedts, Stockholm. The Stockholm Business School is today located in Kräftriket (the ‘Crayfish Realm’), opposite the still empty Albano area which is to become a substantial extension to the Frescati Campus. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 293

Stockholm Business School Rolf Lind

In the past fifty years, business administra- what was then perceived as urgent needs in the tion has entered the scene of the social sciences. business community and to enhance its social The context has been an increasing, and seem- prestige. K.A. Wallenberg, one of the founders ingly insatiable, demand for professionally ed- of the Stockholm School of Economics, argued ucated persons in business and public sector that “knowledge and formal education will lift organization. The subject has foremost devel- businessmen from the status of petty shopkeep- oped in response to educational demands, and ers and merchants”, giving them a position to is today the academic discipline attracting the participate in the political and cultural discus- largest number of students in Sweden. Howev- sions shaping the society’s further economic er, during the last decades research has been development (SSE 2009:15). strengthened, and with respect to that, it can be In the early 1900s, business administration said that business administration has left its ad- education had a hands-on character emphasiz- olescence and become a full-fledged member of ing commercial techniques with a loose and the social science community. fragmented theoretical foundation, if any. This gave ample opportunities for the subject in the Business administration – setting years to come to assimilate theoretical ideas the scene and constructs from other social science disci- To understand the development at Stockholm plines. In contrast, education and research University, it is necessary to give a brief de- have always had a clear focus on a phenome- scription on how business administration has non of foremost importance in contemporary evolved in Sweden at large. In the early 20th society: business and other formally organized century, the subject was formed in relation to activities. Quite early it was also acknowledged 294 Stockholm Business School

that the interest did not solely concern prof- established in Uppsala and one in Lund in 1957. it-oriented corporations but organizations of In 1965, fourteen persons held chairs: six at different kinds, including public sector and co- SSE, three at GSE, one in Uppsala, and four in operative organizations (Thorburn 1966). Busi- Lund.1 At Stockholm University, a chair was ness administration is thus characterized by its established only in 1966. focus on a societal ‘meso-level’, where macro For a long time there was also a shortage of structures, such as markets and the political persons formally qualified for positions as aca- system, as well as micro-level individual be- demic teachers. The first PhD in business ad- haviour constitute important contingencies. ministration was awarded as late as 1950, and In the late 1950s, pressure rose to increase the second in 1953. In 1965, a total of 12 peo- educational opportunities in business admini ple had graduated. The number of PhDs has stration within the university system, as a re- since then increased, first at a slow pace. In sponse to the developing economy and the en- 1980, a total of 202 persons had received a try of the baby boomer generation to the labour PhD (28 from Stockholm University), rising to market. Until 1957, however, academic educa- a total of 1016 (161) in 2007. tion in business administration was provided In conclusion, business administration was only at two specialized and privately operated a newcomer in the social sciences with a back- business schools: Stockholm School of Eco- ground in business life, a constrained supply of nomics (SSE, established in 1909) and Gothen- academically trained teachers, a limited aca- burg School of Economics (GSE, established in demic tradition (if any), and with a rather frag- 1923). Both institutions received some financial mented theoretical framework. This suggests support from the government. While GSE was that business administration can be conceived later integrated into the University of Gothen- as a loosely defined cluster of theoretical per- burg, SSE, mainly financed by private resources, spectives. This is the big picture, given as a has maintained its institutional autonomy. background to how the School of Business2 Significantly, the number of professorships developed from 1962 to 2013.

in business administration was limited. Until 1 Some professors had graduated abroad or in other social the late 1950s, chairs existed only at SSE and science disciplines. Statistics based on (Engwall 2009). 2 The Swedish name has always been ‘Företagsekonomiska GSE. At the suggestion from a governmental institutionen’, translated as ‘Department of Business Admin- committee (SOU 1953:15), arguing for the im- istration’ (1962–1993), ‘School of Business’ (1994–2006), ‘Stockholm University School of Business’ (2007–2013), and portance of introducing business administra- from March 2014 ‘Stockholm Business School’. With respect to this I will use ‘School of Business’ or ‘the Department’ up to tion within the social sciences, one chair was 1993 to denote the operations, and from then on ‘the School’. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 295

The account in this chapter expresses my partment was established. Instrumental in this personal viewpoint, reflecting experiences of was Professor T. Paulsson Frenckner, on partial some 25 years as senior lecturer at the School leave from SSE, but acting as the Department’s of Business, and before that as a student and first head between 1962 and 1966. assistant teacher at SSE since the late 1960s.3 This raises a question concerning why a de- The narrative has also benefitted from conver- partment at Stockholm University was sup- sations with some former and present col- ported by SSE? A background is that in the leagues at the School, and from reviewing some 1960s, the public sector expanded, and so did formal documents, primarily degree pro- higher education. There also seems to have ex- grammes in business administration. I will pres- isted political pressure on SSE to admit more ent a rough outline of how the School has de- students, as the Ministry of Education was hes- veloped through the past fifty years, giving itant to create a second education in business snapshots of some significant processes, events administration in Stockholm. So it is possible and actors. The presentation follows a chrono- that a threat was perceived, influencing SSE to logical order, divided into six sections. Each support the new Department. By this, SSE period has some specific characteristics with could maintain control over their operations, respect to developments in education, research, where a very limited enrolment of students was and administrative matters. (and still is) a strategic parameter. Instead, the new department at Stockholm University Starting up a business (1962–1970) would bear the burden of mass education. Education in business administration at Stock- In a study based on protocols from the pro- holm University started on a small scale, basi- fessorial council at the SSE and on an interview cally as a subsidiary to the Stockholm School with Paulsson Frenckner, the latter is quoted in of Economics (SSE). Based on an agreement the following way: made in 1957, a limited number of students were allowed to follow courses at SSE covering In this way one could avoid destroying the the first two semesters of studies. In 1962, the well-functioning unit made up by the Stockholm operations expanded somewhat when the De- School of Economics. The new unit would at its start be able to exploit many of the teaching and

3 I was employed at Stockholm University in 1985. I have examination experiences available at SSE. The de- worked with undergraduate education, but also held ad- velopment towards broader and deeper education ministrative positions as head teacher in management 2002– 2004 and director of studies 2005–2009. would then be able to take place in steps, at the 296 Stockholm Business School

rate that resources and capacities grew. (Arvids- wished for. The third semester teaching could son 2000:20) start. (Engwall 1993:57)

The strategy from SSE thus seems to have The teaching expanded quickly. In 1969, a total been to start up the education in order to sub- of 2,658 students were enrolled at the Depart- sequently decouple. A prerequisite was that a ment, primarily students in the social sciences chair was provided. In 1964, seven years after studying for the first two semesters (1,942 stu- Uppsala and Lund, the government decided to dents), but also law students taking a prepara- allocate a professorship in business adminis- tory course in business administration (409 tration to Stockholm University. In March students). Studies on higher levels had also ex- 1966, Bertil Näslund was appointed as the panded. In 1969, there was a total of 276 stu- first professor in Business Administration. dents, and 31 individuals had started their PhD Until 1966, studies in business administra- studies (Engwall 1970:56). tion had only been provided for the first two After staying in some temporary, and as it semesters. With the professor in place, courses seems, poor office premises, the Department for the third and fourth semesters could be of- became located at Hagagatan 23, where some fered. Lars Engwall, the second to graduate office and seminar rooms were available. As an from the Department in 1970, and later profes- auditorium big enough to accommodate all sor at Uppsala University, was then a student. students was lacking, lectures were held in He has witnessed that the new professor was nearby cinemas. Almost all teaching staff came much wanted: with Paulsson Frenckner, employed as teaching or research assistants at SSE while pursuing Now we hoped that the third semester, educa- their PhD studies. Toward the end of the 1960s, tion would get started. Some of us, who had some senior lecturers were appointed on per- been active in the students’ association, just took manent tenure, among them Solveig Wikström on to form a small group for assisting the profes- and somewhat later Lars Engwall. Others were sor with points of view […] Our discussions about enrolled as ‘special teachers’, and some of them a program aimed for the start of the autumn se- had their main occupation in the business mester 1966, and we presented our proposal to world. the new representative of the discipline. It is un- Significant for the 1960s was the system clear whether this initiative was of any signifi- with free admission to higher education in the cance, but anyhow the result was the one we had social sciences and the humanities. Basically all Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 297

students fulfilling the formal requirement, a de- limitations on enrolment. This illustrates that gree from upper secondary education, were ad- higher education had, until then, been in a state mitted. So, all students who registered for busi- where only a small fraction of a generation ness administration – they were many already leaving secondary school went on to higher edin the late 1960s – were to have a seat. Sten ucation.4 In the 1960s, however, the number of Söderman, later professor, was then employed students increased in a way to which the sys- as administrative assistant responsible for staff tem was not adapted. planning. He remembers: At this time, research in business administration was influenced by operational research When the semester started in September, a great and quantitative methods developed in the US. number of students wanted to register for stud- Bertil Näslund had, for example, his PhD from ies in business administration. All administrative Carnegie Mellon University. Inspired by him, a work required that the applicants actually came group of doctoral students started their proj- at a specific time to the office of the Department, ects on simulation, programming and prognos- where the administrative staff made notes on tication. The overall objective was to study so- paper cards. Therefore, the students had to line cietal problems with financial implications for up on Hagagatan and wait for their turn at the companies and organizations. In 1969, the first registration desk. There was a huge line of peo- PhD degree was awarded, and in the subse- ple, going from Frejgatan up to Surbrunnsgatan. quent years some ten of his doctoral students Based on the length of the queue a rough esti- graduated. Many of them contributed to a book, mate could be made of the number of teachers presenting a framework for strategic planning required, approximately one teacher for each 30 summarizing some of the research pursued meters. Based on this estimate a call was made during the early years (Linde 1971). to an officer at the central agency (Universitets- kanslersämbetet), who decided on the number A commitment to teaching of temporary teaching positions that should be (1970–1983) allocated to the Department. The first two buildings in ‘Södra huset’ at Cam- pus Frescati were ready to accommodate their This episode illuminates a feature of the educa- new residents in the summer of 1970. The area tional system of the 1960s: administrative pro- was still a building site, and going by public cedures were regulated and decision-making 4 In 1960 universities in Sweden enrolled a total of some centralized, but at the same time there were no 40,000 students, fifty years later more than 425,000. 298 Stockholm Business School

For several years, before Building A became a social centre of the University with its various present-day offerings of ready-made food and kiosk commodities, the Department of Business Administration occupied a sizeable part of this building. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

transportation to the new campus took some students for courses in business administration. effort, as the subway was not built until 1975. The bonds with the SSE also weakened, as the The facilities and buildings that nowadays Department now had a professor in office. form the campus, foremost the library building There was now also office space available for all and Aula Magna, did not exist. staff on floors 5 and 6 in the A-building, where In spite of the poor infrastructure, an the Department stayed until the move to Kräft entrepreneurial spirit seems to have been vib rant riket in the summer of 2000. The Department at the School of Business in the early 1970s. began to develop an identity of its own. This was due to several coinciding factors. Of In retrospect, the early 1970s were founda- primary importance was a high demand from tional for the culture that came to characterize Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 299

the Department until the millennium shift. The and always a possibility to look for a job in the expanding education, in combination with the business sector. retreat of ‘the first generation of teachers’ com- This cohort consists of roughly 30–35 indi- ing from SSE, made it necessary to enrol a new viduals. Some were employed for only a few cadre. Some were permanently employed as years, but a substantial group of some 20 indi- docents or senior lecturers, among them Bo viduals became deeply involved in the Depart- Schyberger and Hunter Mabon, but the major- ment’s teaching operations, forming a core of ity of the teachers were in the early 1970s em- the academic staff for the decades to come. ployed on temporary contracts. They were ho- Some graduated in the late 1970s, but many in mogenous in age, most in their late twenties. the 1980s or the early 1990s. Many in this The recruitment process was often improvised group, forming the ‘second generation of and informal. Usually, potential teachers were teachers’, came later to hold administrative po- approached as students finalizing their bache- sitions, such as heads, deputy heads, directors lor education. From a start as amanuenses, ad- of studies or as heads of teaching groups. Some ministrative assistants or study counsellors finished their doctoral studies in a compara- they could, when they had proved their capa- tively short time, laying a foundation for an bility in teaching, be temporary employed as academic career, among them Jan-Erik Gröjer, lecturers, and only later enrolled in doctoral later professor at Uppsala University, and Agneta education. Stark, later guest professor in Tema Genus at There was a short step from being a student Linköping University and vice-chancellor of of business administration, to becoming a Dalarna University College.6 teacher in business administration, and later a The permanently employed staff were, com- doctoral student.5 However, the conditions for pared to the temporary staff necessary to manage employment were as unsecure as the recruit- the undergraduate education, few. They also had ment was informal: the teachers were employed a different focus, as their primary responsibility on temporary contracts renewed every six was to provide doctoral education and develop months. Despite this, it seems as if they did not research. In the early 1970s, Lars Persson became worry about job security, as there was a high the Department’s second full professor. He had a demand for courses in business administration,

6 Other individuals in this cohort are Jens Lindberg, Marianne Nilson, Olle Högberg, Christer Lindgren, Sten Köpniwsky, 5 This was common for many social sciences in those years Lillemor Westerberg, Roland Hansson, Stig Johansson and (HSV 2006:17). Sören Bergström. 300 Stockholm Business School

The Frescati university was built according to a hierarchical mode of thinking, even if modern and functional. Students were expected to dwell mainly on the lower (3rd and 4th) floors. The style gave rise to conspirational myths of the buildings having been built for alternative uses as a military hospital or that the corridors were lined with surveillance bridges. Students at the Department of Business Administration were mainly seen between the buildings A and B. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

degree from SSE with a specialization in marketers. Some 30 individuals were employed as lec- ing, and was employed until his retirement in turers working on temporary contracts, some 1996. As Näslund was on leave from 1971 and with a PhD but a large group were still complet- then returned to SSE, it was only in 1975 when ing their doctoral studies. In addition, 13 amanu Paulsson Frenckner was appointed that the De- enses performed administrative work (many also partment had two full professors on duty. Beside enrolled in doctoral education). Notably only them, the permanently employed academic staff four administrative staff were permanently em- consisted of four docents and two senior lectur- ployed at the Department. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 301

What is business all about? Many of the emerging research studies had a In the early years, courses were ‘copy-pasted’ distinct empirical focus, dealing with different from SSE following a conception of the subject aspects of a firm’s behaviour.7 A step was thus articulated at SSE in the late 1950s. Earlier, ed- taken to break off from earlier normative ap- ucation had a rather practical orientation, and proaches, but also from being more or less was to some extent adapted to the need of spe- solely dependent on theoretical frameworks cific industries. Inspired by developments in US anchored in economics and to some extent in business schools after the Second World War, a economic history and cultural geography. In more analytical and generalist orientation be- these years, the subject opened up for influenc- came emphasized. The intention was to deliver es from other social sciences, mainly psycholo- an education relevant for work at the top exec- gy, sociology and political science. The general utive level of firms, irrespective of their indus- systems theory framing many social sciences in trial sector (HHS 1959). the 1970s was also influential. In the following As the focus was on problems that the top decades, interest grew to associate with devel- management had to deal with, an overarching opments in sciences such as social anthropolo- interest concerned decision making and prob- gy and computer and systems sciences, but also lem solving. Top management also had to inte- within the humanities such as ethnology and grate what was then perceived as the basic philosophy. functional needs of a business corporation, Both the theoretical perspectives and the supposedly an industrial firm. From these days sub-specializations from the 1960s have over emanates a division of business administration the years been debated, developed and re- in four sub-areas, reflected both in education framed. New specialized areas have evolved, and in research: management (or ‘administra- for example ‘entrepreneurship’ and ‘operations tion’ as it was earlier denoted), accounting management’. Important border zones exist, (‘book-keeping’), financial analysis/finance and many specialized areas of research have (‘calculus’) and marketing (‘distribution’) developed. Nevertheless, the 1960/70s were in (Thorburn 1966:15–18). The modern terms – many respects foundational, both in education more frequently used from the 1980s onward and in research, reflecting a subject in search of and today taken for granted – signify a shift distinct and legitimate theoretical perspectives. within the subject, from being anchored in a ‘practical’ vocabulary to more analytical frame 7 The work by Cyert and March is illustrative (Cyert & March works and concepts. 1963). 302 Stockholm Business School

Nationally defined degree programmes should attain. This programme, which has The development of business administration been modified over the years, has been of pri- has not solely mirrored developments in re- mary importance for the development of the search, but always been influenced by trends subject and the School of Business. and problems in the contemporary practice of The degree programme from 1977 was stud- business administration. Furthermore, the sub- ied for six semesters. The first semester was an ject has been deeply shaped by changes in the integrative course, called ‘Introductory Course Swedish higher educational context. It can be in the Social Sciences’. This was followed by a mentioned that the governmental agency for course in economics for one semester, and a se- the universities (Universitetskanslersämbetet) mester with courses in law and statistics. Busi- in the early 1970s defined anationally valid ness administration was studied for a total of curriculum (‘normalstudieplan’) for the first 90 credits during the last three semesters. The two semesters, thus to some extent standardiz- content of the courses in business administra- ing the content of an academic subject. More tion was characterized by high flexibility, since importantly, other changes emerging in the only the ‘Introductory Course in Business Ad- 1970s were foundational. ministration’ and the BSc thesis were mandatory. In the late 1960s, it was obvious that the All other modules covering the subject’s differ- system with ‘free admission’ to higher educa- ent specialized areas, studied at the basic, inter- tion was no longer feasible, and a system with mediate and advanced level were, with a few fixed study programmes combining different limitations, optional. The final BSc thesis was subjects was suggested. The proposal, presen also written without any specialization based ted by the government in 1968, was much op- on the course modules earlier studied. Progres- posed. In spite of that, a revised proposition sion was de-emphasized in order to increase was implemented one year later. In business the student’s freedom of choice. administration this combination of subjects Since the degree programme introduced in was denominated as ‘linje 6A’. In 1977, this the 1970s was similar to the education offered system was elaborated and several degree pro- at SSE, it attracted a large number of students. grammes were introduced, among them one in Yet, compared to SSE, the number of students business administration and economics – admitted at Stockholm University was, and has ‘Ekonomlinjen’. Instead of regulating the con- since then always been much larger, approxi- tent of the courses, the programme introduced mately 200–250 students each semester. As the nationally defined goals that the education number of applicants has always exceeded the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 303

Students carrying out assignments in business administration. (Photo: Mats Danielson) number of students admitted, there existed an studied the same course modules. Since the late excess demand, which was assimilated by en- 1970s until today, 400–600 students have stud- rolling many in freestanding courses amount- ied business administration on the basic and ing to some 200 students each semester. intermediate level, and some 250–300 on higher Contrary to some other departments, the levels – each semester. The total number of stu- School has not solely depended on students dents enrolled each academic year has for a studying freestanding courses. The course de- long time amounted to some 3,500. From the livery has also profited from economies of scale 1970s on, the Department had become an in- as students enrolled in the degree programme stitution delivering ‘mass education’. However, and freestanding courses to a large extent have the education has always been well adapted to 304 Stockholm Business School

the labour market, ensuring the students em- loping countries.8 The faculty supervising thesis ployability. work was however limited, consisting of only The 1970s was not solely characterized by two professors and four docents. In spite of the entrepreneurial spirit of the ‘second gene this, some 20 PhD theses had been defended by ration of teachers’. They also benefitted from the end of this decade. acting in a context plentiful of resources. The During the 1970s, research was not dif supply of students seemed unlimited; the over- ferentiated according to sub-specialization. In- riding problem was to recruit teachers and to stead, and that is a sign of the times, it add deliver the courses. Also, the financial resourc- ressed societal problems perceived as es were allotted on the basis of the number of significant. For example, Paulsson Frenckner students admitted and the number of students had, together with Birger Ljung (later professor enrolled in the degree programme was decided at the Royal Institute of Technology KTH) initi- by the national agency, not by the Department ated a group with a focus on real estate man- nor the University. Obviously, this was long be- agement, reflecting the housing shortage of fore the system with ‘HÅS’ and ‘HÅP’. Fur- that time. Lars Persson worked, as did Solveig thermore, the framework provided by the de- Wikström, in the field of distribution and con- gree programme was loose, waiting to be filled sumer affairs. Ernst Jonsson, with a degree in with various courses. Pedagogical development economics from SSE, but then a docent in busi- and experiments in the design of the courses ness administration, worked with efficiency and curricula thus flourished. “Everything was and productivity issues in public administra- possible, only the sky was the limit”, was an tion. In addition, docent John Skår was inter- attitude during these years, expressed in a con- ested in cooperative organizations, focusing on versation with a former colleague. problems in the third sector. It is significant that there was neither a Research clear division between the professors on the Not only undergraduate education expanded at theses they supervised, nor strict borders be- the Department of Business Administration. In tween research areas. In a presentation of re- 1979, some 100 doctoral students had been en- search, it is said that such a distinction would rolled. Many of them were employed as teach- be misleading “as many research problems ers on temporary contracts, but there were others as well. Some PhD students worked in the 8 One was Cheick Wague, PhD in 1990. He worked as a senior lecturer until 1997 when he became head of the newly business community, and many came from deve established department at Södertörn University College. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 305

intersect the subject’s traditional specializa- the smoke from his cigarette. This is the imprint of tions in sub-disciplines” (Företagsekonomiska the generation of the 1940 (Gerholm & Gerholm institutionen 1979). For a long time, there 1992:48–49). was only one higher seminar at the Depart- ment, where research, thesis work and peda- It was an open climate, not dominated by any gogical matters were discussed. This reflects single group or formed by the institutionalized that, however diverse perspectives the subject outcome of earlier internal conflicts. Typically, contained, it was seen as one discipline. many administrative staff were allocated rooms as large as the professors, while the senior lec- Business as usual (1983–1993) turers dwelled in smaller cubicles. The rooms The entrepreneurial spirit of the 1970s is on floors 5 and 6 in the A building were ran- acknowledged in an ethnographic study con- domly allocated irrespective of the teachers’ ducted in the mid-1980s by Lena Gerholm specializations. Thus, the Department was not and Tomas Gerholm, comparing six academic differentiated, neither hierarchically nor into disciplines at Stockholm University. They not- different teaching groups or sections. ed a conscious effort to create a distinctive corporate culture at the School of Business: Education In 1983, the degree programme was modified. Unveiling this is the noticeboards testimony on This was based on a proposal from a group the “Departmental Day” at Grand Hôtel, in Salt- within the National Agency for Higher Educa- sjöbaden, which started with a communal boat- tion (AU-gruppen), defining a number of pro- trip and various jollifications, interwoven with a grammes with a focus on administrative and tip quiz walk and finished by a game of croquet. economic matters (UHÄ 1981).9 This reform And the magnificent coffee room is an expression prolonged the degree programme to seven se- and a monument of the collective agentive capac- mesters. It started with a basic course, composed ity: a four modules room intended for a professor of elements from business administration, eco- was evacuated and over a weekend transformed nomics, economic history and political science. to a lounge available for the all staff. […] A work of This was followed by a course in economics, textile art decorates one wall and from the oppo-

site one, Marilyn Monroe throws a seducing 9 Beside Ekonomlinjen there was a programme for work in glance on anyone and everybody, while Humphrey the public sector, Förvaltningslinjen, and one focusing on human relations and working life, Personal, arbete och Bogart ironically contemplates the scene through organisation. 306 Stockholm Business School

and one semester divided between statistics and comprised a total of 60 credits during two spe- law. Only during the fourth semester, was there cialized semesters, in addition to the basic and a basic course in business administration. intermediate courses. As a consequence, it was During the last three semesters, students necessary to develop more course modules on could choose between different specializations, the advanced level (‘påbygg nads kurs nivå’ ) with- based on what was perceived as relevant knowl- in the different specializations. edge for work in different labour market sec- The Department’s teaching operation had, tors, thus emphasizing the vocational character as indicated, a considerable volume. However, of the programmes. In business administration the operations benefitted from economies of these conformed to the traditional sub-special- scale, and course delivery had developed into ization (management, accounting, finance, mar- a smoothly functioning machine, mainly due keting), but also included other areas (i.e. entre- to the standardization of modules at the basic preneurial business, transport economics and and intermediate levels. The interest in en- consumer affairs). There were also specializa- hancing teaching and various didactic experi- tions in economics, for example with a focus on ments is moreover evident from several re- cost-benefit analyses. Compared to other social search reports and projects (Bergström & science studies, the programme also conferred Stockfeldt 1987). Some days before the start an exclusive identity, as students received a spe- of the autumn semester, referred to as ‘Pedda cial degree, i.e. ‘Ekonomexamen’, and not the dagarna’, were devoted to discussions on ped- general degree of Bachelor of Arts (fil. kand.) agogical and didactic matters. or Bachelor of Political Science (pol. kand.) An educational development, originating in For business administration, the degree pro- the late 1970s, concerned the work with BSc gramme from 1983 was important, as the sub- theses. Traditionally, a thesis is supposed to be division introduced in the 1960s was reinforced. single authored, with a professor or docent as This is indicative of how business administra- tutor. For business administration, such a sys- tion, as an academic subject, had started to dif- tem was impossible since the professors were far ferentiate. Originally this was as a response to too few. As a consequence, BSc theses were reg- the perceived needs in the business community; ularly supervised by senior lecturers. Even then, now the division was confirmed by the regula- the number of students – with some 250 theses tion of the degree programme. The scope of the examined each semester – required that they specialized studies in business administration were authored by a pair of students, an arrange- furthermore expanded as the degree programme ment common for the subject at all universities Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 307

Close to the main building of the Business School, the art piece ’Försjunken’ (Sunk Down) by Charlotte Gyllenhammar (2001) puzzles the passer-by with its careful replication of the details of a nearby building turned over and disappearing into the ground. (Photo: Mats Danielson) and university colleges. Writing a bachelor’s or Administration matters! master’s thesis (one year) has since the late From the early 1960s until 1985, the formal 1970s also been organized in a course format organization of the Department was simple with a group of students following a number of with only two hierarchical levels: the head sup- scheduled meetings, including seminars on ported by one or two directors of studies and methodology. Thus, students were not left on some administrative staff, while the teachers their own to write their theses and hand it in for formed an undifferentiated operating core. examination whenever it was finalized. This sys- This was consistent with how the subject was tem has persisted until today, and has meant a defined. Teachers were appointed as professors radical increase in the throughput. or senior lecturers in business administration – 308 Stockholm Business School

without any suffix indicating their specializa- From traditional secretarial work, they now tion. To some extent it was expected that all performed important functions, providing sta- teachers should be able to participate in all bility and continuity to the teaching operations. courses at the basic level. The role of the ‘Student Office’ must be Connected to the specializations in the degree highlighted. Over the years this unit, working programme was a need to elaborate the organi- in the intersection between the students, the zation of the Department. The new organiza- teachers, and Student Service at the university tion, implemented in 1985, established that level, has been an administrative backbone of graduate education should be governed by a the Department. As their operations concern collegial group made up of the professors, but enrolments, administrating examinations and also including other faculty engaged in PhD edu notifying grades, they have always empha- cation. In contrast, undergraduate education sized a perspective on the operations different was to be coordinated by two directors of studies, from the teachers. Their interest has been on one responsible for the degree programme and the flow of students through the courses and one for freestanding courses. Most significant programmes, as they had to ensure that all was, however, that the senior lecturers, and the formal requirements regulated both by law responsibility for undergraduate courses, were and by the university administration (but not divided into four ‘teaching groups’ (kursgrupper) always that emphasized by the teachers) were corresponding to the different functional areas attended to. of the subject. How the groups were denoted is The degree programme also initiated other significant – they had a primary focus on teach- administrative developments. As a short man ing and the courses delivered. datory course module in computer science The new organization meant an extensive was included in the first semester, the Depart- decentralization, giving the teaching groups a ment had early on been allocated a VAX-com- large degree of autonomy and responsibility for puter. Some computer-oriented elements were the courses offered. In charge of each group introduced into the courses, however not to was a head teacher, always a senior lecturer, the extent expected. Instead, the VAX became supported by a teaching group coordinator. the foundation for the computerization of the This resulted in significant job enrichment for Department primarily through the develop- the administrative coordinators, who support- ment of an administrative system, comple- ed the head teachers with course planning, mentary to the systems used at the University scheduling, and allotment of teaching duties. (STUDOK/LADOK). This system – Fastreg – Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 309

has since 1985 played an important role in nized around areas where research competence administration and teaching activities, and had been established and there were constitu- has over the years increased in functionality. encies in the surrounding society willing to Nowadays, it includes a module for planning provide financial resources. Most institutes and registration of the teachers’ work, and a existed only for a limited time, but one initiat- forum system for handling different types of ed in 1987 is still in operation: ‘The Institute hand-ins from students, including automatic of Local Government Economics’ (Institutet checks for plagiarism. för kommunal ekonomi – IKE). It was for a long time headed by Ernst Jonsson and con- Research institutes tributes with research on local government As the Department during the 1970s and 1980s economics, especially on productivity and received resources for only two professorships management control. financed from the Faculty and one assistant Another research institute, active 1988–2008, professor (biträdande professor), there was for was the ‘Personnel Economic Institute’ (Perso- a long time a severe imbalance between re- nalekonomiska institutet – PEI), initiated by search and undergraduate education. The De- Hunter Mabon (later promoted to professor) in partment was also less successful in obtaining collaboration with Jan-Erik Gröjer. The research external research funds as the professors, fore- focussed economic aspects of human resources in most Lars Persson, primarily worked with super- organizations. In this respect PEI combined two vising doctoral students. He championed a traditional areas of research: accounting and broadminded view, emphasizing openness re- management. The research included several PhD garding which problems the research could ad- projects, but had also an extensive international dress, and also on methodological approaches. network. It was host for an international period- Of primary importance was that the research ical, Journal of Human Costing and Accounting, contributed with knowledge relevant for prob- founded in 1996 and later published by Emerald. lem solving and decision making processes in society (Persson 1980:6–9). In search of a new path (1993–2004) To increase research, a number of tempo- If the School of Business up to the early 1990s rary ‘research institutes’ were established in had a somewhat introverted orientation with the late 1980s. They acted as temporary inde- a focus on refinement of undergraduate edu- pendent units within the Department, app cation and administrative matters, the follow- roved by the vice-chancellor. They were orga- ing years took another direction. Instrumental 310 Stockholm Business School

in this was Jan-Erik Gröjer. He had a long ca- Business: Lars Persson and Paulsson Frenckner. reer at the School. In the early 1970s, he was However, in the early 1990s, there was a signif- employed together with many others belong- icant addition and change in the School’s re- ing to ‘the second generation of teachers’. For search capacity. In 1987, Paulsson Frenckner some years he was director of studies before retired and was succeeded by Pierre Guillet de he graduated in 1978 with a doctoral thesis Monthoux. Solveig Wikström, one of the first se- (co-written with Agneta Stark) on the concept nior lecturers, returned to the School from of ‘social accounting’, widening bookkeeping Lund in 1989 where she had been appointed to include a broader societal perspective. professor. In 1990, Bo Hedberg, with a back- Jan-Erik Gröjer had been head in 1985– ground from the University of Gothenburg, 1989, implementing the organization of the was employed, first as an adjunct professor and School into four teaching groups. He was now later as full professor. Evert Gummesson, who back in office, but his second term lasted for had graduated in 1977, came back to the School only two and a half years, as he in 1995 decid- after a sojourn at Karlstad University College. ed to prioritize his research. However, during In addition, Ernst Jonsson was appointed pro- these years he initiated three change processes fessor in 1992. Some years later, Kaj Sköldberg with significant impact in the following de- from Umeå University was appointed when cade. First, he continued the efforts to empha- Lars Persson retired in 1996. size research. Secondly, he started to develop Of the six professors, three had graduated relations with business schools in other coun- from other universities. This shows that the tries. Finally, he set in motion a process which subject of business administration had expand- dominated internal discussions for the rest of ed and was no longer an exclusive affair for the the decade, and with consequences until to- two business schools established in the early day: the decision to relocate the School to new 1900s. However, three of the professorships premises at Kräftriket. He left the School in were financed by external grants, and only later 2002, having been appointed professor in ‘ac- integrated into the allocation received from the counting and finance’ at Uppsala University. Faculty of Social Sciences. A report from the Faculty Office in 1993 shows that the propor- New professors, new research tion of professors (including those financed by In spite of the size of the undergraduate and external grants) in relation to senior lecturers graduate education, there were until the late was low compared to other departments, ap- 1980s only two professorships at the School of proximately 1:9. In comparison, the ratio for Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 311

the Department of Sociology was 1:6, and for Holmqvist, were later promoted to professors. Department of Psychology 1:3. Furthermore, The research is summarized in (Hedberg et al. the resources received for research and doctor- 2002). al education in relation to funds received for Another significant research programme undergraduate education were also below that headed by Pierre Guillet de Monthoux was of other departments: for the School the ratio ‘Aesthetics, Art and Enterprise’. The pro- was approximately 1:6, for Sociology 1:2 and gramme intended to “bridge the gap between for Psychology 1:2.10 Nevertheless, with the enterprise and the world of art by studying a new professors in office research gained mo- variety of ‘artistic businesses’, such as design, mentum, primarily within the five research orchestras, opera theatre and such cultural programmes initiated. manifestations as literature and poetry” (Före- Bo Hedberg was early an internationally tagsekonomiska institutionen 1999:19). This recognized researcher in the area of organisa- programme indicates an interest in approach- tion, having published some significant articles ing spheres of economic activity not tightly on organizational learning in the late 1970s connected to the traditional world of business. and early 1980s. At the School, he initiated one Business operations were also framed in a cultur- major research programme exploring the con- al perspective, thus developing connections cept of ‘Imaginary Organizations’, i.e. organi- with disciplines in the humanities. In collabo- zations “where important processes actors, ration with Bengt Kristensson Uggla, then an and resources appear both inside and outside adjunct professor, Guillet de Monthoux also of the legal entity of enterprise, both outside introduced contemporary continental philoso- and inside of the accounting system and of the phy in doctoral education. The programme reorganisation charts” (Företagsekonomiska in- sulted in 13 PhD dissertations and involved stitutionen 1999:29). The programme was ex- co-operation with researchers from SSE and ternally funded and involved several Swedish the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH). The and international co-researchers. At the School research is summarized in (Guillet de Monthoux the programme consisted of some fifteen doc- et al. 2007). toral projects leading to a PhD. Two research- In marketing, research was pursued both ers from this group, Ali Yakhlef and Mikael by Evert Gummesson and Solveig Wikström. Gummesson was early with studies in ‘Service 10 Utvärdering av den företagsekonomiska institutionens or- and relationship marketing’, and had become ganisations- och utvecklingsarbete. Samhällsvetenskapliga fakultetsnämnden 1993-05-12 (Doss 621, Dnr 753/92). an internationally recognized researcher in 312 Stockholm Business School

this area, often referred to as the Nordic technologies. Her research programme ‘House- School of Service Management. His research holds in Cyberspace’ resulted in five PhD dis- is most distinctively expressed in (Gummes- sertations. Her earlier research in business strat- son 2002). His career is to some extent atypi- egy and change is summarized in (Wikström et. cal for graduates from the School since he in al. 1994). the early 1970s was an external PhD student Jan-Erik Gröjer initiated a fifth major re- who did not engage in teaching. At an early search area, ‘The Meritum program’. Interna- stage, he published his research in internation- tionally funded, the programme consisted of real high ranked journals, while at the same searchers from different universities in Europe. time upholding contacts with the consultancy The research was concerned with how assets community. In contrast to the interest in that cannot easily be measured, intangibles, quantitative studies dominating the 1970s, he which are increasingly important in a knowl- also pursued research within a qualitative edge-based economy, influence key decisions in framework. He also engaged Philip Kotler, an a firm. Within this programme, several PhD internationally recognized researcher in mar- projects were initiated, e.g. the work by Bino keting and Honorary Doctor at Stockholm Catasús, later appointed professor in ‘account- University, as guest lecturer. ing and auditing’ at the School, and Ulf Johans- Solveig Wikström, employed at the Depart son, later professor at Mälardalen University ment in 1968, was the first woman in Europe College. This programme reflects the growing to be appointed as a professor of business ad- volume of research in accounting and finance, ministration at Lund University in 1978. Until two areas where research had been limited until then, a total of 38 men had been appointed to the last ten-fifteen years, both at Stockholm Uni- professors in Sweden. Even in 2000, only five versity and nationally. Two articles published in women had been appointed as professors, an internationally high-ranked research journal compared to a total of 105 men, indicating the are illustrative of the research: (Gröjer 2001) gender bias in the discipline.11 When Wikström and (Johansson et al. 2001). returned to the School of Business in 1989, she In 1999, the School received a donation to continued her research in marketing and con- finance a professorship in entrepreneurship for sumer affairs with a focus on how consump- five years, to which Björn Bjerke was appointed. tion patterns in households are affected by new Some years later, in 2003, Sven Modell was appointed as professor with a specialization in 11 Statistics based on the listing of professors in (Engwall 2009). accounting. He supported a new research insti- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 313

tute, ‘The Academy for Management Control as well as other universities and university col- in the Governmental Sector’, established in leges. One was that the first four semesters con- 2002 by the initiative of Docent Anders Grön- sisted of courses within the different subjects lund and involving cooperation with some ma- studied in the programme. The earlier intro- jor central agencies. This institute, as well as ductory course was replaced by a basic course IKE mentioned earlier, shows the interest within business administration, reflecting a decreas- in the School to pursue research with a focus ing interest to provide explicitly integrative soon public sector organizations. cial science courses. Instead, the different academic subjects constituting the programme What about education and students? were emphasized. In 1993, a change in the Higher Education Or- As a consequence, more business admini dinance was implemented. In this reform, the stration was studied during the first four nationally defined degree programmes were re- semesters. Furthermore, as the degree programme placed by a system with general qualifications. was prolonged and now included one bachelor Students who fulfilled certain requirements, and one masters’ thesis (one year), there was an defined in number of credit points, could re- incentive to elaborate the different specializations ceive a degree, irrespective of whether the and to give them a distinct identity. This reflected courses studied had been within a degree pro- that the specialized education was well aligned gramme or not. The earlier special degree with the competencies needed in different sectors (‘Ekonomexamen’) was replaced by general of working life, i.e. students were trained as degrees: bachelor and master (one year). How- accountants, financial analysts, marketers, hu- ever, the regulation defined a new type of main man resource managers or in general manage- area, indicated in the prefix of the Swedish de- ment. An example of the interest to integrate ed- gree. It was now possible to receive an ‘ekono- ucation with the business community was the mie kandidat/magisterexamen’, i.e. a degree of Market Academy, basically an extra-curricular Bachelor or Master of Science in ‘Business and activity for students specialized in marketing. Economics’. Thus, the distinct character of the Complementary to the regular courses, a select degree in relation to other social science sub- group of students were offered opportunities to jects was preserved. enhance their theoretical knowledge with applied The reform had some minor implications for problem solving, focussing on real-life problems. the design of the degree programme, now op- There has always existed a close coopera- tional but still offered at Stockholm University tion between the School and different student 314 Stockholm Business School

associations, mainly ‘Föreningen Ekonomerna’ headed by Docent Birgitta Wadell, in the de- (FEST). Besides providing traditional studen- gree programme. In 2000, Khan had estab- tesque events, such as kick-offs and dinners, lished some fifty agreements with universities FEST has an important role introducing new in Europe, the United States, Asia and Austra- students to their studies. The association also lia. The effort to internationalize education has appoints student representatives to different de- continued since then. Today, the School of cision making bodies, such as the board of the Business has approximately 50% of the total School. student exchange at Stockholm University and more than 100 partner universities all over the Internationalization, EQUIS and Kräftriket world for student exchange as well as several In the autumn of 1995, Docent Sikander Khan for staff exchange. was appointed as the new head, a position he A further step was Khan’s initiative to obtain was to hold until August 2004. He was a an international accreditation of the School, ben- long-timer at the School, having graduated in eficial for recruiting students to the International 1978. He had not earlier held any administra- Executive MBA-programme and to increase the tive positions, being on leave from his position status of the School. In 2002, the application to as senior lecturer for several periods, working EQUIS, a recognized European accreditation as a guest professor or expert in various inter- body, was approved on a conditional basis for national organizations in Asia. Khan gave pri- three years, giving the School an exclusive posi- ority to efforts to internationalize the operation. Only two other Swedish higher education tions of the School with a focus on the units had earlier been accredited, among them developing economies in Asia. One sign of this SSE. The conditional accreditation was, however, was the launching of commissioned education, withdrawn three years later. both a traditional MBA programme and an In- Another major effort during these years was to ternational Executive MBA-programme. The organize the relocation of the School to the prem- School turned outwards, orienting itself to- ises in Kräftriket, a process initiated in the mid- wards both the Swedish and the international 1990s but formally decided in 1999. This meant business community. that Khan had to overcome some internal resis- Internationalization in undergraduate edu tance, but also to manage the relations to the Fac- cation had started on a small scale in the late ulty of Social Sciences and the Office of the 1980s. This was connected to a specialization Vice-Chancellor. However, the process to leave in ‘International Business Administration’, the campus at Frescati in order to develop a more Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 315

Every year, a member of the staff receives the Ballerina Prize from the students for having contributed to high quality teaching. (Photo: Mats Danielson) clear identity as a business school was consistent However, the change came with a cost: all ex- with other processes initiated during the 1990s. penses, including increased rental charges, must be financed either from theallocation of re- Intermezzo: a quick turnaround sources received from the Faculty or by increas- (2004–2006) ing the School’s external revenues. As only a The new premises were much appreciated by temporary financial support had been secured the faculty, giving the School a new start. For from the University, this necessitated a strict many the departure from Frescati signified the budgetary discipline. importance of the School not only in relation to The strategy to compensate for the increased the Faculty but also to the business community. costs was to expand commissioned education. 316 Stockholm Business School

But as the market for MBA education collapsed before 2002. As a consequence, contracts for the in 2001, the revenues did not grow as expect- temporarily employed teachers were not re- ed. A factor worsening the financial situation newed. Secondly, to reduce the total number of was that the Board of the School, declining a teaching hours, courses for the first two semesters more modest proposition from Khan, in 2002 were re-planned to have only one starting each had decided to reduce the yearly teaching load semester, common for the degree programme and from 396 to 300 hours for all teachers. As this freestanding courses. Lectures were also to be decision was not compensated for by a reduc- held at Aula Magna instead of in Kräftriket, and tion in the delivered teaching hours, the operat- to take advantage of economies of scale enrol- ing costs increased by some 25 %, as new tem- ment was increased to a maximum. Many spe- porary teaching staff needed to be hired. cialized courses on the bachelor’s and advanced According to financial reports, the School levels were also closed down. A third part of the had a negative cash flow for seven years from action programme was to cancel contracts for of- 1999, amounting in June 2005 to an accumu- fice space and some teaching rooms at Kräftriket. lated deficit of 43 million SEK on direct gov- As a fourth component, a new strategy to empha- ernment funding. With respect to that, the size research was introduced. Senior lecturers Dean of the Faculty and the University Direc- now had to apply for a reduction in teaching load tor became worried. When Kåre Bremer, newly which could be approved, provided they could appointed vice-chancellor, was informed that a document significantresearch activities. balanced budget for 2004 had not been pre- As the academic years of 2004–2006 were sented to the Faculty Office, he decided to sus- years full of turmoil, resistance and disappoint- pend the Board of the School, and a new exter- ments, both academic and administrative staff nal head was appointed. This decision was not tended to disengage.12 This was facilitated by well received, unexpected as it was for the the fact that many of the academic staff was ap- staff. The resistance did not diminish when it proaching retirement. From the age of 60, they turned out that the new head was a professor could receive a beneficial deal reducing their of economics, evoking some reluctance be- teaching load to 50 %, while the salary only de- tween the disciplines. creased by 20 %. The difference was funded by The temporary head, Harry Flam, took on his centrally allocated resources, based on an agree- position in August 2004. His overall strategy was ment between the trade unions and Stockholm to gain control over costs. First, the evaluation 12 Illustrative is a publication, highly critical of the events, by factor for teaching hours was reset to the level Liukkonen (2005). Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 317

University in response to the generation shift metropolitan cities around the world. It has re- facing many departments. For the School of sulted in a recently published book by Berg and Business, the timing was perfect, coinciding with Björner (eds. 2014). the exit of the ‘second generation of teachers’. Obviously, the all-embracing focus these In order to secure a more coordinated under years were on financial and administrative graduate education and ensure progression in matters. Preparations were also made in antici- the courses, some new organizational arrange pation of the new Higher Education Ordinance, ments were introduced. A Committee for Un- introducing the Bologna Accord in 2007. The dergraduate Education (‘Grundutbildnings changes initiated during these years, partly as a nämnden’) was established. To install such a result of strategic actions but also from pro- committee had earlier been recommended in a cesses independent of the financial crisis, laid national review of business administration per- the foundation for the revival of the School of formed by the National Authority for Higher Business in the following years. Education (HSV 2002:157). A corresponding body, the ‘Committee for Research and Doc- Back on track, moving on toral Education’, was also established. (2006–2013) As the efforts to emphasize research took In the autumn of 2006, Professor Thomas Hart- some time to gain momentum, research tended man was appointed head. As the Board had to slow down. However, in August 2004, Per been reinstalled from the autumn of 2005, the Olof Berg was appointed professor in business School of Business was now in control of its op- administration with a specialization in ‘Strategic eration. This was seen as a relief and a fu- Business and Market Communication’, a posi- ture-oriented spirit started to grow. However, to tion financed by an external grant. He had pre- present current processes as history is not only viously been professor in strategy at Copenha- difficult, it is dubious. What is today regarded as gen Business School and more recently director significant can, in a couple of years, be evaluated of the Stockholm School of Entrepreneurship differently. Consequently, the presentation in (SSES), a co-operation between universities in this section will be synoptic, leaving the detailed Stockholm, among them SSE, KTH and KI. The history to be told in some future. research programme he initiated, ‘The Stock- holm Program of Place Branding’, is still in The Bologna Accord progress. It includes a number of PhD projects The Bologna Accord meant a complete remake on the strategic marketing and positioning of of the School’s educational programmes. Most 318 Stockholm Business School

significant are the four master’s programmes a new degree of professional qualification launched in 2007. These and three subsequent- (‘yrkesexamen’): Master of Science in Business ly introduced programmes have been some of and Economics (‘civilekonomexamen’). This de- the most widely applied master’s programmes gree was based on an integrated, four-year edu- at Stockholm University, including a high num- cational programme, which with some minor ber of international students. exceptions resembled the earlier degree pro- The new programmes were designed in a gramme ‘Ekonomlinjen’. cross-disciplinary way, partly in cooperation Although the concept ‘civilekonom’ had with other departments. One had an integrated been widely used, it was in formal terms a new focus on ‘Management and Marketing’, another degree, equivalent to other professional qualifi- on ‘International Strategic Management’. Later, cations. Consequently, all higher educational they were re-designed to more clearly reflect units, irrespective of the education earlier of- traditional specializations within business ad- fered, had to apply for the degree-awarding ministration. Two other programmes were de- rights at the National Agency for Higher Edu- veloped in cooperation with other depart- cation (Högskoleverket). This process, carried ments: ‘Banking and Finance’ with the Depart- out in some rush during spring 2007, had an ment of Economics, and ‘Accounting, Auditing unexpected outcome – only six universities out and Analysis’ in cooperation with the Depart- of a total of 23 applications were given the ment of Business Administration at Uppsala right to award this degree, among them Stock- University. The programmes introduced some holm University. Even if this degree programme years later involve cooperation with the De- was closed down after some years, the approval partment of Computer and Systems Sciences, indicated that the School, in spite of the turbu- the Department of Political Science, and the lence in the preceding years, had kept its capac- Department of Education. ity to deliver high-quality education. New bachelor’s programmes in business ad- The emphasis on internationalization men- ministration were initiated in 2007, supposed tioned above has also continued. In 2013, al- to replace the four-year degree programme in most 100 % of the second-cycle courses were ‘Business Administration and Economics’, delivered in English, and two international which did not fit into the three-plus-two year bachelor’s programmes have recently been structure of the Bologna Accord. However, launched. A new effort was made in 2011 to be only some sixth months before the reform was awarded EQUIS accreditation, which, howev- implemented, the Parliament decided to launch er, was not approved. In order to develop the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 319

School’s connection to its alumni and to the general business administration. Secondly, they surrounding society, a Career Centre has been were appointed with strong competition, also established. in areas where a shortage had earlier existed, i.e. in finance and accounting. This demon- Numbers and new employees strates that the discipline has produced a suffi- As the focus on cost control was strongly en- cient number of PhDs with an interest to pur- forced by Thomas Hartman, the School man- sue an academic career. Moreover, the academic aged to recover surprisingly quickly from the staff have been internationally recruited. Today, financial and management crisis in 2004. The a total of eight senior lecturers have a non- newly installed ‘Committee for Undergradu- Swedish degree. ate Education’, with Deputy Head Marianne Several of those newly employed, even if Nilson as chairperson, also established a more they graduated from Stockholm University, coordinated delivery of courses and pro- had worked some years as senior lecturers at grammes. As the capacity to deliver under- other universities and university colleges before graduate courses to a large number of stu- returning to their alma mater. This is distinc- dents was intact, the financial recovery took tively different from the situation of the 1970s, only a couple of years. The negative capital when many teachers were enrolled directly accumulated up to 2005, including the teach- after undergraduate studies. Nowadays, a PhD ers’ overtime, was eliminated already in 2009. is not a guarantee for being appointed as senior The School was back on track, and the opera- lecturer. The applicant must also have shown tions started to grow a surplus, laying the foun- proficiency in research and demonstrated peda- dation for further developments. gogical skills. As mentioned above, a process of generational change began in the early 2000s. During Research is the bottom line 2006–2013, a total of 39 positions as senior The focus on research has been emphasized by lecturers have been announced, corresponding the complete turnover of the full professors at to approximately 60 % of the permanently em- the School when those employed in the late ployed academic staff. The recruitment of this 1980s and 1990s retired. New allocations for ‘third generation of teachers’ differed radically research have also been received from the Fac- from how teachers were enrolled in the early ulty of Social Sciences. In 2007, two new pro- 1970s. First, the positions were announced fessors were appointed: Bino Catasús with a within the main areas of specialization, not in specialization in ‘accounting and auditing’, and 320 Stockholm Business School

brought Jacob Östberg, recently appointed as professor in ‘advertising and PR’, back to the School. A number of senior lecturers, including Tony Fang, Torkild Thanem and Tommy Jen- sen, have been promoted to professors, in addition to Yakhlef and Holmqvist as earlier mentioned. Major research projects have been initiated, and a process started to develop more distinctive and internationally competitive research foci within the sections, leaving behind the policy from the 1970s of “letting all flowers blossom”. There has, over time, been a substantial rise in the academic levels of qualification of the staff. In the end of 2013, there were five recruited professors, six promoted professors

Between two series of seminar rooms, the and 14 docents at the School, together with 39 central hallway of the main building forms a permanently employed senior lecturers. In addi- small boulevard of constant activity, where tion, some 30 individuals were temporarily em- people move and meet. (Photo: Mats Danielson) ployed as senior lecturers or postdocs, 11 as part time guest professors, 32 as doctoral stu- Lars Nordén with a specialization in ‘financial dents and 6 as amanuenses. Another sign of the economics’. In 2009, Jan Löwstedt was ap- advances in research is that the School of Busi- pointed with a specialization in ‘management, ness in 2013 received grants amounting to 12.8 organization and strategy’. As Per Olof Berg MSEK from the major Swedish research coun- still had the chair in marketing, there were now cils. A total of 53 articles were published in four full professors, one in each of the subject’s peer-reviewed journals by the faculty, in addi- disciplinary specializations. tion to 8 books, 22 book chapters, and 6 doc- The research capacity further increased in toral theses. 2013 when the School of Business merged with In conclusion, the School of Business has the Department of Advertising and PR. Besides gone through a complete transformation dur- broadening the educational programmes, this ing the years covered in this essay. That goes Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 321

for education, where there has been a signifi- cational and organizational matters, but indi- cant shift from pursuing a strategy of mass rectly also research. Highly influential has been education in the first cycle to focussing on spe- the structure of the academic staff, changing cialized master’s programmes developed in slowly as the three different generations of cooperation with other departments. A dis- teachers have moved through. The physical tinctively new attitude also permeates the aca- premises, shaping the image of the operation, demic staff. Teaching is still seen as import- also have had long-run implications. Finally, ant, but not as the single focus. The importance development in the specialized international re- and interest to pursue research is widely ac- search communities has become increasingly knowledged. After some fifty years, there is important during the last decade. Within these now research capacity available to further the framing processes, there is space for actors to standings of the Stockholm Business School – interpret and intervene, and influence the direc- to indicate the name in use from 2014 – with- tion of the operations. in the Swedish and international research As business administration in the 1960s was community. a newcomer in the social sciences, it comes as no surprise that research has lagged behind. As From teaching to research is clear from the case in point, it has taken time What can we learn from this narration of how to develop a base of research and a clearer focus the School of Business has developed? One first for research. In the last two decades, interna- point concerns the value of a historical per- tional research in the different sub-specializa- spective. As the time horizon widens, the activ- tions have become increasingly important. With ities shaping everyday routines in education, increased emphasis on research, the subject has research and administration are set into a per- also loosened the bonds with the business com- spective, reducing their perceived urgency. Ob- munity, so important in the foundational years viously, it takes a long time to develop an aca- of the early 1900s. Instead, a more detached demic institution. Some tentative conclusions position in relation to business and other types on what has formed the process can be suggested. of organizations has evolved (cf. Hasselbladh The narrative indicates that the changes have 2013). Business administration seems to have come about through different processes ope lost its academic innocence, not only borrow- rating independently and at a different time pace. ing ideas and theoretical constructs from other The national degree programmes have social sciences in order to explain and under- obviously been important, affecting both edu stand the phenomenon of interest, but to an 322 Stockholm Business School

increasing extent providing research from Swedish case. Stockholm: EFI. which other social sciences can benefit. Företagsekonomiska institutionen 1975. Före tagsekonomi – kursanvisningar. Höstter minen  •  1975. Arvidsson, Stellan 2000. En ny institution smy- Företagsekonomiska institutionen 1979. Research ger sig in. Tillkomsten av företagseko no Report No 118, January 1979: Pågående miska institutionen vid Stockholms univer- forskning vid Företagsekonomiska institu- sitet. (Course paper, Pedagogiska institutionen. tionen, Stockholms universitet). Företagsekonomiska Institutionen 1999. Cur- Berg, Per Olof and Emma Björner 2014. (eds.) rent research 1999. School of Business. Branding Chinese Mega-Cities: Policies, prac- Gerholm, Lena and Tomas Gerholm 1992. tices and positioning. Cheltenham: Edward Doktorshatten: En studie av forskarutbild- Elgar. ningen inom sex discipliner vid Stockholms Bergström, Sören and Torbjörn Stockfelt 1987. universitet. Stockholm: Carlssons. En ambitiös institution: Erfarenheter och Gröjer, Jan-Erik 2001. “Intangibles and accoun- slutsatser från ett pedagogiskt utvecklings ting classifications: In search of a classifica- projekt vid Företagsekonomiska institutionen tion strategy”. Accounting, Organizations 1985–86. Stockholms universitet: PU-rap- and Society, 26:(7,) p. 695–713. port 1987:3. Guillet de Monthoux, Pierre, Claes Gustafsson Cyert, Richard M. and James G. March 1963. and Sven-Erik Sjöstrand 2007. Aesthetic A Behavioral Theory of the Firm. Engle- leadership: managing fields of flow in art wood Cliffs: Prentice Hall. and business. Houndsmill: Palgrave-Mac- Engwall, Lars 1970. ”Företagsekonomiska in- millan. stitutionen”. In Samhällsforskning vid Stock- Gummesson, Evert 2002. Total relationship holms universitet. En presentation av institu- marketing. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. tionerna vis samhällsvetenskapliga fakulteten. Hasselbladh, Hans 2013. Företagsekonomin Stockholm: Stockholms universitet. och det förlorade uppdraget. In Hassel- Engwall, Lars 1993. ”Nu var det 1966”. In bladh, H. and M. Holmqvist (ed.) Företags- Stig Strömholm, ed. De lärdas republik. ekonomin och samhället. Lund: Student Stockholm: Atlantis. litteratur. Engwall, Lars 2009. Mercury Meets Minerva: Hedberg, Bo, Philippe Baumard and Ali Yakh- Business studies and higher education: The lef 2002. Managing Imaginary Organiza- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 323

tions: A New Perspective on Business. Ox- The first 100 Years.Stockholm: Informa- ford: Pergamon. tionsförlaget. Handelshögskolan i Stockholm 1909–1959. Thorburn, Thomas 1966. Företagsekonomi: Skrift utgiven i samband med Handelshög- Inledning till akademiska studier i företags- skolans femtioårsjubileum. Handelshögsko- ekonomi. Lund: Studentlitteratur. lan i Stockholm. UHÄ 1981. Ekonomlinjen, förvaltningslinjen, Högskoleverket 2002. Utvärdering av utbild- linjen för personal- och arbetslivsfrågor: ning i företagsekonomi vid svenska univer- slutbetänkande från AU-gruppen (UHÄ-rap- sitet och högskolor. Stockholm: Högskole port 1981:23). verkets rapportserie 2002:10R. Utvärdering av den företagsekonomiska insti- Högskoleverket 2006. Högre utbildning och tutionens organisations- och utvecklings forskning 1945 – 2005: en översikt. Stock- arbete. Samhällsvetenskapliga fakultets näm- holm: Högskoleverkets rapportserie 2006:3 R. nden 1993-05-12 (Doss 621, Dnr 753/92). Johanson, Ulf, Maria Mårtensson and Matti Wikström, Solveig et al. 1994. Knowledge and Skoog 2001. Mobilizing change through the Value – A new perspective of corporate trans- management control of intangibles. Ac- formation. London: Routledge. counting, Organizations and Society, 26:7:715–733. Linde, Anders (ed.) 1971. Strategisk planering: Vad kan, vill och bör företag och andra or- ganisationer göra nu och i framtiden? Stock- holm: Bonniers. Liukkonen, Paula 2005. Skandalen på Stock- holms universitet: Överhetens kupp mot före tagsekonomer. Tallin/Norsborg: OskarMedia. Persson, Lars 1980. En syn på företagseko nomisk forskning. Stockholms universitet: Företagsekonomiska institutionen, W 1980:1. SOU 1953:15. 1949 års kommitté för den ju- ridiska och samhällsvetenskapliga utbild- ningen. SSE Stockholm School of Economics 2009. The beautiful – but heavy – 19th century hand printer was donated to GI/IHR by Thor Zachrisson, when they moved into new premises at Konstfack in 1959. Its final use had been to print a pupils’ school magazine for Djursholms Samskola. The printer still stands at the 4th floor of Building D in Södra huset, close to the former premises of the Department of Advertising and PR. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 325

Former Department of Advertising and PR Gudrun Dahl

The development of what is now the Sec- student fees, and a foundation supported by tion for Marketing and PR at the Stockholm about 175 graphic companies. Business School (Företagsekonomiska institu- Zachrisson came from a family deeply in- tionen) started with the decision on the 17th of volved in issues of graphic design and printing. June 1943 to create the Institute for Graphics His father was Waldemar Zachrisson, founder (Grafiska Institutet, GI), a decision made by of the well-known Wezäta printing company the Swedish Printers’ Association at their 50th and a prominent pioneer in international book Anniversary. Three months later, they were printer organizations. Having himself worked joined by the Swedish Media Publishers’ Asso- as a printing company CEO and designer, Bror ciation (Svenska Tidningsutgivareföreningen). Zachrisson had in 1944 taken the initiative to The force behind the initiative was Bror Zach- start an education. In his own words, he could risson, who became the first director of the In- “after preparations, conferences, resistance stitute (1944–1973). Another enthusiast pursu- and strife put into practice a modern educa- ing the issue was Carl Z. Hæggström from tion, aiming at the different activities and goals Gebers, who held the welcome speech at the that are comprised by the graphic and commu- inauguration of the Institute in January 1944, nicative frameworks.” This was the Institute but who died in October the same year. The for Graphics. “It should be mentioned that Institute, situated at Mäster Samuelsgatan 44, already from the start GI had a very democrat- arranged lectures – the first one was on book- ic contact with its students. The initiative to a binding and given by the director of the print- ‘corporate or educational council’ was taken ing company Esselte, Sven Dahlbäck. The acti by the leadership: all students were encouraged vities were financed by governmental support, to partly anonymously, partly openheartedly, 326 KapitelnamnFormer Department of Advertising and PR

Building D, 4th floor, of Södra huset was the last location of the Department of Advertising and PR before its merger with the Stockholm Business School. The idea for the ‘colour organ’ in the ceiling came originally from artist Olle Baertling who composed the A-building organ. The organ was designed by a young co-worker at Helldén’s architectural bureau, who later became a competent and well-liked head of the Faculty Office for Social Sciences, Ann Fritzell. (Photo: Mats Danielson) Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 327

give their opinions on the teaching, the sched- ers. Zachrisson was also the first rector for the ule and so on. Using the ‘du’ way of addressing Institute of Journalism (Journalistinstitutet) each other was encouraged.” (Zachrisson (1959–1961), having been active in the estab- 2006:16) lishment and planning of this institute as well. Zachrisson was also a driving force behind The main sponsors for the Institute of Journal- the other institute that constitutes the ancestry ism (JI) were the Swedish Union of Journalists of the present Section for Advertising and PR (Svenska journalistförbundet), Swedish Media at the Stockholm Business School. That was Publishers’Association (Tidningsutgivarna) and the Institute for Advanced Education in Adver- the Club of Publicists (Publicistklubben). tising (Institutet för högre reklamutbildning, Zachrisson led this institute too, until it was IHR), originally and up to 1967 called the In- taken over by the government in 1962 when stitute for Educating in Communication and the University College of Journalism was creat- Advertising (Institutet för kommunikations- ed. In 1989, the latter institution merged with och reklamutbildning). In 1953 GI, represent- the Centre for Research on Mass Communica- ed by Zachrisson, and the Swedish Sales and tion to become JMK—the Department for Advertising Federation, took the initiative to Journalism, Media and Communication—at found IHR. Administered and housed together Stockholm University. Today, they are part of with GI, the new institute was to be placed in the Department of Media Studies at the Univer- Östermalm, Stockholm, but first the twin insti- sity. In the early years of the Institute of Jour- tutes had to move to temporary premises at nalism, however, it shared head, office and Centralbadet at Holländargatan for some time. premises with GI and IHR without resulting in The new Institute was constituted as a founda- any formal merger. In 1960, GI/IHR moved to tion, and Zachrisson became the first rector of the premises of the University College of Arts, this institute also, a position which he held un- Crafts and Design (Konstfack) at Valhallavä- til 1965. A donation from the Gumælius com- gen in central Stockholm. pany consisting of 50,000 SEK provided the In the 1950s and 1960s ‘star seminars’, after starting capital. The inaugural speech was held a model that had inspired Zachrisson when he by Professor Gerhard Törnqvist (1894–1963), studied in the US, were arranged by the Insti- the first professor of distributional economy in tute for Graphics in addition to its more tradi- Sweden, active at the Stockholm School of Eco- tional teaching (Zachrisson 2006:17). Promi- nomics (Handelshögskolan). The task for the nent specialists in graphic design were invited two institutes was to educate competent lead- from Japan, the Soviet Union, America, and 328 Former Department of Advertising and PR

Europe to provide a common meeting point for demic publications of Ottander, who holds the professional graphic designers, book printers, title of docent, reflects a diversity of interests. pedagogues, and publishers. One of the speak- Most of them do not appear to reflect a theo- ers was the German typographic designer Her- retical concern with the subject matters of GI/ man Zapf, designer of the logotype of IHR, IHR, although he did partake in the publica- and famous for the fonts Palatino and Optima. tion of a handbook for information officers Zapf’s design career reflects the process of tech- (Hanson et al. 1987). Other works are con- nological development that GI, too, has had to cerned with psychophysics and the possibility adapt to. Printing has gone from hot metal to improve visual perception and discrimina- composition to photo typesetting and digital tive ability by training. desktop publishing. In 1977, GI/IHR was taken over by the gov- Zachrisson had written a number of books ernment and became the independent Institute in Swedish about typography and writing, for for Advanced Education in Communications example ‘The ABC of script: short summary of and Advertising, mainly due to the work of its development, medical and psychological Ottander who worked hard at systematizing viewpoints…’ (1943), ‘The development of the education. In 1994, GI/IHR was trans- script, a history of style’ (1943) and ‘The book ferred to Stockholm University with the status of texting’ (1958). of a department within the Faculty of Social He also successfully defended a PhD thesis Sciences and thus no longer one of the indepen- about the readability of texts for the visually dent artistic university colleges. At the same impaired at the Department of Psychology time, the institute/department moved from the (Läsligheten hos tryckt text för synsvaga) in premises of the University College of Arts, 1965. In 1973, he left IHR. His daughter, Crafts and Design at Valhallavägen to Karlavä- Mona Leander, who was working in the Insti- gen 108, where they again became immediate tute as an administrator, remained until 2007. neighbours to the education of journalists. To Zachrisson was succeeded as rector by Chris strengthen the research, Stockholm University Ottander, who stayed in this function until 1998. offered two half-time posts, one with professo- Ottander also came from a family with rial status for GI, and one as research leader for book-printing traditions. His grandfather Otto, IHR. a parish priest in Östervåla, had a small print- Ottander resigned in 1998 but left a memory ing workshop for printing self-published items of legendary status. A foundation was created like small religious texts and songs. The aca- in his name to hand out a prize for marketing Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 329

achievements. The first award was given to obtained new plans of education. The pro- Evert Gummeson, professor at the Department gramme Advertising and Communication of Business Administration and nestor of ‘rela- (Reklam och kommunikation) changed its name tional marketing’, that is, the creation of loyal to the Programme of Market Communication. customers in order to obtain long-term profit- Apart from heading the Department, Wah- ability. Later it has been awarded to among lund was initially employed as lecturer in ‘Busi- others Ozan Sunar, the former head of Södra ness Administration, especially Marketing’ at Teatern and initiator of the Re-orient festival, GI/IHR and in 2003 he was promoted to pro- and Helena Westin of the advertising agency fessor. It was during his time, in 2001, that GI Paradise, to honour her creative advertisement and IHR moved to the main Frescati Campus work and marketing at the first Pride festival. and were jointly renamed Department of Ap- The prize sum of 30,000 SEK is awarded to plied Communications Science – GI and IHR someone who has demonstrated innovations in (Institutionen för tillämpad kommunikations- market communication or new ways of think- vetenskap – GI och IHR). The two programmes ing about market communication, whether with- could celebrate their 60 and 50 year jubilees, in the context of practical or academic work. respectively, with lectures and seminars and a Richard Wahlund, with a background at the big anniversary party at Aula Magna. In 2004, Stockholm School of Economics, succeeded the Department got a commission from the Chris Ottander as the head of department for government to evaluate the pre-election com- GI and IHR and also chairman of the board of munication of the political parties before the the award foundation. Wahlund has double EU parliament election. This was significant, as doctoral degrees from the Stockholm School of it marked the extended purpose implied by the Economics; one in economic psychology concept of ‘Applied Communications’ – i.e. to (1992) and one in business administration contribute to the understanding not only of (1991). Wahlund’s interests have been the psy- commercially oriented marketing, but also of chology of decision making, risk behaviour and political rhetorics and PR. In 2005, Professor influence and market communication – a broad Larry Percy, Alabama, USA, recurrent guest range of interests, not confined to the subjects lecturer at the Department for many years, was of GI/IHR. In the Department, Wahlund made awarded an Honorary Doctorate at Stockholm himself known as a hard-working person. He University. Percy’s research interests are among set off to reform the curriculum, and in 1999– other things the role of memory and emotions 2000 both the major educational programmes in marketing. 330 Former Department of Advertising and PR

Much of the research that Wahlund himself year long programme leading up to a bache- pursued during his time at the Department was lor’s (BSc) degree, focusing on marketing using directly related to marketing, such as the im- interactive media. portance of brand names, packaging and price Among other ideas implemented during on consumers’ choices, forms of direct market- Anderson’s time as department head (2007) ing in Sweden, as well as consumer product was an experiment in viral information spread- categorizations and buying planning behaviour. ing undertaken by the students of the Graphic Organizationally, he became involved in the Project Leader programme in cooperation with Centre for Easy-to-Read Reading, thus follow- a video production company. The experiment, ing up a thread from the legacy of Zachrisson. inspired by Anderson’s interest in epidemiolo- As noted, Wahlund had a wide range of re- gy, was concerned with how the attention to search interests, and other research topics were different film cuts shown at the site varied of a more general business administration na- according to different interventions on- and ture. In 2006, however, Wahlund left Stock- offline. Another idea, launched in the autumn holm University for a chair in ‘Business Admin- of 2006, was to encourage the students to join istration, especially media’ at the Stockholm a shared blog site about media and marketing, School of Economics (SSE). looking for inspiring examples of communicat- To fill the gap after Wahlund, and in the ing activities all over the world. Each student wake of the recruitment of a new professor, would be scheduled to make two blog messag- popular guest lecturer Tom Anderson was re- es during the semester. cruited as head of department. He had for a During the departmental reign of Wahlund, period been rector of Bergh’s School of Com- the Graphic Project Leader programme and the munication. In an interview with the leading Market Communication programme had been magazine of the marketing business, Resumé, able to offer students who already had one he said that he wanted to increase the efficiency year’s worth of credits in business administra- of the marketing of education offered by the tion a degree in the latter subject if they fin- Department. ished two years of education at the Department It was during Anderson’s time as head that a for GI/IHR. This was based on an informal new programme, the MarkIT Programme (Mar- agreement between the two departments. In ket communication and IT) was launched in co- 2006, the Department of Business Administra- operation with the Department of Systems and tion (now Stockholm Business School) hesitat- Computer Sciences (DSV). MarkIT is a three ed to delegate to others the rights of crediting Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 331

The corridor leading up to the department entrance at the other end of the colour organ. (Photo: Mats Danielson) in regard to courses over which the Depart- convince the Faculty Board to grant them an ment of Business Administration themselves independent ‘degree subject’ (examensämne). did not have control. Thus, they decided to end The fact that the Department lacked an inde- the agreement. Anderson saw this as a back- pendent research education was indeed of con- ward step which would make it harder for GI/ cern to the Faculty of Social Sciences, but to IHR students to apply for a PhD education. attain this goal, it was needed to recruit a new Having no such education rights of their own, professor as well as build up a discipline-based the Department depended on the goodwill education since it was considered that a PhD from other departments to admit PhD candi- education would require a basis in a master’s dates. Anderson felt that it would be difficult to education. 332 Former Department of Advertising and PR

The Bologna reform required revision of all business administration and in the techniques the course and programme plans at the univer- of communication, rhetoric and semiotics. The sities. Finally, the turn came to consider the re- early leaders, Zachrisson and Ottander, were quest from the Department to obtain an inde- also particularly interested in the psychological pendent ‘main subject’ (huvudämne), and in aspects of perception and communication. To February 2007, the Faculty Board agreed to this mixture, with potential for theoretical make ‘Advertising and PR’ an official degree links to many disciplines, came the necessity to subject. secure an up-to-date occupational basis by con- The underlying understanding of the subject tinuous contacts with the worlds of adver tising was that it concerned both theoretical and and communicative technology. Some of these methodological reflections and practical appli- needs have been fulfilled by offering intern- cations, to meet both the expectations of the ships to the students, which are connected to scientific community and the applied demands real communication tasks. linked to the professional labour market. The Prior work experience from occupational subject was to build on influences from the so- life was, and still is, a must for applying both to cial sciences as well as the humanities, technol- the programme for graphic project leaders and ogy and art. It would span the subfields of stra- to the ‘Market Communication’ programme. tegic PR management, advertising strategy, For the former, the basic requirements for high- media, theory of communication, consumer er studies were supplemented with require- behaviour, internet marketing and graphic de- ments for a full year of professional experience sign, semiotics and rhetoric, as well as critical from the media, the graphic industry, or a com- analyses of the influence of advertising in a parable activity. The marketing students also broad societal perspective. need to have either one year of experience from From the beginning, the Department and its this kind of business or four years of working predecessors had had a complex identity, re- life experience with planning responsibility flected in the varying localizations of the activ- within marketing, advertising or PR. Another ities in the neighbourhoods of artists, journal- implication of the ambition to create a profes- ists or social scientists. Partly it was trying to sionally relevant education, based on up-to- develop practical, artisanal and artistic skills in date conceptions of the industry, was that its students, and partly to instil in them organiza- many teachers were recruited on a temporary tional capacities. This would be combined with basis from industry. In the years after the loss insights in marketing from the point of view of of Wahlund’s leadership, this became a particu- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 333

lar concern. In a faculty commissioned investi- should be reviewed by the Faculty Board after gation in 2007, Professor Harry Flam summa- ten years. One important argument was that rized the Department’s teaching staff resources, journalist education had a broader concern in terms of full-time equivalents, as 5.8 senior with communication as a scientific topic than lecturers, of which 2.3 guest lecturers were on business administration, where commercial temporally limited contracts, and two adjuncts. market communication would be in focus and This implied problems not only for the recruit- political communication would fall out of the ment of department leadership, but also in frame. The representatives of the Department terms of forming a board. There were also of Advertising and PR knew from historical ex- practical problems in combining the Depart- perience (from the 1990s) about the value ment’s endeavour to keep marketing skills up- clashes that tended to arise between education to-date with applied experience from the in- in critical and informative journalism and edu- dustry with the University’s strategies to use cation in strategic communication. As Flam teachers employed on a permanent basis and had noted, “one can differentiate between with academic credentials. communication as information, where the pur- From March 15, 2007, the Department was pose is increased knowledge and lessened inse- to be called the Department of Advertising and curity, and strategic communication, where the PR (Institutionen för Reklam och PR). Stock- purpose is to wield an influence in different holm University was thereby first in Sweden ways.” (Flam 2007) This distinction was prob- with a university level degree in advertising and ably, in the early history of the concerned insti- PR. The Faculty Board commissioned Harry tutes, a major obstacle to organizationally Flam to make an investigation into other possi- merge the education in marketing and PR with ble organizational arrangements for the De- that of journalism. The basic values of the two partment, since the small size and the lack of educations, in both cases necessary points of proper research and PhD education at the De- departure, are divergent and the strong strands partment were seen as problematic. Flam’s in- of critical questioning among the journalist vestigation ended with a recommendation that teachers and students would make them hesi- the Department should be transferred to the tant to the idea of strategic communication. Faculty of Humanities and merged with JMK, Historically, closeness in terms of premises in and that the Department ought to be given rel- the 1990s had not helped in overcoming mutu- ative autonomy as a subdivision within JMK al suspicion. JMK was furthermore some years with separate head and budget. The transfer later merged with cinema studies and fashion 334 Former Department of Advertising and PR

The entrance to the Department of Advertising and PR. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

studies into the much larger Department of of marketing and communication, was ap- Media Studies. Finally, the Faculty saw re pointed regular head of department, succeed- cruiting a professor as a more pertinent issue, ing Anderson. During the following years, ef- which could in itself have implications for the forts were put into the recruitment of lecturers placing of the Department. with academic research merits, with the aim of That same year Björn Stolt, one of the per- corresponding to the University’s expectations. manent lecturers of the Department and a great The people employed were primarily lecturers enthusiast both for teaching and for the world with a background in business administration, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 335

with some temporary teachers with formal shared by Stolt, who also saw it as essential to merits in art recruited for the graphic education. underline that the communicative and semiotic However, certain areas of competence neces- aspects of the subject warranted autonomy sary for the Department, such as political com- from marketing research in the mode of busi- munication, semiotics and rhetoric, came to ness administration. The teaching at the De- rest very much on input from Stolt himself. The partment, however, had to make adjustments Faculty made several attempts at recruiting a to the demands of the Bologna reform and pro- qualified person for the professorial chair. It vide a more solid basis for the development of turned out to be difficult to find somebody who adequate research in the field. In 2008, a basic corresponded to the width of expertise that course in advertising and PR was developed was required due to the interdisciplinary and and launched, without the particular demands practically multi-facetted nature of the educa- for professional experience associated with the tion. This was also a matter of finance: both traditional programmes offered by the Depart- the world of advertising business and the ment. There were 900 applicants to 60 study Stockholm School of Economics could com- positions. A decision was made to develop a pete with better economic terms. bachelor’s and a master’s programme in the Under Stolt as head of department, strong subject. efforts were made in the direction of making To Stolt, political communication was an the structure and content of courses even more important aspect of ‘applied communication’ academic, while still trying to take into consid- that the Department needed to develop in ad- eration that many of the employers and practi- dition to the more purely commercial. Many tioners in the advertising field were suspicious alumni from the marketing communication of such a development. The GI and IHR educa- programme ended up in their work life work- tions had for more than half a century been ing within the political sphere, he argued. In based on the assumption that theoretical, re- the summer of 2009, a new course was intro- search based knowledge and practically gener- duced concerned with ‘Rhetoric and Politics ated knowledge within the fields of advertising in Almedalen’. The students would at this and strategic information provision stand in a course meet active professionals with an ex- dialectic relation. In many cases, practice pre- pertise in political communication and rheto- cedes theory in the area of media and commu- ric, and have the chance to identify examples nication, and academic researchers are not al- within the setting of this huge yearly, nation- ways at the cutting edge. This was a standpoint al event of political speeches, lobbying and 336 Former Department of Advertising and PR

seminars that takes place in Visby at the end ment of Advertising and PR and then trans- of June. ferred to the Stockholm Business School. Öst- In February 2011, Stolt was succeeded as berg’s research has been focused on consumer head of department by Maria Frostling-Hen issues, and particularly on how different pat- ningsson, who took up the task of recruiting a terns and objects of consumption, and corre- new professor and securing two new lecture- spondingly, market offers, become loaded ships. Under her two-year period as head of de- with symbolic value. For example, he is inter- partment, the plans for a Master’s Programme ested in the interaction between popular cul- in Advertising and PR were further elaborated ture and marketing activities that offer alter- and implemented, on the basis of analyses made native interpretations and make the marketing by Carina Holmberg, former head of the Depart offer a matter of dynamic process. As a point ment of Business Administration (a.k.a. Stock- of departure, Östberg declared that commer- holm Business School). Stefan Lundhem, who cial advertising was a source of information had for a long time been the strong pillar of the necessary for consumers’ opportunities to graphic education, retired and the programme choose freely, but that the education should for graphic project leaders was reworked into a also more systematically offer a critical debate Bachelor’s Program in Visual Communication. on the negative aspects of advertising and PR. However, in 2012, following an investiga- After the merger, IHR was transformed into tion by the then Deputy Vice-Chancellor Astrid the Market Communication Programme with- Söderbergh Widding, the Area Board of Hu- in the Stockholm Business School and GI into manities, Law, and Social Sciences, recom the Graphic Project Leader Programme, being mended the University Board to merge the De- more or less unchanged in direction and con- partment of Advertising and PR with the tent. There are still both academically and Department of Business Administration based practically inclined courses aiming to fulfil the on the consideration of a shared identity of needs of people who can work as information ‘marketing communication’ at the latter de- officers and lead the marketing communication partment with what was offered at the Depart- of an organization or corporation tactically, ment of Advertising and PR. It was decided strategically and practically. that the budgets would be kept separate for a The fact that among the alumni you can find period of five years. several persons who are prominent in the field In March 2013, Jacob Östberg finally took of communication, and that the education has up the chair originally created for the Depart- had a very good reputation, bears witness that Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 337

the concept of combining academic experience Hanson, Göte, Per Nygren and Chris Ottander with professional experience, which for more 1987. Handbok för informatörer, Allmänna than half a century had governed the Depart- Förlaget. ment’s activities, was successful from the point Tofters, Kiell n.d. Prosten Otto Ottander: Öster- of view of a professional education. Many more vålas Gutenberg. http://www.bygdeband.com/ students were attracted than could be admitted. file/423201/ The alumni of the Department and its orga- Wikipedia 2014. http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/ nizational predecessors have generally been Svensk_Bokkonst. well trained in the importance of marketing Zachrisson, Björn 2006. Bror Zachrisson, hundra: and many of them have self-presenting web- 12 december 1906 –1 september 1983. Minnes- pages. In these webpages, education at the De- pamflett utgiven av sönerna och döttrarna partment in its various incarnations is often Björn, Göran, Mona, Marianne, Johan. Djur- held forth as an important merit. In more per- sholm: Officina Fraterna. sonal alumni communication, an image is conveyed of an education which has had thorough-going and generally positive influence on the students’ lives. Most departments could be envious of such an impression left on the students.

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Flam, Harry 2007. Till samhällsveten skapliga fakultetsnämnden: Utredning om hur verksamheten vid Institutionen för reklam och PR bör organiseras, 2007-08-29. Grafiska institutet 1954. 1944–1954. Minnes skrift sammanställd med anledning av institutets första tio år. Stockholm, Grafiska institutet. Grafiska institutet 1968.Grafiska institutet tjugofem år: Publikation utg. vid jubileet den 19 januari 1969. Stockholm. The neighbour of Sveaplans gymnasium is the high-rise Wenner-Gren Center building. From there, one has a splendid view over the architectural masterpiece by Nils Ahrbom and Helge Zimdal. (Photo: Olof Östergren) 339

Centre for Health Equity Studies Denny Vågerö

Rosenbad, September 1997. It is rainy guished research institute at Glasgow Universi- and grey outside, but in the oval conference ty which had been financed by the British Med- room, underneath the prime minister’s office, ical Research Council for decades. She had the mood is upbeat and the discussion lively. been following developments in Sweden since The Swedish Council for Social Research (SFR) the 1980s and was well familiar with research had been concerned about the large differences here. She spoke with conviction that sprang in health within the Swedish population. Now, from her own experience (Macintyre 1998). it had invited a number of international and The Swedish Research Council took note. Swedish experts to discuss what a national Just over a year later, the research council invit- Swedish research programme on health in- ed all Swedish universities to apply for the priv- equalities should look like. As the discussion is ilege of hosting such a centre. The universities drawing to its end, Sally Macintyre from Scot- were asked to present a research programme land puts forward her conclusion: “Sweden for such a centre. They were also asked to spec- should put its resources into a national centre ify in which way their own contributions to the for health equity research. The researchers are centre would match, as a minimum, those sup- out there but they are scattered around many plied by the research council. All applications universities and departments. Such a centre would be assessed by an international team of would focus Sweden’s own research and allow experts. Sweden to push forward the international re- I took part in the meeting at Rosenbad. So search agenda in a new way”. Sally Macintyre, did Finn Diderichsen, professor of social epi professor of medical sociology, was head of the demiology at Karolinska Institutet (KI) and MRC Social and Public Health Unit, a distin- one of the leading researchers in this field in 340 Centre for Health Equity Studies

Sweden. During the coffee break, following ties. Many of them took place in a basement Sally’s proposal, we spoke about the idea of a room at The Department of Social Work (So- centre. We realized that if we applied together cialhögskolan). A grim place to spell out the we would have a good chance of succeeding. A future, but it worked well. Monica Åberg Yn- joint application from Stockholm University gwe was struggling to take notes and sum- and Karolinska Institutet would be strong. marise these discussions. There was great con- Diderichsen suggested that we should include sensus that the application was going to focus Ulf Lundberg, professor of psychology at Stock on how health is shaped across the life course holm University, in our effort. Lundberg’s re- and how social and psychological circumstanc- search followed in the tradition of Marianne es influence the distribution of health in a fun- Frankenhäuser and was focused on work, damental way. What should be the name of the stress and health. proposed centre? The Pehr Wargentin Centre The research literature on health inequalities for Social Science and Medicine was one sug- had broadened considerably during the preced- gestion, in honour of Pehr Wargentin, an 18th ing years. So had the number of disciplines that century pioneer in population studies. Howev- took an interest in the issue. In fact, the inter- er, a flash of inspiration from someone solved disciplinarity of the field was one of its most the problem: the name of the new centre should striking features, and rightly so. It was not pos- be the Centre for Health Equity Studies, sible to understand how social forces and cir- CHESS. If you are concerned about the second cumstances translate into health problems be- S in CHESS you could read it as Centre for ing unevenly distributed across society in much Health Equity Studies in Stockholm. the same way as education, income and good We asked for, and received, good support jobs, without collaboration across disciplinary from our faculty boards and later from the two borders. We should accordingly build our ap- vice-chancellors at Stockholm University and plication around our expertise in medical so- Karolinska Institutet. Eskil Wadensjö, who was ciology, social epidemiology and stress psy- then the dean of the Faculty of Social Sciences, chology and draw heavily on our links to organized a series of meetings to establish what medicine, psychology and social science in gen- resources the University could muster to match eral. This was the idea. the resources that we were going to apply for. The ball had been kicked into motion. A A similar process took place at Karolinska In- series of meetings or brainstorming activities, stitutet. These discussions went very well, and took place with researchers from both universi- a long list of positions that would be trans- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 341

ferred to the new centre was drawn up. At the All the large universities in Sweden applied core of these were Ulf Lundberg’s, Finn Dide to be the host of the centre. SFR asked three richsen’s and my own professorships. In retro- leading international researchers to assess the spect, one might be allowed to admit that some applications, namely Sally Macintyre together of the commitments were not that hard to with Johan Mackenbach from Erasmus Uni- make. My own professorship in medical sociol- versity and Johannes Siegrist from Düsseldorf: ogy was seen as a contribution from Stockholm one medical doctor and two social scientists, University, but it had in fact been paid for by all distinguished professors with a track record SFR itself since 1995. True, the Faculty had in the field. In theirreview of our proposal, promised to guarantee the chair if SFR should they concluded that “on the basis on their cut- ever withdraw, but nevertheless! Diderichsen’s ting-edge research plans we expect the com- chair was presented as a contribution from bined centre to develop into a major (inter)na- Karolinska Institutet, but was in fact financed tional focal point in this area”. Expectations by the Swedish Public Health Institute and were high. The joint application from Stock- placed at KI through an agreement between the holm University and Karolinska Institutet was two. This was typical for the way the institution- chosen. CHESS was to become a reality. alisation of the research field had happened un- The negotiations with SFR to establish til then – through improvised, individual-based, CHESS followed immediately. In June 2000, a ad hoc solutions. group of us who had worked on the applica- However, the research application was duly tion met SFR, represented by its chair of the completed and the specification of resources board, Gabriel Romanus, and its permanent given by Stockholm University and Karolinska secretary at that time, Robert Erikson. They Institutet was spelt out in great detail. The two explained that SFR was willing to offer financ- vice-chancellors, Hans Wigzell and Gustaf Lin- ing of four million Swedish kronor a year for dencrona, signed and submitted the applica- six years, after which, if we were positively tion in May 1999. Their signatures guaranteed evaluated, they would foresee that the Ministry the commitment of the two universities, what- of Education would give a permanent grant. ever happened concerning the sponsored posi- Our efforts to argue for a somewhat larger sum tions in the future. I have never felt any doubt were unsuccessful. Romanus smiled. He seemed that their commitment was genuine. CHESS amused. Who could blame him? has had both moral and material support from The contract with SFR was signed on June both universities ever since. 30th 2000. It was based on a negotiated agree- 342 Centre for Health Equity Studies

The CHESS library, mainly originating from the Department of Social Medicine, Karolinska Institu- tet, Huddinge, and donated to Denny Vågerö. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

ment between Stockholm University and Karo- We could not wish for anything better. CHESS linska Institutet. According to the agreement, has stayed their ever since and now occupies a CHESS was to be situated at Sveaplan, on the long corridor giving space to more than thirty premises of the Department of Social Work people. (Socialhögskolan). This meant it was equidis- The issue of a fair deal between the two uni- tant from both universities and within walking versities was important, and not primarily about distance of both the main Stockholm Universi- where CHESS was localised. It was an open ty Frescati campus and Karolinska Institutet. question whether CHESS should fall under the Thus, we were to work in a beautiful building, administrative umbrella of Stockholm Univer- which was also an outstanding example of sity or Karolinska Institutet. That was decided ‘Swedish modern’ (functionalist) architecture. at the highest level. It so happened that Stock- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 343

holm University and KI had made another joint very smooth negotiating process. Bengt Win- application to SFR at the same time. This was blad, a pioneer in aging research who became also successful and led to the founding of ARC, the first director of ARC, was highly impressed. the Aging Research Centre. ARC and CHESS He gave the negotiators from Stockholm Uni- were joint Stockholm University-Karolinska versity big hugs and explained that “I didn’t Institutet undertakings, but each centre would know that Stockholm University had such fan- have to be administered by only one of the uni- tastic people”. This was Fritzell’s great moment. versities. Hans Wigzell, then still vice-chancellor of KI, was more interested in aging research Where did the research field come than in research into health inequalities and from? put his weight behind ARC being under the The fact that health is unevenly distributed auspices of the Karolinska Institutet. In the across social classes, occupations, regions and interest of fairness, CHESS would then fall un- the two sexes has been known for a very long der the auspices of Stockholm University. And time. Medieval church paintings portray death so it was. dancing with the different trades or occupa- The formal agreements between Stockholm tions in society: the farmer, the priest, the mer- University and Karolinska Institutet about chant, the blacksmith and so on. As early as joint ownership of ARC and CHESS were 1766, Pehr Wargentin had analysed the Swed- based on the principle of power balance. And ish Population Census for the Royal Swedish they were exact mirror images of each other. Academy of Sciences, comparing the mortality The chair of the board of CHESS should be of men and women. He observed that male nominated by Karolinska Institutet and the di- mortality was higher in every age group and rector must be a professor employed at Stock- concluded that men were the weaker sex. Abra- holm University. At ARC the opposite was ham Bäck, another member of the Royal Swed- true. Stockholm University nominates the chair ish Academy of Sciences, observed in 1764 that of the ARC board and the director is a profes- “the poverty-stricken are ravaged by pestilence sor at Karolinska Institutet. Each board should while few of the wealthier fall ill…When I con- have an equal number of representatives from sider the causes behind diseases and excessive each university. Ann Fritzell at the Faculty Of- mortality among the peasantry, and the worse- fice had led the drafting of the agreements. The off in the towns, the first and foremost are balance of power was introduced into every poverty, misery, lack of bread, anxiety and de- detail of the agreement, which guaranteed a spair” (Bäck 1765). Thus inequalities in health 344 Centre for Health Equity Studies

seem to have deep roots in history. However, I was present at Sir Douglas Black’s first pre- this view is not shared by everyone. Some modern sentation of the report, before its publication at economists, notably Angus Deaton, claim that the Royal Free Hospital in London in 1979. To they arrived with industrialization, not earlier. me, as a young sociologist, it was already clear The British, with their acute awareness of that he had opened up a Pandora’s Box. Not class, have produced decennial statistics on so- only were societies stratified by class and edu- cial class differences in mortality, based on cen- cation, but this stratification also had profound suses, since 1911. In every decade since then, a implications for human health, creating in- clear social class gradient in mortality has been equalities in health. The Black Report quoted reported; higher social classes live longer lives research from Sweden, claiming that Sweden than lower. It was these persistent statistics that had “probably” eradicated social class differ- triggered the Black Report in Britain in 1977 ences in infant mortality and child growth. The (Department of Health and Social Services support for the first claim came from Sjölin’s 1980). The British Labour government asked study of regional differences in infant mortality Sir Douglas Black to review the evidence about in Sweden. They showed a strong secular trend social class and health: what caused inequality of narrowing gaps. However, this was by in health and mortality, and what could be region and not by social class or education. done about it? The Black Report was published The claim about disappearing growth inequal- in August 1980, under the new conservative ities came from a local study of school children government of Margaret Thatcher. Her gov- in Malmö. Swedish researchers who noted ernment was not pleased; the health minister these claims naturally wanted to examine them dismissed the report and only 250 copies were closer. Much later, both claims were rejected in printed. The brutal dismissal of the report and two doctoral theses, by Maria Peck and Marit all its suggestions, paradoxically, made it fa- Gisselmann, both at Stockholm University. mous. Some years later, the shorter, paperback And Viveca Östberg, in her thesis, had shown version of the report sold more than 100,000 that child and youth mortality in modern Swe- copies. It triggered enormous research activity, den, for the ages 1–19, was still influenced by partly because the report was a true landmark the social class of their parents. and partly because it left unresolved most of The Black Report created a momentum in the explanation concerning how health in- Sweden and provided Swedish public health re- equalities re-emerge in every new generation in searchers with a new focus on inequality in modern society. health. The research groups at Stockholm Uni- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 345

versity and Karolinska Institutet that joined ciety, even if relatively unimportant for an indi- forces in applying for CHESS had “[…] pro- vidual, could have a huge impact on the level of duced 11 doctoral theses in the area of health health and disease in society. However, at that inequalities in the 1990s and just in the period time these causes were usually assumed to be 1996–1999 around 150 international scientific individual behaviours or exposures at an adult publications”, to quote our application for age, such as alcohol drinking, tobacco smok- CHESS. ing, salt intake or physical activity – a some- The most important aspect of the Black Re- what narrow perspective. Swedish researchers, port was that it proposed a typology of expla- such as Ulf Lundberg, Ingvar Lundberg and nations for health inequalities. In particular, it Töres Theorell, all emphasised the work envi- introduced the distinction between explana- ronment as important for adult health. Swed- tions based on selection and explanations ish research on work and health was pioneer- based on social causation. In the former case, ing in this aspect. the idea was that healthy people moved up the David Barker, a British epidemiologist based social ladder, and that this was the way that in Southampton, challenged, in a big way, the social class differences in health came about. A assumption that adult behaviours or adult large part of the discussion among researchers work environments were the most important in the 1980s dealt with this issue. Olle Lund- causes of adult disease. In a series of more than berg, for instance, in his doctoral thesis in 40 papers in the space of a few years in the 1990, noted that health in childhood had only 1990s, he demonstrated the importance of the a very marginal impact on social mobility and early environment for later health (Barker on the social pattern of adult disease. Most re- 1992). The foetal and infancy periods were searchers would agree today. ones of ‘biological programming’ according to Mainstream public health was concerned Barker, and what happened later in life was rel- with prevention of disease, rather than with atively unimportant. As a response to David medical care. Geoffrey Rose’s pioneering book Barker’s tour-de-force in publishing, Dave on ‘the strategy of preventive medicine’, pub- Leon from London, together with myself and lished 1992, had had a profound impact and Hans Lithell in Uppsala, had started a collabo- showed the great potential of public health ration collecting birth data from Akademiska once there was an understanding of how causes Sjukhuset in Uppsala and linking these to later of disease were distributed in the population. census and mortality data. We wanted to repli- Causes of ill health that were widespread in so- cate Barker’s studies. Working together with 346 Centre for Health Equity Studies

Ilona Koupil, Bitte Modin and Kristiina Raja- upwardly mobile in society. People’s lives un- leid, all of whom are at CHESS today, we could folded in such a way that early experience in- replicate and extend Barker’s studies and con- fluenced and modified the force of later experi- firm the importance of the foetal environment. ences. However, Bitte Modin’s thesis, the first one These insights also threw a different light on produced at CHESS, showed that early social the Black Report’s selection explanation. If factors, such as being born out of wedlock, someone was upwardly mobile due to his/her were equally important as early predictors of good childhood health or cognitive ability, the adult health. Thus, early environment must be likelihood is that the good health or cognitive thought of as both the biological and social cir- ability in childhood was itself a result of earlier cumstances of a new human individual. social processes acting already in the foetal or Much later, in January 2006, David Barker infancy period. ‘Health selection’ could there- visited CHESS and gave a well-attended semi- fore be seen as just another form of ‘social nar. His presentation upset some people by causation’. more or less dismissing the importance of adult There were many other theoretical problems nutritional intake and physical activity. Heart with the Black Report. Raymond Illsley and I disease, cancer and obesity all had their roots had in 1995 summed up the first decade of dis- very early in life, was his point. Of course, he cussions of the report (Vågerö & Illsley 1995). understood that adult exposures had an im- By then, a consensus was emerging that the so- pact. This was his style of arguing, his way of cial distribution of health and mortality was a making a point which was difficult to take for result of social forces acting upon the human some. body, from conception up to old age. In addi- A bitter conflict was looming between tion, most people agreed that health was likely researchers about which period of life was to influence a person’s social achievements and most important for adult disease. It was re- career in some way. Thus health achievements solved by the gradually growing insight that and social achievements unfolded together, mu- both early life and adult life were important tually influencing each other during the course and, furthermore, that they may interact. Being of life. That consensus solved several theoreti- obese in adult life, for instance, was especially cal conflicts which had previously dominated hazardous if you were born with a low birth the field. weight. Low birth weight babies tended to do On May 12th 1999, when Stockholm Univer- worse in school and were thus less likely to be sity and Karolinska Institutet submitted their Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 347

The CHESS corridor. CHESS offices are converted classrooms, ready to be changed back to their original purpose on request. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 348 Centre for Health Equity Studies

joint proposal for a Centre for Health Equity from the two collaborating universities. For Studies in Stockholm, our programmatic plat- me, this was a great sense of freedom and op- form reflected all the above discussions synthe- portunity. sized into a programme. Nevertheless, the eval- Six months later, in January 2001, the first uators were conscientious. In a letter, they asked researchers moved into the new premises at us to specify “the priorities among our plans”. Sveaplan. Seven people, all from my own In November 1999, Finn Diderichsen and I spelt research group and funded by previous exter out those priorities in the following way: Firstly, nal grants, formed the core of the centre. Ulf to achieve “a creative interdisciplinary environ- Lundberg and Britt af Klintberg, both from ment” by exploiting the different competencies the psychology department, moved in with of people with widely different academic back- three colleagues in March and April 2001. grounds; secondly, to study the emergence of Diderichsen’s research group was to be a cen- health inequalities by 1) focusing on contextual tral element of the centre, but during the influences, including social policies; 2) exploring spring of 2001 Diderichsen, quite unexpected- “the short and long term influence of the early ly, left us. This was a difficult moment. He social environment for health’ and 3) examining had fallen deeply in love with a Danish wom- ‘how control of life circumstances, specifically at an, married and moved to Copenhagen where work, in the home and during other activities he took up a new professorship. We wished […] influence psycho-biological mechanisms”. him good luck, of course, but his departure The evaluators accepted our priorities and the delayed considerably the move of public new research centre thus had its first research health scientists from KI to CHESS. Eventual- programme approved and financed. ly, though, the public health group at KI was integrated with CHESS. In the spring of 2002, CHESS – the first years three doctoral students in public health sci- The contract with SFR was signed on June ence were appointed and financed (Gloria 30th 2000. I was appointed the first director of Macassa, Maria Kölegård Stjärne and Monica CHESS, and took up the position from July 1st Åberg Yngwe). Their supervisors at KI (Johan 2000. In front of me I had a six year contract Hallquist and Bo Burström) became affiliated with SFR, granting us 24 million SEK to spend with CHESS; all five became important mem- over six years, but no staff and no activity yet. bers of the new research environment. Ingvar The contract also stated that a number of po- Lundberg, occupational epidemiologist from sitions should be guaranteed by resources KI, also joined us for a time. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 349

The director of CHESS was also a member a decade already. Ilona Koupil was appointed of the board, working under its supervision. To professor of health equity studies with a public chair the board, Karolinska Institutet nominat- health science perspective. She took up her po- ed Kerstin Hagenfeldt, professor emerita at KI, sition from September 2002. Koupil came from who was duly appointed. Among the other the Department of Epidemiology at the Lon- members of the first board were Joakim Palme don School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine; from Stockholm University and Christer Hog- the ‘trop shop’ as it was affectionately called by stedt from KI. Stig Wall, Gunnar Ågren, Lena both friends and foes. She had previously Sommestad and Gabriel Romanus were ap- worked with me, Dave Leon and Hans Lithell pointed by SFR, and Viveca Östberg (later) as a PhD student in Uppsala. represented the staff. Affiliated members were In the spring of 2001, the board decided to Finn Diderichsen and Ulf Lundberg. This was a establish two more senior research positions: formidable group of people. one in behavioural medicine the other in ‘so- The board held its first meeting on October ciology, in particular social stratification and 2nd, 2000. This dealt with how CHESS was to inequality’. Thus CHESS was joined by Gunilla be built up: the balance between its role as a Krantz from the Nordic School of Public research centre and as a network coordinator. Health and Johan Fritzell from SOFI. Fritzell’s What kind of posts should be created and what position was immediately upgraded to a pro- questions were of strategic importance? At the fessorship. following board meeting, in November 2000, At the end of 2002, the first phase in the we decided to advertise two professorships in creation of CHESS was concluded. There were health equity studies. One of those was to have ten well-qualified researchers and seven PhD a public health science perspective and the oth- students from three disciplines, all working un- er a social science perspective. der the same roof. The atmosphere was open We advertised in international media and re- and lively and with a minimal amount of hier- ceived 17 applications in all. The appointments archical relations. panel worked fast. In December 2001, Olle Lundberg took up the professorship in health A hard question and a difficult crisis equity studies with a social science perspective. CHESS was supposed to be a national and in- Lundberg came from the Swedish Institute for ternational research node. The first network Social Research at Stockholm University conference was held in October 2002. Its theme (SOFI). We had worked together for more than was: “Health inequalities: why do they persist 350 Centre for Health Equity Studies

in modern societies?” The assumption, as al- lower social classes and those outside the la- ready spelt out in the Black Report, was that bour market; and 3) the shortcomings of na- health inequalities should disappear with eco- tional states when it comes to coping with nomic and social progress. It was, however, global pressures on labour markets, incomes clear that health inequalities were anything but and tax regimes have resulted in increasing so- a mere relic of the past. Instead, they seemed to cial and economic inequalities in general. be re-generated in each new generation. Three These were tentative answers and the funda- plenary speakers attempted to answer this puz- mental question still awaits clarification and zle: Sara Arber from Guildford, Anton Kunst resolution. Health inequalities mirror social in- from Rotterdam and Olle Lundberg from equalities; these also seem to have deepened in CHESS. It was a hard issue to tackle. Much of recent decades. Thus health inequalities re- the European research of the last two decades search has good reason to be aware of what is has dealt with this question. going on in neighbouring research fields focus- The same question was asked again a ing on social inequalities, such as those which decade later. In January 2013, an internation- address economic inequalities or unequal edu- al symposium organized by the Royal Swedish cational or job opportunities. Academy of Sciences asked: “Health inequali- The contract with SFR had stipulated that ties in modern welfare states – do we under- CHESS’s performance should be evaluated in stand present trends?’ By then, we had learnt 2004, more than half way through the six-year that not only do health inequalities persist, contract. But even before 2004 a Nordic group, but also that they are getting larger in many led by Finn Kamper-Jörgensen, had been busy (most?) countries. Increasing gaps in life ex- evaluating Nordic public health research at pectancy between those with low and high ed- large. In spite of its tender age, CHESS was in- ucation in the Nordic countries were a concluded and the group concluded, in February cern and a puzzle. 2004, that “CHESS provides an important fo- The attempted answer at the latter sympo- cus, ensuring that Sweden remains internation- sium was threefold: 1) patterns of consumption ally central within inequalities in health re- (alcohol, tobacco, poor food) have changed for search over the coming decades”. We were the better much faster among the highly-edu- pleased and looked forward to the SFR evalua- cated than among the more poorly-educated; tion with confidence. Sally Macintyre, Johan 2) the erosion in later years of social protection Mackenbach and Johannes Siegrist were asked provided by the welfare state took its toll on again. Their review was a careful discussion of Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 351

strengths and weaknesses at CHESS, and re- as a good-will gesture, SFR (now called FAS) flections on areas to develop further, such as would make a smaller commitment after the the understanding of income dynamics and contract had run out, phasing out its support closer ties to some medical disciplines. They gradually by cutting 25% each year during concluded that “CHESS has made an excellent 2006–2009. start” and recommended continued funding. I know very little about what went on They advised SFR that “funding decisions be between the Ministry of Social Affairs, under made as quickly as possible in order to reduce whose auspices SFR/FAS operated, and the planning blight”. However, exactly this point Ministry of Education, responsible for the was to develop into the first major crisis in long-term research financing of universities. CHESS’s history. Some harsh words, I guess. I suspect that it was One sentence in the contract became disput- the Ministry of Education that rocked the boat. ed. It gave me sleepless nights for a period and When this information reached the vice-chan- led to an exchange in the Swedish parliament. cellors of Stockholm University and Karolinska It is this: “If the evaluation of CHESS is posi- Institutet, they reacted strongly. Kåre Bremer tive, SFR will facilitate the permanent transfer and Harriet Wallberg-Henriksson were both to Stockholm University of financial resources upset. In a pointed letter to the Minister of Ed- corresponding to SFR’s annual contributions”. ucation, Leif Pagrotsky, the two vice-chancel- This was understood by us to be a commitment lors wrote on June 1, 2005: of the Ministry of Education to long term financing, conditional upon the evaluation. The SU and KI assume that the original agreement Aging Research Centre had an identical clause shall be respected and that both universities will in its contract, and was given an equally posi- receive permanent resources… tive evaluation from its review panel. Both And if this was not possible for some reason: evaluations were unambiguous, but the prom- …we will have to reassess and cut down these ac- ise in our contracts was not. The government’s tivities. There is no possibility to finance the pres- legal experts explained, but not until 2005, ent levels of activities from the resources now that the paragraph in question was not bind- available to the universities. ing. SFR did not have the mandate to promise such a thing. Thus, the financing of CHESS and This was in fact a threat to close down both ARC would cease when the present contract CHESS and ARC, or at best to radically cut had run out on December 31, 2005. However, their resources and positions. Rune Åberg, the 352 Centre for Health Equity Studies

View of the Sveaplan building from the hallway outside the CHESS entrance. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

new permanent secretary of SFR/FAS met the Gabriel Romanus, on the very same day, leadership of Stockholm University and Karo- fought the issue in the Parliament. Romanus, linska Institutet for a heated discussion, which previously chairman of the board of SFR, was took place in CHESS’s library at Sveaplan in now a member of the Swedish parliament. He June 2005. This occasion is difficult to forget. raised the question of long term financing of Rune Åberg had a hard time. He concluded CHESS, ARC and SoRAD there, triggering a that CHESS and ARC were the first two vic- long debate. Romanus had been part of the ne- tims of the philosophy of giving large strategic gotiating process leading up to the creation of grants to universities without any financial CHESS and ARC and knew the situation very commitment after the contract time. This was well. He tried to get Leif Pagrotsky to make a of course very true. commitment, but with no luck. That the minis- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 353

try cannot have a view on the research priori- where I had just been appointed a member of ties of the universities was Pagrotsky’s dull and its Commission on Social Determinants of disappointing response. To me and my col- Health. If all this failed, we would have to cut leagues this sounded quite illogical considering down on staff and to begin administer a sink- that the same government had started the ing ship. This gave me many restless nights. whole process by its call to SFR to develop “a In 2006, we applied to become a ‘FAS- national program for research into inequalities Centre’, the new strategic grant opportunity in health”, as it had been formulated nine years that SFR/FAS had created. We also argued in the earlier in the 1996 Government Bill on research. board of the Faculty of Social Sciences, of which In fact, the fundamental research question of I was a member, that budget allocations should why we have (growing) health inequalities in be more responsive to scientific output. CHESS modern Sweden played no role whatsoever in had a large scientific output, but this did not the response from the minister of education. make any difference at all regarding how much The institutional memory did not even go back money the faculty allocated to us. We had many nine years (Interpellation 2004/05:663). discussions with Eskil Wadensjö, faculty dean, There we were. A chilling message had been about how to secure CHESS’s existence at the delivered, the implication of which was surely University. We spoke, similarly, to the vice-chan- that we had to rethink our existence as an inde- cellor of KI, Harriet Wallberg-Henriksson, and pendent research centre. Neither FAS nor the her staff. Members of CHESS’s board such as Ministry of Education would change their Chairperson Kerstin Hagenfeldt and Robert minds. What could we do? I and Olle Lund- Erikson, now vice chairperson, were a great berg, who had been deputy director of CHESS support in this. since 2002, gradually developed a plan of ac- In the end, we were lucky on all battlefronts. tion: we would have to apply for new strategic We managed to get a new strategic grant from grants of similar size to the old grant. At the FAS for ten years from 2007–2016. It gave us same time, we would try to convince both 55 million SEK in all, 5.5 million per year. The Stockholm University and Karolinska Institu- Faculty of Social Sciences at Stockholm Univer- tet to increase their direct contributions to sity was also responsive. Our grant from the CHESS, arguing that we had done well so far faculty grew to match the annual grant from and that we had been an asset to both universi- FAS. Karolinska Institutet had lowered their ties. Thirdly, we should explore our new con- contributions to CHESS as a response to the tacts with the World Health Organisation broken promise in the contract with SFR, but 354 Centre for Health Equity Studies

now they were back on board with an increased not have a very good answer. As researchers, annual grant again. This was evidently the we wanted to do research, and we hoped some- Matthew principle in action: if you win one one else would understand how to translate grant, you are more likely to win the other one our research results into action on the part of as well. Thirdly, our new work for the WHO governments, communities or individuals. gave us a small but important grant directly Public health has always had a very strong from the Ministry of Social Affairs. Thus, commitment to collective action by local or na- during the autumn of 2006, things were start- tional governments. This has been most evi- ing to look very bright again. CHESS had a dent in dealing with epidemics, during which long term grant covering ten years, several all governments around the world have taken smaller external grants and a renewed commit- coercive powers. In the past, sea ports could be ment from both universities on a higher level closed; today it is airports, as during the bird than previously. flu epidemic. Cattle could be slaughtered en Our research programme, which led to the masse, as during the mad cow disease fear, or ten year grant (and to our position as an offi- people could be coerced into being vaccinated, cial ‘FAS-centre’) had the title: “Human society as during the swine flu epidemic. In contrast, as a life-long determinant of human health”. governments have had much less clout when it Its leading research question is familiar to the comes to preventing chronic, non-communica- reader by now: “Why are inequalities in health ble disease such as cancer, circulatory disease generated anew in every new generation and in or mental health problems. These have often every society?” It was by far the best and most been seen as individual responsibility, full stop. comprehensive research programme that we Nevertheless, Simon Szreter, a Cambridge have formulated so far. The mood had changed historian, had argued with good evidence that at CHESS. We were moving forward again. the mortality decline in Britain during the 19th century was driven by local political reforms Social determinants of health – led by a “battling public health ideology” that knowledge into practice achieved sanitary reforms, clean water, better At CHESS’s very first board meeting, Gunnar housing and improved living conditions in gen- Ågren, then head of the Swedish Public Health eral. Perhaps a modern version of this is what Institute, had asked in what way our research Gunnar Ågren had in mind? We do know results could be useful for practical public enough to have better policies. I knew that the health purposes. If I remember right, we did question of how social policies may influence Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 355

Entrance to CHESS offices from the mail hallway of the Sveaplan building. (Photo: Mats Danielson) health had long been preoccupying two of my were appallingly large, with a life expectancy colleagues who joined CHESS from the Swed- difference of almost 40 years between the best ish Institute for Social Research (SOFI), Olle and the worst country at that time. The head Lundberg and Johan Fritzell. Was there an op- of WHO feared that WHO was losing its portunity to do serious research into this? leading role in world health affairs; other UN In March 2005 I received a phone call from agencies were becoming more active in health, Richard Poe at the World Health Organisation such as the World Bank, and even more so in Geneva. He told me that I had been nomi- corporate actors such as the Gates Founda- nated to be a member of the ‘Commission on tion. The Commission would work as an in- Social Determinants of Health’, a three year dependent think tank and report directly to commitment if I accepted. Twenty people him. No strings attached. The Commission’s were going to be appointed directly by the advice, if accepted, would become WHO pol- Head of WHO, Dr Lee Jong-wook. The issue icy. The first meeting was going to be in three was global health inequalities: what can we weeks’ time in Santiago de Chile, hosted by do about them. Global health inequalities the president of Chile, who would also be a 356 Centre for Health Equity Studies

member of the Commission. Could I come? I tributions from many people; CHESS’s Nordic was given 24 hours to think it over, but ac- network was especially important. The project cepted straightaway. As it turned out, this ap- combined data from two sources: the Human pointment opened many doors for CHESS for Mortality Data Base, held in Rostock, and the years to come. SCIP data base at Stockholm University. The Michael Marmot, professor of epidemiology SCIP data base (Social Citizenship Indicators in London and knighted “for services to health Project) was a hidden treasure at Stockholm inequalities research” was to chair the Com- University. It had been developed and extended mission. I had worked with Marmot previously by Walter Korpi’s research group over the de- and know him well. In the Santiago meeting we cades and offered comparable data on social discussed the possibility for CHESS to study rights, pension rights, social insurance system the importance of social policies for health. I indicators and benefit levels for 18 OECD coun- was well prepared after discussions with my tries for most of the 20th century. Through colleagues at CHESS. Marmot wrote a letter to ‘pooled cross-sectional time series analysis’ the the Swedish public health minister at that time, group was able to conclude that generous so- Morgan Johansson. Could Sweden perhaps cial policies towards families and children were support the Commission by financing a study strongly linked to low levels of child poverty of how social policies influence health in mod- and low infant mortality rates. Furthermore, ern industrial states? Johansson responded generous policies in terms of basic pension positively, and offered to host one of the Com- rights were linked to better survival among the mission meetings in Stockholm. Thus, CHESS elderly. Even if causality was not proven by was asked by the WHO Commission to pro- these studies, they represented the beginning of duce a report, based on new research, examin- a more systematic exploration of how social ing the importance of Nordic welfare state pol- and economic policies in a country may change icies for the health of their populations. This the health chances of its population. The WHO opened up a new line of research for CHESS. Commission subsequently came to embrace The ‘NEWS project’ (Nordic experience of ‘social protection across the life course’ as one welfare states and public health) started. It en- of its main recommendations for better and more gaged many people at CHESS: Olle Lundberg, equal health in all countries. The Lancet, in an Johan Fritzell, Monica Åberg Yngwe, Maria editorial, praised the work. Kölegård Stjärne and Lisa Björk were behind The global WHO Commission published its the final report (2008). This was based on con- report in the autumn of 2008. Since then, Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 357

CHESS researchers have been involved in sev- in focus. It is perhaps not a coincidence that eral follow-up reviews at European, national schooling has moved to the forefront in Swed- and local levels, such as the ‘European Review ish political life recently. The PISA study of of Social Determinants and the Health Divide’ 2014 pointed to shortcomings in the school re- commissioned by the European office of WHO sults of children in Sweden. Two years earlier, in Copenhagen; the English Marmot Review, the psychological well-being of school children commissioned by the British government; the had been in focus. An international symposium Norwegian Review on Health Inequities, com- at the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences con- missioned by the Norwegian Health Ministry cluded that children who were left behind their and the Commission for a socially sustainable peers in learning to read in the first year at Malmö, commissioned by the City of Malmö. school were especially vulnerable later in These reviews represent the most important school. The importance of school, school efforts so far to translate the knowledge from achievement and peer relations in the school our research field into practice. Many of us have class, and of teacher/pupil relations for chil- also lectured widely, both in Sweden and abroad, dren’s wellbeing and social status, has been a about this experience. The Master’s Programme strongly emerging research field at CHESS. in Public Health at CHESS, which has been op- Inequalities start early and become formative erating since 2008, has benefitted hugely from for the rest of life. The work of Viveca Östberg, this engagement. Talking about CHESS engage- Bitte Modin, Ylva Almqvist and Anton Lager ment in the above reviews and commissions in has helped to transform the academic discus- December 2013, I could see Gunnar Ågren in sions about school, school achievement, and the audience, nodding approvingly. health and wellbeing in the short and long run. CHESS has for a long time been interested in One particularly intriguing finding is that peer the importance of the early environment for status and peer relations in a school class seem adult health and social achievement. Jenny to have long term effects on both later educa- Eklund, Anders Hjern, Ilona Koupil and Bitte tional achievement and adult mental wellbeing. Modin all worked to understand this. One of In 2013, CHESS could announce a new pro- the recommendations, which has been com- fessorship in social paediatrics, financed by mon to all reviews following the original WHO Karolinska Institutet. Anders Hjern was ap- Commission report, is that governments should pointed and has joined forces with Östberg’s focus on giving all children a good start in life. group. This is now a creative and dynamic re- School and preschool, in particular, have been search area. 358 Centre for Health Equity Studies

Generation shift and ground, the other half were foreign students. new developments Monica Åberg Yngwe and Jenny Eklund guided One of the last strategic decisions that I took part them skilfully through the two-year programme. in as director of CHESS was to launch an interna- In 2014, the fourth generation of master’s stu- tional ‘Master’s Programme in Population dents started their course work. The master’s stu- health’, today renamed as ‘Public health’. The dents, most of them bright and engaged, have board of CHESS discussed this in several meet- changed CHESS in positive ways. Some of them ings, realizing that it was a watershed decision. It have continued to take up PhD studies with us. encouraged us to take up this new task. The first In 2013, the Faculty of Social Sciences was students, around 25 persons, started in the au- given rights to award PhD degrees in ‘public tumn of 2008; half of them had a Swedish back- health science’. The new discipline was going to be a shared responsibility between the Stress Re- search Institute and CHESS. This year, five PhD students in public health science have been admitted. To support this, a new professorship in public health science was advertised in June 2014. I left as a director at the end of 2008 and consequently left the board at the same time. I can confess in retrospect that the only time when I was somewhat nervous about what we had achieved at CHESS and what we were planning to do in the future was in the run-up to board meetings. The board was the effective power holder, if it so desired. Yet the board was immensely supportive. Kerstin Hagenfeldt in particular took great care to make sure we were all right and that things went well. Later, in 2006, Nina Rehnqvist became the chair of the board. She filled the same role. She has stayed as chair of the board until today and been able to The Sveaplan building from behind. oversee the many new developments. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 359

Thus, a new generation of CHESS researchers Barker, David 1992. The Fetal and Infant Ori- took over from 2009. Olle Lundberg became gins of Adult Disease. London: BMJ Publi- the new director, Viveca Östberg deputy direc- cations. tor, Monica Åberg Yngwe was director of stud- Department of Health and Social Services ies and later deputy director. Bitte Modin be- 1980. Inequalities in Health. Report of a re- came head of CHESS’s postgraduate school search working group (“The Black Report’). and Jenny Eklund the new director of studies London: HMSO. with Mikael Rostila as her deputy. Susanna Interpellation 2004/05: 663. May 23rd 2005. Toivanen and Mikael Rostila, who both re- Accessed at: http://www.riksdagen.se/sv/Do- ceived their PhD degrees during the first years kument-Lagar/Fragor-och-anmalningar/In- of CHESS, now edited a volume of contribu- terpellationer/starka-forskningsmiljoer_ tions around ‘unfair health’ for the broader GS10663/. Swedish public. All this has been a pleasure to Lundberg, Olle, Johan Fritzell, Monica Åberg watch from the ringside, without me ever feel- Yngwe, Maria Kölegård Stjärne and Lisa ing an urgent need to step inside the ring again. Björk 2008. Nordic Experience of Welfare CHESS has matured and I have no doubt States and Public Health. Stockholm: Stock- that it will continue to thrive and flourish. holm University. Stockholm is one of the best places in the world Macintyre, Sally 1998. Concluding remarks in which to do health research. Our human so- and recommendations for future action. In ciety influences people’s life chances and health Promoting Research on Inequality in in a fundamental way, both historically and in Health. Proceedings from an International the present. To study this empirically results in Expert Meeting in Stockholm, 24–25 Sep- gaining theoretical insights, which in turn can tember 1997. Stockholm: Socialvetenskapli- lead to a better way of organizing our human ga forskningsrådet. affairs: what could be more fun or important? Vågerö, Denny and Raymond Illsley 1995. Explaining health inequalities. Beyond  •  Black and Barker. A discussion of some is- Bäck, Abraham 1765. Tal om farsoter som sues emerging in the decade after the Black mäst härja bland rikets allmoge; hållit för Report. European Sociological Review 11: den Kongliga Vetensk. Academien vid Prae- 219–241. sidii nedläggande den 25 juli 1764. Stock- holm: Lars Salvius. The Institute for International Economic Studies resides on the 8th floor of Building A in Södra huset, facing the main road Roslagsvägen. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 361

Institute for International Economic Studies Assar Lindbeck

At the beginning of 1971, I took over at Sveaplan, to new premises in one of the blue Gunnar Myrdal’s professorship in internation- buildings at the recently constructed Stock- al economics at Stockholm University, where I holm University campus at Frescati. also became the director of the Institute for In- For the general public, Gunnar Myrdal is ternational Economic Studies. The Institute probably the best-known Swedish economist in was founded by Myrdal in 1962. In his period the twentieth century. He also had a large influ- as director of the Institute, it also constituted a ence on a whole generation of prominent econ- basis for his broad-ranging study of the devel- omists in Sweden – Erik Lindahl, Erik Lund- opment problems of Southeast Asia, ‘Asian berg, Bertil Ohlin, Tord Palander, Ingvar Drama’, (1968). He was assisted by a number Svennilson and Herman Wold. Myrdal already of foreign colleagues who were employed on a had a great influence on his colleagues through temporary basis. Ingvar Svennilson was direc- his doctoral dissertation, Prisbildningsproble- tor for a few years (1967–69) after Myrdal had met och föränderligheten (1927), where he em- retired. He started some ambitious projects on phasized the role of future expectations for the industrial structural change, but after a couple trends in different markets. He was also early of years of illness, he had to take a leave of with proposals for using the government bud- absence and later left the position. In February get as an instrument for smoothening the busi- 1971, it became my task to develop the Insti- ness cycle – partly inspired by John Maynard tute with the aid of new colleagues and a new Keynes’ early writings on the subject from 1929 orientation that suited my experiences and in- and onwards. Myrdal made his large interna- terests. At the same time, the Institute moved, tional breakthrough with his interdisciplinary from only a few offices at Wenner-Gren Center work, ‘An American Dilemma’, (1944) with the 362 Institute for International Economic Studies

subtitle, ‘The Negro Problem and Modern De- tion as a ‘nursery’ for future prominent Swedish mocracy’, – a successful combination of eco- economists. nomics, sociology and political science. At the beginning, I did not have any clear Moreover, in the latter part of the 1930s, his view about how such a nursery should be writings, together with his wife Alva, on social designed. Naturally, I did realize that the basis policy issues played an important role in the must be a high-quality course program for social policy debate in Sweden. Among their graduate students and a stimulating environ- work in this field, it is natural to refer to their ment for writing doctoral theses. But over the book Kris i befolkningsfrågan (‘Crisis in the years, I started to realize that this was not Population Issue’, 1934). After World War II, enough. The first years at a research institution following a short session as Minister of Trade, for people with a recent PhD – say the first Myrdal became executive secretary of the Unit- three to six years – should be considered just ed Nations Economic Commission for Europe as important a part of the training as the (ECE). But he increasingly turned towards courses for graduate students. In my experi- studies of developing countries (Myrdal 1968). ence, it is largely through work in a strong re- He also attracted a great deal of international search environment during those particular attention through his research in this field, even years that research talents get the chance to if this work was neither as original nor as im- flourish. Thus, it is important to give a number portant as his previous work. of recent graduates the possibility of working in such an environment for a few years, either How to rebuild? in Sweden or in other countries. My ambition Being responsible for a research institute was a was that the Institute should be such a place. It new experience for me. How to manage the is also important to maintain a good balance funding? How to organize the activities? To between Swedish and foreign researchers in what extent should the director try to influence such a group. Foreign recruitment is of great the direction of the research at the Institute as importance, not only for creating diversity, but a whole? In particular, how to guarantee that also for reaching high standards. However, re- both research and the graduate program reach cruiting young promising Swedish students is high international standards? Moreover, I did also important, since it is those individuals in not want the Institute to only be an interna- particular that can be expected to remain in tionally prominent research institute. My ob- Sweden during the main part of their profes- jective was also that the Institute should func- sional life. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 363

The recruitment of talented graduate stu- lar, creating enthusiasm in young talented students and researchers to the Institute went very dents at the University for entering the gradu- well. When I took up the position at the begin- ate program, and possibly also investing in a ning of 1971, there were already a couple of career as a researcher, is an important task for graduate students at the Institute. Moreover, professors at a research institute. four of my graduate students at the Stockholm The first problem that I encountered was School of Economics joined me at the Institute funding the activities at the Institute. The gov- at their own request and, after some time, sev- ernment funding was very small at that time, eral other graduate students also arrived from about SEK 150,000 annually. Gunnar Myrdal the Stockholm School of Economics. But I had also created a Foundation for the Support mainly recruited students with an undergradu- of the Institute for International Economic ate degree from the Department of Economics Studies. It was partly based on returns from at Stockholm University. I usually encountered Myrdal’s book royalties. Other sources for the young talents in my teaching at different levels, foundation were donations from Svenska Han- but several students simply turned up sponta- delsbanken, thanks to Myrdal’s friendship with neously at the Institutes’ weekly seminars, since the chairman of the board at Handelsbanken, it was rumoured that there were interesting Tore Browaldh, and the Swedish Cooperative seminars at the Institute. The recruitment of Wholesale Society (KF), thanks to his friend- young talents into research in economics might ship with Mauritz Bonow who, among other also have been facilitated by the fact that the things, was secretary of the KF board. But when interest in economic and social issues was par- I took up my position, the remaining assets in ticularly large among university students in the the Foundation only amounted to SEK 20,000. 1970s, as a result of the political radicalization The Foundation did, however, later become an among students at the end of the 1960s. It was important means of channelling funds to the not difficult to convince foreign researchers to activities at the Institute. visit the Institute. Over the years, we have had In the 1970s and 1980s, the internal funds about 150 foreign visiting researchers at the In- of the Institute – principally the government stitute who have stayed for at least a month. grant – were mainly used to fund three secre- In my experience, there is a potential interest taries; this was before the era of the PC. But the among talented Swedish students to do re- funds were also, to a certain extent, used to fund search, and it is the professors’ responsibility to a couple of senior foreign visiting researchers awaken and encourage this interest. In particu- every year, who in several cases stayed for an 364 Institute for International Economic Studies

entire academic year. Several of these research- ous sources, mainly different research founda- ers contributed greatly to the Institute as super- tions. This fund raising was mainly organized visors of our graduate students. Important ex- by the director of the Nobel Foundation, Stig amples during my first years were professors Ramel, who was chairman of the IIES Founda- Bill Branson from Princeton University and tion for many years. Ron Jones from the University of Rochester. Gunnar Myrdal used to joke about the fact Swedish graduate students and recent PhDs that I had chosen what he called “building- were funded by grants from various research contractor’s funding” in the style of the 1920s. foundations, in particular those administered He referred to the fact that we financed more by Erik Dahmén on the basis of donations than 75% of the activities with various kinds from the Wallenberg group. These were The of external funding. By focusing hard on young Swedish Bank Research Foundation, Finans- promising researchers, I thought that we would politiska forskningsinstitutet and Stora Kop- eventually become good enough to obtain a parbergs fond – what I called “Dahmén’s pock- more stable financial basis for our activities. ets”. In that way, we could simultaneously This actually turned out to be true. In particu- finance about a dozen young Swedish graduate lar, after several years, we succeeded in increas- students and PhDs. ing the government grant. At that point in Having produced a group of talented young time, the Institute was an independent govern- researchers at the Institute, we started to apply ment agency with its own board, which meant for large research grants from various types of that we received our government grant directly research foundations, in particular Riks- from the government, while being part of the bankens Jubileumsfond (The Tercentenary Foun- university in other respects. It was thus import- dation of the Swedish Central Bank). For many ant to inform the Ministry of Education and years, this fund was very generous to the Insti- the Ministry of Finance about our work. tute. We switched to large ‘umbrella projects’ Among other things, Ingvar Carlsson, the min- – research themes involving a group of re- ister of education at that time, paid us a visit searchers. We also invited the directors of Riks- and was informed about the activities at the bankens Jubileumsfond, Nils-Eric Svensson Institute. Moreover, Michael Sohlman, head of and later Östen Johansson, to visit us to brief the budget section at the Ministry of Finance, them about our future project plans. Another showed great understanding for our activities way to financial consolidation was to replenish in research and graduate education. Through the IIES Foundation through grants from vari- these contacts, we succeeded in clarifying to Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 365

Several paths to choose from, in corridors as well as in research. (Photo: Mats Danielson) the funding authorities that there now existed a Wikström thought that I needed larger housing group of researchers at the Institute worth fi- myself. So I clarified that the Institute would nancing. Many years later, when Sohlman had need the entire floor at the University, where we succeeded Ramel as director of the Nobel had about ten offices at our disposal at that Foundation, he also accepted to succeed Ramel time. Shortly thereafter, we actually did get an as the chairman of the IIES Foundation. offer from the University to have the entire floor We obtained additional resources when, in at our disposal. I do not know exactly how this 1978, the Minister of Education Jan-Erik Wik- happened. I had previously expressed similar ström discovered – I do not know how – that I desires to the university administration to no had been offered the position as chief economist avail. The increased, and in particular more sta- of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) when ble, resources made it possible to gradually in- Jacques Pollak retired. Wikström called me one troduce permanent professorships from 1984 day and asked what would make me stay in and onwards – the first being for Lars E.O. Sweden. I answered more money to the Institute Svensson, who subsequently moved to Prince- and more space. Apparently, I was unclear, since ton in 2001 after many years at the Institute. 366 Institute for International Economic Studies

In the mid-1990s, we could fund a group of sum grants from the University, the govern- researchers amounting to 15–20 people: five ment and a few private foundations. But the professors, a few researchers at the docent lev- growing importance of external funding has el, a number of recent PhDs, a varying number once more increased the need for a consolida- of graduate students and a couple of foreign tion of the financial basis of the Institute – al- visiting researchers. Thus, we had reached a though at a larger volume of research than pre- critical mass in the sense that each researcher viously. Indeed, a personal chair funded by a had access to other researchers at the Institute donation from the Savings Banks’ Foundation who were interested in the same area of re- a few years ago made it possible to recruit Per search. It was thanks to a combination of in- Krusell to return to Sweden from Princeton, as creased financial resources, a good supply of a first step in this consolidation. graduate students and the presence of promi- In order to get as much time for research nent foreign visiting researchers that we suc- and teaching as possible, I did, just like Myrdal ceeded in raising the quality of the research to had formerly done, delegate almost all admin- an international level. istration to an administrative assistant – who Thus, the Institute did not reach its success later received the title of ‘deputy director’ and by initially having large financial assets. It was in turn mainly delegated daily administrative rather by building up competence on a basis of tasks to a pure administrator. I was fortunate mainly external funding that we could eventu- enough to cooperate with several efficient dep- ally convince the government authorities and uty directors. Sven Grassman was first in line large private research foundations that we de- and remained in this position until 1979, when served more stable funding. In the last two de- he was first succeeded by Hans T:son Söder- cades, Handelsbanken’s Research Foundations ström, then Carl B. Hamilton and later Lars and agencies, such as the Swedish Research Calmfors. Over the years, we have also succeed- Council and more recently the European Re- ed in recruiting and keeping a very competent search Council, have played an important part and efficient administrative staff. in funding specific research projects. The grants Since the Institute for International Eco- from Handelsbanken have, in fact, been quite nomic Studies not only pursues research but is crucial for the possibilities to fund graduate also involved in the graduate program at the students at the Institute. University, the question naturally emerges of In connection with the 50th anniversary of how graduate supervision should be carried the Institute, we also received several lump- out. I myself have never spent much time on the Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 367

individual supervision of graduate students. In- plain why my younger colleagues have chosen stead I have invested time in collective supervi- to spend much time on the individual supervision – by teaching graduate courses, discussing sion of graduate students in addition to the drafts for theses at seminars and, not least, graduate courses they regularly teach. Howev- through informal discussions over lunch and er, today there might be a trend back towards afternoon coffee. One way of justifying this more collective graduate supervision, but now kind of supervision is that students do then not as a supplement to individual supervision. In become dependent on views and suggestions particular, this takes place in the form of lunch from one single person. Supervision takes place seminars (‘brown-bag seminars’), where gradu- in the form of free discussion. This means that ate students at the Institute discuss drafts for the author can decide what views to take into their theses in the presence of one or several consideration. A less flattering interpretation senior researchers. of my predilection for collective rather than individual supervision is that it gave me more New directors of the Institute time for research and other activities. However, When I retired and resigned from the director- I still think that my kind of collective supervi- ship in 1995, Lars Calmfors (1995–98) was the sion contributed to creating independent re- first to take over. Then came Torsten Persson searchers with their own driving forces. Very few (1998–2009) and Harry Flam (2010–14) – all of the admitted graduate students failed to three were already professors at the Institute. complete their dissertations. I am sceptical re- There have been winds of change at the Insti- garding the idea of squeezing through less tal- tute since I retired – both as concerns organi ented graduate students to licentiate or doctor- zation and research orientation. It has become al degrees using very extensive supervisory increasingly common that people with a PhD efforts. from the Institute have obtained positions at There is, however, likely to have been an in- foreign universities or research institutes – an crease in the need for individual supervision in expression of the internationalization of the recent years in connection with the large in- market for researchers. It is too early to say how crease in the number of admitted graduate stu- many of these will later return to Sweden. Since dents. Graduate students might also be a more 1995, new PhDs have usually been hired by the heterogeneous group today than previously. Institute for a limited period of time, with an This means that collective supervision might be individual evaluation for continued employ- less suitable than it was before. This might ex- ment after six years – a system corresponding to 368 Institute for International Economic Studies

Combined seminar and coffee room at IIES. Seminar held by Torsten Persson. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

what is called tenure track at US universities. An connection with the Annual Meeting of the important change in later years is that the struc- American Economic Association. ture of the younger research staff has shifted Currently, the Institute has a reasonable from Swedish to foreign graduate students and number of professors, or more exactly nine. PhDs – yet another expression of the interna- About 15 junior researchers with a recent PhD tionalization of the market for researchers. In also work at the Institute. Moreover, some inter- fact, since the mid-1990s, the recruitment of ju- nationally prominent senior researchers at for- nior researchers has mainly taken place by ad- eign universities are currently affiliated with vertising positions on the international market the Institute; they return as visiting professors and interviewing some of the applicants (several on a regular basis. hundred people from different countries) on the While it is a strength for a research institute international market for young economists in to belong to a prominent university, the inde- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 369

pendent position in relation to the University my, in particular our globalization project has been favourable for the Institute. We have funded by Riksbankens Jubileumsfond. Harry not been subjected to short-term competition Flam and Henrik Horn, among others, have with teaching institutions about scarce resourc- made important contributions in this particu- es – a competition that is usually won by the lar area. But researchers at the Institute did teaching side. Moreover, we have been able to also devote themselves to other questions in act swiftly ourselves when it comes to both this period, for example the economic conse- funding and recruitment, without cumbersome quences of taxation and social insurance by in bureaucracy. particular Mats Persson. Several researchers at the Institute have also, with Lars E.O. Svens- Shifts in the areas of research son as the primus motor, made important con- The research content at the Institute has tributions in the field of monetary economics changed over the years. The shifts have largely and monetary policy. occurred due to spontaneous decisions by indi- From the mid 1990’s, the emphasis of the re- vidual researchers. But in some cases, the shifts search at the Institute has increasingly shifted have been due to new umbrella projects that a towards the area of political economics – largely group of researchers have agreed on, in partic- as the result of Torsten Persson’s research contri- ular in connection with larger research grants butions in this area. This is also an area where I from research foundations. In the 1970s, we have been highly active. This research, on the largely dealt with questions about the function- borderline with political science, has also dealt ing of economic policy in increasingly open with the role of media for political decision-mak- economies with free foreign trade and capital ing, in particular through work by Jakob Svens- movements. In particular, we emphasized the son and David Strömberg at the Institute. functioning of the labour market, in particular In contrast to the period when Gunnar the importance of wage formation, for infla- Myrdal was director, there was not much tion, unemployment and international compet- research on developing countries during my pe- itiveness – an area where Lars Calmfors has riod as director. But such research has expanded been particularly involved. In fact, it was re- in recent years – in particular through research search in this area at the Institute which first carried out by Jakob Svensson and junior col- attracted international attention. In the 1980’s, leagues. The Institute has thus, in later years, to the research was shifted towards international a certain extent returned to its orientation at the trade and more generally international econo- time of Myrdal. This new trend might provide 370 Institute for International Economic Studies

some consolation to Myrdal now that he is in tire life seldom come up with original and inter- heaven, which he, of course, did not believe in. esting contributions. At the end of the first decade of the twenty- first century, John Hassler and Per Krusell initi- The third task ated new research projects in macroeconomic So far, I have talked about the two main tasks of analysis through a macroeconomic seminar the Institute: research and the graduate pro- that they run together with a group of graduate gram. But, like other academic institutions, we students and young PhDs at the Institute and have a so-called third task, i.e. to inform society the Department of Economics at Stockholm about what we have learned and to participate University. Moreover, John Hassler, Per Krusell in the public debate. Thus, it is important that and Torsten Persson have started a large inter- there are ‘economists on two feet’ – economists disciplinary project on the economic conse- with one foot at the international research fron- quences of climate change and climate policy. tier and the other in the open policy discussion. A criticism to which the Institute was some- A large number of researchers at the Institute times subjected in the 1970s and 1980s – as far have undertaken this task over the years. as I understand from Gunnar Myrdal – was that In order to increase the quality of the its research was uniformly theoretically orient- domestic economic debate, the Institute also ed. The vice-chancellor of the Stockholm School initiated a new journal in Swedish, ‘Ekonomisk of Economics at that time, Staffan Burenstam Debatt’, at the beginning of the 1970s, with fi- Linder, did once give our research the epithet nancial support from the Savings Banks. The “space science”. But my general philosophy has first issue was published in 1973 – and it has been that it is important that young researchers continued to publish eight issues a year since develop a strong theoretical and methodological then. Nils Lundgren, who was at that time a foundation for their future research. My hypo researcher at the Institute, became its first edi- thesis has been that many of them will eventual- tor and I have been the legally responsible pub- ly and spontaneously find their way to applica- lisher since the start – a job which I have con- tions and empirics, and this has actually usually sidered to be an entirely legal responsibility, been the case. More generally, in my experience, without any right or obligation to interfere the best applied research is usually conducted by with the work of the editors. researchers who have started their careers as Over the years, new sponsors of the journal theorists, while those who have only done high- have supplemented the Savings Bank Organi- ly specialized empirical research during their en- zation, which has supported the journal from Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 371

Top row: Per Krusell, Torsten Persson, David Strömberg, John Hassler and Jakob Svensson. Bottom row: Mats Persson, Lars Calmfors, Assar Lindbeck and Harry Flam. (Photo: Hanna Weitz) the very beginning. Highly skilled researchers Yet another aspect of the third task is to par- at Swedish universities have gladly taken turns ticipate in advising public authorities on eco- as editors, members of the editorial committee nomic-policy issues. Several members of staff of the journal and its editorial council. In fact, it at the Institute have, besides their research, has been an old tradition among Swedish aca- been active in this area over the years. Torsten demic economists to participate actively in the Persson was chairman of the Economic Coun- economic and political debate – since the days of cil of the Ministry of Finance 1990–92, and Knut Wicksell, Gustaf Cassel and Eli Heckscher Lars Calmfors held the same position in the in the first decades of the twentieth century. period 1993–2001. Persson was also a member 372 Institute for International Economic Studies

Corridor decoration by one of IIES’s researchers. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

of the government appointed Ekonomikom- advisors at the analytical department of the missionen (‘Lindbeckkommissionen’), which Ministry of Finance. Harry Flam has headed a presented its report in March 1993. Calmfors government commission on the financial inde has been the chairman of the EMU-commis- pendence of the Riksbank and has been a sion and the Fiscal Policy Council, and he has member of the EMU commission. Mats Pers- played an important role in the Swedish eco- son has been a board member of The Swedish nomic policy debate. Torsten Persson and Lars National Debt Office (Riksgäldskontoret), Förs- E.O. Svensson served as advisors to the Bank ta AP-fonden and so on. Colleagues at the In- of Sweden during a large part of the 1990s, stitute have also participated in a large num- and Hassler and Krusell are currently official ber of government committees, SNS reports Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 373

and international expert groups. An example (iii) It is also important to have prominent of international expert groups where research- foreign visiting researchers at a research insti- ers at the Institute have participated is EEAG tute – in order to import competence and raise (European Economic Advisory Group) – a the level of ambition at the Institute. group consisting of about half a dozen econo- (iv) Each researcher should develop his/her mists from different European countries that own international network. has published one report a year since 2002 on (v) It is important that research is concen- forecasts and problems in the European econ- trated to a limited number of areas. omy. Calmfors, and later Hassler, have been (vi) Successful research requires a critical Swedish representatives in this group. mass in one or a few areas. (vii) At a research institute, it is important Lessons from the Institute to achieve an interaction between theoretical During my last years as director of the Insti- and methodological work on the one hand tute, I tried to summarize my experience of and applied research on the other. heading a research institute in the social scienc- (viii) Employment decisions and the fund- es in bullet form. These ‘bullet points’, which ing of Institute activities are the most import- can still be read in extenso on my web page, ant tasks for the director of a research insti- can be summarized as follows: tute. Other questions can be largely delegated by the director to other people. (i) A research institute should strive to reach (ix) It is a great advantage for a research the international research frontier and contrib- institute to be part of a prominent university. ute to gradually shifting this frontier. This is (x) It is also a great advantage if at least some the best way of avoiding mediocre or even bad of the members of a research institute in the so- research. Bad research is worse than no re- cial sciences produce articles and books, not search at all. only for the international research society, but (ii) In order to fulfil this ambition, research also for laypeople who are interested in eco- should be published at the international level, nomic and social issues. This is important both normally in internationally respected journals. for the researchers themselves, who can thus de- To guarantee that Institute activities are subject velop their common sense, and for the possibili- to international scrutiny, it is also important ties of an institute receiving research grants. the Institute abstains from its own printed pub- I do not claim that every department/insti- lications. tute in the social sciences should follow these 374 Institute for International Economic Studies

exact principles, but I think that they have centre of economics research in Sweden is un- worked well for the Institute for International doubtedly the IIES. This Institute’s permanent Economic Studies. In particular, I refer to the staff has a better record of publications in ma- fact that the Institute has actually succeeded in jor international journals than the rest of the making a number of talented young people en- Swedish profession combined.” thusiastic about getting a good graduate educa- The situation does not seem to have changed tion in economics. While many of them have to any great extent since then. Thanks largely made a research career in Sweden, others have to new generations of researchers at the Insti- made important contributions outside the area tute, almost half – that is 31 of the 65 – articles of academic research, in several cases as chief that were published in the period 2002–13 in economists at public and private institutions. five or six leading (general) economic journals Hopefully, Swedish taxpayers and private do- by Swedish economists have been authored or nors have recorded a decent social return to the co-authored by researchers at the IIES (Björk- money that they have invested in the Institute. lund 2014:4). It should, of course, be remem- It is a delicate task for a former director of a bered that important research is also published research institute to evaluate its achievements. in other journals, in particular leading field When it comes to citations in scientific jour- journals. Statistics that only build on papers nals, researchers at the Institute have always from five or six leading general journals might been at a high level. Among the five most cited thus be misleading. Swedish economists, four have usually been There are also other indications of re- employed at the Institute. A study for The searchers at the Institute having been success- Swedish National Agency for Higher Educa- ful. The Söderberg Prize in Economics, which tion, by Swedish social scientist Li Ben- is awarded every fourth year by the Royal nich-Björkman (1997), uses the activities at the Academy of Sciences at the suggestion of a Institute as an example of a research institute committee with a majority of foreign econo- at the highest level – even if the name of our mists, has six times out of eight been awarded Institute was (barely) disguised in the published to researchers at the Institute. One of the re- report. In an evaluation of economic research maining two has previously been employed at in Sweden in the 1970s and 1980s by three in- the Institute. Six out of the nine current profes- ternationally prominent foreign researchers sors at the Institute are members of the Royal (Dixit et al. 1992:174), the authors drew the Academy of Sciences. Over the years, research- conclusion that: “The most successful single ers at the Institute have also held leading posi- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 375

tions in international economic organizations, New York: Harper and Brothers publishers. have often been invited to give plenary lectures Myrdal, Gunnar 1968. Asian Drama: An In- at international economic conferences, and so quiry into the Poverty of Nations. Allen on. Based on these quality indicators, the Insti- Lane, the Penguin Press. tute has, despite its size, belonged to the Myrdal, Gunnar and Alva Myrdal 1934. Kris i half-dozen most prominent economics institu- befolkningsfrågan (‘Crisis in the Population tions in Europe. Issue’) Stockholm: Albert Bonniers förlag.

 •  This chapter is a translated and edited version of (Lindbeck 2012).

Bennich-Björkman, Li 1997. Organising Inno- vative Research: The Inner Life of University Departments. Issues in Higher Education. Stockholm: Högskoleverket (The Swedish National Agency for Higher Education). Björklund, Anders 2014. Nationalekonomisk toppforskning i Sverige – omfattning, loka- lisering och inriktning, Ekonomisk Debatt 42:5. Dixit, Avinash, Seppo Honkapohja and Robert Solow 1992. In Lars Engwall (ed.) 1992. Eco- nomics in Sweden, an Evaluation of Swedish Research in Economics. London: Routledge. Lindbeck, Assar 2012. Ekonomi är att välja, Albert Bonniers förlag, chapter 9, pp. 175–196. Myrdal, Gunnar 1927. Prisbildningsproblemet och föränderligheten, PhD Thesis, Stock- holm University College. Myrdal, Gunnar 1944. An American Dilemma: The Negro Problem and Modern Demo cracy. Staircase at Sveaplans gymnasium where SoRAD has its premises. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 377

Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs Jenny Cisneros Örnberg, Börje Olsson and Robin Room

Sweden has a long history of active alcohol be an odd and remarkable policy feature. policy actions, and the alcohol question has of- Along with the temperance movement’s criti- ten been on top of the political agenda. Already cism of the fact that the rationing system had in the 1800s, a strong and influential temper- legalized alcohol consumption, this contribut- ance movement was formed. The first half of the ed to the abolition of the rationing system 20th century was first and foremost character- (Bruun & Frånberg 1985). ized by the so-called Bratt system. This was a In order to combat alcohol problems, it be- cohesive system of alcohol policy, devised by the came necessary to find other measures.Alcohol physician Ivan Bratt with the aim of reducing prices rose relatively sharply through regular alcohol consumption and harms. In many re- increases in alcohol taxes. Information about spects, the approach to alcohol during this time the harmful effects of alcohol was another pol- rested on a clear moral basis. The Bratt system icy measure that was initially thought to be ef- can be viewed as an alternative to alcohol prohi- fective. During the 1960s, alcohol research bition, which at that time had been introduced started to play a major role in alcohol policy. in many other countries. Thus, when the Swed- Several researchers were involved, for example, ish people considered a total ban on alcohol in in the alcohol policy committee that published an advisory referendum in 1922, with the Bratt its reports in 1974. One important conclusion system already in place, the idea of a prohibition in its final report was that a successful alcohol was dismissed, although only by a small majority. policy must be based on a constantly updated After the end of World War II, there was a knowledge base of a high scientific standard. rapid modernization of Swedish society, which The committee stated that the long-term task made alcohol rationing (the ration book) seem to of alcohol research is to obtain results that 378 Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs

be specific to Sweden, and it was therefore very important to strengthen Swedish social alcohol research (ibid.). Even so, no comprehensive measures were taken to strengthen social alcohol research. Some specific but fragmented reinforcements were made, including a new chair as professor of sociological alcohol research at Stockholm University’s Department of Sociolo- gy with the Finnish alcohol researcher Kettil Bruun as first holder. 20 years later it was once again time for a governmental alcohol policy committee to consider the role of alcohol research (SOU 1994:24). The main reason to re-examine alcohol research at that time was the impending entry into the EU. The alcohol policy model that had been designed during the 1970s and 1980s rested largely on social science and on epidemiological research that led to the formu- Payment day. Classic political poster supporting lation of the so-called “total consumption a YES! in the Swedish alcohol prohibition model,” which argued that, in the absence of referendum in 1922. (from Wikipedia) measures like the individual ration-book, heavy drinking would only be controlled by show how alcohol problems can be reduced keeping down the volume of drinking in the (SOU 1974:93). Furthermore, already 40 years whole population. This in turn motivated a ago the committee noted that alcohol research universal and generally restrictive preventive was dominated by the medical disciplines. The alcohol policy, mainly based on limiting avail- medical knowledge base was considered to be ability through state monopolies, high prices, relatively good. It was further concluded that and disallowing any private profit motive (the medical alcohol research conducted inter ‘disinterest principle’). The impending EU ac- nationally was also applicable in Sweden. In cession worried Swedish politicians, not least contrast, social conditions were often judged to because several key parts of the alcohol policy Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 379

that rested on the total consumption model were threatened. Alcohol research was highlighted as an important instrument, both to show that the Swedish restrictive alcohol policy was effective, but also in order to find what were called compensatory alcohol policy measures. It was envisioned that some important elements of the Swedish alcohol policy model could not be defended in the context of the EU single market (such as the monopolies of production, export, import and wholesale), and that it was therefore necessary to formulate new measures compatible with EU requirements. The future of alcohol research was considered so important that, in addition to the alcohol policy committee, a special alcohol research investigation was conducted and its proposal submitted in 1995, the same year that Sweden joined the European Union (Alkoholforsk “Crayfish demand such beverages!” Poster ningsutredningen 1995). On the basis of the supporting a forceful NO! in the 1922 referendum. investigation’s proposals, The Centre for Social (Albert Engström, from Wikipedia) Research on Alcohol and Drugs (SoRAD) was formally established in 1997 as an interdisci- had conducted a substantial amount of social plinary research centre within the Faculty of So research on alcohol, but it was decentralized cial Sciences at Stockholm University. SoRAD and sporadic with no career possibilities and became active in the spring of 1999, when pro- increasingly in the shadow of biomedical re- fessor Robin Room took up his position as its search. The 1995 report pointed out the need first director. to strengthen and coordinate efforts in social The Centre was thus set up following the research related to alcohol with a national in- recommendation of the alcohol research stitute for social research, similar to those in investigation. Already prior to this, Sweden Norway and Finland. The establishment of 380 Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs

SoRAD as a national centre not only marked duct social science research on alcohol and illicit the political administration’s emphasis on sci- drugs, including improving methods, increasing entific, evidence-based policies, but demon- theoretical understanding and enhancing links to strated simultaneously the view that credible policy; to provide a nexus for interdisciplinary research is best performed by independent sci- research training, research networks and collabo- entific bodies. The different committees and rative studies in Sweden; and to serve as an inter- investigations did not consider research on il- disciplinary focal point in Sweden for collabora- licit drugs; however, when SoRAD was estab- tion on comparative and international projects. lished they were included as a part of its tasks. While SoRAD’s initial emphasis was on al- Apart from Robin Room, the first staff of cohol, reflecting the political background of its SoRAD emanated from the Department of So- founding in the wake of the Alcohol Research ciology, with Professor Eckart Kühlhorn, and Investigation and the fact that alcohol is a from the Department of Criminology, with Dr much bigger question, drugs have periodically Börje Olsson, later a professor, and after taken a substantial share of research interests. Room’s retirement, SoRAD’s director. The De- The ups and downs have not only been caused partment was able to benefit from the large by the interest of the researchers; in 2002, the networks of these three people in the recruit- Swedish Government set up its own drug coor- ment of researchers. SoRAD started out with dinator office, and with this also came funding only two professors, two researchers, two re- for drug-related research projects. The office search assistants and two visiting researchers, was dissolved in 2008. From 2001 to 2005, the but it soon grew. In 2005, there were four full- Centre also carried out studies on gambling, time professors (Kühlhorn, Olsson, Room and starting with an evaluation of the first Swedish Romelsjö), one part-time visiting professor state-owned casinos. From the beginning, the (Segraeus), eight researchers and 20 research Centre was engaged in both qualitative and assistants, of whom nine were PhD students. quantitative research that focused upon diverse During these first years, SoRAD built up its ca- topics, such as, ‘Alcohol and drug use in youth pacities and gained a reputation in Sweden as a cultures and subcultures,’ ‘Adult population national research centre. It became involved in use patterns and trends,’ ‘The social response several comparative projects and established to alcohol and drug problems,’ ‘Prevention and international collaborations. policy impact research’ and ‘Gambling prob- The aims of the Centre, as formulated during lem studies.’ Several of these projects were in- the very first years, were: to stimulate and con- ternational and comparative. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 381

Financially, SoRAD initially had two main the Ministry started to fund the project. This pillars of funding support. The Swedish Coun- funding provided a platform for SoRAD, both cil for Working Life and Social Research (FAS) in terms of funding and data, proving fruitful gave core funding to last for 8 years, but did in stimulating additional research projects. not play a major role in the development of the Nevertheless, it also absorbed resources with research programme. Secondly, the Ministry of expectations from the funding agency for regu- Social Affairs and Health funded several long- lar delivery of reports. In 2012, however, the term projects covering: alcohol and drug use monitoring project was redefined as not being patterns; perceptions of drinking and intoxica- a research project. It was moved outside of the tion and prevention of problems among youth university and the responsibility transferred to and young adults; surveys on drinking and CAN (Centralförbundet för alkohol- och nar drinking problems in the general population; kotikaupplysning). and a study of the social ecology of the treat- In 2006, Robin Room left the post as head ment system as a whole. This was accomplished of the Centre, due to his approaching retire- by examining who came to treatment under ment age, and was replaced by Professor Börje what circumstances, in addition to treatment Olsson. The change of directors coincided in outcomes and their determinants, in a large time with the gradual withdrawal of FAS’s core sample of clients from both health and social funding. Additionally, the projects funded by treatment services. The initial projects were put the Ministry, apart from the monitoring proj- forward by SoRAD at the invitation of the ect, had come to an end, with the Ministry of Ministry, identified by the senior researchers as Education insisting that it should be responsi- core issues for a national centre. The only de- ble for all government funding in a university mand from the ministry was to integrate a gen- environment. The role of the Swedish National der aspect into the treatment system study. Public Health Institute was redefined slightly to Thirdly, the Swedish National Institute of Pub- include less research funding, and university lic Health gave support for project planning, funding in the country was undergoing chang- guest researchers and research conferences. es. The first financially secure years were fol- In 2000, SoRAD also took on a major mon- lowed by the less-predictable situation of a re- itoring function, the ‘Alcohol purchase and search unit substantially dependent on consumption monitoring project.’ There was competitive short-term grants. SoRAD experi- an active internal discussion in SoRAD of the enced what threatened to become a vicious cir- pros and cons of taking on such a task before cle: a shrinking core budget, the disappearance 382 Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs

The building is decorated with various works of art in line with its functionalist origin. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

of some senior researchers for economic or also involved Robin Room, who maintained career reasons, fresh PhD students having to his contacts in the position of guest professor, look for other jobs, fewer senior researchers to and the two new professors, Jukka Törrönen apply for new funding, and thus less funding and Jan Blomqvist, who replaced Kühlhorn and fewer staff. and Room. Since the beginning of 2008, the Centre has been funded through two main Current frame and programme of sources. An annual core grant, renewable on a work – 2006–2014 regular basis, is paid through the budget of the After a couple of difficult years, the economic Faculty of Social Sciences at the University, situation substantially improved again. Hard amounting to approximately 25% of the Cen- work with applications was rewarded. This tre’s budget. The remaining 75% is covered by Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 383

external grants, mainly from national research found at SoRAD is a key strength. The Centre councils, but also from the EU’s research pro- cooperates with departments within Stock- grammes and national authorities. Internation- holm University and elsewhere in Sweden. al funding has played and still plays some role: SoRAD has encouraged scientific exchange. for instance, the National Institute on Alcohol Over the years, several of SoRAD’s own re- Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) has provided searchers have spent time at foreign research funding for a study on the effects of alcohol institutions, and many national and interna- taxes and for research on alcohol-related mor- tional researchers have spent shorter or longer tality. A crucial element in the new era was the periods as visiting researchers at SoRAD. Co- receipt of a 10-year Centre of Excellence grant operation around problem-oriented research and the research programme attached to it, ‘Ex- is also established with several public organi- clusion and inclusion in the late welfare state: zations, such as the above-mentioned Swedish the case of alcohol and drugs’, which provided National Institute of Public Health, the Board the resources to consolidate and develop the re- of Health and Social Welfare and the National search even further. The Centre of Excellence Board of Institutional Care. Internationally, grant has been funded by FAS (now Forte). SoRAD is active in several ongoing projects. In mid-2012, Börje Olsson was succeeded SoRAD’s research has been organized under by Jenny Cisneros Örnberg as director. After a three thematic umbrellas, all relevant from a period of down-sizing, staff numbers have been general perspective on alcohol and drugs as in- growing again and consist of three regular pro- struments and markers of marginalization and fessors (Olsson, Blomqvist and Törrönen), two normalization: (i) consumption, problems and part-time visiting professors (Robin Room and norms; (ii) alcohol and drug policy and its im- Kerstin Stenius), nine senior researchers, eight plications; and (iii) addiction and dependence PhD students, four research assistants and one —societal reactions, treatment and recovery administrator. After Blomqvist’s retirement, processes. The themes are built up by a range Tomas Hemmingsson has been hired as profes- of integrated subprojects, which in several cas- sor of sociological alcohol and drug research. es concern more than one theme. The first SoRAD’s basic research follows the broad theme, with its classical epidemiological focus, mission statement of the first years. There- uses mainly internationally established public searchers represent sociology, psychology, so- health measures and reasoning to study the cial work, criminology, economics, political links between population consumption and science and history; the multi-disciplinarity harms. The second theme reflects the fact that 384 Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs

SoRAD has an arms-length relation to the pol- specific effects particular alcohol and drug policy process; rather than developing or model- icies have. Another important aspect is how ling implementation of policy measures, it women’s and men’s alcohol and drug use is de- analyses policy and looks at policy measures fined, regulated and targeted in all of these re- from a post-facto perspective. The third theme search areas. Ongoing studies focus both upon has predominantly taken the perspective of the the discursive level and upon performance in individual citizens or vulnerable groups who alcohol and drug policies. On the discursive are the targets of societal measures. level, tensions between public health and Research conducted within theme (i) studies free-market policies in international, national levels and patterns of alcohol and drug use and and local alcohol policies are studied; the gov- their association with various related prob- erning images of alcohol, drugs, tobacco and lems. Topics included are, for example, meth- gambling in the media are investigated; the odological analyses of various measures of framing of alcohol policy programmes targeted drinking and harms, analyses of the links be- to pregnant women is studied; and media dis- tween alcohol-related problems and changes in course on (illegal) alcohol and drugs is analysed. consumption level and drinking patterns, and Theme (iii) focuses on: an analysis of the so- qualitative studies of the role of alcohol and cietal definitions of, and reactions to, problem- drugs in people’s lives. Another important area is atic substance use, and how these have changed population-level time–series analyses of the as- with changing societal conditions; historical sociation between per capita consumption and and social–ecological studies of the help-sys- alcohol-related harm in different countries and tem, with a special focus on processes of mar- drinking cultures. ginalization and integration; and studies of as- Under theme (ii), SoRAD studies the mar- sisted and unassisted recovery processes from ginalization and normalization processes of the addiction problems, and of individual and con- late welfare state from three perspectives: (a) textual prerequisites for such processes. A how substance use is perceived and defined in strong ambition is to apply a comparative per- the policy field, in the media and among the spective and combine quantitative and qualita- general population; (b) what kinds of sys- tive methods. In the long term, the aim is to: tem-level implications (including side effects, develop models for the analysis of addiction stigmatizing features) alcohol and drug poli- and recovery and of the helping system and its cies, programmes and institutions have had functions; to contribute to debate about, and and have; and (c) what kinds of concrete and the development of, working societal interven- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 385

tions; and to throw light upon basic processes, role of the third sector in the Swedish welfare for instance of inclusion and exclusion, in late system. More recent examples of seminars are: modern society. Professor Geoffrey Hunt from Aarhus Univer- sity and the Institute for Scientific Analysis, San A SoRAD culture Francisco, talking on “Conceptualizing Ethnic- SoRAD has developed a specific working cul- ity in Alcohol and Drug Research” as well as ture during the 15 years of its existence. A key Professors Suzanne Frazer and David Moore feature is the ambition to promote a cross- from the National Drug Research Institute, disciplinary approach to social alcohol and Curtin University, Australia presenting their drug research, including a strong ambition to thoughts on “Remaking addiction”. mix methodological approaches. Although the SoRAD also has a tradition of stimulating research is organized into different themes, pri- attendance at national or international scientif- ority is given to cooperation across themes; ic meetings and collaborative projects. Since thus, bringing researchers with different per- 2005, SoRAD has arranged a yearly national spectives and methods together is regarded as research meeting within a network called the important. Swedish Social Science Network for Alcohol Several means are used to support cross- and Drug Research (SONAD). SONAD aims disciplinary work. It is possible to raise a wide at forging and strengthening relationships be- range of topics during SoRAD’s seminars, from tween social science researchers in the field general theoretical work to an open discussion from all over Sweden by arranging yearly two- on concrete research issues, e.g. how to pro- day conferences in different Swedish research ceed with a work in progress. In addition to the settings. The conferences include research pre- internal seminar series, there is also a tradition sentations and workshop meetings on various of inviting external researchers, often people topics, e.g. epidemiology, youth, policy, gender who are visiting SoRAD, to give seminars. and treatment. In a parallel initiative, SoRAD Contacts with researchers from outside the ad- was in 2012 granted funding by Forte (former- diction field are regarded as important for the ly FAS) to arrange network meetings for Swed- theoretical and methodological development of ish researchers within the gambling field. The the Centre. As one example, in spring 2009 a purpose with the Gambling Research Network seminar around inclusion and exclusion in the (GARN) is to develop a national base and Swedish society was arranged, with invited re- meeting place where both young and more ex- searchers on welfare state economics and the perienced researchers within the gambling field 386 Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs

can meet. The network organizes two meetings With the establishment of SoRAD, the a year. bio-medicalization of Swedish alcohol research The SoRAD staff is also represented in the was at least temporarily balanced (Midanik yearly research meetings arranged by the Swed- 2006); but the challenge remains for SoRAD, ish Association for alcohol and drug research as for other social science and humanities (SAD), as well as in most meetings for Nordic institutes and departments, to compete effec- researchers arranged by the Nordic Welfare tively in the increased competition for research Centre (formerly the Nordic Council for Alco- funding with basic and biomedical research. hol and Drug Research [NAD]). Many SoRAD The prevailing research policy proposes a sys- researchers attend the annual meetings of the tem where university grants will be dependent Kettil Bruun Society for Social and Epidemio- upon external funding and upon publication in logical Research on Alcohol (KBS), the most journals with high impact factors, which alco- important international scientific meeting in hol and drug research journals generally do not the area of social alcohol research. have. For a research field which lies within ap- Swedish social research in the alcohol and plied social science, and which has a role as a drugs field has its roots in the Nordic critical tra- national research centre, this is a considerable ditions established in the 1950s and 1960s by threat – even in a country where concern over sociologists, criminologists, statisticians and psy- alcohol and drug problems is high. chologists. The multi-disciplinary approach was  •  supplemented with comparisons, first within the Nordic countries, and later more broadly. The This chapter on SoRAD builds i.a. on (Stenius et work conducted at SoRAD has no clear political al. 2010). or bureaucratic constraints and is best described as led by science and scholarship more than by Alkoholforskningsutredningen 1995. Forskning direct political usefulness. The intellectual inde- om alkohol för individ och samhälle [Re- pendence of research from government is empha- search on alcohol — individual and social sized and well-respected by decision-makers. perspectives]. Stockholm: Folkhälsoinstitu- SoRAD clearly has a different role from, for in- tet; 1995:49. stance, that of the Swedish National Institute of Blomqvist, Jan. 2007. Self-change from alcohol Public Health. As noted, the direct financial role and drug abuse: often-cited classics. In: of the government in funding the Centre has also Klingemann, Harald and Linda. Carter-So- decreased since the early years. bell. (eds.) Promoting Self-change from Ad- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 387

dictive Behaviors. New York: Springer, p. 31–57. Bruun, Kettil and Per Frånberg (eds.) 1985. Den svenska supen. Prisma, Stockholm. Midanik, Lorraine 2006. Biomedicalization of Alcohol Studies. Ideological Shifts and Institu- tional Challenges. New Brunswick: Transac- tion Publishers. Ramstedt, Mats 2007. Population drinking and liver cirrhosis mortality—is there a link in Eastern Europe? Addiction 2007:101, 330–8. Room, Robin 2007. National variations in the use of alcohol and drug research. Nordic Stud- ies on Alcohol & Drugs, 24: 634–40. Room, Robin, Thomas F. Babor and Jurgen Rehm 2005. Alcohol and public health. Lan- cet 365: 519–30. Stenius, Kerstin, Mats Ramstedt and Börje Ols- son 2010. Addiction research centres and the nurturing of creativity: Centre for Social Re- search on Alcohol and Drugs (SoRAD). Ad- diction 105: 402–407. Storbjörk, Jessica and Robin Room 2008. The two worlds of alcohol problems: who is in treatment and who is not? Addiction Research and Theory 16: 67–84. Törrönen Jukka and Antti Maunu 2007. Light transgressions and heavy sociability: alcohol in young adult Finns’ narratives of a night out. Addiction Research and Theory; 15: 365–81. The Score building in Kräftriket close to the Stockholm Business School. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 389

Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research Christina Garsten

In times of marketization, privatization, ‘the score’ that makes up academic life at the Europeanization, and globalization – whither research centre. the Swedish public sector? This question has occupied social scientists across disciplines for Zooming in on the public sector decades now, and continues to do so. The pub- The public sector, and its relation to the pri- lic sector is far from an ossified, stable unit of vate sector and transnational influences, has analysis — on the contrary, it offers rich oppor- been placed under the magnifying glass in tunities for discovery, bewilderment, and sur- Score’s research ever since 1992, when the prise. Moreover, it provides ample material for centre was first created. When the centre cele the empiricist to dive into, and is fertile ground brated its 20th anniversary in 2012, we could around which to organize research. look back on two decades of research con- In this chapter, I will first provide a brief cerning the transformation of the public sec- sketch of the beginnings of Score, and then tor. Score has now grown into an adult in the move on to reflect on the passion for ‘organiz- institutional landscape of the university, having’ that lies at the heart of the research activi- ing been shaped by scholars at Stockholm ties of the centre, but I will also provide some University and the Stockholm School of Eco- thoughts on the organization of the research nomics who have been engaged in the centre, centre itself. The continuous balancing act of ex- and having made its mark on the academic ploration and exploitation in research, and the community. evaluative ethos, will be discussed. Last but not Score’s mission is to conduct basic research least, I will dwell on the multidisciplinary com- on public sector management and change. The position of Score, which is the lead signature of public sector in Sweden, as in many other coun- 390 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

tries, has been undergoing tremendous change provision, new modes of evaluation, changing over the last decades. The boundaries of the conditions for democracy, the forms of public sector itself have changed, with changing accountability required, and how and why re- interfaces between the state, the market and the lations between states, and between state and voluntary sector, and new forms of partnerships citizens, develop in a certain way. and collaboration appearing. This applies most Score emerged out of an initiative in connec- visibly to the provision of welfare services, tion with the 1989 research policy proposition where the state is facing competition from a (Prop. 1989/90: 90). The Social Democratic number of organizations, corporate or civil so- Government saw a need to stimulate knowl- ciety based. The public sector has also been ex- edge around the new management, control and posed to Europeanization and other transna- evaluation systems that were emerging in the tional influences. A large part of the public wake of ongoing structural change and de- sector is now intertwined, as regards practices mands for the renewal of the public sector. as well as guiding ideas, with transnational or- Recognizing the regionally scattered and disci- ganizations such as the European Union. Norms pline-based research in this area, the need for a and rules for how the public sector should be long-term programme of independent basic re- organized have changed accordingly. search on the public sector was acknowl- Research on the public sector must take edged. The proposition was written in the con- these trends into account and should ideally in- text of a research policy debate on the advisability clude a range of issues wider than those direct- and feasibility of organizing research so that it, ly relevant to the public sector in a specific na- without sacrificing academic quality and long- tion-state at a given time. In Score’s research it term knowledge, could overcome the divisions is emphasized that public sector development that characterized existing research in the field and design should be understood in relation to in order to meet the needs for more integrated its history, to society in general, and to the de- understanding of the public sector. A rising velopment of other states and international or- share of externally funded research at universi- ganizations. The idea is that it is through a ties and colleges also raised the question of the broadening of the scope that we can reach a balance between fixed and variable resources, better understanding of the public sector’s and posed the question of how the provision of changing forms of governance. This applies as knowledge to policy and reform of the public well to the understanding of new and emerging sector could and should be catered to. Against forms of regulation, changing ways of welfare this background, the government in May 1990 Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 391

The Score building in Kräftriket was formerly part of the old Veterinary College, explaining the dogs as decorative elements on its wall. (Photo: Ingrid Nordling)

assigned a special investigator to prepare a pro- balance between fixed and variable resources. posal for the organization of a research pro- After approval by the Parliament, the govern- gramme on the public sector. ment decided in December 1991 to make 17.5 After a referral treatment, the government, million SEK available for the implementation of now a conservative coalition, presented its pro- a research program on the public sector. It was posal to the Parliament in the propo sition ‘Re- suggested that resources be concentrated to the search on the public sector’ (Forskning om den formation of two multidisciplinary centres, one offentliga sektorn; Prop. 1991/92:16). The (SCORE) at Stockholm University and Stock- proposition was based on a combination of holm School of Economics, and the other at the concentration and dispersion of efforts and a University of Gothenburg (CEFOS). To com- 392 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

plement these, funds would also be allocated searchers at the centre share a curiosity for the via the Swedish Research Council (Vetenskaps- modes of organizing that characterize the state rådet) to major research programmes of na- apparatus and its interfaces with private and tional scope, which would allow researchers civil society organizations. Score in itself re- from universities across the country to partici- sembles a laboratory of ideas, a place where pate in the development of knowledge in the new combinatory exercises are continuously field. Funds were also allocated to SCAS (Swed- tested out, not randomly, but informed by our ish Collegium for Advanced Sciences) with the disciplinary heritages, concepts, and methods. aim of strengthening a research programme on Historical institutionalism has a strong foot- the renewal of the public sector. The Swedish hold here, as has Weberian organization theory Research Council was given the mandate to and social constructionism. Most influential, evaluate the centres and the programmes after however, has been the influx of ‘new institu- 12 years. It was hoped that this investment tional theory,’ in its Scandinavian version. This would contribute to create fertile conditions theoretical strand has had the capacity to hook for long-term, innovative and internationally on to established disciplinary theories in inno strong research on the public sector. This initia- vative ways, and to provide a common ground tive, and the continued support from both for discussion and interpretation. In a general Stockholm University and Stockholm School of sense, new institutional theory is attentive to Economics, provided a fertile basis on which to the assemblages of ideas and norms in which cultivate and nurture long-term, basic research organizing processes are embedded and recog- on the organization of the public sector.1 nizes the creative interplay between the organization and its environment. In the evaluation Experimenting with ‘organization’ that the Swedish Research Council conducted At the core of Score’s research activities is orga- of Score and other programmes in the original nization theory. Scholars at Score share a funding scheme of 1991, it was recognized that deep-seated curiosity about social organizing new institutional theory had come to charac- in the broadest sense. More specifically, re- terize much of Score’s research (Vetenskapsrå- det 2003). To some extent, this theoretical 1 The first director of Score was Björn Wittrock (1992–1994), followed by Kerstin Sahlin (1994–1998), Christina Garsten strand has developed into the ‘Score lingo’ that (1999–2003), Rune Premfors (2003–2009) and Staffan Furu sten (since 2009). The first chair of the Executive Board of practically all Score researchers recognize (but Score was Nils Brunsson (1992–2008), succeeded by Ulrika may not altogether align themselves with). This Mörth (2009–2011) and Christina Garsten (since 2011). The chair of the Score Advisory Board is Lars Engwall. does not mean, however, that the different theo- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 393

retical preferences have joined into a unified the energetic start of Score, and for its con- choir. On the contrary, the content of norma- tinuation. Their curious spirit, verve, and comp tive influences upon organizations, the extent lementarity have made a strong imprint on the of change, and the modalities of power are of- centre. tentimes hotly debated, by way of the optics As Score’s research focus shifted along with provided by varying theoretical perspectives. that of scholars, it was decided in 1999 to or- Above all, Score remains a space for experi- ganize it more tightly around research themes. mentation in and with organization theory, and The idea was that research themes would re- how it may, or may not, interlink with other flect central research foci, around which re- theoretical perspectives. searchers would gather. Rather than clearly Whilst Score is a place in which to experi- bounded groups, the idea was that they should ment with organization theory, its internal or- be permeable and open to whoever wanted to ganization has also been experimented with. partake. Even so, they provided a tighter form Over the years, the Score community of schol- of organizing than did the looser network con- ars has tried different ways of organizing re- stellations, in that resources were allocated to search: in networks, research themes, and themes and funding applications more directly along research projects and programmes. In linked to overarching themes. the first few years, the centre had a network-like Research themes are relatively long-lived, organization, with looser constellations of re- generally lasting for some five to seven years, searchers gathering around central research or until it runs out of steam. Also, Score’s re- themes. Each network was coordinated by a search today is focused around core research research director, who took the lead in organiz- themes; Organizing Knowledge; Organizing ing seminars workshops, research funding ap- Markets; Democracy and Organization, and plications, and the like. The early research di- Rule Setting and Rule Following. Research rectors, Göran Ahrne (sociology), Nils Brunsson themes have provided a degree of stability and (business administration, also the first Chair of long-term vision to research activities. More- the Executive Board of Score), Bengt Jacobs over, they have worked as ‘communities’ in son (business administration), Rune Prem- the sense that a single scholar has most often fors (political science, also the holder of the been able to connect to one or more research then newly instigated professorship) and themes, and to find a larger collective of inter- Kerstin Sahlin (business administration, also ested colleagues in this context. For a dedicat- then the director of the centre), were vital to ed scholar, the value of a likewise dedicated 394 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

gren (2004) and Beecher (1989) among others, central ingredients of academic life are the ritu- alized patterns of interactions that provide continuity and predictability in the environment, and that confer key values onto its members. The research seminar, the peer review process, the doctoral defence, and the lecture, are examples of such rituals. At Score, not only have scholars studied and Christina Garsten, Ulrika Mörth, Rune Premfors and Nils Brunsson receive Royal visitors to written about the rituals of the Swedish Gov- Score in 2012. (Photo: Ingrid Nordling) ernment Office, of the EU bureaucrats in Brus- sels, of auditors and evaluators, and of man- group of colleagues is paramount. On the agement consultants, but they have as well downside, research themes, while permeable been prone to developing their own social ritu- and heterogeneous, nevertheless have a ten- als and organizational patterns. Rituals that dency to construct boundaries around them- have acquired a particular social value for selves, and of contributing to ‘groupthink’ Score are the weekly Thursday seminar, the (Janis 1972). The flip side of groupthink is coffee break, the Crayfish party, and perhaps that innovation may get inhibited by tenden- most of all, the habit of bringing a piece of cies to homogenization and isomorphism – kitsch art to the (by now pretty impressive) processes of which organization scholars are kitsch collection. Thursdays, with the staff well aware, at least in theory. meeting and the seminar in the morning, and As every social scientist would know, there the coffee break in the afternoon, are ‘Score- is an ever-present tendency to institutionaliza- days,’ when most of the associated scholars tion and inertia in most social groupings – so show up. Since many scholars share their affil- also at Score. Organizations are havens for rit- iation at Score with a tenured or temporary ualistic practices, for the construction of taxo- teaching position in one of the ‘mother depart- nomic systems, and for the crafting of cosmol- ments’ (i.e. departments/subjects represented at ogies in ways that make them amenable to Score: business administration, political science, analysis. Academia is, as we know, ripe with social anthropology, sociology, and economic rituals and ceremonies. As richly described by history), the building is not always teeming Gerholm and Gerholm (1992), Ehn and Löf- with people. Nevertheless, on Thursdays, it is. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 395

Since Score’s early days, the research seminar centre are thanked. The seminar, the coffee has been the central node around which re- break, and other social events constitute inte- search discussions, debates, and reviewing grative rituals and arenas that provide a punc- have oscillated. This is also the space for con- tual and cyclical stability to the working week tentions of disciplinary identities and boundary and the academic year. For an academic com- work (more on this below). munity that is partly dispersed, in this sense an As Ehn and Löfgren point out (2004:96), ‘imagined community’ (Anderson 1983), these the research seminar is not only a ritual, it is rituals fulfil important functions. Whilst schol- also an important academic arena, where peo- ars may be absent during parts of the week, ple meet, discuss, project themselves, as well as working in their respective ‘mother-depart- observe and evaluate each other. The seminar ments’, doing fieldwork, or attending meetings has its particular dramaturgy and choreogra- elsewhere, they do their best to show up on phy. Score seminars tend to be lively, with these occasions. It is partly through these ritu- shorter presentations of on-going and planned als and arenas that a sense of community is research, and scholars eagerly throwing them- manifested to the associated scholars themselves into the discussion. Most comments tend selves and to visitors. It is at these events that to be geared towards the constructive, with the what is talked about as the ‘Score spirit’ (Score- aim of providing concrete advice as to how the andan) materializes. paper, the book chapter draft, or the research project can be improved. Some comments, Exploration, exploitation, and the however, turn into lengthy digressions about evaluative ethos how the topic has (after all) been treated in the One of the founding fathers of organization discipline of the commentator, hence pointing theory in its present shape, James G. March, to alternative (and explicitly or implicitly more has suggested that organizations oscillate fruitful) ways to treat the topic. But most of all, between two kinds of activities: exploration Score seminars are characterized by a genuine and exploitation. Part of the appeal of that in- curiosity towards what one’s colleagues are up sight is that it addresses a key organizational to, and what appears to be coming out of it. challenge – deciding between how to prioritize At the regular Thursday afternoon coffee between present and future. Pursuing exploita- break, new associates and visiting scholars are tion activities implies a focus on the ‘refine- introduced, birthdays are celebrated, book re- ment and extension of existing competencies, leases are announced, and scholars leaving the technologies and paradigms,’ while an explora- 396 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

tion focus indicates ‘experimentation with new without gaining the benefits. Conversely, since alternatives’ (March 1991: 85). Exploitation is an exploitation approach is more likely to necessary for improving current activities and/ yield early successes, these can reinforce the or making the best out of what is at hand. Re- pursuit of similar efforts, creating a ‘success sults are likely to be near-term and positive. trap.’ While this promotes stability and conti- Exploration, on the other hand, is more likely nuity, it also keeps the organization from find- to yield the next breakthrough idea, product, ing new opportunities. For research centres or market, but returns on exploration are less like Score, it might for example be comfort- certain and more distant in time. able to stay within established core research As Carroll (2012) points out, although ex- areas, to pay less attention to complexity, con- ploration and exploitation are both important tradictions, and challenges in the field, or to to organizational performance, most organi- stick to one’s disciplinary habits. zations would like to be able to pursue each Another challenge to pursuing both explor- type of activity at the same time. Doing both ation and exploitation simultaneously is that simultaneously can, however, be difficult. For resources may be, and often are, limited. Pro- one thing, each approach can become self-re- viding more resources in one area means that inforcing. Exploration, for example, is by its other areas become less well resourced. Espe- very nature variable and prone to failure. Re- cially in situations where the need for either search is by definition a risky enterprise. Most exploration or exploitation seems more press- often, research applications fail, and when ing, the lure of prioritizing one over the other they succeed, one cannot guarantee that the may become too great to resist. Oftentimes, it project will yield substantially new or surpris- is more secure to rest on one’s laurels than to ing results. This is the nature of research. The think anew. Prioritizing to invest in a new reorganization may fall prey to the ‘failure trap’ search theme is a ‘costly’ and risky endeavour. – always looking for the next great thing. In Who knows what may come out of it? Most the case of a research centre such as Score, probably, the primary value of the original there is potentially a danger that one becomes governmental decision in 1991 to promote re- overly alert to new priority areas as defined by search in the area of the public sector was to research funding agencies, or prone to adapt allow and secure space for experimentation tactically to university politics. Organizations and exploration, to recognize that research is eager to promote exploration before exploita- a long-term investment and, by its very nation may pay the costs of experimentation ture, a risky endeavour. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 397

The formation of Score has largely coincid- it may also lead to exploitation of established ed with a formidable advancement of an ‘eval- knowledge. uative ethos’ and ‘audit culture’ in academia at Li Benich-Björkman writes in her book on in- large (see e.g. Strathern 2000). This ethos and novative and stagnating research environments, culture has also rubbed off on the research ac- ‘Organising Innovative Research’ (1997), that tivities of Score. The evaluative ethos transpires the advancement of management, control and in the frustrations and joys connected to refus- evaluation in research policy risks undermining al or acceptance of external research funding, a the local social processes of dialogue and com- journal publication, or a book contract, all the munication that are so vital in the creation of more so since Score’s research and the engage- well-functioning research environments. These ment of scholars have been largely dependent processes build on trust and confidence, and such on getting external research funding. Applying dimensions of social interaction are vulnerable to for research funding constitutes a major activi- the evaluative ethos. A one-sided focus on evalu- ty at Score, and engages practically all scholars ation and audit can easily hamper creativity and and administrative staff. Drafts are aired in innovation by eliminating trust. As Stefan Svall- seminars and workshops, colleagues are asked fors poignantly points out in his book ‘Kunskap- to review them, and new constellations of ens människa’ (2012: 99, my translation), ”re- scholars are tried out continuously. The bright search policy may easily destroy environments, side of this preoccupation is that it provides a but not as easily create them”. Svallfors, too, sees continuous exercise in the craft of writing grant the promotion of an evaluative ethos in research applications, in articulating project ideas, and policy as risking to enhance fragmentation of re- in putting the various disciplinary theories and search activities and to undermine collegiality. methodological toolkits to use. The darker side For a research centre such as Score, that relies is that the future careers of younger, non-ten- heavily on external funding and where tempo- ured researchers may be dependent on external rary research positions are the norm, these risks funding, which feeds anxiety and promotes a are constantly lurking, mixing with the rewards short-term perspective. In the long-run, one of succeeding: in getting the grant, getting the ar- might contend that Score scholars have become ticle published, or being ‘recognized’ in some oth- savvy in the art and craft of grant writing, and er way. Learning to balance the short-term con- in making strategic use of the multidisciplinary tinuous evaluative practice, and the ethos with platform. This, in itself, may promote explora- long-term community building and investment in tion of new research questions, but conversely, younger scholars, is crucial. 398 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

In today’s research climate, ‘excellence’ has discipline-based research, and the need for col- achieved a pivotal position as a goal for re- laborative and multidimensional attempts at search. No policy programme would go against grasping complex societal problems. The disci- the promotion of excellence, in the sense of pline-based notion of the ivory tower has been high academic productivity of internationally poised against the image of the university as a recognized research results. “‘Excellence’ is the multidisciplinary agora. Since the early 1970s, holy grail of academic life”, in Michèle Lam- however, trans- and multidisciplinary research ont’s words (2009:1), and “mediocrity is toler- has gradually been promoted as desired modes ated only in practice”, as Ehn and Löfgren have of doing research (Sturesson et al. 2002). In the it (2004:142). Bennich-Björkman (1997) dis- government proposition of 1991/92 (Prop. covered that what characterizes departments 1991/92:16, my translation), it was stated that that are considered innovative is their focus on there is ”a silent advance of institutionalized collaboration, disciplined individualism and a multidisciplinary research taking place”. It is collective sense of community. In addition, the also maintained that “the development of multi- leadership of such a department is clear and in- disciplinarity constitutes an important part of spiring. There is a large scope for discussion the revitalization of universities”. As is evident and intense communication around research. from calls for applications in the major research This does not mean that conflicts do not exist, councils at national and European levels, a mul- but they are not allowed to paralyze the activi- tidisciplinary approach is nowadays almost a ties of the department. In Bennich-Björkman’s necessity to be able to get funded by the larger view, excellence takes long-term planning, a funding schemes. In a general sense, multi great portion of patience, and a tolerance for disciplinarity has been seen as integral to the pro- setbacks on the way. The built-in risks and un- motion of larger collaborative research collec- certainties of research make predicted outputs tives, and more specifically to the promotion of difficult to calculate. Hence, a leap in the direc- academic ‘excellence’. The message of research tion of exploration is the only way forward. policy is that by way of collaborative efforts among disciplines, research groups may enhance Besides academic tribes and possibilities for grasping multifaceted problems, territories: multidisciplinarity promote novelty, and contribute more distinctly Research policies have over the last forty years to policy and industry development. grappled with the challenge of striking a balance Score is itself largely an offspring of the pro- between the need to maintain depth by way of motion of multidisciplinarity, and as such an Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 399

interesting case with which to grasp some of precise meaning, a presentation was, at times, the challenges and opportunities attached to it. left in contention (cf. Messer-Davidow et al. As pointed out by Bailey (1977) and Beecher 1993:19). Occasionally, the unquestioned us- (1989), academia is populated with its own age of concepts left a thin layer of unquestioned ‘tribes’, disciplines, which develop their partic- agreement, shadowing underlying conflicts ular ‘folklore’ and work to cultivate, articulate, around assumptions and meanings. On the and defend their ‘territories’ that are their own other side, deconstruction and experimenta- disciplinary knowledge and expertise. What tion with the meanings of taken-for-granted are the relations between the academic cultures and ossified notions have often opened up new (the ‘tribes’) and their disciplinary knowledge perspectives on old problems, and as we know, (their ‘territories’) involved at Score? And what even misunderstandings can be creative. More goes on besides the more clear-cut disciplinary to the point, the multidisciplinary composition tribes and their territories, in the realm of the of Score has contributed to spur interest around multidisciplinary? central disciplinary concepts and perspectives, Multidisciplinarity can be a vital stimulus to and pushed the representatives of each disci- new research insights, but it also provides a pline to read up on theory and method and pol- source of continuous contestation. The research ish their arguments. seminar, as the backbone of departmental dis- The hybridity of multidisciplinary areas of cussion and review practices, is a central arena research is at once their strength and a continu- where this contestation takes place. At Score, it ing source of difficulty. Part of the difficulty took a long time to disentangle and sort out the stems from the impossibility of doing every- meaning of terms like ‘institution’, ‘organiza- thing (cf. Thompson Klein 1996: 58). The multi- tion’ and ‘norm’, as they were understood in dimensional nature of the public sector, its the various disciplines, and even longer to fig- many facets of activity, its continuous change, ure out a way to use them that could work and the many ways in which it could, and across disciplinary talk. The taken-for-granted should, be studied provide an ever-present source assumptions so common in established disci- of frustration. Awareness about the theoretical plines were (and are) are still in use, leaving strands available in adjacent disciplines, and colleagues from other disciplines confused or knowledge about the possibilities of using alter annoyed at the concepts, terms and phrasings native methods, may at times open up a Pandora’s used. Misunderstandings were ubiquitous. As box of infinite possibilities, risking to lead no- taken-for-granted assumptions were lacking in where. The response to this opening up of a pa 400 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

To the left: Kristoffer Strandqvist, Liv Fries and Karolina Windell. To the right: Mattias Viktorin and Göran Sundström. (Photo: Ingrid Nordling)

lette of theoretical and methodological tools at forces a sharper articulation of what the specific times results in innovative ideas and approaches, disciplinary perspective on a particular prob- but may also impede disciplinary rigour. lem might be, and what the value of using a I believe what working in a multidisciplinary particular method should be. How, for exam- environment essentially does to the academic ple, are we to understand, sociologically, the scholar is to encourage a sharpening of the ear, de- and re-regulation of the Swedish labour the voice and the argument. When this works, market? How are we to make political science it provides a richer repertoire of skills to the sense of audit society, systems of ranking, vol- academic role. In any case, it stimulates and untary standards for transnational corpora- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 401

tions, or management models? What can an- built on disciplinary bases, perhaps more so in thropological perspectives and ethnographic Sweden than in many other European coun- research methods contribute to those of other tries. Despite the ode to multidisciplinarity that social science approaches? And how can the is proclaimed in research policy, it is still the discipline of management assist us in shedding fact that a recently graduated PhD in political light on management models in the public sec- science, sociology, social anthropology, busi- tor? In such cases, multidisciplinarity works as ness administration, or whatever discipline that well as a disciplinary stimulus, encouraging is relevant, needs to develop his or her disci- disciplinary articulation through contestation. plinary research excellence to be able to ad- It evokes in the scholar a drive to describe, ex- vance. This double message – with a unidisci- plain and argue for the relevance of his or her plinary basis for the structural organization of disciplinary basis, and to enquire into the ad- research careers on the one hand and multidisci- vances and promises of others. plinarity policy emphasis on the other – remains All of these processes take place at the for many a puzzle, if not in terms of vision, interface of the disciplines – they are a form of then at least in terms of actual practice. boundary work. They work to articulate and The rewards of working in a multidisci- question disciplinary boundaries at the same plinary environment are paired with the puzzle time as they strengthen them. Across boundar- of how to advance one’s academic career whilst ies, the particular ‘Score spirit,’ with its associ- working at Score. Over time, some general pat- ated Score lingo, has developed. The Score lingo terns can be discerned. In the evaluation of the is composed of the recognition of particularly entire research programme on the public sector pertinent concepts, of relevant references to ac- made by the Swedish Research Council ademic works, and a plethora of influential (Vetenskapsrådet 2003), Score has been recog- names. In this sense, an academic research cen- nized as playing an important role as a step- tre resembles any kind of professional commu- pingstone and breeding ground for younger nity in the development of a particular ethos scholars with recent PhD degrees. This is made and vocabulary (cf. Traweek 1992). possible primarily by way of participation in This promotion of multidisciplinarity is, how externally funded research projects and by ever, not by definition conducive to the career gaining experience that allows them to become advancement of younger scholars. Research project leaders and secure their own funding careers, promotion procedures, and tenured and research base. This opens up time for ad- academic positions are still, to a large extent, vancement in research and in publishing, and 402 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

dual belongings, to Score and to their mother department, doubling up of seminars and staff meetings, and jugging teaching with research. In most cases, scholars have learned how to deal with this situation in successful or reasonably decent ways. In some cases, scholars have chosen to concentrate their energies on their disciplinary milieus. Multidisciplinarity is thus both a blessing and a curse, a springboard and an impasse – and for most people, somewhere in between. The rewards in terms of a broadening of perspectives and networks, the cross-fertilization of ideas, and the continuous learning exercise make it a worthwhile cause. The challenges of reconciling academic career development with multidisciplinary research engagement at the level of the individual academic have, however, not yet been entirely resolved.

Concluding note: Curious minds and moving research targets Given the distance to the main University As described above, Score emerged out of a building, a bicycle has been handy for Score governmental initiative to promote long-term, staff. (Photo: Ingrid Nordling) multidisciplinary research on the manage ment, control and evaluation of the public sector. The also opens up a wide network of thematically seeds provided by this initiative have now linked scholars, nationally and internationally. grown into a relatively mature research envi- Moreover, it opens up for extensive contacts ronment with its own distinctive ethos, profile with practitioners in the field of policy, in the and contribution. The trajectory of Score mir- public sector and more broadly. On the other rors to a large extent the major developments hand, young scholars are also pressured by in Swedish research policy over the last couple Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 403

of decades. As such, Score provides, in a sense, as a place for the cultivation of the general a peephole into the fortunes and failures of powers of the mind. some dimensions of contemporary research  •  policy. Our experiences of working in a multidisciplinary environment may teach us some- Anderson, Benedict 1983. Imagined Commu- thing about its pitfalls and attainments. nities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread As we know, research policy oriented to the of Nationalism. London: Verso. promotion of large-scale research program Bailey, Frederick G. 1977. Morality and Expe- mes, the tribute paid to multidisciplinarity, diency: The Folklore of Academic Politics. the search for ‘excellence’, or the elicitation of Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ‘strategic profile areas’ may well be important Beecher, Tony 1989. Academic Tribes and Ter- and fruitful in organizing research, but the ritories: Intellectual Enquiry and the Cul- outcomes are far from given. These depend to tures of Disciplines. Milton Keyes: Open a large extent on practices at the local level, University Press. on the social processes that take place be- Bennich-Björkman, Li 1997. Organising Inno- tween people on the ground, as it were. New vative Research: The Inner Life of Universi- knowledge may be spurred by central initia- ty Departments. Oxford: IAU Press. tives, but it is gained, contested, and articulat- Carroll, Timothy N. 2012. Designing organiza- ed at the level of practice. First of all, it takes tions for exploration and exploitation, Jour- a group of curious minds, a bundle of people nal of Organizational Design, 1:2: 64–68. sharing a curiosity for a particular phenome- Ehn, Billy and Orvar Löfgren 2004. Hur blir non and open-minded enough to challenge, man klok på universitet? Lund: Student and be challenged by, other perspectives. It litteratur. relies on the development and cultivation of Gerholm, Lena and Tomas Gerholm 1992. relations of trust and confidence, and on a Doktorshatten. En studie av forskarutbild- spirit of constructive criticism with collective ningen inom sex discipliner vid Stockholms responsibility that allows for exploration, universitet. Stockholm: Carlssons. boundary transgression, and risk-taking. The Janis, Irving L. 1972. Victims of Groupthink: a most fruitful research policy initiative is, in Psychological Study of Foreign-Policy Deci- my view, the one that allows for the creation sions and Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. of a space for exploration. I believe this takes Lamont, Michèle 2009. How Professors Think: us back to the original idea of the university, Inside the Curious World of Academic 404 Stockholm Centre for Organizational Research

Judgement. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Uni- terdisciplinarities. Charlottesville. Universi- versity Press. ty Press of Virginia. March, James G. 1991. Exploration and ex- Traweek, Sharon 1992. Beamtimes and Lifetimes: ploitation in organizational learning, Orga- The World of High Energy Physicists. Cam- nization Science, 2:1: 71–87. Special Issue: bridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Organizational Learning: Papers in Honor Vetenskapsrådet 2003. Förändring och nyori- of (and by) James G. March. entering inom den offentliga sektorn – Ut- Messer-Davidow, Ellen, David R. Shumway värdering av ett forskningsprogram. Stock- and David Sylvan 1993. Preface and Intro holm: Vetenskapsrådets rapport 2003:3. duction: Disciplinary ways of knowing. In E. Messer-Davidow, R. Shumway and D. Sylvan, Knowledge: Historical and Critical Studies in Disciplinarity. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia. Prop. 1989/90: 90. Regeringens proposition 1989/90: 90 om forskning. Prop. 1991/92: 16. Regeringens proposition 1991/92:16 Forskning om den offentliga sektorn.Strathern, Marilyn 2000. Introduc- tion: New accountabilities. In M. Strathern, ed., Audit Cultures: Anthropological Stud- ies in Accountability, Ethics and the Acade- my. London: Routledge, pp 1–18. Sturesson, Lennart, Jane Summerton, Kajsa El- legård and Svante Beckman (eds.) 2002. Spänningsfält. Tekniken – politiken – framtiden. Stockholm. Carlssons. Svallfors, Stefan 2012. Kunskapens människa. Om kroppen, kollektivet och kunskaps politiken. Stockholm: Santérus Förlag. Thompson Klein, Julie 1996. Crossing Bound- aries: Knowledge, Disciplinarities, and In- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 405

In 2015, a move to premises in the Nobel Building, closer to the metro station, is planned for Score. (Photo: Eva Dalin) The staircase of the Stress Research Institute building is decorated with ‘Pollen’, glass art by the famous Swedish painter Sven X:et Erixson (1956). (Photo: Mats Danielson) 407

Stress Research Institute Torbjörn Åkerstedt

The Stress Research Institute was National Labour Market Board in the form of founded in December 1959. The founder was a temporary administrative assistance. The Head 29-year old newly-hired intern at the Depart- of the Board of Labour, Bertil Ohlson, early on ment of Medicine at the Karolinska Hospital realised the value of studying work-related named Lennart Levi. Apart from his medical stress. training, he also brought along ideas from his The budding activity needed offices and lab- earlier studies in psychology. He was struck by oratories and was at the start permitted to use the lack of interaction between the depart- the light-treatment facilities as well as the staff ments of psychiatry and medicine, despite the bathrooms of the Rheumatology clinic. After apparent need for psychological approaches in some time, these facilities were needed for reg- medical treatment. So he took it upon himself ular hospital activities. The solution was bor- to bring such interaction about. He put up a rowing a small potato field belonging to the small sign on his office door, proclaiming that Swedish Railways (SJ), close to Karolinska In- behind the door resided the “Laboratory for stitutet, in combination with a small pavilion clinical stress research”. set up by the Board of Labour and economical- Luckily, the endeavour received moral sup- ly funded by the Swedish Army. Apparently port from four Heads of Departments, Profes- these organisations realised the need for stress sors Ulf von Euler (physiology), Börje Cron- research and wanted to help. holm, Henrik Lagerlöf (medicine) and Åke With the assistance of the above mentioned Swensson (occupational medicine). They also organisations and the regular research funding provided some support in the form of laborato- bodies, a number of ground breaking studies ry assistance. Further support came from the were carried out. Many of these were inspired 408 Stress Research Institute

by the findings of the Nobel Laureate Professor In the 1970s, the laboratory organised five Ulf von Euler and his work on catecholamines. week-long international symposia on ’Society, These and other dependent variables were used Stress and Disease’ and published the proceed- in laboratory studies on the effects of stressful ings in five volumes through Oxford University movies, caffeine, 72-hour sleep deprivation, Press. These meetings brought together all the food restriction and so on. One could probably leading researchers of the world in the stress argue that this work with adrenaline and nor- field. They had a profound impact on the field. adrenaline gave biological/medical support for During this time new researchers were stress research in general and lent medical re- recruited who came to influence the image of spectability to this research area. Besides Levi, the laboratory greatly. One such was Töres Lars Lidberg, Jan Fröberg, Claes-Göran Karls- Theorell (MD, PhD) who brought new kinds of son and Jan Palmblad are important names field studies to the Laboratory. He pioneered during this era. The experimental work was attempts to link psychosocial factors and internationally acknowledged. During this time health. His specialty was cardiology. In his col- field studies of real-life work conditions also laboration with Robert Karasek, the two started to come about. Bengt Edgren was one showed that the new concept of ‘work de- of the key factors here. mands’, or ‘work demands in combination with In 1972, Levi presented his doctoral thesis low influence at work’, could predict new cases ‘Stress and Distress in Response to Psycho of cardiovascular disease. The combination of social Stimuli – Laboratory and Real Life Stud- demands and influence was termed ‘strain’, to- ies on Sympathoadrenomedullary and Related day a very well established concept in psycho- Reactions’ with Professor Gunnar Ström (Upp social research and implementation. Also, oth- sala University) as first opponent and Professor er combinations of the variables were seen to Marianne Frankenheuser (Karolinska Institu- be of importance. Thus, for example, when tet) as second opponent. The same year, Levi high demands occurred together with high became docent of experimental psychosomatic work influence, there appeared to occur ana- medicine, and the following year he received bolic/growth effects. This possibility has, how- docentship at the Swedish Medical Research ever, seen much less research than the high Council. At the same time, the laboratory was strain approach. These early seminal findings appointed a WHO collaborative centre for re- had a great impact on international research search and training on psychosocial factors concerning psychosocial factors and health. and health. The so-called ‘demand/control’ index has come Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 409

to dominate this type of research and to inspire the world’s leading units in this important, but similar measures, for example, the effort/ difficult to research, area. reward scale. At the end of this period, the government In the same time interval, another cardio took up a suggestion of organising a research logist was recruited – Kristina Orth-Gomér. institute – The Institute for Psychosocial Medi- One of her foci was social support. Her work cine (IPM) – reporting to the Ministry of Social with Theorell identified such support as a buf- Affairs. This government research organisation fer factor against the effects of stress. Social became administratively linked to Karolinska support, therefore, came to be included in the Institutet, (while still being independent). It demand/control/support scale. Orth-Gomér also also remained as the small Department of linked these variables, and sleep, to detailed Stress Research within Karolinska Institutet cardiovascular measures, which came to fur- with a shared director (Lennart Levi). This ther support the stress–cardiovascular link. gave IPM an academic connection, which was The demand/control model was demonstrated strengthened by its professors being adjunct to be related to vascular elasticity, blood lipids professors at Karolinska Institutet through this and many other indicators of cardiovascular ill department. health. She also brought women more into fo- The work at IPM inspired similar processes cus in this area. Around this time, Torbjörn in the International Labour Organization (a Åkerstedt was recruited. His central research United Nations organization), in collaboration interests were shift work and sleep. In particu- with the American Surgeon General, and in the lar, EEG laboratory studies of the time of day Soviet Academy of Sciences. In the early 1990s, influences on sleep attracted attention, as did the European Union followed. In the year of field EEG studies of night-driving train drivers, 2000, the European Commission published our who fell asleep while driving the train. work ‘Guidance on Work-Related Stress – Spice In 1987, the work of the institute was eval- of Life, or Kiss of Death’ in five languages. This uated by the former chair of the blue-collar was used as a foundation for the general agree- workers’ union, Gunnar Nilsson, and the Pro- ment between the social partners and had ef- fessors Kalle Achté in Helsinki and Björn Fol- fects on several hundred thousand employees. kow in Gothenburg. Their conclusion was that In 1995, Lennart Levi retired at the age of 65 the research was quantitatively and qualitative- and was succeeded by Töres Theorell, both as ly impressive. They noted that it had resulted in the head of IPM and of the Section for Stress a high international reputation and was one of Research at the Department of Public Health 410 Stress Research Institute

The Stress Research Institute, embedded in the lush foliage of Frescati Hage. (Photo: Mats Danielson)

Sciences. Since the IPM was a government or- siderably. One clear trend was also an increase ganisation, it was clearly affected by the in the demands on reporting from government developments in Sweden and in the govern organisations to the ministries. Luckily, at this mental world at this time. The economic crisis time, the IPM was reinforced by a very compe- during the first years of that decade carried tent administrative head, Louise Nordenskiöld, with it cut-downs in the public sector and a who had ended her tour as director general of number of structural changes in society. This another government organisation. was very obvious in the field research carried The IPM had previously been organised into out by the institute, and stress increased con- units for work environment, health care envi- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 411

ronment, social environment, migration and remain a research organisation. It was deemed suicide research. Unemployment was a central wise, however, to accept at least one task – to problem for the government and a special ef- coordinate Swedish research on stress. For this fort was made to organise a ‘field station’ for reason, IPM took it upon itself to organise an- research in the small city of Falköping, with the nual meetings for stress researchers. These be- intention to study effects and interventions to came very successful and became an important ameliorate the effects of unemployment. This forum for encouraging the exchange of views unit was later turned into an independent organ- and knowledge between researchers and prac- isation with a strong regional input. titioners in the field. There also came about discussions about Theorell, who had been linked to the In- changing name of the Institute. In particular, the stitute since before its inception, was also a name ‘Stress Research Institute’ was thought professor and section head for stress research both very appropriate and closely reflecting the at Karolinska Institutet In addition, he was activities of the Institute. The old name was seen part-time head physician at the occupational as a bit cumbersome and had difficulties getting medicine clinic at the Karolinska Hospital. established in the minds of the public, media This had an influence on a number of activities and other government organisations. The board, within the IPM unit for health care research. however, turned this suggestion down because it Clinical studies were focusing on high blood thought that the stress concept suggested a focus pressure, functional stomach problems, muscu- on the individual both in terms in prevention loskeletal symptoms, myocardial infarction, and treatment. It was considered more import- and psychiatric disease (including post-trau- ant to focus on psychosocial processes, that is, matic stress). IPM also participated in several on the interaction between the group and the governmental studies on work hours and pub- individual. lic health work. Several academic as well as Another important question that saw much popular books were published, also interna- discussion was to what extent the Institute tionally. Researchers from many parts of the should be focusing on research only or on oth- world worked at the Institute – from Japan, the er tasks more related traditional roles of gov- US, Canada, Germany, the UK, Italy, Austria, ernment organisations (overseeing, information Brazil, Uganda and others. dissemination, etc.). It appeared that the em- From the lists of publications it is evident that ployees considered themselves mainly as re- epidemiology had received a strong position. searchers and thought that the Institute should Many of these were carried out in collaboration 412 Stress Research Institute

with the Working Life Institute, the Institute for have IPM form a new research institute within Environmental Medicine at Karolinska Institu- Stockholm University. tet, Occupational Medicine at the Karolinska The transfer was led by Louise Nordenskiöld Hospital and others. IPM contributed among as temporary head of the Institute (Töres The- other things its established questionnaires for orell had retired the year before) and was very measuring the psychosocial work environment, successful. Already 9 months after the transfer, stress reactions and a set of physiological meth- the personnel responded in a work environ- ods for measuring sleep, blood pressure and ment survey that 84% were positive to the hormones (in blood, saliva and urine). change. Torbjörn Åkerstedt became the new Many of the changes in society also appeared head of the Institute. At this point, the Institute in the scientific publications. This includes the also changed its name to the ‘Stress Research questioned ‘Swedish model’ effects of reductions Institute’ to celebrate and emphasise its new in societal support as well as the reluctance in life within Stockholm University. The new many quarters to discuss psychosocial factors. name rapidly caught on within the University, Since the usefulness of many government or- the research community and the media. ganisations in the early 2000s was questioned, The first years were characterised by con- a government group made an analysis of the solidation and refocusing research on the core activity of IPM from 2004 to 2005. The conclu- areas of stress research. It was particularly im- sion by the government was to transfer IPM from portant to replace the professors that had being a government organisa tion to being an been lost due to retirement and to Karolinska independent and fully financed unit at a univer- Institutet. It was also important to ascertain sity. Since IPM had been linked to Karolinska the interdisciplinary approach and to bring up Institutet and since part of it already formed a psychobiological research as a second pillar section within the Department of Public Health besides the dominating epidemiology. The In- Sciences, the original idea was to transfer IPM stitute was focused on providing the theoreti- to that university. However, the projected budget cal bridge between psychosocial factors and consequences were extremely negative, because biology/medicine in the development of dis- of the financing policies at that university. ease. Three units were created: Epidemiology, Therefore, discussions were taken up with the Sleep and Psychoneuroimmunology. vice-chancellor of Stockholm University. These The present frontline research focuses on discussions landed in vastly more positive finan- stress, work, health and restitution and seeks to cial outcomes for IPM. It was thus agreed to understand how various work-related factors Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 413

The seminar room: also a place for unstressing and informal conversations. (Photo: Mats Danielson) influence health and well-being, as well as to in- is the most problematic aspect of irregular work vestigate the psychological and biological stress hours? Other questions concern the long-term mechanisms that link exposure to risk factors consequences of stress. How do retirement and and health outcomes. The research at the Stress aging interact with stress and health? What de- Research Institute comprises large-scale epide- fines the feeling of being ill and what are the miological studies, intensive field studies, brain links to inflammation? imaging, and experimental laboratory studies, A major event in the development during the as well as interventions. A central hypothesis is last years was the award of 10 year funding for that excessive stress may interfere with biologi- a centre of excellence regarding ‘Interdisciplin- cal restitution during sleep, in turn leading to ary research on stress and health’ by the Re- negative physiological and psychological effects. search Council for Work and Social Sciences What aspects of sleep promote recovery? What (FAS, now Forte). The centre was named the 414 Stress Research Institute

‘Stockholm Stress Centre’, with Torbjörn Åker- Karolinska are Professors Nancy Pedersen (De- stedt as the director. It was initiated in 2009 partment of Epidemiology), Lars-Göran Nils- and has its base at the Stress Research Institute, son (Aging Research Centre), Laura Fratiglioni but also involves organizational/work psychol- (Aging Research Centre), and Lars Alfredsson ogy at the Department of Psychology at the (Department of Environmental Medicine). University, as well as the Department of Clini- Stockholm Stress Centre has also been award- cal Neuroscience (the Divisions of Psychology ed funding (1 MSEK/year for 3–5 years) for a re- and of Insurance Medicine) plus the Depart- search school. This school is run in collaboration ment of Public Health (Division of Occupa- with the Centre for Health Equity Studies tional Medicine) at Karolinska Institutet. (CHESS) at the University (another FAS excel- The centre has significantly increased the re- lence centre) and the Centre for Research on search collaboration between the Stress Research Work and Musculoskeletal Problems at Gävle Institute and Karolinska Institutet. There is now University College. This has a direct effect on intense joint work on stress, sickness absence the collaboration within the centre as well as and disability pension, carried out together with the sister centres. It also further raises the the Division of Insurance Medicine by using quality of overall work in the centre because the access of important registers provided by of the frontline knowledge that can now be that division. Also, burnout and sleep problems disseminated to students through collabora- are studied, with outcome variables in sickness tion with leading international researchers absence, disability pension, mortality and met- that are invited to function as guest teachers abolic diseases. for shorter periods. Two of the professors (Åkerstedt and Lekan- Long term collaboration outside the SU/KI der) have their own research groups at the De- network also includes Professors Ann Hammar partment of Clinical Neuroscience (Division of ström and Ulf Janlert (Umeå University), with Psychology). This makes possible major re- the latter mainly concerning life trajectory research efforts on sleep physiology as well as search. Our institute also collaborates intensely immunology and brain imaging. The latter also with the Swedish Road and Transport Research includes important collaboration with the De- Institute on studies of sleepiness and risk during partment of Psychology at the University (Profes- night-time driving in simulators and on real sor Håkan Fischer) and has resulted in a roads. The collaboration offers internationally consortium to address the issue of the ‘sleepy unique possibilities of studying sleep, sleepi- brain’. Other important research partners at ness and risk. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 415

Former and present directors and co-directors of the Stress Research Institute, depicted at the 50 year jubilee of the Institute: Töres Theorell, Lennart Levi, Louise Nordenskiöld, Hugo Westerlund and Torbjörn Åkerstedt. (Photo: Johan Nilsson)

The Stress Research Institute also has a broad Ageing Research) and individual pooled data international interface. There is, for example, on work (IPD work). The latter pools data for intense collaboration with the Finnish Institute more than 100,000 individuals and provides of Occupational Health, involving important unique possibilities for settling major research Finnish cohort research such as the Finnish questions by using extremely large datasets. Public Sector Study (Mika Kivimäki, Jussi Our institute also collaborates with the Finnish Vahtera). This is also linked to the network Institute of Occupational Health on questions IDEAR (Integrated Datasets across Europe for regarding sleep and shift work, formalised into 416 Stress Research Institute

ampton in an international project on ‘Fatigue risk management at sea’. This also includes the Dalien University (China), the Warsash Mari- time Academy (UK) and Professor Jörgen Riis at the University of Southern Denmark. A research institute within a university should be leading in its field internationally. We believe this is the case for several of our key research areas, and this is evidenced in citations and symposia presentations. Thus, our work on sleep and stress has a world reputation. This is also the case for our work on working time and health, in particular shift/ night work. The Institute is also internationally leading in psychosocial work environment epidemiology. Professor Emeritus Töres Theo- rell is one of the pioneers in the area. The large international collaboration and a unique pooling of research data is very pivotal to this work. The nationally representative cohort study, SLOSH (Swedish Longitudinal Occu- The Stress Research Institute maintains a focus pational Survey of Health), confirms the lead- on publishing. (Photo: Mats Danielson) ing position of the Institute in this area. The research on psychoneuroimmunology, in col- the network ‘Working Hours in Nordic coun- laboration with Karolinska Institutet is be- tries’, IWINC. Other important collaboration coming internationally leading and recently activities involve Professor Manfred Scherd- organised the International Congress of the lowski, University of Essen. He is central in the Society of Psychoneuroimmunology (PNIRS) formation of a European consortium for the in Stockholm. study of the effects of inflammation on brain In terms of publications, last year’s level was function. Collaboration is also intense with Pro- 82 original papers (7.5 per PhD). Several of our fessor Mike Barnett at the University of South- publications have more than 100 citations and Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 417

our researchers are often invited to give key- research area will increase in importance in note lectures and to arrange symposia at inter- society. Questions of work environment, work national congresses. Our research area and hours, stress, recovery from stress (sleep), ag- work also receives considerable attention in the ing, retirement and the meaning of health — public debate. The interest in questions regard- all will increase in importance. This suggests ing stress, sleep, work hours, and the work en- that external financing should continue at a vironment is extensive. During the last three- reasonable level and probably increase. The year period, the senior researchers of the Stress most important next steps in the development Research Institute have appeared more than for the Stress Research Institute is to recruit 2,800 times in the media and more than 3,000 research leaders able to form new research individuals have visited us for the Stress Re- groups and to secure finance for the research search Day that each year presents our research activities. to the public. The Institute is also consulted for The work of preparing the Stress Research expertise by different government organisa- Institute for the future is now led by Professor tions and has contributed to three governmen- Hugo Westerlund, who took over as the new tal expert committees in the area of treatment director in August 2013, at the end of the ap- of sleep disorders, effects of stress on sleep, and pointment period of Professor Torbjörn Åker- the effect of psychosocial factors and health. stedt. The researchers also participate in teaching at  •  Stockholm University and Karolinska Institutet. Recently the Institute, together with CHESS, Levi, Lennart 1972. Stress and Distress in Re- was given the task to oversee the new research sponse to Psychosocial Stimuli – Laboratory education area of public health science. and Real Life Studies on Sympathoadreno- Most indicators point to an increased lack medullary and Related Reactions, Acta Med- of labour in many areas in the future. The ica Scandinavica, Supplementum 528: 191. aging population will necessitate an extension of working life. This is likely to lead to questions of health at work increasing in importance, particularly in relation to the projected extension of the retirement age. Stress related problems will constitute a major part of this development. We believe that our Entry to Södra huset from the south, close to SOFI. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 419

Swedish Institute for Social Research Eskil Wadensjö

The form of the organization of research pendent institutes have now instead become financed by the state differs markedly between part of a university. One exception is the SFI countries. In some countries, like in Sweden, it (the Danish Centre for Social Research), is carried out mainly in universities, but in oth- which is largely engaged in research in the er countries the majority of institutions are same fields as SOFI. SFI is still an independent outside academia. In Russia, social science and institute. In Norway, the previously inde- other research is carried out predominantly in pendent NOVA (Norwegian Social Research separate research institutes. In Germany, the Institute) became part of the Oslo and Aker- Max Planck Institutes are very important for shus University College of Applied Sciences social science research. It should be empha- from January 1, 2014. This could be part of a sized that, in addition to publicly funded re- new development in Norway. search institutions, there are in most countries During the last decade some independent re- those that have their core funding through pri- search institutes in Sweden have either been vate sources. closed down, such as the Centre for Working The Nordic countries have different models. Life Studies (Arbetslivsinstitutet), or become Norway has a large sector of publicly funded part of a university, such as the Stress Research institutes outside the universities, while Swe- Institute. That some institutes have been shut den only has a small one. There is a trend to- down or become part of a university does not wards more research being done at universi- mean that the number of institutes has decreased ties in the Nordic countries. In conjunction – on the contrary, the number of institutes is in- with a major university reform in Denmark a creasing, but usually as parts of universities. So few years ago, several of the university inde- what are the government’s arguments for the 420 Swedish Institute for Social Research

creation of new institutes? Why not just give search Institute, which was founded by Gus- the departments at universities more resources tav Cassel already in the early 20th century instead? The explanation is likely that the gov- but gained momentum only when Gösta Bag- ernment wants to have more knowledge in ge became professor of economics two de- some specific areas and therefore wants sector cades later. Bagge was a very successful aca- institutes, and that it wants more research in demic entrepreneur. He built up both the areas where the topic will be studied by several Social Science Research Institute and the So- disciplines. The formation of institutes would cial Institute (the Institute for Social Policy thus be an effort to increase research in some and Local Government Education and Re- areas and increase collaboration between dif- search), a professional educational institu- ferent disciplines and even across faculty tion that focused mainly on training person- boundaries. There is a strong belief in the need nel for a variety of municipal services, such for interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary re- as counsellors and municipal administra- search. The emergence of SOFI can be seen in tors.1 The Social Institute (Socialinstitutet) this light. Arguments for linking these research later received the name the School of Social institutes to universities perhaps above all re- Work (Socialhögskolan) and is now the De- flect a double desire to ensure a synergy be- partment of Social Work within the Faculty tween research and teaching, and to see to it of Social Sciences at Stockholm University. that sector research is of high scientific quality. The Social Science Research Institute conducted primarily, but not exclusively, econom- The Social Science Research Institute ic research. The development of the system of – a forerunner national accounts, macroeconomic theory, The two oldest institutes operating within and demographics were important areas. the Faculty of Social Sciences at Stockholm Many scholars who later became well-known University are IIES (Institute for Internation- researchers of the so-called Stockholm School al Economics) and SOFI. However, there participated in the work.2 Funding was pri- have been other social science research insti- marily by the Rockefeller Foundation, an tutes at Stockholm University (or rather its American research fund, and by that the re- predecessor, the Stockholm University Col-

lege – Stockholms högskola ) long before the 1 See Andreen and Boalt (1987) for an interesting study of advent of IIES and SOFI. The most import- Bagge’s efforts to start and develop the two institutes. 2 See Jonung (ed.) (1991) for several contributions on the start ant precursor was the Social Science Re- and further development of the Stockholm School. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 421

searchers participated in various functions in ferent parts of the institute came instead to be a comprehensive public inquiry, the Unemploy- part of various departments, and among other ment Commission.3 The Rockefeller Founda- things, to form the foundation of the Depart- tion had decided to build up European social ment of Sociology. science research and provided support to universities in several countries.4 Stockholm and Institute for Labour Studies the Social Sciences Institute received one of In 1966, the Swedish Parliament decided to grant the larger grants. The largest went to LSE funds for the formation of an Institute for Labour (London School of Economics) in London. Studies. It became an independent entity formally The Rockefeller Foundation grants funded, and directly under the University Chancellor for example, a new building for the institute’s Board (UKÄ) but tied in various ways to Stock- activities, which was inaugurated in October holm University. Rudolf Meidner, a noted econo- 1932 (the address was Odengatan 61, next to mist working at LO, became its director. The In- the Stockholm Public Library), and a social stitute had a small budget but started nonetheless science library.5 Gradually, the activities of the different ambitious projects such as the develop- Institute became less extensive. Bagge came to ment of a very extensive bibliography regarding devote himself to politics instead. He became labour market research in Sweden and a series of leader of Högerpartiet (the conservative par- lectures on the labour market issues that were ty) and cabinet minister in the coalition gov- open to the public and various research projects. ernment during World War II. The Rockefel- Meidner was simultaneously chairman of EFA ler Foundation was prepared to inject more (The Expert Group for Labour Market Studies), funds into the institute, but the institute re- which funded labour market research. There was frained from applying. The Social Science Re- a close cooperation between the two entities. In search Institute was closed down and the dif- 1969, the Institute also started AKPA, a set of courses on the undergraduate level concerning 3 See Wadensjö (1991) for a presentation of how Bagge labour market studies and personnel manage integrated the work in the Unemployment Commission with that in the Social Sciences Research Institute. The ment. Arbetsgivaren (Swedish Employers’ Asso- Unemployment Commission was active between 1927 and ciation’s Journal) had on February 21, 1968 a 1935. 4 See Craver (1991) for a thorough study of the role of the full-page article with the headline “Undergradu- Rockefeller Foundation for the development of the Social Science Research Institute. ate course prepared in the Labour Institute’s aus- 5 See Andreen and Boalt (1987) for a description of the four pices.” I will return to these activities in basic areas that the support from the Rockefeller foundation contributed to. education later on. 422 Swedish Institute for Social Research

A new institute with a broader commission on low incomes was continued mission within the new institute. A position as associ- The Institute for Labour was small and started ate professor in the level of living standard re- having serious problems when Meidner left the search was also set up.6 The Institute came to institute after a conflict with the government. administratively lie under UKÄ (University Meidner was responsible for the governmental Chancellor Board). It was intended to in differ- commission on low incomes (Låginkomst- ent ways interact with Stockholm University utredningen) when the minister who was re- and the School of Social Work, not least responsible for labour issues within the govern- garding education. The importance of the role ment decided to close down the commission of professors in the supervision of research stu- earlier than planned and before a planned final dents was especially stressed. report was completed and published. Meidner Three professorships were simultaneously was upset and did not just leave the govern- announced, but specified according to field of mental commission on low incomes but also research and not according to discipline. Many the presidency of the EFA and the directorship people from different disciplines applied for the of the Institute of Labour Studies. He returned positions. The holders became: Gösta Rehn (la- to his former employer, LO. bour market policy; economist), Walter Korpi An investigation into social policy research (social policy; sociologist) and Sten Johansson was commissioned by the Ministry of Educa- (welfare and living standard research; sociolo- tion and carried out by Bo Södersten, professor gist). It was thus researchers in economics and of economics at the University of Gothenburg, sociology who became professors. That meant who acted as secretary in the investigation, see ultimately that SOFI became an institute where (Utbildningsdepartementet 1971:4). It resulted those who work as researchers are almost all in a professorship in social policy being estab- from these two disciplines, even today. lished from January 1, 1972. This chair was to be added to a reconstituted and expanded In- The gradual expansion of stitute of Labour Studies named the Swedish the Institute Institute for Social Research (SOFI). The direc- During the 1970s, SOFI’s budget allocation torship that Rudolf Meidner left became a pro- was too low compared to the purpose of the fessorship in labour market policies, and the institute, according to SOFI’s board. Instead, level of living standard research that had been 6 See Kungl. Majt:s propositions 1971:36 and 1971:41 for started within the work of the governmental details. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 423

Entrance to SOFI from the elevators, at the furthest end of Södra huset – at the 9th floor in Building F. (Photo: Mats Danielson) additions to the activities came to a large ex- cording to the proposal, SOFI would become tent via various external grants. SOFI’s board an institute outside the university world and therefore asked to get a budget increase of 50 change its name to the Institute for Social and percent in the budget process for the year Labour Market Policy (ISAF). It would be 1978/79 to UHÄ (The Authority for Universi- headed by a director, having a very large board, ties and University Colleges, the sequel to accommodate the EFA secretariat, and manage UKÄ). It did not receive such an increase. In- research projects from the Swedish Inheritance stead, a public inquiry, the FOSAM investiga- Fund (Allmänna arvsfonden) and the Delega- tion, was appointed. In February 1979 (DsU tion for Social Research (DSF). Administration 1979:4), the committee came with a report that would become a very large part of the activi included a proposal for a major expansion, but ties. Many of those who participated in the in- also a radical reorganization of the SOFI. Ac- vestigation in various functions made a reser- 424 Swedish Institute for Social Research

vation or delivered separate opinions regarding as professors in economics or sociology with this proposal. Many of the statements of those an indication of a specified topic in a respective who had the report submitted to them for con- discipline. sideration were also not in favour of the pro- The professorships announced later have posal. I myself wrote a critique of the report on thus all been in economics or sociology with a behalf of the Faculty of Social Sciences at Lund focus on SOFI’s various research areas. The University. The proposal of the committee was new professors were Anders Björklund and not accepted, and instead SOFI became an au- Markus Jäntti in economics, as well as Thor tonomous institute within Stockholm Universi- Norström, Michael Tåhlin, Jan O. Jonsson and ty from January 1, 1981 (outside any faculty Sten-Åke Stenberg in sociology. In addition, a and with the budget set by the parliament). It professorship in migration and ethnic studies, was granted a somewhat but not a particularly of which the holder (Per Lundborg) was an large increase in resources on this occasion. economist, was transferred from CEIFO to Much later, on July 1, 1994, SOFI became part SOFI. The list of these appointments shows of the Faculty of Social Sciences. that all who have been employed as a professor The government granted on three occasions after the announcement of a professorship additional permanent increases to the budget have been male. However, three women have to SOFI: one for a professorship in labour mar- been promoted from lecturer to professor. This ket policy evaluation research, one for a pro- applies to Åsa Rosén, Ann-Charlotte Ståhlberg fessorship in social policy, and one for general and Marianne Sundström. Four men have also reinforcements. In between and afterwards, been promoted from lecturer to professor, viz. there has been a gradual erosion of the budget, Tomas Korpi, Matthew Lindquist, Ola Sjöberg common to the whole university sector, as bud- and Bill Sund. get increases have been lower than price infla- Very important for the business have been tion and wage growth. After Gösta Rehn’s re- large several-year grants of funding for research tirement and Sten Johansson’s appointment as on immigration and integration (SULCIS) from director general of Statistics Sweden, positions the Swedish Research Council, and funds from as professors were announced without specify- FAS/Forte. Also important concerning research ing a scientific discipline, only research areas. that covers large parts of SOFI’s activities is the Eskil Wadensjö and Robert Erikson became three-year funding for specific research projects holders of the two professorships. Subsequent from various research councils, post-doc posi- positions as professors have all been announced tions for those who have presented very good Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 425

PhD theses (Wallander scholarships) and post- of SOFI’s nature. A spin-off was made by re- doc positions for external recruitment of young search in medical sociology that was first trans- qualified researchers. Contributions have also ferred to the Department of Sociology and later come to SOFI for the purpose of funding re- to the research institute CHESS. searchers who take part in various public inquiries. Several of the researchers have been on Economics and sociology – research leave for various external duties, thereby re- at SOFI leasing resources for hiring other researchers. As mentioned earlier, SOFI’s researchers and Researchers at SOFI have very often been teachers have with few exceptions been econo- commissioned as experts in the scientific com- mists or sociologists. The exceptions among munity, such as faculty opponents on PhD ex- postdoctoral researchers have been one each in aminations, members of PhD examination statistics, economic history and history. The di- committees, experts in the recruitment of pro- rectorship for the institute has also alternated fessors at other universities, experts in assess- between economists and sociologists. ments of docent applications and of applica- There are three research areas and three tions to be promoted to professor, in addition units at SOFI: labour economics, social policy to members of various research council boards and level of living studies. The first is pursued and research council priority groups. by economists and the other two by sociolo- The Institute has gradually grown from gists. There are no watertight compartments about ten people at the time of the Institute for between the three units. The economists do re- Labour Studies to about 25 in the mid-1970s, search not only on the labour market but also 60 at the turn of the century and now some- on social policy and often use data from the where between 80 and 90 employees. The in- level of living surveys for their studies. The so- crease in the early stages was especially high ciologists do research on various labour mar- among PhD students. Later, expansion has ket issues. Researchers from the different units mainly been regarding postdoctoral researchers. and disciplines work together on different The number and proportion of administrative studies. personnel has decreased continuously. Com- Within the labour economics unit many dif- puterization has led to some tasks having dis- ferent topics are dealt with such as unemploy- appeared or become reduced in scope. There ment, education, income distribution, intergen- has been a lively discussion in the institute re- erational income mobility, immigration and garding what the optimal size is for an institute integration, the effects of various social securi- 426 Swedish Institute for Social Research

ty schemes and self-employment. If we look at such surveys were conducted in 1974, 1981, the dissertations and scientific articles we find 1991, 2000 and 2010. They are surveys of a besides these mentioned areas studies in eco- random sample of the Swedish population nomic theory and on types of labour markets aged between 18 and 75 years. The surveys other than Western European ones, such as for are panel studies, but the panels are updated example those of Mexico and the Soviet Union. with random samples of those added to the Most of the studies use econometric methods survey population from the previous surveys and different types of register data, but also, as (by young people who have reached the age previously mentioned, data from various inter- when they are covered by the sample and by view surveys, such as the level of living surveys. newcomers to Sweden). The interviews are In the social policy group, many studies are supplemented with register data. The inter- based on a research program on social policy in views have gradually been expanded in vari- 18 different OECD countries from the 1930s ous ways such that children of interviewees onwards (SCIP, the Social Indicator Program), aged between 11 and 18 years also answer but also studies about various parts of Swedish questions (child-LNU) and the interviewees social policy. In this area there has been collab- present their employment biographies. In re- oration with the Department of History at the cent rounds, the level of living surveys have University. There have been many other com- also been conducted among persons older parative studies, especially studies in which the than 75 years – a task now in the charge of the various Nordic countries were compared. Also, research institute ARC (Aging Research Cen- other databases have been developed and used tre). In the last round, a separate survey of for various studies. For example, there is a lev- living standards among foreign-born and their el of living survey about the unemployed, and a children (LNU-UFB) was also conducted. It longitudinal database that is based on many has been led by SULCIS, whose collaboration different types of data concerning those born in is mainly between economists at SOFI and re- Stockholm in 1953, a follow-up to the much de- searchers at the Departments of Economics bated Metropolitan project. In the social policy and Sociology. section, there is also social science research on alcohol consumption and its effects. The graduate program The first of level of living survey (LNU) was Professors at SOFI and also other researchers conducted in 1968 as part of the governmen- there have been involved in the graduate pro- tal commission on low incomes. Subsequently, grams in economics and sociology at the Uni- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 427

‘Welfare in change: Living Conditions in Sweden 1968– 1981’, Prisma Publications. A major research involvement for the Swedish Institute for Social Research has been comprehensive analyses of living conditions in the country. 428 Swedish Institute for Social Research

versity, especially since the mid-1980s. They In the early 1980s, most being granted a have given different courses and not least been PhD were men, but gradually the distribution supervisors for many students. Already in the between male and female graduate students 1970s, PhDs were granted to a few doctoral has become more equal. So, for example, I students working at SOFI, however enrolled at have myself been the principal PhD supervisor another university and with the supervisor at a for 16 women and 14 men who successfully de- university other than Stockholm University, fended their theses. but graduate student supervision expanded dra- Some students have stayed for a long time as matically in the 1980s. researchers at SOFI after they have received There was, at the beginning of the 1980s, a their PhDs. Others have directly or a short time few graduate students at Stockholm University after the defence of their PhD at SOFI moved whose focus was in the areas that were central on to other jobs. Not a few have gone to posi- to the SOFI’s research. It was therefore import- tions at the Departments of Economics and of ant to get students interested in the field. One Sociology at Stockholm University, while oth- method used was to provide courses and super- ers have been employed as a researcher at vari- vise at different educational levels. Pretty soon, ous research institutes within the university, the number of PhD students increased. This has such as CHESS (Centre for Health Equity Stud- continued over the years. In the SOFI disserta- ies), ARC (Aging Research Centre) or the Insti- tion series there are now 91 theses (40 in eco- tute of Latin American Studies. Others have nomics, one in economic history and 50 in so- gone on to other universities or to research in- ciology). Two of these dissertations have been stitutes outside the university, such as FOI and presented at other universities and with tutors IFAU. Many people have found work at a min- from other universities, but written by graduate istry or some of the various central agencies, students who have worked at SOFI for a longer such as the Labour Market Administration, the period. On the other hand, there are three PhD Social Insurance Board, the Authority for theses for which the supervisor was at SOFI but Higher Education, Sveriges Riksbank (the Cen- the theses were published in a form other than tral Bank of Sweden), Statistics Sweden or the the SOFI dissertation series. These theses National Agency for Education. Still other demonstrate the breadth of research activities have gone to labour market organizations such at SOFI. They cover a wide field of research in as the Swedish Agency for Government Em- economics and sociology (and one thesis was, ployers, LO (the central blue-collar associa- as mentioned, in economic history). tion) and SACO (the central organization for Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 429

AKPA is an educational unit belonging to the Swedish Institute of Social Research, particularly offering insights into the workings of the labour market. (Photo: Mats Danielson) university educated employees). Some have those who wanted a more vocational conclusion gone to work outside Sweden in places such as to their academic training and to working profes- the EU, the EU’s investment bank, and research sionals who wanted to deepen their knowledge institutes in Finland and the US. regarding the subjects treated in the courses. It was part of a program for vocational courses at AKPA – SOFI’s undergraduate universities called YRK or DYRK courses. The educational program institute was a pioneer in this type of course. In 1969, during the period of the Institute for Courses on the same topic started at other univer- Labour Studies, undergraduate courses were sities with AKPA as a model (I helped to start launched at Labour Relations and Human Re- such a course at Lund University), but YRK sources (AKPA). The training was aimed both at courses were also started in other fields. 430 Swedish Institute for Social Research

The AKPA courses were mainly based on government investigations, write background re- knowledge from the research available within ports to various authorities and hold many pre- the two disciplines represented at the institute: sentations and lectures outside the university. economics and sociology. However, there have Among the many studies for public inquiries, two always been courses also in labour law within concerning gender equality could be mentioned: AKPA, partly with internal and partly with ex- The Report on Women Power (Kvinnomakt ternal teachers. The courses garner a great deal utredningen) and the Delegation for Gender of interest from the students’ side and only a Equality in Working Life (Delegationen för jäm- small proportion of those applying can be ställdhet i arbetslivet). Reports to different au- accepted. AKPA is also involved with courses thorities include reports to the National Board of included as part of a broader educational study Health and Welfare (Socialstyrelsen) and the Fis- program. cal Policy Council (Finanspolitiska rådet). Among Highly competent scientists have sought the many external presentations, those during the and received lectureships at AKPA. In recent Almedalen weeks could be mentioned. years, all AKPA lecturers have been promoted to professors (in history, economics or socio SOFI as part of the Faculty and the logy). The teachers have often been on leave University of absence from a portion of their teaching for The Swedish Institute for Social Research, SOFI, conducting research funded mainly by exter- is one of now six research institutes in the Facul- nal grants. This has made it possible for PhD ty of Social Sciences. SOFI is in several ways a students and young postdoctoral researchers part of the activities of the faculty. Apart from to gain teaching experience, an experience its own successful AKPA courses, there is close that is very important for those who want to cooperation at various levels with the Depart- continue with research and teaching in aca- ments of Economics and of Sociology: in basic demia and need to qualify in order to get a education, with graduate courses and through teaching position. mentoring of graduate students. In research, there is close collaboration with the same de- The third task partments but also with some of the Faculty’s The third task – contact with the surrounding so- other research institutes. Researchers at SOFI ciety – has been a central part of SOFI’s activities have also for many years been involved in the since its inception. Researchers at SOFI contrib- faculty administrative work through member- ute in several ways. They participate in various ship in the Faculty Board, for my part three pe- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 431

riods (nine years) as dean, and by SOFI research- Jonung, Lars (ed.) 1991. The Stockholm School ers being members of various committees within of Economics Revisited, Cambridge: Cam- the Faculty. The different forms of cooperation bridge University Press. are very important for SOFI part and also, we Kungl. Majt:s proposition 1971:36 angående believe, for the Faculty, and they are very much social utbildning och forskning (The Swed- facilitated by the fact that SOFI is a part of the ish Government’s bill 1971:36 regarding so- University and of the Faculty of Social Sciences. cial education and research). Kungl. Majt:s proposition 1971:41 angående  •  ett institut för social forskning (The Swedish Andreen, Per G. and Gunnar Boalt 1987. Bagge Government’s Bill 1971:41 regarding an In- får tacka Rockefeller (Bagge must thank stitute for Social Research). Rockefeller), Report from the School of So- Utbildningsdepartementet 1971:4. Mål och cial Work 30, School of Social Work, Stock- riktlinjer för verksamheten vid ett institut holm University. för social forskning. Förslag avgivet av or- Björklund, Anders (ed.) 2002. SOFI 1972– ganisationskommittén för ett institut för so- 2002. En jubileumsskrift. (SOFI from 1972 cial forskning, Stockholm 1971. to 2002. An anniversary publication). Wadensjö, Eskil 1991. The Committee on Un- Craver, Earlene 1991. Gösta Bagge, the Rocke- employment and the Stockholm School. In feller Foundation, and empirical social sci- Lars Jonung (ed.), The Stockholm School ence research in Sweden, 1924–1940. In Lars of Economics Revisited, Cambridge: Cam- Jonung (ed.), The Stockholm School of Eco- bridge University Press. nomics Revisited, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ds U 1979:4. Ett institut för social- och arbets marknadspolitisk forskning, Delbetänkande avlämnat av Forskningssamverkanskommit- tén (Fosam) (An Institute for Social and La- bour Market Policy Research, Partial report delivered by the Research Committee (Fos- am)), February 1979. Institute for Social Research (various years), Annual Reports. 432 Kapitelnamn

View from one of the Faculty Office’s meeting rooms in Building A. (Photo: Mats Danielson) 433

Current Research Themes Compiled by Gunnel Forsberg

In this chapter, we present a snapshot which researchers share common concepts and picture of major research themes pursued by theoretical approaches. The disciplines collabo- the different departments and research institutes rating in the Gender Acade my are: art history, within the Faculty of Social Science at the time cinema studies, ethnology, gender studies, histo- of its 50th anniversary. The accounts are based ry, history of ideas and religious history in the on presentations written by the departments Faculty of Humanities; child and youth studies, and institutes in response to inquiries about criminology, economic history, human geogra- their presently most prominent research fields phy, political science, social anthropology, so- and also fields that are seen as particularly cial work and sociology in the Faculty of Social promising and under present growth. This Sciences. The Faculty of Law hosts a number of method of collection does only partly make established gender researchers, whereas the justice to the width of research interests within Faculty of Science has taken some important the Faculty since a large number of individual first steps in highlighting the significance of gen- scholars pursue particular research questions der in knowledge creation. and interests that may fall outside the meshes Below follows the current themes of the de- of the thrown net. Some of these individual re- partments followed by the research institutes and searchers nevertheless gather in larger thematic centres of the Faculty, in alphabetical order. contexts, and we like to particularly mention one such interdepartmental form of organiza- Department of Child and Youth Studies tion before presenting the different depart- Children and youth in socially deprived situations ments and institutes: the Gender Academy. ‘Children and youth in socially deprived situa- This is a collaborative network of researchers tions’ is an interdisciplinary research area gath- in the field of gender studies encompassing all ering researchers from the fields ofsocio logy, four faculties of the University. Gender research psychology, legal studies and anthropology. The is constituted as a multi-disciplinary field in main focus is on how children and young peo- 434 Current Research Themes

ple understand and cope with various social phenomena. It involves both alternative read- circumstances and predicaments in their daily ings of social and political documents and the lives. Some of the research projects have ex- study of social interaction and meaning making in plored the integration of young refugees into mundane communication. These fields are ex- the school system, asylum processes, bullying, plored through discourse analysis – including and children as crime victims and offenders. narrative, rhetorical and conversational analysis Methodologically, interviews and observations – and through linguistically oriented ethnography. of children and young people are common, but patterns of interactions and communications Learning – brain – practice: transdisciplinary with institutions such as schools, leisure cen- studies in communication, language and tres, courts, police and immigration authorities literacy in preschools are also analysed. Theoretically, the research This field of research is concerned with neuro- builds on the idea that identities, cultural forms sensitive practices that enhance preschool chil- and daily practices of young people cannot be dren’s communication, language and literacy understood without focusing on the effects of skills. The studies are transdisciplinary, ad- structural conditions. dressing the emerging fields of educational neuroscience and preschool didactics in order to Children, ethics and sustainability critically and affirmatively problematize and Within this research area ethical, social and eco- learn from what is called the ‘technologies of logical aspects of sustainability are addressed as skill formation’. Children’s language develop- integrated parts of social relations and of any ment is seen reflecting events of interaction in pedagogy aiming to develop equality and solidar- complex networks of performative agents, out- ity across gender, ethnic, generational, religious, side as well as inside the child’s bodymind. and species boundaries. Three different but overlapping sub-areas are explored: 1) gender, ethics Department of Computer and and intersectionality, 2) nature-culture and child- Systems Sciences animal relations, and 3) science, technology and Design for learning learning for sustainable development. Technology enhanced learning is a research area that has been conceptualised as ‘Design for Social interaction and discursive theory learning’, combining research in interaction de- This research area has its focus on detailed sign with learning sciences – with a focus on de- analyses of language use and language related signs for and designs in formal and in non-for- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 435

mal learning contexts. The research entails five human-computer interaction, others include main areas of research such as: social media and interaction which is connected to education in learning; mobile learning; game-oriented learn- interaction design. ing and simulation; ICT for development (implementation of learning tools and perspectives Inclusive electronic government in developing countries); and theoretical and The field is concerned with the technical as methodological development concerning differ- well as the organisational and ethical aspects ent ways of understanding as well as studying of an optimally digitalized mode of gover- and learning in technology rich environments. nance. The complexity of e-governance, with Designing activities entails both the researcher its purpose to provide government services on- and the professional as designers of systems, ac- line, as well as to exchange information be- tivities and processes. In this perspective the tween government and a variety of recipients, individual learner is also studied as a (micro-) has mandated the field to refocus from a ser- designer of his or her own learning processes vice orientation to a holistic perspective inte- and environments, to better inform different grating the entire government in coherent designs for learning. action. A digitally connected society causes tensions between the legitimate need of e-gov- Information systems design ernance to use all available information and This research activity focuses on information sys- the equally legitimate right of privacy for its tems design, with the aim to create information citizens who participate in democratic pro- systems that extend human and organi sational cesses. capabilities. Current research in this field includes enterprise modelling, digital services and data Department of Criminology and text mining. The knowledge produced is ap- Life course criminology plied in several domains including the public sec- The main purpose of research within this field is tor and private sector organisations. to study the life courses of males and females and to explore processes of stability and change Human-computer interaction over time. Which factors are linked to continui- ‘Human-computer interaction’ is an interdis- ty in and desistance from crime? What impact ciplinary field that brings together the com- do individual resources during childhood and puting and social sciences. Mobile Life Re- adolescence, living conditions in adulthood, search Centre is one project that focuses on substance abuse and punishment have for crim- 436 Current Research Themes

inal careers and pathways towards social inclu- Department of Economic History sion and exclusion? What impact do structural Gender, work and economic transformation factors have on these processes? This research Gender studies in economic history treat seem- area has both quantitative and qualitative parts. ingly diverse topics, such as men’s and women’s Different datasets and combinations of methods different economic opportunities in medieval provide possibilities for answering questions Sweden or, as in postcolonial studies, the global about stability and change, both within individ- organisation of labour in an intersectional per- uals and between different cohorts, and to make spective. How people and communities have significant empirical, theoretical and method- handled and managed their livelihood and how ological advances within the field. resources are allocated and distributed are key issues for gender economic historians. Re- Crime policy search at the department has widened theoreti- Criminology comprises the analysis of the mak- cally and empirically the economic historic ing of laws and the reaction to the breaking of scope through researching gendered informal laws. The active construction of the crime prob- economies, such as the sex market, pornogra- lem is quite visible in the media, in the political phy and domestic work. Research that applies process and in law enforcement. The factors gender and/or intersectionality theory contrib- that determine crime policy are a field in their utes to a deepened theoretical understanding of own right, raising research questions such as: the dynamics of social inequality and the com- Why has imprisonment varied historically and plexity of power relations. between countries? How has the shift towards the risk society been reflected in crime policy? Economic transformation in the very long run What new forms of control are emerging and How to explain the mechanisms behind the how are they influencing traditional policing? division of the world into rich and poor regions Why has the crime victim and particularly the is a central issue in the field of economic history. issue of men’s violence against women become a Previous research focused on the immediate public issue? How and why is drug policy de- background of the Industrial Revolution and fined and re-defined? What roles do the media the transition to sustained growth beginning play in the shaping of criminal policy, and how around 1800. Now, it is increasingly recognised can the change in sanctioning towards just des- that institutional (rather than technological) fac- erts be legitimised by reference to the public tors played a decisive role, and that the history sense of justice? of the formation of these institutions goes much Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 437

further back in time. Further exploration of this have been made regarding the evaluation of par- long process includes investigations into the effi- ticular policies (e.g. education policies), whether ciency of institutions, relative price shifts, mar- the impact of policies vary over social contexts ket integration, and the relevance of the Malthu- (e.g. social interactions), the appropriate policy sian model. Swedish sources have so far been design, the extent to which political systems little used in this research, even though the con- matter for public policy choices, and evaluation struction of some important macroeconomic methodology (e.g. quasi-experimental method- series can be carried out from the early fifteenth ologies). century onwards. This also contains a critical discussion regarding attempts at broad interpre- International economics tations presented in the international literature. Research in international economics focuses on how interactions with the rest of the world af- Global security: power, rules and resources fect the domestic economy. These interactions Global security research focuses on security may consist of flows of goods, people or capi- and international cooperation questions in the tal, but also the international spread of pollut- global political economy. Global security fo- ants, which requires an analysis based on inter- cuses on such issues as energy supply, migration, national economics. The ongoing global food shortages, the environment, and econom- economic integration, often named ‘globalisa- ic sustainability which are studied from multi- tion’, has meant an increased focus on the anal- disciplinary perspectives, including security ysis of international economic relationships. studies, development research, urban studies, Examples of questions are: What does global- historical analysis, and international relations. ization imply for the location of industry? Who are the winners and who are the losers of glo- Department of Economics balization? What is the effect on the environ- Evaluation of public policy ment? To what extent is the policy of a small The key question for this research area is wheth- open economy independent? er public expenditures come to good use: What works and what does not? Policy analysis in- Department of Education volves having the appropriate econometric tools Adult learning, organisation pedagogics and for policy evaluation and a consistent frame- leadership work (i.e. a model) for interpreting the estimates The research area focuses on adult learners in of the policy effects. Significant contributions different life settings such as educational pur- 438 Current Research Themes

suit, working life and civil society with special tural conceptions of health, illness, disability. orientation towards three aspects: a) Adult They actualize how the discursive interaction learning, which focuses on issues of education between professionals and the individual in on a societal, organisational and individual lev- various institutional settings influence the ev- el and especially on how identities are formed eryday meaning-making of the individual. The and transformed in adult and higher education research field also includes the health and car- and through processes of enculturation; b) Or- ing professions and their training. ganisation pedagogics and leadership, with an interest in processes of organising daily work Cultural studies activities and on how these processes enhance This strain of research takes departure in the and/or inhibit learning; and c) Career develop- critical ‘cultural studies’ tradition, putting em- ment and counselling, which is concerned with phasis on discourse, language and meaning conditions for career development from an in- making, and applying it to the history and so- dividual and societal perspective. Especially, ciology of education and to curriculum studies. how do career counselling activities serve as preparation for future choices regarding educa- International and comparative education tion, occupation, work or life, and contribute Research and applied research within this field to development in these areas? concerns educational policy-making, planning, development assistance, monitoring, evaluation, Education and health and capacity-building that aims to increase This research area addresses the construction knowledge, skills and competencies to serve con of knowledge, communication, and processes temporary needs for education, training, research of learning and meaning-making within the and scholarship, as such efforts take place within fields of health and illness, disability, caring nations or in international cooperation. The re- and nursing. These are salient phenomena from search depends on an expanded vision of educa- a pedagogical perspective, and the research tion that goes beyond formal schooling and en- draws on multiple theoretical and methodolog- compasses all levels and types of education and ical perspectives. The issues in question are learning in all different parts of the world. studied at the level of the individual, in terms of people´s experiences and understandings of Design for learning health and illness, as well as at the institutional The research under this label deals with stud- and societal levels, in terms of social and cul- ies of textbooks and educational media, com- Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 439

munication in classrooms and on the Internet, Vocational education and training / vocational trans-professional communication, the role of knowing and learning narratives in learning, and relations between This research deals with questions at three lev- academic/professional training and professio els: the system at the macro level, the organi- nal work. sation and design of vocational training programmes and institutions at the meso level, and Higher education and philosophy of education the analysis and shaping of education and This strain of research combines empirical learning processes at the micro level. The ap- studies on students’ learning processes in par- proach requires the integration of different sci- ticular subject areas with the investigation of entific disciplines and research traditions. fundamental philosophical questions about the overall conditions for knowledge produc- Department of Human Geography tion in higher education. It deals with differ- Farmlands ent aspects of feminist philosophy, analytical The Farmlands research ties together three as- philosophy and critical theory, as well as con- pects: farming, landscape and society. It is continental philosophy more generally, within the cerned with farming as a practice and sees the context of educational practice, policy, and farmers’ knowledge and labour investments as discourse. important in shaping the farmlands. Landscape is an expression of society-nature relations, of his- Didactics – cultures of knowing and teaching tory congealed in patterns of space and place. practices Society is in this sense a short form for institu- The focus of this research is on issues related to tions, gender relations, political economy and knowing, learning, teaching, and assessment in scientific relevance. The research investigates the various institutional contexts: What knowledge relation between farming and livelihoods, as well is made available, for which groups of students, as with the environment in the past, present and and in which learning environments? What future. From a starting point of studying the his- does it mean to know something specific, for torical geography of agricultural landscapes in instance in a school subject? What creates con- Sweden, the interest has broadened to concern ditions and obstacles for learning? In what farming landscapes on a global scale. A substan- contexts and for what purposes have specific tial development of GIS, and remote sensing for kinds of knowing developed? How are they reading landscapes from a social science perspec- transformed into content for teaching? tive, has also taken place. 440 Current Research Themes

Planning and policy – Sweden and Europe der-specific spaces and locations? Planning is Research in the field of policy and planning is or- analysed from a gender perspective, as based ganised around urban and regional studies with a on living conditions characterised by gen- common focus on spatial relations, inequalities der-specific designs, both in metropolitan areas and interdependencies. Urban research deals pri- and in urban and rural regions. marily with questions concerning urban strategies, segregation and governance. Regional stud- Global urbanism – urban Africa ies, in contrast, are primarily concerned with In this research the relation between cities and regional development and with rural and coun- global processes and the challenges posed by tryside planning. The research under the heading contemporary planetary urbanisation are anal- of ‘planning and policy’ is oriented towards plan- ysed. Of particular concern are cities in the ning prerequisites, such as legislation; demo- Global South, notably Africa, where urbanisa- graphic changes; political and economic visions; tion is rampant and the pace and effects of ur- political processes, such as participation and de- ban transformation are most dramatic. Atten- liberative planning; public planning vs. informal tive to the global forces influencing oppor- planning in networks; planning policies, such as tunities in cities, the research also explores how economic growth strategies; public vs private poor urbanites survive, access services, strive space; sustainable development planning; power for social inclusion and lay claims to the city. in planning, such as transformation of land; housing provision; welfare services; gender rela- Department of Political Science tions; how citizens’ perspectives are integrated Global and regional governance into the planning process; and consequences of This area of research addresses the sources, planning, such as unsustainable development, forms, and consequences of global and regional spatial segregation and social inequalities. governance, including issues of power, democracy, legitimacy, and effectiveness. Empirically, Geography and gender the research spans multiple issues or areas, in- The gender approach in human geographical cluding trade, finance, security, human rights, research problematizes and analyses the impact environmental policy, and regional integration. of context-specific gender constructions in the Methodologically, the research is distinguished urban and regional environments and their im- by its comparative orientation, its combination plications. How are gender and space related of positive and normative research. It includes and how does this relation construct gen- both qualitative and quantitative methods. Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 441

Politics and gender between countries concerning environmental A gender perspective is applied to political performance. A third key area of research is re- science, from the point of departure that by lated to learning and participation in relation to gendering core concepts, such as ‘democracy’, environmental and natural resource issues, such ‘citizenship’, ‘representation’, ‘state’ and ‘inter as the relation between indigenous rights and national security’, the study of politics is ad- mining. The research includes participation in vanced. Contributions have been made to 143 biosphere areas in 55 different countries, as Swedish politics and government, comparative well as studies on how students from different politics, politics and development, internation- disciplines understand environmental issues. al politics and political theory. The research also focuses on gender quota systems, welfare Politics and development state gender regimes, and conceptualisations of Research under this label has a focus on issues sexualised violence and prostitution. It pursues of development and democratisation. Current theory development in areas such as intersec- research areas include civil society and social tionality, gender/nation and discourse analysis. movements, interest organisations, political This research is widening the scope of issues economy, political identities and sustainable de- addressed within the political science discipline. velopment. The empirical focus has often been pointed towards NGOs, political parties, and Environmental politics, policy and learning other individual and collective actors, but also A key area of this research is global environmen- towards national and international institutions. tal policy, and in particular issues related to international climate policy, the UN negotiations Governing the modern state on sustainable development, a new climate This field of research increases our understand- agreement beyond 2012, and the EU’s environ- ing of how governments work to cope with in- mental policy together with a concern for the tensified international rule-making and social role large-scale technologies such as the storage complexity, while at the same time managing and capture of carbon dioxide plays in the poli- to implement policy. The research draws on cy process, both nationally and internationally. governance theory (as a theory on decentred A second key research area is environmental inter-organisational exchanges) and organisa- policies and policies in different countries with tion theory (theorising intra-organisational focus on the role of government in environmen- processes and contingencies). It explores the tal issues, and what explains the differences significance of institutional and organisational 442 Current Research Themes

variables for understanding the role of govern- cline from middle age onwards, or even earlier. ment in steering and the interaction between a A major aim for research is to examine wheth- government and its external context. er cognitive deficits can be identified early to provide better conditions for living and inde- InRights – challenges to democratic rights and pendently carrying out everyday activities, and inclusion to improve verbal and socio-emotional com- The research deals with political inclusion and munication between the ageing person and rel- rights for migrants and minorities in contem- atives and friends. porary democracies. The general research questions are two: New societal and political Sensation and perception inequalities have followed upon the last de- The Gösta Ekman Laboratory is a world leading cades of globalisation. How are they related to research laboratory for sensory perception. It institutions, norms and public policy? How are comprises excellent research facilities (e.g. a they to be evaluated in terms of democracy and sound proof acoustics lab, sophisticated eye- justice? tracking techniques, EEG-techniques, and olfactory exposure labs solely designed for measur- Department of Psychology ing aspects of the olfactory sense). The research Cognitive aging is multidisciplinary and organised into three People differ greatly in the degree to which topics with specific focus on the visual, auditory, their brains, and the rest of their bodies, de- and olfactory sensory systems and covers both cline with age. As people grow older, they fol- basic and applied research. Some examples of low more or less successful trajectories of cog- current research themes are: (a) the role of olfac- nitive change. The spectrum of decline ranges tory deficits in early-stage dementia, (b) the ca- from normal cognitive aging to dementia. Iden- pacity of blind individuals to use sounds for spa- tifying the risk factors for, and mechanisms of, tial navigation (echo-localisation), and (c) how individual differences in age-related cognitive attentional allocation changes the processing of decline is amongst the greatest challenges to visual objects of high emotional value (e.g. spi- improving the health and wellbeing of older ders in individuals with phobia). people. Yet, cognitive aging is complex in that there is little age-related decline in some mental Stress, work, health and restitution functions, such as vocabulary and general The research within this theme seeks to under knowledge, while other mental capabilities de- stand how various work-related factors relate to Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 443

health and wellbeing. The research combines paperless refugees and asylum-seekers. The data at different levels, including physiological studies also deal with the consequences of inten- measures, self-reports, organisational records sified cultural exchanges, including, for exam- and register data. These are used to delineate the ple, the impact of increased, albeit partial, mechanisms underlying stress-related problems knowledge of the world beyond the local con- from those promoting sustainability. Investigat- text facilitated by IT and social media, as well ing how organisational characteristics, working as their distortion by economic and political conditions and increasingly uncertain employ- inequalities and interests. The impact of these ment relations relate to health and well-being, as exchanges, whether orchestrated or sponta- well as to satisfaction, motivation and perfor- neous, on local identities is of concern but also mance at work, this research contributes to the how they stimulate the emergence of suprana- understanding of how healthy work practices can tional, cross-border cultural processes. be achieved and sustained. The goal is to develop The growth of densely interconnected so- adequate preventive measures and interventions cial, cultural and economic linkages, finally, targeting problems at individual, group and or- imbricates social actors to different extents ganisational levels. within transnational processes. Sometimes this is unavoidable (such as through consumption Department of Social Anthropology which connects individuals and communities Transnational anthropology to commodity chains), sometimes voluntary Anthropology’s traditional focus on local (such as civil rights and other movements), or society and culture has progressively given way sometimes in opposition (including anti-devel- to a focus on the transnational, disembedded opment, environmental, and indigenous move- character of social and cultural processes. In a ments). In response to these spatial linkages world with a constant flow of information, and disjunctions, new forms of brokerage and people and goods across borders, there is a NGOs have emerged, such as think tanks that need for increased knowledge about the effects do not necessarily pursue nation-state agendas. of globalisation. Research within this field cov- The research carried out in this field raises im- ers the organisation and consequences of la- portant political and ethical questions sur- bour migration for family structures, economic rounding the influence they exercise. The re- transactions, and cultural flows, as well as regional coverage is extensive and the research lated topics such as transnational adoption, the themes are organised into four clusters: migra- impact of trafficking, and the predicaments of tion, environment, media and organisation. 444 Current Research Themes

The anthropology of infrastructure Social work and social care for older people This research focuses on energy/environmental Three usually unrelated theoretical perspectives issues, migration, and urban infrastructures that are joined within this strand of research: Feminist facilitate the flow of resources, goods, people, or approaches to care and everyday life, policy ori- ideas and allow for their exchange over space. ented welfare research and research on the organ- Infrastructures are considered as socio-technical isation of care services and the working condi- systems, and are thus a proper object of anthro- tions of care workers. An important question pological concern and signal an approach that underlying the research area is to analyse the considers social life in constant relation to both shifting boundaries of care between state, family small- and large-scale technical systems. and market. The research is conducted in a number of interrelated projects, several involving in- Department of Social Work ternational comparisons. One comparative pro Social assistance: dynamics, profession and ject examines seven countries and explores interventions promising practices in residential care. Another This research is concerned with the dynamics of focuses on marketization of eldercare in the Nor- social assistance. It deals with specific conditions dic countries. A third third compares working and problems attached to different recipient conditions for care workers in nine countries. groups; professional strategies to counteract Other projects deal particularly with Sweden, e.g. long-term receipt; the evolvement of activation investigating intimate relations in older life, and measures and other interventions in local social how older women and men with addiction prob- services; the significance of various organisation- lems are cared for by the care services. al settings; patterns of cooperation within organisations and with external actors; how applica- Social work and mental illness tions for benefits are assessed with respect to The core theme of this research is the contextual eligibility standards/specific conditions and use of factors around the definition of mental problems sanctions; patterns of municipal variation in as- (illness), the development of psychiatric prob- sessment and policy; and activation strategies as lems, the management of psychiatric problems parts of social investment models. It compara- and the recovery process. A main question has tively assesses the resilience and inclusiveness of been what the facilitators are as well as the hin- labour markets in European countries and identi- drance factors, and how social knowledge and fies innovative policies that have contributed to social interventions can participate in the com- social resilience and inclusiveness. mon understanding and management of severe Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 445

psychiatric problems. Special themes are the so- policy, theoretical models of addiction dynam- cial aspects of the recovery process, users’ knowl- ics and etiology. Research issues in the area are: edge of helping factors in their recovery process, How is the implementation of evidence-based follow-up studies of persons with serious mental practice in social services for substance abusers problems after the closure of the mental hospi- organised? What mechanisms are central to the tals, analyses of helping professionals and work- treatment of addiction? What is the signifi- ing alliances in relation to persons with serious cance of modernity’s development regarding mental health problems. the actual staging of prevention interventions? In what ways are standardised assessment in- Social work with children and youth struments, such as systematics, links to inter- This research area deals with living conditions for ventions, aggregated analyses, etc. used con- children, youth and families. The area has a spe- cerning abuse in social services? cial focus on maltreated children and youth with behavioural problems, and looks at societal inter- Department of Sociology ventions targeting children and youth. Important Social networks institutions in this respect are child welfare agen- The aim is to explore how individual behaviour cies, which investigate child maltreatment and is affected by the individual’s position in various youth delinquency, post investigative care facili- social networks, how these networks develop tated within foster and residential care, as well as over time, and how the structure of these net- other essential child welfare domains such as works influences various collective processes, school social work. Important research fields in- such as the diffusion of information and collec- clude prerequisites and rationales for child wel- tive mobilisation and coordination. Sociological fare interventions, their legal basis, the clients’ network research has traditionally focused on perspectives of care, the evidence base for differ- quantitative analyses with a strong element of ent interventions and outcomes in the short and sophisticated mathematical models (often devel- long run for those concerned. oped by or in close collaboration with mathe- maticians). Methods and theories from the field Addiction research of social networks are currently used in all social This research includes, among other things sciences as well as in interdisciplinary research, studies of the organisation, outcomes and the- where human agency forms a part of the re- oretical underpinnings of prevention and treat- search area, such as environmental research and ment, as well as the study of alcohol and drug epidemiology of contagious diseases. 446 Current Research Themes

Demography employed in educational situations and organisa- Demography offers techniques to study human tions, in order to prevent difficulties that arise in behaviour by accounting for the temporal and learning environments (intended in a broad mean- spatial dimensions of demographic events. The ing). The goal is to find methods to support opti- research undertaken at the Demography Unit mal learning, participation and equity in the edu- focusses on such dimensions in the processes cational system and in society. that produce population change: fertility, mortality and migration. It then extends to research Democracy and fundamental values in on processes related to family formation and inclusive education family dissolution. The research mobilizes concepts like democracy, justice, and ethics for educational analysis, in Department of Special Education which society’s design, as well as value issues and Disabilities from a lifespan perspective prevalent views of humanity and knowledge are The focus of research in this area is on how critically examined from a historic perspective. school settings (and habilitation) can act as The discipline of special education has been char- means to pragmatically establish optimal acterised by an individual-oriented approach with developmental and learning opportunities both a focus on students’ shortcomings. After the Sala- within inclusive and specialised preschool con- manca Statement in 1994, inclusive education has texts. Interventional as well as descriptive re- emerged as a research area with more of a focus on search is conducted concerning the develop- democracy and civic values. An approach more fo- ment and learning of children and youth (0–22 cused on the encounter between the individual years) with neurodevelopmental (autism, ADHD, learner and the learning environment became intellectual disabilities) issues, sensory impair- prominent. The concept of equity denotes democ- ments and co-occurrence of diagnoses. racy as both justice and equality. It points to an area for research that extends beyond the individu- Learning environments, didactics and inclusive al situation and instead emphasises how different education in school and preschool social power aspects affect school activities. This research is focused on describing, assessing and evaluating the various special educational Department of Statistics policies, activities, strategies and methods put Official and other statistics production into practice. It is concerned with identifying and The research area comprises all aspects of pro- implementing promising approaches that can be duction concerning official statistics and similar Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 447

types of statistics. Thus it includes data collec- elling of clusters and complex data, and robust tion methods, assessment of measurement er- non-linear regression and applications. rors, nonresponse issues, sampling, estimates, temporal issues of survey inference, regis- Design of experiments ter-based statistics, statistical disclosure con- To conduct an experiment is a standard method trol, response burden, and total survey quality. for investigating a research question. In medical Central decisions by the Swedish government research, experiments are widely applied. In the and our perceptions of society are based on of- social sciences, an increasing use has recently ficial statistics (e.g. is unemployment high or been demonstrated, e.g. in economics and psy- low?). How to assess and improve the quality chology. They also have an important tradition of statistics is thus a crucial and vibrant re- in industry and have been used in educational search area. Rising nonresponse levels, costs of research. In each of these areas, experiments re- traditional surveys and response burden issues quire considerable investments because their remake efficiency particularly important. Ran- sults have huge implications. Therefore, statisti- dom sampling has been a gold standard since cal methods to improve and optimise expe ri mental the early 20th century; however, with recent de- design are demanded. The statistical research velopments, current research has focused on area of experimental design has a history start- rigorous inference based on non-random sam- ing in the first half of the 20th century. During pling, samples subject to missing data, regis- recent years progress in the research area has ter-based statistics, total survey quality and been made by applying numerical computations ’big data’. with computers, leading to an increased impact of methods developed for practice. Research Statistical models in the social sciences work within this field entails theoretical work as This theme is an umbrella for a number of re- well as the application of these statistical meth- search areas in statistical models and associated ods for a choice of experimental designs. method, with applications (mostly) in the social sciences. These include: statistical modelling in Stockholm Business School business and finance, statistical modelling of so- Marketing, advertising and PR cial networks, statistical models for duration The research activities look at diverse aspects of and event-history data, univariate and multivar- marketing, such as strategic marketing, consumer iate linear models (in particular mixed effects marketing, business and marketing communica- models and hierarchical models), Bayesian mod- tion, advertising and PR. They capitalise on 448 Current Research Themes

Stockholm’s geographical location—with close business and for the citizen. This involves tracing proximity to a large number of organisations and the interaction between criticisms of traditional companies as well as a bustling consumer culture. entrepreneurship and the outbreak and spread Researchers collaborate widely, geographically of alternative forms of entrepreneurship so as and across disciplines, both in the field of market- to examine which positive determinations are ing and in the field of advertising and PR. linked to these forms, as well as to study the Throughout the last half century, society has in- realities created in and through these new forms. creasingly become organised according to a market and marketing logic. Consequently it is im- Financial market microstructure perative to study and theorise on marketing, to ‘Financial market microstructure’ is a field of fi- give an input to contemporary debates in society nancial economics that studies how the interac- and a knowledge basis for companies and organ- tion of investors and institutions generate mar- isations striving to be competitive. This research kets with varying efficiency and liquidity deals with the creation, re-creation and dissemi- depending on different rules and regulations. Re- nation of advanced marketing knowledge search in financial market microstructure pro- through a holistic approach acknowledging promotes the understanding of how markets can ducers, consumers and society at large. price assets accurately, how transaction costs can be minimized, and how assets and markets can be Entrepreneurship and sustainable development constructed to mitigate different types of risk. Research within this theme deals with the entrepreneurship that has taken form as a protest Accounting from the inside out against ‘traditional’ entrepreneurship, where The contemporary, increased emphasis on mea the idea of continual growth dominates. In other surement cannot solely be understood as a result words, this alternative research analysis entre- of technological development. This research is preneurship criticises but also wants to adjust concerned not only with studying accounting traditional entrepreneurship so that it can con- practices involving the production of measure- tribute to a greater extent to a more sustainable ments but also how these measurements are society. The research seeks to conceptualise disseminated and (maybe) also consumed. The emerging ‘alternative’ forms of entrepreneur- proposition guiding the research is that by ship - emphasising equality, social integration studying accounting practices there is a possi- and ecological concerns - and to understand bility to contribute beyond accounting studies. how they change conditions both for doing In particular, the research has been focusing on Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 449

the way accounting is consumed and how mea- research is often multidisciplinary as well as surements are part of how families, organisa- historically and internationally comparative. tions and societies are formed. This research combines economic, social and health inequalities and studies processes over Management, technology and organising life cycles and in different contexts that drive practices or reduce such inequalities. A theoretical and Research into the relationship between organi methodological development is central to the sing and technologies features two dominant understanding of the processes that generate approaches: technological determinism and in- inequality and the significance and impact of terpretive flexibility. This research examines the various measures that have been made and various technology-, management-, and insti- are being made to reduce inequality. tution-induced changes that lead to a re-config- uration among ideas, technologies and actions Institute for International at a micro-level and how these innovations dif- Economic Studies fuse and migrate from the micro- to the macro- Political economy level. Political economy studies the determinants of government policy and asks questions such as Centre for Health Equity Studies what determines the size of government, the Economic, social and health inequalities form of redistributive programmes, the level Economic, social and health inequalities con- of corruption, the extent and type of public stitute central research areas for economic sci- goods provision, the burden of taxation across ence, and they are often regarded as important alternative tax bases, the size of government societal issues. In this research area the mecha- deficits, and the stance of monetary policy nisms and processes that generate and sustain during the course of business and electoral cy- such inequalities, which also exist in rich and cles. The primary methods used are analytical relatively egalitarian welfare states, are anal- theoretical models of political institutions ysed. At the centre of the research are inequali- combined with large-scale empirical investiga- ties regarding childhood conditions, education- tions of the predictions from these models. al attainment, working life, incomes and health The area of political economy tries to under- status, to take some key factors. In addition, stand the political processes that generate neg- how these and other factors are intertwined ative policy outcomes. It may have to do with across the life-course are also examined. The voters not being sufficiently informed, or be- 450 Current Research Themes

cause that politicians cannot commit to fol- Centre for Social Research on lowing a policy that is beneficial in the long Alcohol and Drugs term. A better understanding of these mecha- Social research on alcohol and drugs nisms may be helpful in designing political SoRAD’s research highlights phenomena such institutions in a way that makes policies more as addictive behaviours and dependence from responsive to voters’ preferences. a societal perspective and approaches those problems as multifactorial. The distribution Climate and economics of alcohol and drug use over time is investi- The purpose is to conduct empirical and theo gated, as well as its societal determinants, re- retical work in the intersection of economics lated effects and consequences. Another topic and climate science. A key goal is to construct concerns alcohol and drug policy, its funda- so-called integrated assessment models, thus ments, implementation, and the associated ef- describing both the economics and the climate fects and consequences. The research includes system and their two-way interactions at dif- discursive studies as well as empirical evalua- ferent degrees of geographical resolution aimed tions of specific alcohol and drug related poli- at studying different possible policies for com- cies. Also included is research that concerns bating climate change. The models are dynamic the prevention of problems, treatment services and stochastic and rely on solid microeconomic and treatment systems and the impact of and foundations, thus allowing for cost-benefit anal- responses to problematic drinking/drug use in yses using standard economic welfare theory. the family and in social life. There are also studies about control systems, about cultural Macroeconomics conceptualisations of alcohol and drug prob- Macroeconomics is a main field in economics lems, and about cultural factors in intoxicated that studies aggregates (like GDP, inflation, un- comportment. employment, etc.) including major policies. The IIES macro group has focused primarily on Stockholm Centre for the macroeconomics of inequality, labour mar- Organizational Research kets, public finance, growth and technological Management and governance of the public change, and endogenous policy. The questions sector analysed are rather dispersed and vary from This research field is multidisciplinary and ori- year to year but include model development as ented towards the development of the public well as empirical analysis. sector from an organisational and management Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 451

perspective. It spans across disciplinary bor- tive physiological and psychological effects. ders in the social sciences while contributing to The research is multidisciplinary and includes the advancement of knowledge in each disci- epidemiology, biological psychology, psycho- pline concerning the transformation, manage- neuroimmunology, work and organisational ment and governance of the public sector. psychology, public health, occupational medi- More broadly, this focus is embedded in an in- cine and sociology. For certain issues, the re- terest in the organisation of society at large, the search has an integrative and interdisciplinary influences of Europeanization and globalisa- nature. tion, and the changing relations of the public sector to business and civil society. To contrib- Swedish Institute for ute to the overall field, the research is organised Social Research into four themes: ‘organising markets’, ‘organ- Economic, social and health inequalities ising knowledge’, ‘rule-setting and rule-follow- In this research ‘economic’ refers to labour ing’, and ‘democracy and organisation’. The earnings, disposable household income (that research field can be defined as management also comprises other income sources) and and governance of the public sector as seen wealth. The most prominent ‘social’ dimen- through the lenses of these four themes. sion is class, which is defined according to a person’s position in working life. ‘Health’ in- Stress Research Institute cludes mental and physical health as well as Stress, work, health and restitution over-all and cause-specific mortality. Educa- The research focuses on stress, work, health tion (inequality) is a central mediating vari- and restitution and seeks to understand how able, and thus of great interest. ‘Inequality’ various work-related factors influence health refers to differences in conditions and chanc- and wellbeing, as well as to investigate the es between individuals, households and fam- psychological and biological stress mecha- ilies, but focuses also on groups such as gen- nisms that link exposures to health outcomes. der and ethnic groups. A perennial question The research comprises large-scale epidemio- is whether, and how, economic and social logical studies, intensive field studies, brain inequalities affect health inequality. This re- imaging, and experimental lab studies as well search has several time dimensions: cross-sec- as interventions. A central hypothesis is that tional inequality, how inequality evolves of excessive stress may interfere with natural res- the life-cycle, and transmission across gener- titution during sleep, in turn leading to nega- ations. 452 Kapitelnamn

Not yet a receiver of the Prize in Economics in the Memory of Alfred Nobel, Amartya Sen was in 1996 made honorary doctor at the Faculty of Social Sciences. Here promoted by Deputy Dean Birgitta Qvarsell. (Photo: Yngve Fransson) 453

Deans and Deputy Deans

Period Dean Deputy Dean 1964/65 Ernst Söderlund Erik Lundberg 1965/66 – 1966/67 Gunnar Boalt David Hannerberg 1967/68 Gunnar Boalt Ernst Söderlund 1968/69 – 1969/70 Gunnar Boalt Hans Meijer 1970/71 Gunnar Boalt Staffan Helmfrid 1971/72 – 1973/74 Staffan Helmfrid Olof Ruin 1974/75 – 1976/77 Olof Ruin Rolf Adamson 1977/78 – 1983/84 Olof Ruin Carl-Gunnar Jansson 1984/85 – 1986/87 Carl-Gunnar Jansson Torvald Gerger 1987/88 – 1989/90 Kjell Goldmann Rolf Adamson 1990/91 – 1992/93 Kjell Goldmann Gunn Johansson 1993/94 – 1995/96 Kjell Goldmann Birgitta Qvarsell 1996/97 – 1999 Eskil Wadensjö Birgitta Qvarsell 2000 – 2005 Eskil Wadensjö Gudrun Dahl 2006 – 2008 Gudrun Dahl Ryszard Szulkin 2009 – 2011 Gudrun Dahl Mats Danielson 2012 – 2014 Mats Danielson Gunnel Forsberg The Board of the Faculty of Social Sciences in 2012–2014. (Photo: Eva Dalin) 455

Professors Faculty professors on Sep. 1, 2014

Departments Department of Criminology Department of Child and Estrada, Felipe Youth Studies Flyghed, Janne Bunar, Nihad Nilsson, Anders Börjesson, Mats Tiby, Eva Cederborg, Ann-Christin Lenz Taguchi, Hillevi Department of Economic History Jonter, Thomas Department of Computer and de Los Reyes, Paulina Systems Sciences Morell, Mats Boström, Henrik Söderberg, Johan Brown, Barry Dalianis, Hercules Department of Economics Danielson, Mats Alexius, Annika Ekenberg, Love Arai, Mahmood Fors, Uno Ekholm, Karolina Johannesson, Paul Erixon, Lennart Juhlin, Oskar Flodén, Martin Kanter, Theo Forslid, Rikard Kjellin, Harald Fredriksson, Peter Popov, Oliver Häckner, Jonas Ramberg, Robert Kolm, Ann-Sofie Rusu, Lazar Lundholm, Michael Siddiqui, Afzal Muren, Astri 456 Professors

Nyberg, Sten Bäckstrand, Karin Palme, Mårten Lundholm, Cecilia Pettersson Lidbom, Per Micheletti, Michele Skogman Thoursie, Peter Möller, Tommy Wijkander, Hans Mörth, Ulrika Zenou, Yves Soininen, Maritta Tallberg, Jonas Department of Education Bron, Agnieszka Department of Psychology Chinapah, Vinayagum Backenroth, Gunnel Döös, Marianne Carlbring, Per Englund, Boel Christianson, Sven Å. Eriksson, Inger Fischer, Håkan Gustavsson, Anders Hau, Stephan Karlsson, Gunnar Lantz Friedrich, Annika Kjellberg, Ann Larsson, Maria Moreno, Lázaro Lindfors, Petra Naeslund, Lars Lindholm, Torun Roth, Klas Mäntylä, Timo Scheja, Max Nilsson, Mats Todd, Sharon Smedler, Ann-Charlotte West, Tore Sverke, Magnus Wiens, Stefan Department of Human Geography Forsberg, Gunnel Department of Malmberg, Bo Social Anthropology Widgren, Mats Dahl, Gudrun Garsten, Christina Department of Political Science Olsson, Erik Beckman, Ludvig Rabo, Annika Boréus, Kristina Wulff, Helena Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 457

Department of Social Work Hartman, Thomas Bergmark, Anders Holmqvist, Mikael Bergmark, Åke Jensen, Tommy Gunnarsson, Evy Löwstedt, Jan Lundström, Tommy Nordén, Lars Sallnäs, Marie Thanem, Torkild Szebehely, Marta Tikkanen, Henrikki Vinnerljung, Bo Yakhlef, Ali Östberg, Jacob Department of Sociology Andersson, Gunnar Research Institutes and Centres le Grand, Carl Centre for Health Equity Studies Helmersson Bergmark, Karin Fritzell, Johan Liljeros, Fredrik Koupil, Ilona Rydgren, Jens Lundberg, Olle Sverrisson, Arni Szulkin, Ryszard Centre for Social Research Udehn, Lars on Alcohol and Drugs Hemmingsson, Tomas Department of Special Education Olsson, Börje Ek, Ulla Törrönen, Jukka Roll-Pettersson, Lise Westling Allodi, Mara Institute for International Economic Studies Department of Statistics Calmfors, Lars Ghilagaber, Gebrenegus Flam, Harry Hedlin, Dan Hassler, John Nyquist, Hans Krusell, Per Persson, Mats Stockholm Business School Persson, Torsten Catasús, Bino Strömberg, David Fang, Tony Svensson, Jakob 458 Professors

Stress Research Institute Lekander, Mats Westerlund, Hugo

Swedish Institute for Social Research Björklund, Anders Jonsson, Jan O. Jäntti, Markus Korpi, Tomas Lindquist, Matthew Lundborg, Per Norström, Thor Rosén, Åsa Sjöberg, Ola Stenberg, Sten-Åke Sundström, Marianne Tåhlin, Michael Faculty of Social Sciences – Stockholm University 459

Authors Love Ekenberg, Professor in Computer and Göran Ahrne, Professor Emeritus in Sociology, Systems Sciences, Head of Department of former Head of Department of Sociology Computer and Systems Sciences

Margareta Ahlström, Docent in Special Educa- Siv Fischbein, Professor Emerita in Special tion, Head of Department of Special Education Education, Stockholm Institute of Education

Karin Aronsson, Professor Emerita in Child Gunnel Forsberg, Professor in Human and Youth Studies, former Head of Depart- Geography, Deputy Dean of Faculty of Social ment of Child and Youth Studies Sciences

Inger Assarson, former Lecturer, Department Christina Garsten, Professor in Social Anthro- of Special Education pology, former Head of Department of Social Anthropology and former Director of Stock- Ann-Christin Cederborg, Professor in Child holm Centre for Organizational Research and Youth Studies, Head of Department of Child and Youth Studies Anders Gustavsson, Professor in Education, former Head of Department of Education and Jenny Cisneros Örnberg, PhD Political Vice-Rector Science, Director of Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs Gunn Johansson, Professor Emerita in Occu- pational Psychology, former Deputy Dean of Gudrun Dahl, Professor in Social Anthropo- Faculty of Social Sciences logy, former Head of Department of Social Anthropology, former Dean of Faculty of Ulf Jonsson, Professor Emeritus in Economic Social Sciences History

Mats Danielson, Professor in Computer and Anita Kollerbaur, former Senior Lecturer, Systems Sciences, Dean of Faculty of Social former Head of Department of Computer and Sciences Systems Sciences 460 Kapitelnamn

Rolf Lind, former Senior Lecturer, Stockholm Johan Söderberg, Professor in Economic Business School History, former Head of Department of Economic History Assar Lindbeck, Professor Emeritus in Economics, former Director of Institute for Henrik Tham, Professor Emeritus in International Economic Studies Criminology, former Head of Department of Criminology Tommy Lundström, Professor in Social Work, Former Head of Department of Social Work Daniel Thorburn, Professor Emeritus in Statis- Vice Dean of Faculty of Social Sciences tics, former Head of Department of Statistics

Astri Muren, Professor in Economics Eskil Wadensjö, Professor Emeritus in Economics, SOFI, former Dean of Faculty of Karin Norman, Professor in Social Social Sciences Anthropology Mara Westling Allodi, Professor in Special Börje Olsson, Professor in Social Research on Education Alcohol and Drugs, former Director of Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs Mats Widgren, Professor in Human Geo- graphy, Head of Department of Human Lise Roll-Pettersson, Professor in Special Geography Education Hans Wijkander, Professor in Economics, Robin Room, Professor in Social Research on former Head of Department of Economics Alcohol and Drugs, former Director of Centre for Social Research on Alcohol and Drugs Denny Vågerö, Professor Emeritus in Medi- cal Sociology, former Director of Centre for Olof Ruin, Professor Emeritus in Political Health Equity Studies Science, former Head of Department of Political Science, former Dean of Faculty of Torbjörn Åkerstedt, Professor in Behavioral Social Sciences Physiology, former Director of Stress Research Institute In addition to conferences, many of the larger student lectures are held in Aula Magna, as well as the conferment of Master’s degrees and other ceremonies. (Photo: Mats Danielson)